Keywords: Organizational Corruption, workplace deviance, powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive justice, procedural justice, transparency and caring climate

Workplace corruption is a global issue for private and public organizations. It has been recognized as a costly phenomenon having negative consequences in various aspects of economic and human development. Since corrupt acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace are a challenging subject for managers, this doctoral dissertation seeks to explore organizational corruption and also to emphasize the importance of organizational corruption study from a managerial perspective. This study provides elements to better understand how to prevent and to control corrupt acts and behaviors at work. The research model is constructed on the basis of conservation of resources (COR) theory of Hobfoll (1989).

Corruption motivation is theorized through COR theory and within this framework, it proposes corruption as a strategy to prevent the perceived loss of valued motivational resources. Specially, this research investigates the direct impact of powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive and procedural justice on workplace corruption. Furthermore, it studies the moderating effect of transparency and caring climate on the relationship between powerlessness, sense of mastery, procedural justice, distributive justice, and workplace corruption. Sample consists of 575 employees from international organizations have contributed to this research. Results highlight that powerlessness positively, sense of mastery and procedural justice negatively impact on workplace corruption and deviance. However, distributive justice only negatively impacts on workplace corruption. Results mostly validate our principal hypotheses but suggest that the nature of corruption relates to the type of resources felt threatened.

Résumé

La corruption au travail est un sujet important qui touche à la fois les organisations privées et publiques. Elle est reconnue comme un phénomène couteux aux conséquences négatives sur divers aspects du développement économique et humain. Etant donné que les actes et le comportement des individus corrompus au travail est un sujet difficile à appréhender pour les gestionnaires, ce travail de recherche vise à explorer le concept de corruption organisationnelle. Dans ce travail, un certain nombre d'éléments a été pris en compte pouvant prévenir et contrôler les comportements de corruption au travail. Nous nous sommes appuyés sur la théorie de la conservation des ressources (COR) de Hobfoll (1989) pour construire la recherche. La motivation de la corruption est théorisée à travers le modèle COR. Ce cadre propose une corruption au travail appréhendée comme stratégie de prévention de perte des valeurs de motivation des salariés. Cette recherche étudie l'impact direct de l'impuissance, du sentiment de maîtrise et de justice procédurale et distributive sur la corruption. Dans cette relation est analysé en plus l'effet modérateur de la transparence et du climat d'entraide. Pour cette recherche, 575 salariés dans des organisations internationales ont été interrogés. Les résultats démontrent que l'impuissance affecte positivement la corruption et la déviance au travail. Le sentiment de maîtrise et de justice procédurale affectent négativement la corruption et la déviance au travail. Cependant, la justice distributive affecte négativement la corruption au travail. Les résultats obtenus valident la plupart de nos principales hypothèses, mais ils soulignent l'importance de la nature du type de corruption par rapport aux variables de ressources.

Mots clés :

Corruption au travail, déviance au travail, sentiment de maîtrise, justice distributive, justice procédurale, transparence et climat d'entraide [4] « L'Université n'entend donner aucune approbation ni improbation aux opinions émises dans cette thèse ; ces opinions doivent être considérées comme propres à leur auteur ».

[6] ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to thank all those people who made this thesis possible and an unforgettable experience for me.

Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Prof. Jean-Pierre NEVEU for the continuous support of my Ph.D. study and related research, for his patience, motivation, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my PhD study. I would like to thank you for encouraging my research and for allowing me to grow as a research scientist. Your advice on both research as well as on my career have been priceless.

I am thankful to my colleagues Mr. Damien MAUREL, Mr. Thomas MAJD and Mrs.

Catherine MAVEL for their supports during my thesis and I deeply appreciate their belief in me.

Finally, I take this opportunity to express the profound gratitude from my deep heart to my family. Words cannot express how grateful I am to my mother and father for all of the sacrifices that you've made on my behalf. Your prayer for me was what sustained me thus far.

I would also like to thank my dear grandmother (Aziz), brother (Amir) and especially my sister (Samaneh) and my brother in law (Aria Teimourzadeh) who supported me in writing, and incented me to strive towards my goal.

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION

In the age of globalization and modernization, organizational corruption is a multifaced phenomenon, linking multiple issues together. Corruption is a global issue, impacting on both economic and human development [START_REF] Williams | The Politics of Corruption. 4 Volume Series[END_REF]. In the last few decades, social science research has considered this problem, but it remains limited in many aspects because of lack of reliable data and reliable approaches to eliminate corruption. In fact, corruption can be considered as a result of poor governance; hence a solid framework of administrative strategies to manage society's needs is required across state public enterprises.

Corruption is a changing phenomenon, as values and norms differ considerably from nation to nation. Therefore, corruption is not an obvious variable in any society; different countries have varied beliefs and knowledge systems through corruption [START_REF] Bauer & Van Wyk | Causes, Manifestations and Effects of Corruption[END_REF]. Thus acts and behaviors that could be regarded as corruption and deviant in some countries or nations may be acceptable in other countries. However, most individuals of work organization engage in some form of corrupt acts and misbehaviors that are related to their work [START_REF] De Même | Les termes de déviance et de contreproductivité semblent être souvent utilisés de façon interchangeable. Ils reflètent le comportement potentiellement dangereux au travail, allant de formes mineures à des formes plus graves. « En outre, ce comportement nuisible peut être dirigé soit vers des individus, comme en témoignent des comportements tels que le harcèlement ou l'agression physique[END_REF]. These types of acts and behaviors are not restricted to certain employees; they have been recorded for both nonsupervisory and managerial members of different types of work organizations.

By reviewing the corruption perception index of International Transparency which is published every year1 , it's clear that corruption exists in all governments and public services but only the degree and the shape of corruption is different. FIFA corruption case in 2015 proves the existence of corruption everywhere and in different levels of administration structure2 . There is no country that has not experienced corruption [START_REF] Mbaku | Cameroon's Stalled Transition to Democratic Governance: Lessons for Africa's New Democrats[END_REF]; only the level of corruption varies from country to country. In some countries corruption has been accepted as a feature of life and this issue is considered as one of the biggest concerns in the daily life of people. India is one of the examples of these countries; ANNA HAZARA in India became the leader of Indian people to fight against corruption 3 . We could see thousands of Indian people who plagued ensue of corruption to support him. In April 2011, four days of fasting of ANNA HAZARA brought thousands of people out in support of his crusade against corruption.

In fact, corruption is like poverty which always exists in the life of people. It seems that the elimination of corruption completely from public life is impossible. Corruption impacts on economic development, reduces social services, and diverts investments in institutions critical to the existence of the nation (UNDP, 2004:1). Moreover, it fosters an anti -democratic environment, characterized by uncertainty, unpredictability and declining moral values and disrespect for constitutional institutions and authority. Corruption, therefore, reflects a democracy and governance deficitin other words, a weak governance system in a country (UNDP, 2004) 4 . One of the types of corruption which has been impacted vastly on human life is organizational corruption. Organizational corruption is considered as a global phenomenon rather than a regional phenomenon which takes different shapes and forms in organizations.

Several researchers like Fleck and Kuzmics (1985) argued that corruption is a problem that is found in all societies that have reached a certain level of complexity; some developed countries had apparently experienced corrupt phases before corruption getting under control through a combination of administrative, political and judicial reform. Corruption has existed in almost all human societies throughout the history of mankind. The corruption perception index of International Transparency (2015) which has studied the perceived level of public sector corruption in 167 countries/territories around the world (figure 1) highlights that corruption exist in all countries but only the level of corruption is different in underdeveloped, developing and developing countries 5 .

Figure 1-The perceived levels of public sector corruption in 168 countries/territories Corruption can be considered as a dimension of dysfunctional behavior or counterproductive workplace behaviors (Kwok et al., 2005). Counterproductive workplace behavior is defined as "any intentional behavior on the part of an organization member viewed by the organization as contrary to its legitimate interests" (Gruys and Sackett, 2003: 30). The study of dysfunctional behavior or counterproductive behavior at workplace helps to better understand certain common antecedents and consequences of organizational corruption as well as counterproductive workplace behavior. A number of construct have focused on dysfunctional workplace behaviors. Studding and reviewing on workplace dysfunction is a challenging subject because of various constructs and operationalizations that exist, and the lines are sometimes blurred from one construct to another one.

In the mid-1190s, number of researchers independently focused on the phenomenon of dysfunctional behaviors into a meaningful whole. The term workplace deviance behavior from the sociological tradition has developed by [START_REF] Robinson | A typology of deviant workplace behaviors: A multi-dimensional scaling study[END_REF] and the term counterproductive work behavior emerged from organizational psychology (Sackett & Devore, 2001), similarly, Vardi & Weiner's (1996) have developed the term organizational misbehaviors. The terms workplace deviance and counterproductive seem to be the most common, with the phrases often being used interchangeably. They reflect potentially harmful workplace behavior, ranging from minor to more serious forms. "Moreover, this harmful behavior can be directed either individuals, as reflected in behavior such as harassment, back-stabbing, or physical aggression, or directed at the organization, as reflected in behavior such as theft, sabotage or absenteeism" (Barling & Cooper, 2008:143).

Many years ago, scientists considered corruption as a deviant, peripheral and transitory problem but in these days it has been considered as common, deep and permanent problem. Workplace deviance is defined as "voluntary behavior of organizational members that violates significant organizational norms, and in so doing, threatens the well-being of the organization and/or its members" (Robinson & Bennett, 1995: 556). Corruption and deviance, both of them explain unethical acts and behaviors of individuals. Many societies' and organizations' policies, practices, and laws are developed from this normative foundation.

Policies and certain laws are written because entities, ranging in size from organizations to countries, codify acts of deviance. Deviance is an action or behavior that violates the accepted norms of a group, organization, or society [START_REF] Adler | Self-injurers as loners: The social organization of solitary deviance[END_REF]. Deviance is occurred in all workplace and all over professions. In fact, when public officials violate organizational rules or break the law, these acts are called deviance. Corruption is considered as a term which is closely related to deviance, also known as graft. Corruption, however, is not a synonym for deviance, although it is a subset of this practice.

Corruption has been studied from different scopes. For example some studies concentrated on highlighting the effects of corruption (e.g. [START_REF] Mauro | Corruption and Growth[END_REF]1998 and[START_REF] Rose-Ackerman | Corruption and Government: Causes, Consequences and Reform[END_REF], thinking over the implications, forms, and types of corruption (e.g. [START_REF] Caiden | Corruption and Governance[END_REF]2001;[START_REF] Levin | Corruption and Institutions in Russia[END_REF]2000 and Stohs & Brannick;1999), and analyzing anti-corruption mechanisms as effective ways of minimizing harms and preventing corruption (e.g. [START_REF] Clark | Comparative Anti-Corruption Policy: The American, Soviet and Russian Cases[END_REF]2000). The study of corruption has been started in the latter of 20th century, coincided with the time of democratizing and developing in some nations. In fact: two principal waves exist in the study of corruption history:

-The first wave of academic interest was transformed by the independence movements of 1950s and 1960s which was about decolonization and at the height of modernization theory, in this period the interest of knowing and studding about corruption inspired by the experiences of the newly democratized and developing countries. Between 1950s and 1960s many economists, sociologists and political scientist started to write about corruption and its effects on human life then the numbers of academics started to research and write about corruption since the early 1990s.

-The second wave of studies, researches and activities against corruption which still continues to the present day has been started in the early to mid-1990 because of some events and movements that occurred in that period of time in the world such as: frustration in developing and under developing countries, collapse of the Soviet Union and consideration of international union to the international development community regarding the harmful effects of corruption on economic and development.

Moralists, functionalists, revisionists, scientists, politicians and specialists have different point of views about the phenomenon of corruption, reviewing these points of view help to better understand the nature of corruption. Moralist approach such as [START_REF] Leys | What is the problem about corruption?[END_REF] universally condemned corruption 6 . They consider corruption as an immoral deviant form of behavior which has serious and detrimental effects on a whole range of societal, political and economic activities of societies. According to [START_REF] Leys | What is the problem about corruption?[END_REF], moralists were convinced that "the 6 Moralist: a person who has strong feelings and opinions about what is right and who tries to control the moral behavior of other people results of nepotism and all other forms of what they call corruption are serious and bad". A number of authors such as [START_REF] Mulder | A model of organizational nepotism[END_REF] consider nepotism as a common form of corruption in organizations but recently the researches which have done by [START_REF] Jones | Policing nepotism and cronyism without losing the value of social connection[END_REF] don't consider nepotism as a disadvantage for organizations; they believe that a fairly convincing fashion that social connectedness can provide advantages for organizations and individuals in workplace [START_REF] Noe | Realigning training and development research to contribute to the psychology of competitive advantage[END_REF][START_REF] Walton | Mere belonging: The power of social connections[END_REF]. The other group like Politicians and sociologists try to know how corruption effects on political and administrative function.

Numbers of functionalists such as [START_REF] Krueger | The political economy of the rent seeking society[END_REF] & Rose- [START_REF] Rose -Ackerman | Corruption: A Study in Political Economy[END_REF] challenged the view of corruption in the mid to late 1970s; they agreed that whole corruption and corrupt behaviors have negative effect on political and economic development 7 .

Functionalists concerned primarily with the utilitarian qualities of corruption, they consider the influence of both traditional values and custom on corruption, they tend to classify corruption as a phenomenon that can compensate the difficulties and deficiencies of political and administrative arrangement, in other words it can be considered as an offer to pass administrative obstacles to accelerate administrative performance. According to [START_REF] Williams | The Politics of Corruption. 4 Volume Series[END_REF], corruption can be seen not always as an unlawful or subversive activity but as efficient and necessary alternative method.

Revisionists do not condemn corruption quickly and they agree that corruption should be studied and defined more objectively 8 . They also think that corruption was a by-product of modernization and development. Some Revisionists like [START_REF] Bayley | The Effects of Corruption in a Developing Nation[END_REF]; [START_REF] Nye | Corruption and Political Development: A Cost-Benefit Analysis[END_REF] and [START_REF] Huntington | Political Order in Changing Societies[END_REF] emphasized that corruption is not harmful but also is an inevitable and necessary element to the adjustment process. [START_REF] Leff | Economic Development through Bureaucratic Corruption[END_REF] went further and pointed out that bureaucratic corruption, in some cases can also promote efficiency.

Organizational corruption expresses the phenomenon as the misuse of organizational power, position or authority for personal or collective (e.g., group, organization, or industry) gain [START_REF] Anand | Business as Usual: The Acceptance and Perpetuation of Corruption in Organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Ashforth | Identification in organizations: an examination of four fundamental questions[END_REF]. Organizational or administrative corruption is a deviation from standards, norms, and modern bureaucracy measures [START_REF] Alam | Anatomy of Corruption: An Approach to the Political Economy of Underdevelopment[END_REF]. A group of researchers emphasized that administrative corruption is an instrument to deviate 7 According to the functionalist perspective of sociology, each aspect of society is interdependent and contributes to society's stability and functioning as a whole. 8 Revisionism: support of ideas and beliefs that differ from and try to change accepted ideas and beliefs especially in a way that is seen as wrong or dishonest. individuals from duties or performances which result from their formal duties and activities related to political and economic issues [START_REF] Okogbule | An Appraisal of the Legal and Institutional Frame Work for Combating Corruption in Nigeria[END_REF]. In other words, administrative corruption is the deviation from regular duties of an official for the sake of family and social interests, gaining financial incomes or specific type of influence for personal issues [START_REF] Mbaku | Cameroon's Stalled Transition to Democratic Governance: Lessons for Africa's New Democrats[END_REF]. In fact, organizational or workplace corruption is a type of crime when individuals are committed by the use of authority within organizations for their own personal benefit and gain.

Workplace corruption is a cross-systemic, cross-temporal and cross-cultural phenomenon which not varies from place to place but also from time to time that weakens public confidence and destroys the fabric of mutual expectations. When corruption is believed to be the way the administrative sector, or one of its agencies, continuously operates the damage goes beyond the loss of misdirected resources and public administration risks of losing both its capacity to be effective and the trust of citizens in the fair and impartial application of public resources and authority [START_REF] Tenenbaum | Notations, conventions, and constraints: Contributions to effective uses of concrete materials in elementary mathematics[END_REF]. Workplace corruption and deviance are caused the reduction of national respect, reduction of administrative efficiency, a barrier of economic development and weakening of political stability of a country [START_REF] Williams | The Politics of Corruption. 4 Volume Series[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Bardhan | Corruption and development: A review if issues[END_REF], workplace corruption leads to:

-Reduction of economic growth -Wasting public resources and money in a country -Undermining public trust in government and inefficient in operations -Causing injustice through advantaging some at expense of others -Corruption makes difficult to recruit and retain quality staff or obtain the best value in tender process.

-Bad affection on investment, weakens economic growth, undermines the rule of law, and direct effect on vulnerable people in society -Causing mistrust, dysfunction of social model, the weakness of social dialogue and the lack of confidence in the market.

The studies and researches highlight that dysfunctional behavior is both prevalent and costly. The cost of dysfunctional behavior range from increased insurance premiums, tarnished reputations, and cost associated with stress, to capital replacement costs associated with stress, to capital replacement costs, injury payouts, lawsuits, and lost productivity (Dunlop & Lee, 2004).

The World Bank 9 , the United Nations 10 , USAid 11 and the UK department for International Development 12 are agree that corruption is a major obstacle of development and also one of the main important causes of poverty in the world. The numbers of people who are fighting against corruption in different societies are increasing because of the costs and consequences of this phenomenon. The corrupt acts and behavior of individuals in workplace are costly not only in financial term but also in social and psychological perspectives [START_REF] Peterson | Complexity management theory: motivation for ideological rigidity and social conflict[END_REF]. The negative consequences of organizational corruption and deviance to work organization are significant (Vardi & Winer, 1996); hence, corrupt acts and behaviors within organization cannot be neglected at all.

By considering a number of consequences of workplace corruption and deviance, it is clear that workplace corruption and deviance are serious problems that have such a vast impact on different angels of human being life then it is necessary to study organizational corruption from different aspects to find some solutions to control this global problem. Many previous researchers studied organizational corruption from ethical, moral and legal perspective, according to [START_REF] Ochulor | Corruption in Contemporary Nigeria: The Way Out[END_REF] ethics guide individuals in an office or company then ethics can be used as in a narrow sense to mean the code of conduct, the guiding the behavior of individuals, organization or professional body. In fact, society is composed of moral agents who make choices everyday and engage in daily social interactions, influenced by their individual desires, attitudes and preferences.

The study of workplace corruption from moral perspective has considered by a group of researches like [START_REF] Moree | Moral Disengagement in Processes of Organizational Corruption[END_REF], he believes that moral disengagement plays an important role in organizational corruption. Models of organizational corruption focus at the macrolevel and the micro-level, at the macro-level, variables that create environmental pressures will lead to corruption [START_REF] Baucus | Pressure, opportunity and predisposition: A multivariate model of organization illegality[END_REF][START_REF] Szwajkowski | Organizational illegality: Theoretical integration and illustrative application[END_REF][START_REF] Moree | Moral Disengagement in Processes of Organizational Corruption[END_REF]) and, at microlevel, on how ''otherwise ethical'' individuals become socialized into wrongdoing [START_REF] Ashforth | The Normalization of Corruption in Organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Moree | Moral Disengagement in Processes of Organizational Corruption[END_REF]. In fact the unethical decisions of some employees need to set in an organization before the socialization of other employees into the corrupt actions occur. 9 The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programs. 10 http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/corruption/index.html?ref=menuside 11 USAID is the lead U.S. Government agency that works to end extreme global poverty and enable resilient, democratic societies to realize their potential. https://www.usaid.gov/news-information/fact-sheets/fighting-corruption-and-promotingstability 12 The Department for International Development (DfID) is a United Kingdom government department responsible for administering overseas aid. The goal of the department is "to promote sustainable development and eliminate world poverty".

The study of workplace corruption from legal perspective considered a lot because the intensity of corruption relates to governance system and legal system of any country [START_REF] Ng | The impact of corruption on financial markets[END_REF]. Some researchers like Larmour (2006) believes that low likelihood of punishment and high likelihood of evasion of punishment in corrupt and weak criminal justice system in executing the rules and regulation against organizational corruption will tend individuals to participate in corrupt acts and behaviors in organizations. Legal and regulatory framework have a specific place in controlling of corruption and in many anti-corruptions strategies adopted by most countries are based on a holistic approach that considers legal and regulatory framework, transparency and accountability, public service reforms and constructive engagement with non-state actors [START_REF] Mensah | Corporate Governance and Corruption in Ghana: Empirical Findings and Policy Implication[END_REF].

Previous management scholars have examined corruption at both the individual level [START_REF] Brass | Relationships and unethical behavior: A social network perspective[END_REF] and organization level (e.g., [START_REF] Baucus | Can illegal corporate behavior be predicted? An event history analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Brief | Collective Corruption in the Corporate World: Toward a Process Model[END_REF][START_REF] Hill | An empirical examination of the causes of corporate wrongdoing in the United States[END_REF], but still the latter is underexplored. However, in this research workplace corruption and deviance are considered from management perspective. In order to better understand workplace corruption and deviance from management perspective, the studies are focused on corruption and deviance from managerial, organizational and human resource. The impact of management on workplace corruption and deviance is obvious because managers by focusing on ethics in general, bureaucratic versus managerial values in specific and codes of conducts as an instrument can "stabilize" the ethical infrastructure in particular [START_REF] Maravic | Decentralized Corruption in Germany[END_REF].

Managers direct and help employees by facilitating the process to achieve the objectives of organization [START_REF] Zaccaro | The nature of organizational leadership[END_REF]. Managers are responsible for making and fixing ethical behaviors and moral values of an organization to guide the employees for working and decision making. Managers play an important role in an integral aspect of the organization's culture, when the standards and values of an organization are displayed; role modeled and supported with compatible organizational processes, rules and procedures then the culture of an organization is shaped in a proper manner [START_REF] Schein | Organizational Culture and Leadership[END_REF]. Studies of Sims & Brinkman (2002) and [START_REF] Davis | The Effects of the Perceived Behavioral Integrity of Managers on Employee Attitudes: A Meta-Analysis[END_REF] on the behaviors of managers with employees emphasize that managers by making ethical behavior can influence on employee's intent to behave ethically, acutely "The behavior of leaders is a powerful communication mechanism that conveys the expectations, values and assumptions of the culture and climate to the rest of the organization" (Grojean et al., 2004: 228)

Research Question

To achieve our research objective, we answer this principal question:

What motivates otherwise honest individuals to engage into corrupt acts and behaviors at workplace?

This research aims to highlight the reasons for which even honest people in organizations are motivated to engage into counterproductive work behavior. The findings of this research will highlight several variables which are in correlation with misconduct acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace in order to present new tools to scholars and managers to prevent and control workplace corruption and deviance.

Academic Interest

This research study is dealing with workplace corruption. Particularly, it doesn't cover the number issues for development and business confidence. Generally speaking, this research distinguishes between organizational corruption and political corruption and covers all levels of employees from different positions (managers, supervisors, accountants, auditors, administrative officers, and consultants). This study by working on other tools rather than salaries, promotion and other types of financial and reward terms, highlights the role of new terms in leading, forming and accelerating corrupt acts and behaviors of employees at workplace. This investigation presents the process and mechanism in which, the lack of power, mastery and justice lead to misconduct acts and behaviors of employees in organizations.

The finding of this research by considering the relationship mechanism between powerlessness/sense of mastery/organizational justice and workplace corruption/deviance through the conservation of resources theory is considerable in human resource science because it highlights the importance of COR theory of [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Stress, Culture, and Community: The Psychology and Philosophy of Stress[END_REF]Hobfoll ( , and 2001) ) to understand and analyze the corrupt acts and misbehaviors of individuals in organizations. In fact this study explores that power, mastery, distributive and procedural justice are considered as resources for individuals, when individuals perceive that they are losing them then they will be more motivated to engage in corrupt acts and behaviors as a protective strategy of resource preservation to preserve their resources.

Managerial Interest

The application of finding this research study by providing practical recommendations can be interesting for all level of managers in public and private sectors, as well as mangers of national, international and multinational organizations. The findings of this study highlights for managers and policy makers, how by working on the sense of mastery, power of employees and also the justice in organizations (procedural and distributive) to prevent and control the corrupt acts and behaviors of employees at workplace.

Normally managers are aware of serious consequences of organizational corruption and workplace deviance and it's quite clear that preventing and controlling corrupt acts and behaviors of employees is one of the concerns of managers in the entire world. Therefore, the findings of this research can be considerable for them to prevent and control the unethical acts and behavior of individuals because of serious consequences of organizational corruption. This doctoral research by presenting new terms such as: power, sense of mastery, procedural and distributive justice explores the efficiency of these tools to control and prevent the workplace corruption and deviance of individuals. Furthermore, the findings of this research help policy makers to fix and modify the policies of organizations which are related to the employee's power, sense of mastery, procedural and distributive justice in more effective and proper way to reduce the corrupt acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace.

Research Plan

This research is based on two parts: the first part is related to the conceptual scope and the second part is related to the empirical scope. The first theoretical part includes three chapters; in the first chapter, we explore workplace corruption and deviance, the second chapter is devoted to present the stakes (powerlessness, sense of mastery, organizational justice, transparency and caring climate) which are in direct and indirect correlation with workplace corruption and deviance. In the third chapter, we specify and present our theoretical foundation, research model and finally our research hypotheses. The second part of this research is compromised of three chapters. In the forth chapter, we present the methodology of our research, the research samples, identification of observation instruments and methods that have been used to collect the data. The chapter five presents the process of confirmatory factor analysis and testing of reliability and validity of variable scales and also testing of hypotheses. Finally, the chapter six is devoted to results discussion, limitations, research perspectives, theoretical and managerial implications of our doctoral dissertation.

INTRODUCTION OF PART 1

The objective of the first part of this research is to conduct the conceptual framework.

The theoretical part of this study is compromised of 3 chapters. The first chapter is devoted to define and present different types, forms and causes of corruption and deviance and then we focus only on workplace corruption and deviance of employees in public and private administration. In the second chapter, we present and define the variables that are in correlation with workplace corruption and deviance. Finally, we present the conservation of resources theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF](Hobfoll , 2001) ) which will be adapted as the theory of our research model. In the first part of chapter 3, we emphasize the direct and indirect impact of variables which are in correlation with workplace corruption and deviance. Finally, at the end of chapter 3, we present and fix our research model and hypotheses.

CHAPTER 1: CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS OF CORRUPTION INTRODUCTION

The main goal of the first chapter is to present workplace corruption and discover this phenomenon from different context on the basis of literature review. In this chapter, we try to highlight corruption by studying it from a managerial perspective and particularly, we focus on corrupt acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace. The first chapter is divided into two parts. The first part presents three principal definitions of corruption with the purpose of clarifying the concept of organizational corruption from different point of views.

Furthermore, we discuss about types and forms of corruption that are practiced by individuals at workplace. The sources and causes of organizational corruption are very vast; then, the second part of this chapter is only devoted to present the internal, environmental and indirect sources of workplace corruption.

THE CONCEPT OF CORRUPTION

Corruption is considered as a complicated subject, then defining this phenomenon is a difficult task [START_REF] Johnston | Political Corruption: Historical Conflict and the Rise of Standards[END_REF]. Furthermore, the ambiguity of corruption created serious barriers to do empirical researches about corruption. In spite of different existing types of corruption, this study focuses on organizational/administrative or workplace corruption. In this section of this research by considering the definitions, types, forms of workplace corruption, we seek to highlight the concept of corruption and workplace corruption particularly.

Overview

The lack of awareness of the varying ecology of corruption leads to many writing and giving different type of definition about this subject. Various definitions about corruption provided in different reports, books, researches, historical and trial records but each of them defines corruption from different point of views. Economists, lawyers, public administration specialists, sociologists, anthropologists and political scientists, all of them have interesting definition about corruption, but the overall picture is blurred and lacks coherence. [START_REF] Williams | The Politics of Corruption. 4 Volume Series[END_REF] expressed that the study of corruption is like a jungle and, if we are unable to bring it to a sale of orderly cultivation, we at least require a guide to the flora and fauna. However, corruption can be assumed as a beauty which we are unable to give an exact definition of that.

The visibility and recognition of corruption depends on the nature of environment that also depends on the place and time. According to [START_REF] Drucker | Managing in Turbulent Times[END_REF], corruption is like beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder. Therefore, corruption should be determined in large part by prevalent of cultural norms. To make sense of the many different definitions, Heidenheimer (1970) proposed a classification of corrupt behavior, into three focuses of interest, including public office centered corruption, market-centered corruption, and public-centered corruption.

Public-Office-Centered Corruption

Here, corruption is considered as an action which involves the misuse of public office or authority to have personal benefit or private gain. In other words, public-office-centered corruption involves the deviation from legal and public duty norms for personal and private benefits, be it for pecuniary or status gains, or influence. The corruption definitions of [START_REF] Mcmullan | A theory of corruption[END_REF] and [START_REF] Bayley | The Effects of Corruption in a Developing Nation[END_REF], [START_REF] Nye | Corruption and Political Development: A Cost-Benefit Analysis[END_REF] are considered in public-office-centered category:

"A public office is corrupt if he accepts money's worth for doing something that he is under duty to do anyway, that he is under duty not to do, or do exercise a legitimate discretion for improper reasons" (McMullan, 1961: 183) "Corruption, while being tied particularly to the act of bribery, is a general term covering misuse of authority as a result of considerations of personal gain, which need not be monetary" (Bayley, 1966: 720).

"Corruption is a behavior which deviates from the formal duties of a public role (elective or appointive) because of private-regarding (personal, close family, private clique) wealth or status gains; or violates rules against the exercise of certain types of privateregarding influence" (Nye's, 1967: 966).

As per the definition of Ney (1967) corruption is considered as the acts which are done by both elected politicians and also by appointed bureaucratic. In fact he defined corruption as a private gain and goes beyond McMullan's and Bayley's corruption definition because he claims that private gain can be in terms of wealth and or in terms of status.

Market-Centered Corruption

In market-centered definitions category, corruption is considered as a "maximizing unit" or a special type of stock-in-trade, by which public officials maximize pecuniary gains according to the supply and demand that exist in the marketplace of their official domains and they less consider to some general important elements such as: what of corruption are deal with, how, when, and what degree. In fact the greater nuance of Nye's definition is missing and also the overall usefulness of these definitions is limited, however these definitions deal with limited activities of corruption such as rent seeking [START_REF] Krueger | The political economy of the rent seeking society[END_REF]. Some scientists like [START_REF] Klaveren | Corruption: the special case of the United States[END_REF] and [START_REF] Tilman | Emergence of black-market bureaucracy: administration, development, and corruption in the states[END_REF] have provided market-centered definitions:

"A corrupt civil servant regards his public office as a business, the income of which he will seek to maximize. The office then becomes a 'maximizing unit.' The size of his income depends upon the market situation and his talents for finding the point of maximal gain on the public's demand curve" (Klaveren, 1970: 26).

"Corruption involves a shift from a mandatory pricing model to a free-market model when this happens bureaucracy ceases to be patterned after the mandatory market and takes on characteristics of the free market" (Tilman, 1968: 440).

Public-Interest-Centered Corruption

Here, the definition of corruption emphasizes the betrayal of public interests by preference of particular to common interests. These definitions are in contrast with marketcentered and public-office-centered definitions. According to Heidenheimrin (1970), the corruption definitions of Rogow & Laswell (1963) and [START_REF] Friedrich | Political Pathology[END_REF] are considered in public-interest-centered definitions:

"A corrupt act violates responsibility toward at least one system of public or civic order and is in fact incompatible with (destructive of) any such system. A system of public or civic order exalts common interest over special interest; violations of the common interest for special advantage are corrupt" (Rogow & Lasswell, 1966: 132).

"The pattern of corruption can be said to exist whenever a power-holder who is charged with doing certain things, i.e., who is a responsible functionary or officeholder, is by monetary or other rewards not legally provided for, induced to take actions which favor whoever provides the rewards and thereby does damage to the public and its interests" (Friedrich, 1966: 127).

A group of scientists like [START_REF] Farrales | What is Corruption? A History of Corruption Studies and the Great Definitions Debate[END_REF] and [START_REF] Johnston | Measuring Corruption: Numbers versus Knowledge versus Understanding[END_REF] were criticized this category of corruption definitions. [START_REF] Farrales | What is Corruption? A History of Corruption Studies and the Great Definitions Debate[END_REF] indicated that in these definitions, some important points which are hard to define in a pluralistic society are missing such as: the exact definition of public interest, what constitutes the public interest, measurement of public interest, exact definitions of actions which are against of public interest, which is included in public. [START_REF] Johnston | Measuring Corruption: Numbers versus Knowledge versus Understanding[END_REF] emphasized that intangible benefits such as prestige, promise of political support and also the varieties that are not quid pro quo exchanges, such as embezzlement" are not considering in market interest-centered definitions.

It is important to distinguish between two different types of corruption: the first one involves illegal transactions between private parties and public officials, and the second one does not involve private parties and mostly refers to acts and corrupt behaviors of politicians and other government officials. It's clear that a large part of any type of corruption involves the abuse or misuse of authority. For example, [START_REF] Sherman | Three Models of Organizational Corruption in Agencies of Social Control[END_REF] has expressed corruption as an illegal misuse of public authority with the purpose of private gain for the agents who are involved in the acts. The workplace corruption which is the main concept of this research study is defined as the "misuse of authority for personal, subunit, and/or organizational gain" (Ashforth & Anand;2003: 2). In fact, workplace corruption is the deviation from regular duties of a private or governmental official for the aim of family and social benefits, gaining financial incomes or particular type of influence for personal issues [START_REF] Mbaku | Cameroon's Stalled Transition to Democratic Governance: Lessons for Africa's New Democrats[END_REF].

Types of Corruption

International Transparency ( 2005) and a number of researchers like [START_REF] Mawenya | Preventing corruption in Africa. Occasional paper[END_REF] have emphasized that corruption can be occurred in three board areas:

1. Corruption within the public sector, 2. Corruption between consumers and public sectors and 3. Corruption in the interaction between private sector and consumers.

Authors and researchers classify corruption in different methods. In fact each of them define and discover corruption from different point of views. Generally corruption is classified in three categories:

1. Systematic and Individual corruption 2. Petty, grand and state capture corruption 3. Moral and legal corruption

Systematic and Individual Corruption -Systematic Corruption

Systematic corruption is occurred when the system has grown sick and corruption has become an allied and indispensable aspect of the economic, social and political system. In systematic corruption many parts of government which are responsible to prevent and control corruption by inspection, evaluation, auditing, monitoring and enforcement, they have been already corrupted [START_REF] Klitgaard | Leadership under Systemic Corruption[END_REF]. Systematic corruption is characterized from petty to grand corruption, by extensive corrupt activities such as extortion, bribery and embezzlement.

However, in systematic corruption, corruption is rule rather than exception [START_REF] Stefes | Measuring, Conceptualizing, and Fighting Systemic Corruption: Evidence from Post Soviet Countries[END_REF]. In fact, systematic corruption is done by the magnitude of corrupt activities and also the presence of rules and norms (institutions) which most of the times are related to public officials and citizens, these institutions are informal and can shape the interests and strategies of citizens and public officials [START_REF] Stefes | Measuring, Conceptualizing, and Fighting Systemic Corruption: Evidence from Post Soviet Countries[END_REF].

Sometimes systematic corruption and economic activities are in co-relation. For example: a group of politicians create some barriers (making restrictive corporate character, monopoly, tariffs, quotas and manipulation of rules and regulations) to limit the entry of new entrance into valuable economic activities with purpose of making a coalition to dominate the government. In other words, systematic corruption occurs when politic corrupt economic [START_REF] Wallis | The concept of systematic corruption in American history[END_REF]. In many cases of systematic corruption, the informal rules and regulations cancel other formal rules and legal procedures and particularly, principles are secretly stripped of their authority [START_REF] Heymans | Corruption and development: Some perspectives[END_REF]. The lacking of clear rules and regulations, weakness the rule of law, insufficiency of strategic vision and codes of ethics are some important elements that can promote systematic corruption in the aspect of the economic, social and political system.

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Individual Corruption

Sporadic or individual corruption is different from systematic corruption. In fact, this type of corruption occurs irregularly and therefore it doesn't menace the mechanisms of control for example the economy. Individual corruption doesn't paralyze but it can undermine morale and effect on economy resources [START_REF] Byrne | The Moral and Legal Development of Corruption: Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Corruption in Ireland[END_REF].

Grand, Petty and State Capture Corruption

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Grand or Political Corruption

Grand corruption involves substantial amounts of money and usually high-level officials. Normally, this type of corruption occurs between public and private sectors and takes place at the top levels of the public sector and political system. In this type of corruption, individuals use of their powers or positions to do corrupt acts in national or international level such as: bribe and embezzle in large scale sums of money, or to manipulate rules to benefit their private interests [START_REF] Andvig | Corruption A review of contemporary research[END_REF]. It should be noted that grand corruption normally occurs in large procurement projects of a state.

Grand corruption refers to the policy formulation which involves top officials and political decision-makers. In this type of corruptions, rules and laws are abused by rulers, ignored, side-stepped, or even can be tailored to fit the interests of an individual or a group.

Grand corruption is great in scale and involves great amount of money and because of its large scale has a serious and negative impact on the economy of a country [START_REF] Shah | Combating Corruption: Look before You Leap[END_REF]. Grand corruption is more related to the manner in which decisions are made rather than misallocation of resources. In many cases of grand corruption, state agents and politicians change the laws in the name of people to hold or increase their power, status or wealth. It is difficult to identify and measure grand corruption unless bribes are paid. As public policies decisions are couched in terms of public interest, then in this type of corruption, the individuals who are involved in corrupt acts or decisions can claim and justify that at least some segments of the population are gained or in future some gains will be accrued to the specific segment of the society [START_REF] Arvind | The Political Economy of Corruption[END_REF].

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Petty Corruption

Petty or bureaucrat corruption involves smaller sums and typically more junior officials, normally middle or low-level public officials are engaged in petty corruption, then this type of corruption also is known as low level or "street level" [START_REF] Andvig | Corruption A review of contemporary research[END_REF]. This type of corruption refers to corrupt acts of the appointed bureaucrats in dealing with either superiors (the political elite) or with the public (Avind, 2001). Petty corruption headed is highly visible, pervasive, endemic and in some cases institutionalized [START_REF] Stiglitz | Globalization and its discontents[END_REF]. Normally petty corruption harms more the poorest members of a society.

Petty corruption takes place between the public and public officials to implement the existing laws, rules and regulations. Petty corruption is an everyday corruption which exists in all developed, developing and under developing countries and people from different social levels experience more or less in their daily life by dealing with public administration and services like hospital, schools, police, taxing authorities, local licensing authorities. The level of petty corruption is various in different societies. Normally, it's more frequent in less developed countries, where individuals are obliged to pay bribe to get public services that they should get for free or to speed up the bureaucratic procedure. Sometimes, bribes are proposed to get some services which are not supposed to be available [START_REF] Riley | Petty corruption and development[END_REF].

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State capture

In the age of modernization and globalization the form of corrupt acts and behaviors in some societies especially in more advanced countries have been changing; some behaviors are done in political and administration system which could be considered as corrupt acts even if they differ from the acts or behaviors that are usually taken into consideration. Capture state are the legal acts that are done in the benefit of private interests [START_REF] Hellman | Confronting the challenge of state capture in transition countries[END_REF]. Actually this form of corruption is such cooperation or the collusion of private actors with officials or politicians for reciprocal private benefit which can be considered as a kind of "capture" of the sate system [START_REF] Shah | Combating Corruption: Look before You Leap[END_REF]).

In the new form of corruption, state capture represents a form of corruption in which "firms make private payments to public officials to influence the choice and design of laws, rules and regulations" (Hellman & Kaufmann, 2001: 1) or in other words, influential oligarch at the head of a powerful financial-industrial group buys off politicians to shape the country's legal and regulatory framework for personal benefits [START_REF] Hellman | Confronting the challenge of state capture in transition countries[END_REF].

Moral and Legal Corruption

The root of corruption word is coming from Latin verb "rumpere" (to break).

According to this approach, whenever or wherever the law is clearly broken then we are able to claim that corruption has occurred. (Pardo, 2004: 6). In fact, to better understand the causes, effects and consequences of corruption, that would be better to study and analyze the gradation of individual position between the ideal extremes -sociological and moral -of right and wrong, legal and illegal in individual's daily life (Padro, 2004).

Interpretations of researchers and authors in social science field clear some limitations of social power of law as a system of specialized knowledge because some corrupt acts and behaviors or misuses of power are not considered as corrupt acts by legislators at the time of legislating of laws. There are many immoral acts that are missing in the law of anti-corruption because understanding and analyzing of what goes on in certain section of society is missing, then it is difficult for legislators to set enough and proper legislations for immoral acts (Pardo, 2004). In other words, in some cases, the law on corruption fails to possess broad social recognition, because legislators tend to be informed by the selective interests and moral attitudes of selected groups then in these cases the weakness of legislations are leading to happen moral corruption in societies.

At the time of legislating for behavior warrants, legislators consider on the legality of an action rather than on the morality of same action [START_REF] Byrne | The Moral and Legal Development of Corruption: Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Corruption in Ireland[END_REF]. The legal approach supplies a neutral and static method of ruling, potentially emotive to determine the concepts of corruption. Indeed, understanding of corruption from law perspective stress self-regulated behavior. In fact, a dependence on the legal approach helps individuals to specify right from wrong. Moral and immoral standards are very important to define the rightness or wrongness of acts, when an act is praiseworthy and in line with universally acceptable moral standards then this act is good and is considered as a moral act. On the other hand, when individuals do some acts which are not compatible with moral standards definitions or the individual's actions contravene acceptable moral codes, then these acts are considered as immoral acts, from this perspective, authors classify corruption or acts of corruption as immoral acts [START_REF] Uduigwomen | Introducing Ethics: Trends, Problems and Perspectives[END_REF].

There are certain values and norms of society which directly influence the values and norms of individuals [START_REF] De Graaf | Causes of corruption: Towards a contextual theory of corruption[END_REF]; these values and norms influence the behavior of individuals and corrupt them. Corrupt acts can be considered as the deterioration of selfregulated behavior; therefore morality is being legislated for in the absence of and a loss of faith in self regulated behaviors [START_REF] Byrne | The Moral and Legal Development of Corruption: Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Corruption in Ireland[END_REF]. In many cases, we observe that an act or behavior which is committed within legal parameters it is out of moral boundaries [START_REF] Kaufmann | Measuring Corruption: Myths and Realities[END_REF]. Some scholars like [START_REF] Kaufmann | Measuring Corruption: Myths and Realities[END_REF] agree that there is a link between morality and legal form of corruption; they think that legal forms of corruption would be occurred when behaviors of individuals because of low morality cannot self regulate, then they fall within the boundaries of the law which is more rampant than illegal form of behavior.

Forms of Workplace Corruption

Many methodologies have been used in different literatures to create and utilize of a unique standard to measure workplace corruption and large number of scholars has peered inside the broad concept to find and identify different types and forms of workplace corruption. Mostly, workplace corruption is occurred in the form of petty corruption.

Workplace corruption can be investigated from different perspectives such as: types of violate act, outcome or motive of the act, differences center on the participants involved in a corrupt act, the nature of the transaction, the broader context within which the act occurs and the purpose. All of these analytical distinctions have been done with the purpose of better understanding the phenomenon of workplace corruption in order to better classify different types and forms of workplace corruption [START_REF] Morris | Forms of Corruption[END_REF].

Generally, all forms of workplace corruption are tangible and intangible and the parties of workplace corruption are known as active and passive. Tangible corruption is expressed as any physical, real and concrete benefit that can be obtained for an individual or an entity through corrupt acts such as: misappropriated funds, bribery and thefts of assets.

Intangible corruption is defined as any benefits and advantages which are not touchable such as: improper access to data, dissemination of data, proprietary information, or unauthorized and improper use of assets of an organization for gaining personal benefit in direct and indirect way [START_REF] Ausaid | Sustainable Economic Development: Private Sector Development. Thematic Strategy[END_REF].

In a simple and general definition of active and passive, in the process of workplace corruption, an individual who offers, gives or promises to give money or any valuable things to an officer is considered as an active incitement to corruption. In opposite, an officer who accepts the bribe or any kind of tangible and intangible offers in order to do a specific act is considered as passive incitement to corruption (Vander & Siron, 2001). The bribery is a very common form of corruption in public and private sectors that active and passive are two principal parts in forming this form of workplace corruption.

In other words, passive is an official who directly or through an intermediary, "request of receives advantages of any kind whatsoever for himself or for a third party", or accepts any kind of promise of such an advantage, to act or desist from acting in accordance with his official duties or in the exercise of his functions in break of his official duties. In opposite, active is an individual who "promises or gives, directly or through an intermediary, an advantage of any kind whatsoever to an official for himself or for a third party", that induce an individual in his official position to do some actions or desist from acting in accordance with his official duties or in the exercise of his functions in break of his official duties (Jehle & Harrendorf, 2010: 165). This research study concentrates only on workplace corruption which is considered as a form of petty corruption, the forms of workplace corruption are classified and defined as follows:

Bribery

Bribery is the essence of workplace corruption and is the form of corruption that receives the greatest share of reference. In fact, this is such a payment (in money or kind) that is given in a corrupt relationship. These include "kickbacks", "gratuities", "pay off", "sweetness" "greasing palms scratching back" etc (Bayart et Al, 1997: 11). Bribery is something with the intention of impressing the recipient in some way favorable to the party providing the bribe. Bribery is the most current form of corruption with the form of active or passive in public or in business relationship. Bribery encourages individuals for overregulating and over-bureaucratization of procedures with the purpose of providing profits and the giving of some form of benefits to unduly influence some decision, action on the part of the recipient or beneficiary.

Bribes are paid on a case-by-case basis or as a part of steady relationship [START_REF] Stachowicz-Stanusch | Corruption Immunity Based on Positive Organizational Scholarship Towards Theoretical Framework[END_REF]. Bribery as a form of corruption in public and private administration acts as a guarantee for a desired action from public official or vice versa. It is like an exchange agreement between two parties to secure benefits or rewards between or among participants.

Bribery can be offered or be accepted in different shapes such as: money or something of value to influence a transaction, receiving or giving of a benefit with the purpose of improper affection on the actions or decisions of a public servant and promise [START_REF] Bauer & Van Wyk | Causes, Manifestations and Effects of Corruption[END_REF].

Nepotism/Favoritism/Patronage

Actually nepotism is a kind of favoritism; natural human proclivity that a public office holder prefers his/her relative, close friends or family members for positions in which they hold some decision-making authority. Nepotism happens when an individual is exempted from application of rules and regulations or laws or given his/her personal preference in the allocation of scarce resources [START_REF] Amundsen | Search of a Counter-Force. State Power and Civi Society in the Struggle for Democracy in Africa (or: Mapping the political landscape of Senegal, the Côte d'Ivoire and Cameroon)[END_REF]. "Nepotism, favoritism and patronage as form of corruption involve abuse of discretion, although the act is governed not by the direct self-interest of corrupt individual, but by some less tangible affiliation, such as advancing the interest of family or nepotism, a political party, or of an ethnic, religion or other grouping" (Stachowicz-Stanusch, 2010: 135).

Nepotism is a common form of corruption that is not forbidden in some organizations.

In other words, this form of corruption involves the favoring of not the perpetrator of corruption but someone who is related to them, such as family member or association, friends and relatives. This form of workplace corruption is occurred in public and private administration or even in politic level, family member or friend hired in a position that are not qualified for that position. Furthermore, in political level some people get promotion or get a key position that belong to the same political party of that association, regardless of merit and qualification. Nepotism exists in under developing, developing and even in developed countries, because in public and private sectors of these societies, such a personal preferential behavior works that discriminate against those who have enough quality derive a benefit from a transaction or decision by an official [START_REF] Bauer & Van Wyk | Causes, Manifestations and Effects of Corruption[END_REF].

Greed

Greed is a form of workplace corruption that can be occurred in public and private sectors when an official seeks private gains at the public expense, "greed is an obsession with material gains and is aimed at self-enrichment" (Hillard, 1994: 217). From a socio-analytical point of view, greed is a psychotic dynamic that interdict thinking and limits realities to desirable things. Greed can be conceptualized as an unconscious dynamic in an organization or any other social system that is stimulated by the desire, if not the 'drive', to incorporate 'good objects' from environment in order to fill its inner void, to improve its reputation, image, power and position in the society or organization with regard to others [START_REF] Burkard | Towards a Socioanalysis of Capitalist Greed, Critique[END_REF].

Embezzlement

Embezzlement is one of the most common ways of quick wealth accumulation, this form of corruption involves theft of public recourses by officers or public officials entrusted with control and authority of such recourses (Dube, 2011and Bauer & Van Wyk, 1999). In fact, the lack of strict regulatory systems allows public officers steal money or other government property, or disloyal employees steal from their employers in the public or private sectors.

Embezzlement is considered as a form of workplace corruption, it includes the stealing of money and valuable objects which influences different level of innocent citizens by misappropriating recourses meant for the people or disturbing the balance of national budget [START_REF] Rose-Ackerman | Corruption and Government: Causes, Consequences and Reform[END_REF]. This form of corruption occurs in all levels of public and private administration, sometimes parliamentary staff, among other public figures participate in embezzlement in accidental ways (Gray & Kaufman, 1998).

Fraud

Fraud is as an action which consists of using the misleading information to induce an individual to turn over from his property or positions voluntarily [START_REF] Stachowicz-Stanusch | Corruption Immunity Based on Positive Organizational Scholarship Towards Theoretical Framework[END_REF]. In fact, fraud is a common form of corruption that occurs when an individual cheats other individuals through deceit. Fraud is unethical acts and behaviors such as: "tricky, swindle and deceit counterfeiting, racking, smuggling and forgery" which are practiced by public officers, other individuals or entitles to cheat others for gaining some unfair or dishonest advantage that would not normally accrue to an officer, other individuals or entity (Dude, 2011 and[START_REF] Bauer & Van Wyk | Causes, Manifestations and Effects of Corruption[END_REF][START_REF] Bauer & Van Wyk | Causes, Manifestations and Effects of Corruption[END_REF]. Most of the time, fraud is a financial crime in which an individual manipulates or falsify information and facts.

Collusion

Collusion is considered as a form of corruption which obliges individuals to pay bribes to officials to escape from rules and regulations or sanctions. In fact, "Some behaviors of corrupt collusion lead to the subversion of the flow of information within an economic, societal or political unit" (Stachowicz-Stanusch, 2010: 134). Contractual collusion is a common form of corruption, in which two parties try to convert a non-tradable contractual condition such as safety conditions into a tradable, earns them a rent over and above normal profit, then because of the contractual collusion; third party suffers an externality through an unperceived drop in safety [START_REF] Stachowicz-Stanusch | Corruption Immunity Based on Positive Organizational Scholarship Towards Theoretical Framework[END_REF].

Extortion

Extortion is expressed as "money and other recourses extracted by the use of coercion, violence, or threats to use force" (Bayart et al 1997: 11). In other words, extortion is one the form of corrupt behavior in which an individual coerces another to pay through money, goods, or favors for an action (Gray & Kaufman;1998). In fact extortion is practiced by a person or entity with the goal of providing a benefit and some advantages for a public official, another person or entity in exchange for acting in a particular manner [START_REF] Dube | Systemic Corruption in the Public Enterprises in Harare Metropolitan Area: A Case Study[END_REF][START_REF] Bauer & Van Wyk | Causes, Manifestations and Effects of Corruption[END_REF][START_REF] Bauer & Van Wyk | Causes, Manifestations and Effects of Corruption[END_REF].

One of the forms of extortion is government extortion. It occurs when government agencies have too much delay for providing services, then individuals offer money to get the required services more quickly. By practicing extortion in administration section, it's obvious that those who pay receive preferential action or behavior, making the service not really public [START_REF] Rose-Ackerman | Corruption and Government: Causes, Consequences and Reform[END_REF]. As a form of extortion, clients and consumers of public services and government have to pay some amount extra than official price cost to get license, permits, official documents or access to public facilities. As a form of political corruption, in many cases the politicians and public officials make extortion against firms, enterprises and associations which are weaker or smaller [START_REF] Stachowicz-Stanusch | Corruption Immunity Based on Positive Organizational Scholarship Towards Theoretical Framework[END_REF].

Conflict of Interest

Different studies have been done about conflict of interest, these studies describe this phenomenon as a "public administration, political and legal problem" but there is a common point in all studies that conflicts of interest undermine the trust. "Conflict of interest is properly understood as a situation, not an action, and it is clear that a public official may find him or herself in a conflict of interest situation without actually behaving corruptly" (Reed, 2008: 8). Actually conflict of interest is a conflict that occurs between public duty and private interests, whereby a private interest in an improper manner influence the public interest, activities and decisions [START_REF] Gençkaya | Conflict of interest: Ethic for the prevention of corruption in Turkey[END_REF].

Conflict of interest is classified in three categories (ICAC, 2004 and[START_REF] Gençkaya | Conflict of interest: Ethic for the prevention of corruption in Turkey[END_REF]:

-Actual conflict of interest: A public official is in a position to be influenced by their private interests when doing their job.

-Perceived conflict of interest: A public official is in a position to appear to be influenced by their private interests when doing their job.

-Potential conflict of interest: A public official is in a position where they may be influenced in the future by their private interests when doing their job.

In a common form of conflict of interest in public administration and enterprises which is classified as a form of manifestation of corruption, the officers act in a way where officials who have interests and insider abuse of privileged information. Actually, they use of privileged information and knowledge that officials have as a result of his office to provide benefits and advantages for an entity or person with the goal of obtaining benefit or accruing benefit for himself [START_REF] Dube | Systemic Corruption in the Public Enterprises in Harare Metropolitan Area: A Case Study[END_REF][START_REF] Bauer & Van Wyk | Causes, Manifestations and Effects of Corruption[END_REF][START_REF] Bauer & Van Wyk | Causes, Manifestations and Effects of Corruption[END_REF].

Abuse of Discretion/Power

Abuse of power is occurring when an individual abuse of his/her authority or power to improperly benefit another or entity [START_REF] Bauer & Van Wyk | Causes, Manifestations and Effects of Corruption[END_REF]. "Abuse of discretion is concerning abuse and corrupt government agency practices for private gain without external inducement or extortion" (Stachowicz-Stanusch, 2010: 134). In some states, the function of administrative system from high national levels to local levels is constructed by corrupt governments. Then, this system provides some opportunities for sate agents to abuse and use citizen rights for their own personal benefits and in some cases theses type of abuses are happened with the help and cooperation of their partners and extended network.

In some cases, abuse of discretion and power are done in political levels. For example, some politicians and public officials abuse their political power to obtain great advantages and benefits or to capture natural resources such as mining sector [START_REF] Stachowicz-Stanusch | Corruption Immunity Based on Positive Organizational Scholarship Towards Theoretical Framework[END_REF]. This form of corruption at global and international levels are complicated, because in these levels, a comprehensive and systematic abuse of power and authority on global and international laws, standards and norms are well structured for all aspects of national levels.

In fact, the patterns of these type of abuses are associated with bureaucracies "in which broad individual discretion is created and few oversights or accountability structures are present" (Stachowicz-Stanusch, 2010: 135).

SOURCES OF WORKPLACE CORRUPTION

The controlling and preventing of workplace corruption would be easy, if the concept of corruption was unambiguous, and the sources of workplace corruption were easily recognizable. Normally, people think that low salary is the only incentive for a public official to do corrupt acts and behaviors. In fact, there are other factors beyond financial rewards which also appreciate well-paid officers to do corrupt acts. In this part of our research, we try to identify several causes of corruption of employees at workplace rather than explain how and why corruption occurs. According to [START_REF] Brunetti | A free press is bad news for corruption[END_REF]: 1802), the causes of administrative corruption are classified in three main sections (internal, external and indirect factors). At the same time, workings on internal, external and indirect factors are effective to prevent and control workplace corruption.

Internal Sources

Internal causes of corruption are related to the system that exists inside the administration of organizations. The internal sources of workplace corruption are linked to the issues of civil service and aspect of decentralization.

Civil Service Pay

Over the many years, researchers, authors in the human resource field were believed that the level of salary and remuneration of employees are important factors in the study of corruption because low salary fosters corrupt acts and the wages which are paid to civil servants are important in determining the degree of corruption. The remuneration is a question of many anti-corruption literatures. Early analysis of anti-corruption explains that the increasing of public sector salaries would only increase the size of bribes but the role of low salaries is more complex [START_REF] Mills | Causes of Corruption in Public Institutions and its Impact on Development: Turning What We Know in to What We Do[END_REF].

Most of empirical researches such as the studies of Rauch & Evans (2000) do not support the view of positive effect of wages on reducing the corruption level. In opposite, few researchers [START_REF] Goel | Corruption and Government Size: A Disaggregated Analysis[END_REF] believe on the relevance of corruption and salary. The laboratory test of [START_REF] Abbink | Testing the direct and indirect relationship between organizational justice and work outcomes in a non-western context of the UAE[END_REF] has highlighted that high relative salaries don't lead to less corruption. According to the empirical researches of Van Rijckeghem & Weder (2001), in short time, increasing the salaries would not lead to less corruption but an active wage policy is one of the most important element in fighting the corruption. There are some principle reasons that low salary foster corrupt behaviors, they are as follows:

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Difference of Civil Service Pay between Private and Public Sector

The individuals who are working in public administration compare their salaries with the individuals who work in private sectors, they believe that they work as much as private sectors but they earn less than them then this though motivate them to do corrupt acts and behaviors to compensate of these differences. A number of researchers have argued that the similar wages of public sectors official with private sector can reduce the risk of accepting bribe and also the potential gain from corruption can be declined [START_REF] Goudie | A Framework for the Analysis of Corruption[END_REF].

Some previous researches are shown that increasing the salary of employees cannot reduce the risk of corruption; even it can be caused to demand bribes in large scales, then increasing of salaries have to be done through training trips abroad, using "revolting doors" and other similar methods to control workplace corruption [START_REF] Mills | Causes of Corruption in Public Institutions and its Impact on Development: Turning What We Know in to What We Do[END_REF].

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Less Salary as a Motivation Element

In certain societies, people know very well that public sectors are remunerated unfairly and the salaries are low but many people who are dishonest and incompetent apply to take position in public sectors because corruption acts as a motivation to apply for a job in the public sector positions [START_REF] Goudie | A Framework for the Analysis of Corruption[END_REF][START_REF] Goudie | A Framework for the Analysis of Corruption[END_REF][START_REF] Mills | Causes of Corruption in Public Institutions and its Impact on Development: Turning What We Know in to What We Do[END_REF]. In fact, there is a link between this belief of people and poor quality of public sectors. According to Park (2003: 31), corruption in public societies contributes to the poor quality of government officials and Espejo et al (2001: 142) went further and claimed that "if the system is corrupt, it is because it has been designed to be corrupt; ergo, redesign it".

The governments of some countries are aware that the employee's salary of public sectors are less but they don't raise the salary or keep the salary of employees in the low level because the government believes that civil servants earn sufficient amount of money by engaging in corrupt cats in their official positions [START_REF] Lambsdorff | An Empirical Investigation of Bribery in International Trade[END_REF]. In this specific type of corruption, government has to work on the ethical values of people and try to replace unethical official with an ethically sound person (Gould, 1991:468).

Personal Policy

The characteristic of meritocracy plays a more significant role than the size of employee's salaries in controlling and preventing workplace corruption (Rauch & Evans, 2000). "The meritocratic is based on competitive examination in recruiting, rigid hiring and firing policy instead of political assignments, career stability, life-time tenure, and internal promotion" (Liiv, 2004: 16). The stability in organizations which is raised from internal promotion, life tenure, job security, enhances communication and employee's concerns about what others think to them are important for individuals at workplace and the lack of them motive individuals to engage in misconduct behaviors. In fact, these factors increase conformity to organizational rules and regulations and decrease corruption (Rauch & Evan, 2000). The studies of [START_REF] Kramer | Anti-Corruption Research Concerning Eastern-Europe and the Former Soviet Union: A comparative Analysis[END_REF] in post-Soviet states highlighted that the officials who feel likely to lose their jobs are more willing to accept bribe or doing corrupt behaviors compare to employees who feel more secure in their positions.

Additionally, the researches which carried down about internal promotion of employees have highlighted that promotion plays a key role in the level of employee's satisfaction. The researches of [START_REF] Liiv | The Causes of Administrative Corruption[END_REF] and [START_REF] Carvajal | Large Scale Corruption: Definition, Causes, and cures[END_REF] have shown the relationship between workplace corruption and internal promotion. In fact poor promotion possibilities in public or private administration raise the potential for self-compensation by unofficial means compared to the organizations with the high promotion possibilities. Furthermore, the participation of individuals in the process of making decisions and policies of organization can increase the perception of stability of individuals at workplace; in opposite the low level participation of individuals in decision making process of organizations can increase the motivation of employees to participate in corrupt acts and behaviors [START_REF] Carvajal | Large Scale Corruption: Definition, Causes, and cures[END_REF].

Hierarchical and Decentralization

In organizations, there are different methods of control, it's not clear which method is better to control and prevent corruption. Different literatures by focusing on different cases and technical measures, have presented some effective method to control organizational corruption [START_REF] Goudie | A Framework for the Analysis of Corruption[END_REF]. Centralization and decentralization are two methods of exerting control of organizations. Decentralization is defined as: the distribution of responsibility and authority to the local and low level of officials in government with the purpose of better controlling the public functions and exert control [START_REF] Metcalf | Transformation of British Industrial Relations? Institutions, conduct and outcomes 1980-1990[END_REF][START_REF] Elmore | School Decentralization: Who Gains? Who Loses?[END_REF]. Decentralization as an effective method is leading greater diversity in the provision of public goods, which leads to better accord with the necessities of local people [START_REF] Tiebout | A pure theory of local expenditures[END_REF].

A group of researchers have expressed that there is a direct relationship between corruption and decentralization (Vergara, 2000 and[START_REF] Fisman | Decentralization and Corruption: Evidence Across Countries[END_REF]Gatti, 2002a &b), they consider centralization or hierarchical system as an antecedent of administrative corruption.

According to the empirical finding of some researchers, the hierarchical system leads to more workplace corruption in organizations because in this system managers who have a large number of subordinates, employees and officials are not able to control and monitor each single official. So, individuals are more intended to engage in corrupt acts and behaviors [START_REF] Carbonara | Bureaucracy, Corruption and Decentralization[END_REF]. The researches of [START_REF] Stark | Religion as context: hellfire and delinquency one more time[END_REF] and [START_REF] Carbonara | Bureaucracy, Corruption and Decentralization[END_REF] have identified the importance of decentralization system to control corruption on the basis of control theories.

According to them, decentralization rely on control theories in which are confirmatory to rules is caused by prevailing norms and social norms. They believe that decentralization system can be considered as an effective system to control administrative corruption. In centralization system, politicians and bureaucrats are more responsible for their actions and decisions, then each of them by being honest try more to maintain and strengthen his or her position and reputation.

External Sources

External causes of corruption are related to the system which exists outside of the organizations. The external sources of administrative corruption can be derived from improper judicial and public control system. Legal framework and transparency are considered as the external causes of workplace corruption and also they are considered as the main components of external control. In fact, transparency and legal framework are considered as effective tools to control and prevent external sources of administrative corruption.

Legal Framework

Weak legal system is considered as one of the sources of workplace corruption, strong and strict legal framework keep individuals away from engaging in corrupt acts and behaviors in organizations. Corruption has prohibited by law for centuries. For many years, corruption has been defined as bribery and some improper public official behavior misconduct in public administration or breach of public trust [START_REF] Mills | Causes of Corruption in Public Institutions and its Impact on Development: Turning What We Know in to What We Do[END_REF], but recently some actions such as: bribery, embezzlement, influence peddling, abuse of office, illicit enrichment, and money laundering specified as the new forms of corrupt behaviors which are required to be criminalized by United Nations Convention against corruption (UNODC, 2004a(UNODC, & 2004b)).

The lack of sufficient and effective legal system motives individuals to design corrupt acts and behaviors in public or private administration system and even in all parts and levels of societies.

In fact, in the real world relatively few people are punished for corrupt acts compared to the extension of the corruption. With the exception of a few countries, there seems to be a gap between the penalties which are specified in the rules and regulations and the penalties which are imposed in reality, it's obvious that legal, political, or administrative barriers prevent to apply the quick and full penalties [START_REF] Tanzi | Corruption around the World[END_REF]. "Ineffective legal system encourages the elite to use for personal gain, and consequently reduce the effectiveness of the laws and their enforcers through political appointments or through reducing and allocating resources, which encourages the spread of corruption even more" (Jain, 2001: 72). One of the factors which limit the role of penalties is the rampant of corruption in the legislative framework. In some countries, corruption is widespread, then it has affected highly on the cost of accusers in terms of social capital, such as friends, foremother, the judges who are responsible to judge and impose penalties may themselves be accessible to corruption or may have political biases then they could make some barriers to the process of imposing penalties fully and quickly [START_REF] Tanzi | Corruption around the World[END_REF]. "Theoretical and empirical evidence suggests that dependent and underdeveloped judicial institutions foster corruption" (Ades & Di Talla, 1997: 515).

Effective legal system plays a unique role in raising awareness by authoritatively articulating undesirable conduct, indeed legal framework by prosecution and imposing fines and penalties has enough capacity to control and eliminate corrupt conduct [START_REF] Mills | Causes of Corruption in Public Institutions and its Impact on Development: Turning What We Know in to What We Do[END_REF]. As we explained proper specification and definition of legal framework of an organization or a society has a key role in controlling corruption in public and private administration. However in some cases prosecution can be prevented by jurisdictional conflicts if corruption and misconduct behavior are subjected to more than one legal framework. Manipulating the potential for criminal, employment and administrative laws to conflict, delay the imposition of non-legal penalties and enforcement framework are factors which encourage the individuals to engage in corrupt acts and behaviors, at the same time considering and working on these factors are impressive to maintain the effectiveness of anti-corruption strategies [START_REF] Mills | Causes of Corruption in Public Institutions and its Impact on Development: Turning What We Know in to What We Do[END_REF].

Transparency

Transparency is considered as a key factor to control organizational corruption.

Indeed, transparency is known as of one the external sources of workplace corruption and also at the same time it is considered as an effective anti-corruption strategy. The exposure of official documents and decisions reduce the motivation of individuals to engage in corrupt acts and behaviors. In the societies where decision-making process is impenetrable and everything is transparent for public, the exercising of corruption is nearly impossible. Finland for many years gained the top position of the transparency international annual's CPI from 2000 and afterwards because of high transparency level in this country. In fact in Finland, there are very limited documents which are classified as confidential documents. Generally the data on operation of public and private sectors is "almost total" [START_REF] Liiv | The Causes of Administrative Corruption[END_REF].

The development of information and technology are obvious in the level of transparency and public accountability in public administration. The lack of information and communication can provide some opportunities for individuals in societies or organizations to act corruptly; Information and communication technologies help citizens to scrutinize and verify the activities of public officers and publish or say their ideas about their performances in public Medias. The high level of using information and communication technologies plays an effective role in preventing and controlling organizational corruption not only in accountability and transparency in public and private administration but also by supporting the quality of an organization's operational efficiency and robust internal governance [START_REF] Mills | Causes of Corruption in Public Institutions and its Impact on Development: Turning What We Know in to What We Do[END_REF].

Indirect Sources

Indicating and studying the factors which impact on administrative corruption is very complicated task. However culture and economy of societies are considered as indirect causes of forming corruption in organizations. Discussion about the indirect factors of corruption is very difficult because of the ambiguity on the direction of their causality. For example, it's very difficult to indicate that corruption is caused by poverty or whether corruption causes the phenomenon by itself. Underdeveloped countries are not able to fight corruption because they don't have enough resources to make an effective legal framework. On the other hand corruption feeds inequality and poverty by distorting government expenditures [START_REF] Mauro | Corruption and the Composition of Government Expenditure[END_REF].

Economic variables

Economic variables such as real per capita GDP, income inequality, unemployment rate and economic freedom are considered as indirect sources of administrative corruption. A number of researches emphasized that corruption and economic are related, in fact corruption decline when the economy of country is growing, reflected in GDP per capita [START_REF] Montinola | Sources of Corruption: A Cross-Country Study[END_REF][START_REF] Montinola | Sources of Corruption: A Cross-Country Study[END_REF]Paldam, 2001); GDP per capita and the rate of inflation are considered as an important economic determinant of corruption [START_REF] Paldam | The big pattern of corruption, economics, culture and the seesaw dynamics[END_REF]. The study of cross-country comparison in post-soviet states which has done by Freedom [START_REF] House | Understanding Cultures and Implicit Leadership Theories Across the Globe: An Introduction to Project GLOBE[END_REF] has highlighted the link between economic and corruption. According to this study, the countries with higher GDP per capita experience lower level of corruption.

The liberalization of economic and competitive environment is considered as effective factors to prevent corruption in all sectors of a country. The countries with more open foreign trade, less protectionist policies and less marginal tariff on foreign firm experience lower level of corruption (Park, 2003 and[START_REF] Tanzi | Corruption around the World[END_REF]. In societies that there are more tariff and barriers then there are more opportunities for official in private and public administration to ask for illegal payments to pass the barriers (Broadman & Recanatina, 2002). Competitive environment as one of the variable of free economy has a specific role to prevent administrative corruption through automatic checks and balances (Broadman & Recanatina, 2001), furthermore, the free competition decline the collusion possibility of private and public institutions in order to buy officials (Varese, 1997).

The countries which have been joined to the globalization or world market are able to better prevent and control corruption through developing political, legal and political institutions [START_REF] Kearney | Corruption and the Globalization Index[END_REF]. Normally, modernization is coming with globalization; modernization disrupts the political institutions and weakens the social norms that might have restrained individuals in public and private sectors from using their authorities in unethical acts and behaviors. Unemployment rate as of one the economic variables also impact on workplace corruption and explain the variation in corruption particularly in developing countries, according to [START_REF] Goel | Corruption and Government Size: A Disaggregated Analysis[END_REF] high rate of unemployment is associated with high level of corruption. In fact, in societies with high rate of unemployment, the security of job is low then individuals because of high possibility of losing their jobs and positions may engage in corrupt acts to secure themselves.

Income inequality as one of the economic variables increases the level of administrative corruption. By increasing the level of inequality, the richer people have greater resources for paying bribes to buy public and private officers both legally and illegally [START_REF] Glaeser | The Injustice of Inequality[END_REF]. Inequality leads rampant workplace corruption, in societies with high rate of inequality many poor people rely on petty corruption because they are more likely to be deprived of basic public-services [START_REF] You | A Comparative Study of Inequality and Corruption[END_REF].

Cultural variables

The study of national culture of each country is very important to find the causes of administrative corruption and also to determine the anti-corruption strategies. In fact, culture is considered as an important factor to explain corruption. Culture is a set of beliefs and values about what is desirable and undesirable in societies, and a set of formal and informal practices to support those values [START_REF] Javidan | Cultural Acumen for the Global Manager: Lessons from Project GLOBE[END_REF]. Culture is an important factor that explains much but not all of the corruption perceived to exist in different countries, then we consider the cultural variables as an indirect source of corruption.

Various scholars have specified that societal cultures impact on wide variety of social phenomena [START_REF] House | Understanding Cultures and Implicit Leadership Theories Across the Globe: An Introduction to Project GLOBE[END_REF][START_REF] Hofstede | The Cultural Relativity of Organizational Practices and Theories[END_REF] and organizational behavior studies highlight that values and culture strongly influence personal behaviors [START_REF] Rokeach | Beliefs, attitudes, and values[END_REF][START_REF] House | Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies[END_REF][START_REF] Hofstede | Cultute's Consequences[END_REF]. Culture is a very board concept and is not particularly useful as a residual explanation of variance among countries. However, working on specifying and defining on the dimensions of culture can be useful to identify the indirect sources of administrative corruption and to determine effective strategies to fight corruption.

The cultural classification system which has been introduced by [START_REF] Hofstede | Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values[END_REF][START_REF] Hofstede | Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind[END_REF] helps to understand the culture of societies and also to understand the indirect sources of corruption (cultural variables) in shaping administrative corruption. The cultural dimensions of [START_REF] Hofstede | Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values[END_REF][START_REF] Hofstede | Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind[END_REF] are particularly useful to understand the indirect relationship of culture and organizational corruption. He postulates that work culture around the world is classified along five cultural dimensions: power distance, individualism-collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity-femininity, and long term-short term orientation. In this part of this research, we study the cultural dimensions in terms of their relevance to organizational corruption.

-Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance is related to the way that an individual in a society shows reactions to uncertain and ambiguous situations [START_REF] Husted | Culture and international anti-corruption agreements in Latin America[END_REF]. Uncertainty avoidance is defined as: "the extent to which members of a culture feel threatened by uncertainty or unknown situations" (Hofstede, 1997: 113). Individuals in these cultures look for relationship, institutions and organizations which make events clearly interpretable and predicable [START_REF] Hofstede | Cultute's Consequences[END_REF]. Individuals from low level of uncertainty avoidance culture are more comfortable with few rules and regulations because in these societies, rules and regulations are applied more for guidance of individuals than direct control.

In bureaucratic societies, low uncertainty avoidance system encourages managers, officials and people to behave unethically. Actually, in these societies, the social and cultural rules limit and restrict behaviors, acts and objectives of individuals then individuals to achieve their objectives are induced to use unethical behavior and informal channels [START_REF] Getz | Culture, perceived corruption, and economics[END_REF]. Normally, individuals in these societies from different levels are established corrupt patterns to achieve their limited personal objectives, and bribe is considered as an effective tool to reduce uncertainty. Individuals by offering bribe or other unethical offers try to diminish uncertainties and officials by accepting and demanding bribes to do their duties faster and provide some services which are out of their control and responsibilities.

Cultural variables act like predictors to serve as guidelines for resignation and anticipating potential issues in the culture of societies for providing policies and practices to decrease corruption. Culture can serve as guidelines for individuals and organizations to design new policies and strategies to face with unethical corrupt behaviors (Mallinger, Rossay & Singel, 2005). Managers and policy makers of societies have to better understand the practice and the value uncertainty avoidance in the culture of organizations and societies, then by investigation on the policies and procedures within organizations are able to evaluate the sufficiency of them to deal with unethical acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace.

Such types of investigations allow using more controls to compensate the lack of regulatory or social controls.

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Power Distance

Power distance is a measure of how a culture, such as a team, business or a country defines and accepts hierarchy. It's defined as "the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally" (Hofstede, 1997: 28). In fact, power distance is related to the degree in which individuals of a society react, distribute, and expand to the application of power and it reflects the relationship between two groups of individuals in a society who have the power and those who do not (Seleim & Bonti, 2009). Power distance focuses on the distribution of power and the degree of equality in a society; it is used to explain the differences or inequalities between groups and people in a society. The study of power distance as cultural sources of workplace corruption is considerable because it reflects a culture's attitude towards human equality.

In the societies with high level of power distance culture, high level public officials use of their powers to get personal benefits from their positions. On the other hand low level of public officials who don't have too much power but they are part of bureaucracy, try to improve their positions or get personal benefits through extortion. Similarly, the people who are not member of official public try to find unethical ways such as offering bribes to lowlevel officials for their personal benefits with the purpose of increasing their living standard (Gets &Volkema, 2001). In high level power distance societies, individuals accept the lack of equality regarding power and authority, then the individuals are more open to unethical and corrupt activities (David & Ruhe, 2003).

In less power distance societies, superiors and subordinates have equal power and there are more cooperation and harmony among individuals because titles and status are not important (David &Ruhe, 2003 and[START_REF] Seleim | The relationship between culture and corruption: a cross-national study[END_REF]Bonti. 2004), therefore, subordinate are more open to criticize and discuss about his/her superior's actions which lead to less corruption potential in these societies [START_REF] Francesco | International Organizational Behaviors[END_REF][START_REF] Francesco | International Organizational Behaviors[END_REF]Davis &Ruhe, 2003). Normally, low degree of power distance societies take benefit of egalitarian-based system which less motivate individuals to engage in unethical acts and behaviors (Barkema & Comez-Mejia, 1998). According to [START_REF] Husted | Culture and international anti-corruption agreements in Latin America[END_REF], strong leadership can be considered as a necessary mean for the implementation of anti-corruption conventions in high power distance culture to control organizational corruption.

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Individualism/Collectivism

The different characteristics which exist in individualist and collectivist culture effect on organizational corruption. The individualistic and collectivistic culture describes the relationship between the individual and group in which he/she belongs [START_REF] Hofstede | Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind[END_REF]. In tend to apply different rules and regulations, laws, standards and explanations to different groups (in-group and out-group) and situations [START_REF] Hofstede | Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind[END_REF].

Countries with high individualism culture have lower perceived national corruption than the countries with high collectivism cultures. Different norms and standards which exist in individualistic and collectivistic cultures influence on individuals to engage in corrupt acts and behaviors. In fact, in collectivist cultures, priority is given to family members or friends, loyalty and obligations between in-group members are so important then the ethical standard is more important than social justice (Cohen et al. 1996). The distinction which exists between in-group and out-group in collectivistic societies create a pressure for conformity on in-group members then this pressure can influence on the overall level of corruption in a society through its impact on the loyalty and obedience of group members (Davis & Ruhe, 2003).

In collectivistic cultures, connection or network of families and friends are oriented to create a strong relationship among in-group members which create a situation to practice corrupt acts and illegal transactions [START_REF] Getz | Culture, perceived corruption, and economics[END_REF]. In collectivistic culture is so common that an individual who is loyal to his group or connection emphasize to act a rational bureaucrat over than his responsibility. Therefore, in some cases, family connections and networks increase the possibility of organizational corruption [START_REF] Barkema | Managerial Remuneration and Firm Performance: A General Research Framework[END_REF]. Shame and guilt are culturally sensitive and important in terms of social development of control mechanisms. Policy makers and managers of organizations by considering the culture of shame and guilt are able to control organizational corruption. In collectivistic cultures which shame is the principle means of social control, the anti-corruption strategies have to focus on group-bases punishment or punishments which affect the individual's relationship to the group. In contrary, in individualistic culture which guilt is the principle means of social control, the anti-corruption strategies have to focus on the costs and benefits of rational agents especially in terms of monetary (Husted, 2000).

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Masculinity/Femininity or Gender Egalitarianism

Gender egalitarianism studies the role of males and females in home, organizations, and communities which influences on the daily life of people. "Masculinity stands for a society in which social gender roles are clearly distinct: Men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success; women are supposed to be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life". In opposite "Femininity stands for a society in which social gender roles overlap: Both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life" (Hofsted, 2001:297). Masculine culture focuses on quantity of life and stress more on position, power and wealth, however feminine cultures consider more on the quality of life and services, then individuals stress more on some values such as: relationship and welfare of other people [START_REF] Hofstede | The Cultural Relativity of Organizational Practices and Theories[END_REF].

In masculine cultures, assertiveness, autonomy, aggression and competiveness are important values and the success of individuals are measured by commercial then individuals are more comfortable to achieve their goals through informal and illegal channels such as bribe. In feminine cultures, individuals respect to feminine values such as: affiliation, nurturance, helpfulness, and humility, then creating harmonious relationships among social institutions are more valuable than financial and commercial sphere success [START_REF] Getz | Culture, perceived corruption, and economics[END_REF]. The countries in which women hold a larger share of parliamentary seats and senior positions in the government bureaucracy, the level of corruption and corrupt behaviors are less [START_REF] Swamy | Gender and Corruption[END_REF]. The societies with high degree of masculine culture may encounter proportionately more situations of potential corruption than feminine cultures [START_REF] Weaver | Ethics programs in global business: Culture's role in managing ethics[END_REF].

Social orientated and individual orientated are two different important of male and female characters, women are more selfless, socially orientated and helpful, then when they are in power or in senior positions in organizations behave more generously, in opposite men are more selfish and individually orientated [START_REF] Eckel | Are women less selfish than men: Evidence from dictator experiments[END_REF]. The scale (big) and speed (fast) are common values in masculine cultures [START_REF] Hofstede | The Cultural Relativity of Organizational Practices and Theories[END_REF]& Park, 2003), in masculine cultures individuals who are fast are considered more efficient and also big always considered as a great thing. In many cases, big and fast achievements are impossible through legal process, then in masculine cultures individuals are blamed to do corrupt behaviors and practices to achieve their goals faster than others [START_REF] Carroll | Does cultural origin affect saving behavior? Evidence from immigrants[END_REF]. Ostentation manliness in masculine cultures appreciate the individuals to do corrupt acts in organizations to achieve their financial goals in a big and fast way and if a person deny to do that, it can be criticized by other members as a scary and cowardly guy (Park, 2003).

The norms and values such as assertiveness, aggression and competitiveness which exist in the characteristics of masculine culture can prepare an environment for individuals to offer or pay bribe or to do corrupt acts and behaviors [START_REF] Getz | Culture, perceived corruption, and economics[END_REF]. Managers and policy makers on the basis of values in feminine and masculine societies are able to fix anticorruption strategies to control and prevent organizational corruption. As we explained, material success and money are important values for masculine societies, then heavy fines and finical penalties for corporate officials would be more effective disincentive because of its impact on the accumulation of material wealth (Husted, 2000). In feminine societies, greater importance is placed on relationship, then policies which have an influence on the disruption of personal relationship such as: prison and jail terms for corporate employees are considered as effective anti-corruption strategies (Husted, 2000).

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Long Term/Short Term Orientation

This dimension refers to general orientation to value virtue as opposed truth. Long term and short term orientation cultures focus on the past, present and future, individuals in long term orientation cultures focus and evaluate more on their plans in term of future benefits, profit and advantages but in short term orientation cultures, individuals focus and evaluate more their plans in terms of traditions, history and customs (Heals et al. 2004).

"Long Term Orientation stands for the fostering of virtues oriented towards future rewards, in particular perseverance and thrift. It's opposite pole, Short Term Orientation, stands for the fostering of virtues related to the past and present, in particular, respect for tradition, preservation of 'face' and fulfilling social obligations" (Hofstede, 2001: 359).

In the societies with long term orientation culture, individuals tend to associate with a lower tolerance for questionable business activities and practices which may lead to corrupt acts and behaviors (Cohen, Pant & Sharp, 1996). The norms and values which exist in long and short term cultures impact on corrupt acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace. In fact, individuals in long term orientation cultures have lesser likelihood to participate in workplace corruption rather than individuals from short term orientation culture. In short term orientation cultures, individuals use and enjoy of moments, free from past and future worries and focus more on immediate actions and decisions then they practice more corrupt acts and behaviors when they pay little attention to future orientation practices and values (Seleim & Bonti, 2009).

CONCLUSION

The first chapter has been devoted to general presentation of corruption and particularly the corrupt acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace. In the first section of chapter one, we have presented public-office-centered, market-centered and public interestcentered, as three main corruption definition classification in literature review (Heidenheimer, 1970). Different points of views of authors and researchers related to corruption have been led

to various definition of corruption, and then we presented the most popular definitions of organizational corruption through categories of Heidenheimer (1970).

CHAPTER 2: ANTECEDENTS OF WORKPLACE CORRUPTION INTRODUCTION

The aim of this chapter is to explore several variables that have impacts on the organizational corruption in order to prevent and control corrupt acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace. In the second chapter of this dissertation, on the basis of previous researches and literatures, several variables are presented that are in correlation with workplace corruption and deviance. Furthermore, the first section of this chapter presents numbers of internal and external variables that impact on shaping and forming of unethical acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace. The second section of this chapter presents two environmental variables that impact on shaping organizational corruption and workplace deviance indirectly.

THE CORRELATIONS OF WORKPLACE CORRUPTION

As we highlighted in chapter 1, corruption is a multi-faced phenomenon, correlated to numerous issues together such as abuse of entrusted power for personal benefits, bribes, low integrity, fraud and nepotism. These deviant workplace behaviors and acts are both pervasive and costly not only in term of financial but also in social and psychological perspectives [START_REF] Peterson | Deviant workplace behaviour and the organisation's ethical climate[END_REF]. Many questions arise how to control and prevent the growth of administrative corruption in public and private sectors, to answer these questions many theoretical and empirical researches have been done to find the correlations of workplace corruption from different point of views. Previous researches determine the social networks and relationships [START_REF] Werner | A transactional approach to interpersonal relations: Physical environment, social context and temporal qualities[END_REF], personal and interpersonal functioning [START_REF] Altman | Ecological aspects of group behavior in social isolation[END_REF], the workplace productivity (Knight & Haslam, 2010b), and the intellectual well-being [START_REF] Kaplan | Creating a larger role for environmental psychology: The Reasonable Person Model as an integrative framework[END_REF][START_REF] Leonard | Changing organizational space: Green? or lean and mean?[END_REF].

A group of researches has focused on corruption as part of organizational misconduct (Burke & Cooper, 2009), or as an objective correlate of organizational failure [START_REF] Serafeim | Firm competitiveness and detection of bribery[END_REF]. From a risk-management standpoint, however, a main challenge is to reach beyond the tangible outcomes of corruption, and to anticipate the phenomenon at the individual level. In dealing with the why of employee corruption, a main research perspective focuses on ethics.

Corruption thus relates to moral disengagement [START_REF] Moree | Moral Disengagement in Processes of Organizational Corruption[END_REF][START_REF] Ochulor | Ethical and Moral Implications of Corruption[END_REF]. Interestingly, however, much less has been achieved to explore corruption as an outcome of a cognitive process. Indeed, and as an act of defiance, corruption can relate to the satisfaction of needs or motives [START_REF] Cullen | Personality and counterproductive workplace behavior[END_REF].

In this part of our researches on the basis of the literature reviews, we present several motivational perspective factors which are in correlation with workplace corruption and deviance that play important role in shaping unethical acts and behaviors of individuals in organizations.

Organizational Justice

In this part of our dissertation, we highlight the importance of organizational justice for individuals and by reviewing the previous researches; we try to investigate the correlation between organizational justice and workplace corruption and deviance.

An Overview of Organizational Justice

Organizational justice refers to employee's perception of fairness at workplace which has a significant impact on employee's motivation and performance (Cropanzano & Greenberg, 1997). In brief, we can define organizational justice as the individual's perception about the right and fairness of the organizational life [START_REF] Mccardle | Organizational justice and workplace deviance: The role of organizational structure, powerlessness, and information salience[END_REF]. Justice and fairness perception in organizations are evaluated by employees based on three components:

processes, outcomes and interpersonal interactions. Justice researchers [START_REF] Cohen-Charash | The role of justice in organizations: A meta-analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Cohen-Charash | The role of justice in organizations: A meta-analysis[END_REF]Colquitt, Colon, Wesson, Porter, &[START_REF] Colquitt | Justice at the millennium: A meta-analytic review of 25 years of organizational justice research[END_REF] acknowledge that individuals evaluate organizational fairness based primarily on three components: distributive, procedural and interactional justice.

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Distributive justice

Justice research originally began with an interest in the fairness of the outcome referred to as distributive justice [START_REF] Adams | Toward an understanding of inequity[END_REF]. People assess the fairness of outcome distribution by comparing their contributions and outcomes against that of a referent [START_REF] Adams | Inequity in social exchange[END_REF]Cropanzano & Greenberg, 1997;[START_REF] Deutsch | Distributive Justice: A Socio-Psychological Perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Homans | Social Behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Kulik | Personal and Situtational Determinants of Referent Choice[END_REF][START_REF] Kulik | Personal and Situtational Determinants of Referent Choice[END_REF]. Distributive justice explains the judgment of an unfair or inadequate outcome such as: lack of pay raise, promotions, or opportunities for training. In fact, distributive justice is about the perception of employees regarding their gains and organizational resources [START_REF] Fitzgerald | Organizational Cynicism: Its Relationship to Perceived Organizational Injustice and Explanatory Style[END_REF]. This type of justice is more focused on the distribution rates of remunerations and penalties [START_REF] Nirmala | An attempt to Redefine Organizational Justice: in the Rightsizing Environment[END_REF].

Certain actions are taken by individuals at workplace as the result of an inequity assessment would be directed toward equity restoration [START_REF] Adams | Toward an understanding of inequity[END_REF]. Equity restoration is defined as an intention to increase the level of reward in order to compensate for an outcome that was deserved but not received [START_REF] Greenberg | The quest for justice on the job: essays and experiments[END_REF]. Research on distributive justice has primarily focused on the effect of outcome fairness on individual's responses.

-Procedural justice

Procedural justice is the fairness of an organization's policies and procedures to determine individual's outcomes [START_REF] Greenberg | Employee theft as a reaction to underpayment inequity: The hidden cost of pay cuts[END_REF]Lind &[START_REF] Lind | The social psychology of procedural justice[END_REF][START_REF] Forret | Employee justice perceptions and coworker relationships[END_REF][START_REF] Forret | Employee justice perceptions and coworker relationships[END_REF]. There are two models of procedural justice which express the importance of fair procedures on individual's fairness perceptions and its outcomes [START_REF] Lind | The social psychology of procedural justice[END_REF]. First, the self-interest (instrumental model) highlights that process control which is considered as influential in achieving intended outcomes. When procedures are controlled in organizations, individuals are able to increase the favorability of such outcomes in the long term. Second, the group-value (relational model) emphasized that a fair procedure indicates individual's positive, full status relationship with authority and promotes within-group relationships, and hence has implications for an individual's self-esteem and identity (Lind &[START_REF] Lind | The social psychology of procedural justice[END_REF]Tyler &[START_REF] Tyler | A relational model of authority in groups[END_REF]. Procedural justice focus on the individual's evaluation of events that precede the distribution [START_REF] Leventhal | What should be done with equity theory? New approaches to the study of fairness in social relationship[END_REF]. A procedure in an organization is judged as unfair if it shows a negative relationship with authority or low status group membership [START_REF] Tyler | A relational model of authority in groups[END_REF].

-

Interactional justice

Interactional justice is a new form of justice which has designed by [START_REF] Bies | Interactional justice: Communication criteria of fairness[END_REF], this form of justice is related to the fairness perceptions of the personal interactions when outcomes are done. In fact, Interactional justice focuses on employee's perceptions in order to the quality of the interpersonal treatment which is received during the execution of organizational decisions. Interactional justice refers to the quality of interpersonal processes and treatment of individuals [START_REF] Bies | Interactional justice: Communication criteria of fairness[END_REF]. This type of justice specially is important in the shaping of employee behavior [START_REF] Judge | Hostility, job attitudes, and workplace deviance: Test of a multilevel model[END_REF][START_REF] Judge | Hostility, job attitudes, and workplace deviance: Test of a multilevel model[END_REF]Skarlicki &[START_REF] Skarlicki | Broadening our understanding of organizational retaliatory behavior[END_REF]. Interactional justice is divided in the aspects of interpersonal and transformational.

The interpersonal aspect focuses on the social sensitivity like status, respect and politeness which is given by authorities. The informational aspect concentrates on scope to which decision makers explain and provide proper justification for their decisions [START_REF] Greenberg | A Taxonomy of Organizational Justice Theories[END_REF]. According to organizational behavior scholars, interactional justice states that individuals at workplace are sensitive to the quality of interpersonal treatment that they receive from their managers during the approval of organizational procedures [START_REF] Colquitt | On the Dimensionality of Organizational Justice: A Construct Validation of a Measure[END_REF][START_REF] Colquitt | Organizational justice: A fair assessment of the state of the literature[END_REF][START_REF] Mcshane | Organizational Behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Mcshane | Organizational Behavior[END_REF].

Researches of organizational justice show that fairness perceptions can associate to various attitudinal, cognitive, emotional, act and behavioral outcomes among organizational members. Justice perception in organization plays an important role. In recent years, studying the behaviors of individuals toward justice at workplace has considered by many researches and they have indicated the importance and necessary of justice in organizations [START_REF] Cohen-Charash | The role of justice in organizations: A meta-analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Colquitt | Justice at the millennium: A meta-analytic review of 25 years of organizational justice research[END_REF][START_REF] Forret | Employee justice perceptions and coworker relationships[END_REF][START_REF] Forret | Employee justice perceptions and coworker relationships[END_REF]. A group of researchers tried to investigate and highlight the impact of justice perception on organizational outcome such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behavior, productivity, and withdrawal behavior [START_REF] Forret | Employee justice perceptions and coworker relationships[END_REF].

Organizational justice is necessary for the employee's satisfaction and adequate functioning of the organization, the absence of justice can be the source of many problems in organizations and particularly it plays a significant role in creating and predicting unethical behaviors [START_REF] Lim | The IT Way of Loafing on the Job: Cyber loafing, neutralizing, and Organizational Justice[END_REF]. Organizational justice is about the organizational behaviors, in order to understand the organizational unethical acts and behaviors of individuals. In fact, organizational justice should be studied as one of the sources of employee's misconduct behaviors.

Justice is linked to personal values, moral maturity, and sensitivity to fairness [START_REF] Rupp | Testing the moral violations component of fairness theory: The moderating role of value preferences[END_REF][START_REF] Liao | The impact of justice climate, climate strength, and justice orientation on work outcomes: A multilevel-multifoci framework[END_REF]. Organizational justice has a considerable impact on individual and organizational outcomes such as: performance, motivation, self-confidence, job satisfaction and citizenship behavior [START_REF] Koh | The Link Between Organizational Ethics and Job Satisfaction: A Study of Managers in Singapore[END_REF]. Individuals care about justice because it signals about the extent to which they are valued and respected by organizational authorities, and also it provides information of individuals' interest level regarding standing in groups [START_REF] Tyler | A relational model of authority in groups[END_REF][START_REF] Jones | Getting even with one's supervisor and one's organization: Relationships among types of injustice, desires for revenge, and counterproductive work behaviors[END_REF].

According to the principles of social exchange, individuals' behaviors and attitudes at workplace are the consequences of exchange relationship between employees, supervisors and organization [START_REF] Cropanzano | Moral virtues, fairness heuristics, social entities, and other denizens of organizational justice[END_REF], then fairness and justice perceptions have considerable impact on cognitive, various attitudinal and behavioral outcomes of individuals in an organization. In fact, employees differentiate their behaviors and attitudes toward their supervisors versus their organizations on the basis of their perceived fairness from supervisors and organization [START_REF] Mccardle | Organizational justice and workplace deviance: The role of organizational structure, powerlessness, and information salience[END_REF]. Studies of previous literatures about organizational justice highlight that unethical acts and behaviors of individuals in organizations can be considered as a reaction to the unfairness perceived by individuals at workplace.

The Correlation of Organizational Justice with Workplace Corruption

A number of theoretical and empirical researches highlighted that certain unethical acts and behaviors are the reaction to unfairness and injustice that are perceived by individuals in their relationship with the supervisors or employers at workplace [START_REF] Ambrose | Sabotage in the workplace: The role of organizational injustice[END_REF][START_REF] Aquino | Justice Constructs, negative affectivity, and employee deviance: A proposed model and empirical test[END_REF][START_REF] Aquino | Justice Constructs, negative affectivity, and employee deviance: A proposed model and empirical test[END_REF]Skarlicki &Folger, 1997). Individuals who perceive greater unfair treatment, they are more intended to associate in unethical behaviors. According to [START_REF] Folger | Reactions to mistreatment at work[END_REF], employees respond to unfair and injustice treatment with negative emotions like anger, outrage, and resentment. People response to unfair treatment in direct and indirect ways such as: theft, withdrawal behaviors, vandalism, sabotage and citizenship behaviors reduction [START_REF] Greenberg | Employee theft as a reaction to underpayment inequity: The hidden cost of pay cuts[END_REF]Jermier, Knights &Nord, 1994). In fact, individuals who are not satisfied with the procedural fairness of their organizations, they are more motivated to violate organizational norms and commit in organizational deviance [START_REF] Aquino | Justice Constructs, negative affectivity, and employee deviance: A proposed model and empirical test[END_REF]. Unfair treatment of organization toward its employees leads to deviant workplace behaviors. In other words, employees are likely to engage in misconduct behaviors when they perceive that their employers are treated with them in an unjust or unfair manner [START_REF] Lim | The IT Way of Loafing on the Job: Cyber loafing, neutralizing, and Organizational Justice[END_REF].

Equity theory of [START_REF] Adams | Inequity in social exchange[END_REF] confirms the relationship which exist between the lack of organizational justice and unethical behaviors, according to this theory employees compare the ratio of their outcomes such as: pay, promotion and etc. to the ratio of their inputs like education, effort, skill and etc with other individuals who have the same inputs and outcomes like their coworkers. Employees naturally always compare their outcomes with their inputs, when they perceive that they get the same outcome for similar inputs in compare with coworkers, they experience equity then they are more satisfied, more loyal and more committed to the organization and they avoid engaging in workplace deviance. In opposite, Individuals who find an imbalance between the ratio of their inputs and outcomes, they consider unethical acts and behaviors as effective tools to response their perceived inequity [START_REF] Henle | Predicting workplace deviance from the interaction between organizational justice and personality[END_REF]. In fact, impulsive employees who are impatient and haven't enough self-steam, then by engaging in unethical acts and behaviors try to solve the problem of inequity and injustice at their workplaces.

The feeling of positive justice perception has key role in shaping the acts, behaviors and performance of individuals at workplace, this feeling increases the loyalty of individuals to the organization, then we can conclude that the performance and efficiency of individuals are increased through right justice and fairness. In opposite, negative organizational justice perceptions reduce the loyalty and performance of employees and furthermore, encourage the employees to behave unethically towards their coworkers and managers. In fact, employees get attitudes through their perceptions and transfer these attitudes to the practices [START_REF] Ince | The effect of employees' perceptions of organizational justice on organizational citizenship behaviors: An application in Turkish public institutions[END_REF]. Organizational justice is in direct relation with the emotions, attitudes and behaviors of employees, the negative emotions of organizational members toward the organizational justice encourage the individuals to engage in deviant acts, absenteeism and unethical behaviors, in result we will face plow loyalty of employee toward organization, low performance and low citizenship behaviors (Abu Elanain, 2010a & b).

In organizations which values and norms are well communicated and violation of them are highly sanctioned, then employees are disappointed from organizational justice by observing that their co-workers get away with violation of such norms and values [START_REF] Appelbaum | Positive and negative deviant workplace behaviors: causes, impacts, and solutions[END_REF], Injustice perception creates anger and offense feeling among the employees who are treated unfairly, in fact, these types of feelings occur because of negativity of outcomes and breaking the important norms about the treatment of others. In some cases, the differences in socialization and experiences are caused that norms differ across certain subgroups, which can change individual's perceptions regarding justice and motivate them to take certain actions against injustice [START_REF] Greenberg | Adherence to participatory norms as a moderator of the fair process effect: When voice does not enhance procedural justice[END_REF]Milles, 1991 and[START_REF] Mccardle | Organizational justice and workplace deviance: The role of organizational structure, powerlessness, and information salience[END_REF].

Powerlessness

In this part of our dissertation, by reviewing literatures, we examine how powerfulness or powerlessness can lead to corrupt acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace.

Particularly, we focus on the relationship between powerlessness and corrupt behaviors of individuals at workplace, to understand how and when, powerlessness can lead to corrupt behavior. In this part also, we highlight the difference action and behaviors of powerless prevention individuals and powerless promotion individuals at workplace.

An Overview of Powerlessness

Across humans and animals, power and dominance are expressed through expansive, open-bodied postures (spreading out and occupying more space), whereas powerlessness and subordination are expressed through relatively more contractive, closed-bodied postures [START_REF] Carney | Beliefs about the nonverbal expression of social power[END_REF][START_REF] Ellyson | Power, dominance, and nonverbal behavior[END_REF]Hall, Coats, & Smith Le Beau, 2005;[START_REF] Tiedens | Power Moves: Complementarity in Dominant and Submissive Nonverbal Behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Tiedens | Power Moves: Complementarity in Dominant and Submissive Nonverbal Behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Weisfeld | Erectness of posture as an indicator of dominance or success in humans[END_REF][START_REF] Weisfeld | Erectness of posture as an indicator of dominance or success in humans[END_REF]. Powerlessness is defined as the feeling of employees who perceive that they don't have control over the way things at work [START_REF] Mckinlay | New wine in an old bottle: Does alienation provide an explanation of the origins of physician discontent[END_REF][START_REF] Suárez-Mendoza | The impact of work alienation on organizational citizenship behavior in the Canary Islands[END_REF][START_REF] Suárez-Mendoza | The impact of work alienation on organizational citizenship behavior in the Canary Islands[END_REF]Tummers &Dulk, 2013).

According to Bennett (1998), the perception of powerlessness is driven from the lack of control and uncertainty about changes in the working environment of employees. Common and popular definition of powerlessness is the lack of job autonomy by reason of which employees have limited freedom to exert control over work activities. In fact, we can express powerlessness as a lack of participation and autonomy. Participation is related to the degree to which individual participates or influences over strategic, administrative, and operating decisions. Autonomy is concerned the freedom of an individual to be his own master in his defined work [START_REF] Ashforth | Social identity theory and the organization[END_REF].

Reactance, helplessness and alienation are considered as three steps in the process of psychological adjustment in the experience of individual's powerlessness [START_REF] Ashforth | Social identity theory and the organization[END_REF].

Reactance, helplessness and alienation in this process are defined as:

-Reactance: is defined as the reactions against the perceived cause of frustration [START_REF] Brehm | Psychological reactance[END_REF].

-Helplessness: is a situation within individuals perceives that a given outcome is independent of his behavior [START_REF] Seligman | Helplessness: On depression, development, and death[END_REF].

-Alienation: is described as separation sense of individuals from their task and workplace which leads to the lack of job involvement and organizational identification [START_REF] Kanungo | The concept of alienation and involvement revisited[END_REF][START_REF] Seeman | Alienation studies[END_REF].

According to [START_REF] Ashforth | Social identity theory and the organization[END_REF], in the first stage or reactance, the individual attempts to gain his control that is initially he expected or desired. In the second stage or helplessness, the individual understands that such attempts are completely pointless and leaves them. In the third stage or work alienation, the individual comes to desire no more than what the status quo affords.

Previous researches have examined how power acquired through one's leadership role [START_REF] Lammers | Power increases infidelity among men and women[END_REF], semantic and experiential priming (Gruenfeld, Inesi, Magee, &Galinsky, 2008 and[START_REF] Lammers | Illegitimacy moderates the effects of power on approach[END_REF][START_REF] Lammers | Illegitimacy moderates the effects of power on approach[END_REF], or social-economic class (Piff, Stancato, Cote, Mendoza Denton, & Keltner, 2012b) influences a numerous of corrupt behaviors such as: the tendency to manipulate, bully, stereotype and cheat [START_REF] Howard | Sex, power, and influence tactics in intimate relationships[END_REF][START_REF] Gruenfeld | Power and the objectification of social targets[END_REF][START_REF] Keltner | Just teasing: A conceptual analysis and empirical review[END_REF][START_REF] Kraus | Social Class, Sense of Control, and Social Explanation[END_REF][START_REF] Kraus | Social Class, Sense of Control, and Social Explanation[END_REF]. Studying powerlessness needs a specific attention because it has been implicated in the shaping of arrange of significant attitudes and behaviors. The study of powerlessness has been considered a lot by researchers, because it reflects the other issues such as performance, satisfaction, organizational commitment, selfsteam, employee's moral, spillover effects, entailing frustration, disruptive behaviors, felling of helplessness and loss of job involvement and organizational identification [START_REF] Ashforth | Social identity theory and the organization[END_REF].

Researches in sociology, psychology, and organizational behavior have been long

interested in individual's perception of powerlessness because of special effect of powerlessness on social and work anger. The researches of [START_REF] Ashforth | Social identity theory and the organization[END_REF], [START_REF] Kohn | Effects of habitat complexity on population density and species richness in tropical intertidal predatory gastropod assemblages[END_REF], [START_REF] Seeman | On the meaning of alienation[END_REF][START_REF] Mccardle | Organizational justice and workplace deviance: The role of organizational structure, powerlessness, and information salience[END_REF] highlighted that the lack of control in workplace environment, sense of low-efficiency, low self-steam, low sense of responsibility and low autonomy among employees lead to the employees' perception of powerlessness. The experience of powerlessness has been tested by different researchers as an antecedent of workplace deviance, anger at work and corrupt acts. Both theoretical and empirical studies point out that powerlessness can encourage workers to engage in deviant acts and unethical behaviors. In fact, the feeling of powerlessness is a significant predictor of organizational misbehaviors [START_REF] Ferguson | On the automatic association between America and aggression for news watchers[END_REF].

There are two different point of views about the power of individuals, the first group of researches highlighted that power is associated with cheating to improve odds-of-winning [START_REF] Lammers | Power Increases Hypocrisy: Moralizing in Reasoning, Immorality in Behavior[END_REF], lying [START_REF] Boles | Deception and retribution in repeated ultimatum bargaining[END_REF], lying more easily [START_REF] Carney | Power Buffers Stress -For Better and For Worse[END_REF], hypocrisy [START_REF] Lammers | Power Increases Hypocrisy: Moralizing in Reasoning, Immorality in Behavior[END_REF], and infidelity [START_REF] Lammers | Power increases infidelity among men and women[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Keltner | Power, approach, and inhibition[END_REF], power activates the Behavioral Approach System, which causes powerful individuals to focus on rewards and act on their own self benefits and interests [START_REF] Galinsky | From power to action[END_REF][START_REF] Guinote | Power and goal pursuit[END_REF][START_REF] Inesi | Power and loss aversion[END_REF]. Powerful individuals are overconfidence [START_REF] Fast | Power and overconfident decision-making[END_REF], which are more likely to stake and take risks (Anderson &Galinsky, 2006 and[START_REF] Carney | Decision making and testosterone: When the ends justify the means[END_REF]. In fact, this group of researches emphasized that a psychological state of power is raising the probability that individuals would focus on their own desires and ignore the outcomes for others.

The second group of researchers have indicated that powerlessness is highly associated with a range of health behaviors [START_REF] Antonovsky | Unravelling the mystery of health: How people manage stress and stay well[END_REF][START_REF] Ross Catherine | Sex Stratification and Health Lifestyle: Consequences for Men's and Women's Perceived Health[END_REF][START_REF] Seeman | Powerlessness, health and mortality: A longitudinal study of older men and mature women[END_REF] which can provoke behavioral tentative to secure more personal control [START_REF] Mccardle | Organizational justice and workplace deviance: The role of organizational structure, powerlessness, and information salience[END_REF]. The power is highly valued by individuals and the perception of powerlessness is considered as a significant threat to freedom. Some type of outcomes such as the feeling of powerlessness, isolation, meaninglessness, self-estrangement and isolation at work can unlink the workers from organization and its goals [START_REF] Seeman | On the meaning of alienation[END_REF].

The Correlation of Powerlessness with Workplace Corruption

The powerlessness can be considered as a misfit between employee-organization values and norms which may be responded by workplace deviance or corrupt acts [START_REF] Pablo | Identifying, enabling and managing dynamic capabilities in the public sector[END_REF]. The perception of powerlessness impacts on declining employees' motivation and outcomes at work place, the outcomes may take different shape of negative work behaviors and attitudes such as incivility, counterproductive behaviors and anger behaviors. The studies of [START_REF] Ashforth | Socialization tactics: Longitudinal effects on newcomer adjustment[END_REF] and [START_REF] Spector | Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Research and practice[END_REF] pointed out that the employees who are perceived powerlessness are more engaged in negative activities and behaviors. In some cases, the feeling of powerlessness can create depression which in return, motivates the individuals to engage in workplace deviance and aggressive behaviors. In fact, the employees who perceive powerlessness feel that they have been treated unfairly then they engage to unethical acts and anger behavior at work to express their negative emotions and/or also to retake a sense of control (McCardele, 2007).

Powerless employees are more likely to engage in deviant acts and behaviors as a "cathartic or corrective means to restoring control over his or her environment" (Bennett and Robinson, 2003: 257). In fact, individuals who perceive themselves as powerlessness over work environment and they perceive unable to find a right mean to get back their control then they try to regain their sense of control over work environment by engaging in workplace deviance (Bennett, 1998: 225). The studies which have done by [START_REF] Allen | Destruction and perceived control[END_REF] confirms that individuals with low levels of perceived control are more intended to engage in physical environment destruction to get control over their work environment.

The reactance theory of Brehem (1966) in the study of powerlessness is considerable because this theory highlights the relationship between powerlessness and workplace deviance. According to the reactance theory of Brehem (1966), deviance is a behavioral intention of employees at workplace to secure their power and control. On the basis of this theory, individuals give more attention to the freedom of choice of their actions, when individuals feel a loss of control over their work environment, then they react with attempts to get back their control, normally, the reactance of individuals are destruction.

Both of control and power over the work have an extrinsic and intrinsic motivational role, which is likely to increase organizational commitment and work effort [START_REF] Bakker | Towards a model of work engagement[END_REF]in Tummers & Dulk, 2013). Powerlessness can be frustrating (Bennett, 1988 andBrown &[START_REF] Brown | Psychology[END_REF], the employees who expect and desire the most from their jobs, they will be more frustrated by powerlessness therefore they are more motivated to do right or upright acts and behaviors to compensate their frustration feeling. A group of researchers went further and emphasized that in some cases; powerless individuals are used sabotage as a mean to assert some control over work environment [START_REF] Ambrose | Sabotage in the workplace: The role of organizational injustice[END_REF].

The research of Yap ( 2013) is considerable about the relationship between powerlessness perception and workplace corruption and deviance. According to him, individuals are divided by two groups, the first group, are individuals with prevention focus and the second group are individuals with promotion focus. The prevention and promotion individuals are behaving differently when they have enough power at their workplace. In fact, when prevention individuals are powerful, they would not be motivated to take any risky or corrupt action that could potentially result in loss. In opposite, when prevention individuals experience a negative state, like a sense of loss, they would experience negative affect marked by feelings of agitation [START_REF] Idson | Distinguishing gains from nonlosses and losses from non-gains: A regulatory focus perspective on hedonic intensity[END_REF], 2004[START_REF] Molden | Motivations for promotion and prevention[END_REF], then prevention-powerless individuals would do whatever it takes, even risky and unethical ones, in an attempt to return to status quo security [START_REF] Yap | How Power and Powerlessness Corrupt[END_REF].

The second group of individuals who are promotion individuals focus on gains and advancement and they behave in opposite of prevention individuals, promotion individuals are not sensitive to negative states and are less concerned about these states [START_REF] Liberman | Promotion and prevention focus on alternative hypotheses: implications for attributional functions[END_REF][START_REF] Scholer | When risk seeking becomes a motivational necessity[END_REF]. When promotion individuals are powerful, they more focus on gains and personal interests, then they behave more unethically. Therefore, when promotion individuals are powerless, they do not experience much negative affect as they are mainly focused on achieving a gain [START_REF] Yap | How Power and Powerlessness Corrupt[END_REF]. The comparison of prevention-powerless and promotion-powerless highlights that promotion-powerless individuals are less motivated than prevention-powerless individuals to behave unethically at workplace.

Sense of Mastery

In this part of our study, we investigate about the importance of individual's sense of mastery in shaping his/her acts and behaviors in organizations. By taking into account the literature review, we try to highlight the relationship between sense of mastery and workplace corruption and also to better understand how individual's sense of mastery can prevent and control corrupt acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace.

An Overview of Sense of Mastery

The concept of mastery is a lifelong process of personal growth and learning, where an individual is regularly expanding his/her capacity to achieve the expected results (Senge, 1990). Personal mastery is identified as one of Senge (1990) five disciplines of a learning organization, which is expressed as "an organization where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to see the whole together" (Senge, 1990: 3).

The term mastery means gaining dominance over things and people, when an individual reach to the special level of proficiency. In short and simple words, we can say that personal mastery proposes a special level of proficiency. Personal mastery needs spiritual growth which is based on competence and skills, but it can go further than skills and competence. "The essence of personal mastery is learning how to generate and sustain creative tension in our lives" (Senge, 2010: 142).

Mastery is related to the discipline of personal growth and learning and consists of a regular and intentional practice of quieting the mind. The sense of mastery can be considered as an outlook in which the individuals believe that they are effective across a broad range of life domains, that he or she "can and does master, control and shape one's own life" [START_REF] Geis | A New Look at Urban Alienation: the Effect of Neighborhood Disorder on Perceived Powerlessness[END_REF]: 233 in Greenburg & Grunberg, 2006).

The impact of sense of mastery on individual's life is vast, a group of researches like: [START_REF] Rodin | The Construct of Control: Biological and Psychosocial Correlates[END_REF]; [START_REF] Antonovsky | Unravelling the mystery of health: How people manage stress and stay well[END_REF]; [START_REF] Ross Catherine | Sex Stratification and Health Lifestyle: Consequences for Men's and Women's Perceived Health[END_REF] and [START_REF] Seeman | Powerlessness, health and mortality: A longitudinal study of older men and mature women[END_REF] highlighted that perceived mastery is associated with a wide range of health behaviors, disease incidence and morbidity and some authors went further and claimed that perceived mastery has a significant impact on a number of important psychological outcomes such as:

the level of anxiety, psychosis, the ability to cope with stress, and depression [START_REF] Pearlin | The structure of coping[END_REF][START_REF] Fleming | The psychological adjustment component of internal-external locus of control[END_REF][START_REF] Mirowsky | Social Causes of Psychological Distress[END_REF][START_REF] Mcgonagle | Chronic stress, acute stress, and depressive symptoms[END_REF][START_REF] Mcgonagle | Chronic stress, acute stress, and depressive symptoms[END_REF][START_REF] Wallerstein | Powerlessness, empowerment and health: Implications for health promotion programs[END_REF]. Another group of researches emphasized the existing of a considerable link between team work and sense of mastery. They showed that team-like arrangement has positive effects on the sense of mastery and self-esteem among individuals at workplace [START_REF] Elden | Political Efficacy at Work: The Connection between More Autonomous Forms of Workplace Organization and a More Participatory Politics[END_REF][START_REF] Greenberg | Industrial Democracy and the Democratic Citizen[END_REF][START_REF] Mason | Participatory and Workplace Democracy[END_REF]Greenberg &[START_REF] Greenberg | The Exercise of Power and Influence in the Workplace and the Sense of Powerlessness (Working Paper)[END_REF].

The perceived mastery needs a focus of attention in the study of workplace deviance and corruption, the literature review highlights that the sense of mastery is associated with some work-relevant attitudes as job involvement, organizational identification and organizational commitment [START_REF] Ashforth | Social identity theory and the organization[END_REF]. The sense of mastery is a crucial coping skill that is a necessary element of well-being of individuals in organizations. The previous researches show the historical association between the sense of mastery and the social relations of work. They have highlighted that sense of mastery influence in shaping a broad range of attitudes and behaviors of employees and also the working environment of organizations [START_REF] Seeman | On the meaning of alienation[END_REF][START_REF] Blumberg | Industrial Democracy[END_REF]Kohn &[START_REF] Kohn | Work and Personality: An Inquiry into the Impact of Social Stratification[END_REF][START_REF] Greenberg | Workplace Democracy: The Political Effects of Participation[END_REF]. Individuals in organizations are divided by two groups, individuals with high and low level of sense of mastery. Individuals with high sense of mastery believe that they are able to adapt their behaviors and circumstances in order to reach their goals. Unlike, the individuals with low sense of mastery tend to believe that they are victims of external forces shaping their lives [START_REF] Pearlin | The structure of coping[END_REF][START_REF] Pearlin | The structure of coping[END_REF][START_REF] Pudrovska | Does Psychological Well-Being Change With Age?[END_REF].

The Correlation of Sense of Mastery with Workplace Corruption

The sense of mastery is one of the important senses of individuals to control their acts and behaviors at their workplace because individuals who believe in self-mastery are aware that they are in control of outcomes, then they take more responsibility for the result of their actions and behaviors. The nature of individual's job and workplace relations by increasing or decreasing the exercising the power or autonomy of individuals at workplace have a significant impact on individual's sense of mastery (Greenburg & Grunberg, 2006). A person who has high self-mastery, always believe that "what happens to him in the future mostly depends on him" then in this belief he/she tries to control his or her actions and behaviors at workplace.

In fact, individuals with a high level of sense of mastery share several basic characteristics. They have a specific sense of purpose that is behind their visions and goals.

"For such a person, a vision is a calling rather than simply a good idea". They see "current reality" as an ally, not an enemy. They know very well how to perceive and work with forces rather than resist those forces. They are profoundly inquisitive, committed to continually seeing reality more and more accurately (Senge, 2010: 142).

Normally individuals with high level of personal mastery are aware of their ignorance, their incompetence and their growth areas. Furthermore, they are deeply self-confident, more committed, initiative and consider more to the structural conflicts underlying their own behavior. For all of these reasons, high level of personal mastery will lead to broader and deeper sense of responsibility of individuals at workplace [START_REF] Senge | The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization[END_REF]. Individuals with high level of sense of mastery take more responsibility for their works, duties and outcomes, then they are more intended to behave ethically. In opposite, the individuals with low level of sense of mastery take less responsibility and they are more motivated to engage in unethical acts and behaviors at workplace (Vohs &Schooler, 2008 and[START_REF] Sengupta | Care enough to cheat: Selfmastery and decision-making[END_REF][START_REF] Sengupta | Care enough to cheat: Selfmastery and decision-making[END_REF].

ENVIRONMENTAL ANTECEDENTS OF WORKPLACE CORRUPTION

The most accurate policies of organization to prevent and control of deviant behavior can be made by taking into account the personality traits of the employee as well as the organizational environment in which he or she works. Work environment generally leads to affective reactions (e.g., anger, joy) experienced at work, which then lead to work attitudes such as job satisfaction and work behaviors, which may be affect-driven or judgment-driven.

The studies of [START_REF] Iverson | Understanding the personological basis of employee withdrawal: The influence of affect disposition on employee tardiness, early departure, and absenteeism[END_REF] emphasized that environmental variables of organizations explain the counterproductive behaviors of individuals at workplace.

The study of organizational environment is important and need a particular attention because organizations offer an environment in which employees are motivated to engage in deviant behaviors. In order to predict deviance, not only individual factors, but also situational factors have to be taken into consideration. Individuals analyze their work environments and if necessary modify their actions in order to fulfill with their surroundings. In fact, Individuals tend to adapt their behaviors, acts, and attitudes in order to match better with their working environment.

In the second part of this chapter, on the basis of literature review, we try to highlight the relationship and impact of two environmental variables in shaping the dishonest acts and behaviors of individuals in organizations. Workplace environment impact on shaping the acts and behaviors of individuals in organizations, indeed, individuals who perceive unfavorable working environment are likely to participate in corrupt acts and behaviors.

Transparency

Transparency is considered as one of the important environmental variables in organizations to control and prevent the corrupt acts and unethical behaviors of individuals at workplace. In this part of our research by reviewing the literatures, we aim to highlight the relationship between transparency and workplace deviance, in order to better understand how organizational transparency impact in shaping state behaviors of individuals in organizations.

An Overview of Transparency

In organization science, the first reference of transparency is referred to discursive accounts of organizational roles and social conformity in the mid-20th century (Cosar, 1961).

Transparency remained a tangible concept most often considered by organization theorists as a theoretical device until the late 20th century. Over times, organization scientist presented different definition of transparency with varying degrees of specificity.

Transparency is usually considered as organizational or collective-level virtue which is defined as an open flow of information [START_REF] Holzner | Transparency in global change -The vanguard of the open society[END_REF][START_REF] Holzner | Transparency in global change -The vanguard of the open society[END_REF]Piotrowaski, 2007). In general, transparency implies openness, communication and accountability. However, transparency in administrative service means that officers should be open as much as possible to share the taken decisions and actions of organizations with internal and external members.

Transparency is used to represent the notion of accuracy, truth, and the full disclosure of relevant information [START_REF] Murphy | An ethical basis for relationship marketing: a virtue ethics perspective[END_REF]. According to Turilli & Floridi (2009: 105) transparency is "the possibility of accessing information, intentions, or behaviors".

In dictionary, transparency is defined as: "free from pretense or deceit", "easily detected or seen through", "readily understood" and "characterized by visibility or accessibility of information especially concerning business practices" (Miriam-Webster, 2007). According to [START_REF] Balkin | How Mass Media Simulate Political Transparency[END_REF], informational transparency, participatory transparency and accountability transparency are three dimensions of transparency which are working together but are analytically distinct. However, Rawlins (2006) proposed that these three dimensions of transparency are needed by organizations to build, maintain, and restore trust with stakeholders and public.

Open communication or communication transparency has historically been vied as an essential ingredient in effective organizations [START_REF] Gross | Managing communication within virtual intercultural teams[END_REF]Hancy, 1967). The idea of organizational transparency is not new but the term of transparency has started to be used frequently after the corporate scandals of 21th century, such as World Come and Enron.

Transparency is one of the essential moral claims in democratic societies which people have right to access governmental information [START_REF] Pasquier | Organizational barriers to transparency: A typology and analysis of organizational behavior tending to prevent or restrict access to information[END_REF][START_REF] Park | The roles of transparency and trust in the relationship between corruption and citizen satisfaction[END_REF].

Today more than ever, managers of public and private organizations should hold true to some basic trends such as: reliable and open communication, relationship-building methods, transparent, continuous discussion and considering to different opinions and suggestion, because all of them have a direct impact on the performance and business outcomes of organizations. Transparency discloses the internal control which can be used to govern the organization and ensure that all parties have access to organizational information [START_REF] Lainhart | Why IT governance is a top management issue[END_REF]. Normally transparent organizations have transparent leaders; transparent leaders share the policies of internal organization, making criteria and results, share decisions and encourage individuals to participate in meetings to finalize major internal and external decisions [START_REF] Harroll | Organizational transparency, employee perceptions, and employee morale: a correlational study[END_REF].

A transparent organization normally shares information to stakeholders and public about taken decisions but doesn't mean to share all information, only the information which is related to stakeholder and public. Transparent organizations "make available publicly all legally releasable information-whether positive or negative in nature-in a manner which is accurate, timely, balanced, and unequivocal" [START_REF] Heise | Toward closing the confidence gap: An alternative approach to communication between public and government[END_REF]: 209 in Rawlins, 2008).

According to [START_REF] Lindstedt | Transparency and corruption: The conditional significance of a free press[END_REF], a transparent organization is one where individuals inside and outside of organization have access the needed information to take decisions or form opinions about actions and processes within an organization.

Transparency and accountability are linked to each other because transparency requires accountability. However, transparent organizations are accountable for their decisions, words and all actions. Particularly, accountability allows to others to see and evaluate [START_REF] Rawlins | Measuring the relationship between organizational transparency and employee trust[END_REF]. Transparency has a positive effect on trust and accountability in organizations [START_REF] Heald | Varieties of transparency[END_REF][START_REF] Park | The roles of transparency and trust in the relationship between corruption and citizen satisfaction[END_REF]. Transparency allows individuals to observe and check the quality of public services and also it encourages public employees to satisfy citizens. In fact, "transparency is linked with the values of accountability" (Holzner & Holzner, 2006: 114). Transparency can be used as a mean to eliminate corruption and corrupt behaviors, by promoting people's vigilance about public official's corrupt acts and behaviors, individuals in public officials are deterred from misusing public service for private gain [START_REF] Florini | The battle over transparency[END_REF][START_REF] Park | The roles of transparency and trust in the relationship between corruption and citizen satisfaction[END_REF]. Some authors like O'Neill (2006) went further and claimed that transparency can be served as a strategy to deter frighten corruption and correct poor performance of public officials.

The Correlation of Transparency with Workplace Corruption

Previous researches have highlighted that the impact of transparency on employees and the performance of organization is very vast. Communication openness or transparency has been positively associated with higher levels of organizational success, as well as helping to avoid or minimize the impact of unexpected organizational crises [START_REF] Rogers | The development of a measure of perceived communication openness[END_REF]. In addition, high level of transparency is linked to better leader and follower relationships as well as higher follower motivation [START_REF] Kay | The relationships among manager communication openness, nonverbal immediacy, and subordinate motivation[END_REF], role clarity [START_REF] Wilson | Looking for a few good sources: Exploring the intraorganizational communication linkages of first line managers[END_REF], more positive peer relationships [START_REF] Myers | Perceived communication openness and functional communication skills among organizational peers[END_REF], job satisfaction [START_REF] Korsgaard | Trust in the face of conflict: The role of managerial trustworthy behavior and organizational context[END_REF][START_REF] Weiss | Organizing for quality, productivity, and job satisfaction[END_REF] and trust and organizational citizenship behaviors [START_REF] Korsgaard | Trust in the face of conflict: The role of managerial trustworthy behavior and organizational context[END_REF].

The lack of transparency is considered as an accelerator to promote corruption [START_REF] Klitgaard | Controlling corruption[END_REF]. Transparency is a core value of democracy and essential factor to fight against corruption. Transparency is studied in our researches because of two reasons: First, the impact of transparency on preventing workplace corruption and deviance, secondly, because of its impact on employee moral such as trust, fairness and etc. Transparency is considered as an effective medicine against corruption and also as an effective mean to control unethical acts and behaviors of employees in organizations.

In the area of organizational behavior, "transparency is conceptualized at the organizational level as informational justice, which entails providing explanations about organizational procedures and being thorough, candid, timely, and considerate toward others' specific needs in communications about those procedures" [START_REF] Colquitt | On the Dimensionality of Organizational Justice: A Construct Validation of a Measure[END_REF]in Palanski et al., 2010: 203). The empirical researches have highlighted that transparent policies and procedures of organization impact on employees moral to behave more accurately within organizations [START_REF] Harroll | Organizational transparency, employee perceptions, and employee morale: a correlational study[END_REF], according to [START_REF] Azfar | Report based on the public officials' survey in West Java[END_REF], increasing transparency will lead to reduce corruption in public officials. International research establishment such as: World Bank, United Nations considered transparency as an effective mean to control corruption and they believe that increasing transparency in public life can reduce corruption in public and private sectors, especially in developing countries.

Transparency by making information available for internal and external members works as a mean to prevent and control the unethical acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace. According to terminology of principal-agent theory, transparency is one of the available instruments to a principal for controlling its agent who does not engage in shrinking [START_REF] Lindstedt | Transparency and corruption: The conditional significance of a free press[END_REF]. Transparency and accountability provide an indication as internal mechanisms of managerial self-criticism and willingness to improve existing processes and procedures. Transparency acts as an effective strategy to build commitment between public and organizations. Bureaucracy that works under transparent conditions has nothing to hide and it leans on quality foundation. Hence, by considering and working on criticisms of public, individuals within organizations are able to have self-improvement [START_REF] Finkelstein | Transparency in Public Policy: Great Britain and the United States[END_REF]in Vigoda & Yuval, 2003).

Caring Climate

The study of caring climate as an environmental factor is a considerable subject in the study of workplace corruption and deviance. Only a few studies concentrated on direct and indirect impact of caring climate on the performance and behaviors of individuals within organizations. In this part of research, we attempt to focus on previous researches that have emphasized the correlation between caring climate and workplace corruption and deviance of employees.

An Overview of Caring Climate

Caring climate is focused on the benevolence ethical criterion and is based on the concern for others. In organizations that caring climate exist, individuals are sincerely interested in the well-being of each other and normally individuals perceive that ethical concern exists for all within organization, as well as society at large. The major consideration of caring climate is what is best for the individuals of an organization; therefore, decisions are taken on the basis of the well-being of others. In fact, a caring climate utilitarian is based in which the firm has a sincere interest in the well-being of individuals in an organization (Fu & Deshpande, 2013). Caring climate is defined as "values and beliefs that are known and perceived by workgroup and/or organization members" (Victor & Cullen;[START_REF] Akers | Social structure and social learning[END_REF], 1990).

In caring climate environment, employees have genuine or sincere attitudes towards others' welfare within and outside the organization; individuals would be expected to be strongly guided by their personal moral beliefs in an independence climate (Wimbush et al., 1997). Ordinarily, in this environment, individuals are supported by the policies, practices and strategies of organization [START_REF] Martin | Continuities and Extensions of Ethical Climate Theory: A Meta-Analytic Review[END_REF].

Ethical climate is theoretically based on three classes of theory: egoism, utilitarianism and deontology [START_REF] Victor | A Theroy and Measure of Ethical Climate in Organizations[END_REF]. In further studies of ethical climate, five different types of ethical climate presented within an organization such as: caring, rules, law and code, instrumental and independence [START_REF] Victor | A Theroy and Measure of Ethical Climate in Organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Akers | Social structure and social learning[END_REF]. The study of caring climate is important compare to other types of ethical climate because caring climate is most related to high effectiveness.

The aspects of a firm's climate that guides ethical behaviors normally have ignored by researches which studied organizational climate. Some researches like [START_REF] Schneider | Organizational climates: an essay[END_REF] believe that researchers have to focus on those dimensions of climate that is related to specific variables instead of focusing only on a general climate of organizations. Caring climate is an important subject because it has a significant impact on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, the performance of individuals and also the performance of organizations.

The concept of ethical climate is introduced by [START_REF] Victor | A Theroy and Measure of Ethical Climate in Organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Akers | Social structure and social learning[END_REF] Previous researchers found that caring climate has a more significant impact on the outcomes of organizations compare to other types of ethical climate.

The previous researches have highlighted that caring climate has a positive impact on job satisfaction and several forms of job satisfaction such as promotion, supervision, coworkers and work itself [START_REF] Okpara | The impact of ethical climate on job satisfaction, and commitment in Nigeria[END_REF]in Fu & Deshpande, 2013). According to the studies of Fu & Deshpande (2012a), there is such a considerable positive correlation between caring climate and the ethical behaviors of individuals. Caring is positively related to mental well-being of individuals in organizations (Fry et al., 2012a, b). Caring climate gives such a strong intension to individuals to participate in the program of organizations [START_REF] Gano-Overway | Influence of caring youth sport contexts on efficacy-related beliefs and social behaviors[END_REF][START_REF] Newton | The role of a caring-based intervention in a physical domain[END_REF].

The Correlation of Caring Climate with Workplace Corruption

The study of caring climate helps to explore the causes of deviance, corruption and unethical behaviors. According to [START_REF] Carr | Neural mechanisms of empathy in humans: a relay from neural systems for imitation to limbic areas[END_REF], dysfunctional behaviors are considered as an individual-level work outcome that should be considered in climate research. Several previous researches have highlighted that caring, law and code, rules and independence climate perceptions reduce organizational misbehaviors and unethical behaviors of individuals at workplace [START_REF] Martin | Continuities and Extensions of Ethical Climate Theory: A Meta-Analytic Review[END_REF]. The studies of [START_REF] Peterson | Deviant workplace behaviour and the organisation's ethical climate[END_REF]), Vardi (2001) and Wimbush et al. (1997b) emphasized that the social support which is the result of caring climate deters deviance of individuals. On the other hand, the researches which were concentrated on moral reasoning and decision-making deemed ethical or unethical, argued that caring and principal climate perceptions lead to higher levels of ethical reasoning and more ethical decision-making [START_REF] Barnett | The Moderating Effect of Individuals' Perceptions of Ethical Work Climate on Ethical Judgments and Behavioral Intentions[END_REF]Elam &Nicolas, 1993 and[START_REF] Watley | Enhancing Moral Intensity: An Informational Model of Ethical Decision Making[END_REF].

Caring climate is in relation with job satisfaction and ethical behaviors, employees act and behave differently at their workplace through the climate perception of their organizations. Several correlation exist between deviance and caring climate, individuals who feel that their organizations care about their welfare, then they are less interested to engage in deviant or unethical behaviors [START_REF] Peterson | Deviant workplace behaviour and the organisation's ethical climate[END_REF]. In fact, individuals who believe that caring climate exist in their organizations, are more satisfied, committed, and then they behave more ethically at workplace [START_REF] Deshpande | The impact of ethical climate types on facets of job satisfaction: An empirical investigation[END_REF]. According to previous researches, caring climate is the most preferred working climate of individuals in organizations (Cullen et al., 2003 and[START_REF] Koh | The Link Between Organizational Ethics and Job Satisfaction: A Study of Managers in Singapore[END_REF]Bob, 2001). Number of researchers believes that unethical conduct, or dysfunctional behaviors are the results of ethical climate perception of organizations' members [START_REF] Appelbaum | The Relationship of Ethical Climate to Deviant Workplace Behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Peterson | Deviant workplace behaviour and the organisation's ethical climate[END_REF]Trevino et al., 1998 andVardi, 2001).

In organizations with greater level of caring, individuals perceive a strong positive link between success and ethical behaviors. In contrary, individuals in organizations with an instrumental climate; perceive a strong negative link between success and ethical behavior. In brief, there is a strong link between ethics and success, when employees of an organization perceive greater level of caring or lower level of instrumentality in decision-making; they behave more ethically at workplace [START_REF] Arnaud | A new theory and measure of ethical work climate: The Psychological Process Model (PPM) and the Ethical Climate Index (ECI)[END_REF].

Individuals in organizations who are using greater caring adaptations and fewer uncaring adaptation, will have more effectiveness and normative organizational commitment compare to individuals who are using fewer caring adaptation and more uncaring adaptations [START_REF] Grdinovac | How organizational adaptations to recession relate to organizational commitment[END_REF]. Cooperation, positive feeling about task and personal attraction are group process characteristics that are the result of a caring climate perception which help to create positive effect toward the organization among its individuals [START_REF] Wech | Does Work Group Cohesiveness Affect Individuals' Performance and Organizational Commitment? A Cross-Level Examination[END_REF].

Perception of caring climate leads to more cohesive organizational units and aroused personal attraction among members [START_REF] Hackman | Group influences on individuals in organizations[END_REF]. In contrast, when the members of an organization believe that the organization endorses self-interested behaviors, then individuals likely have less concern for others and their organizations, therefore, they are more interested to participate in unethical behaviors, lying, cheating and stealing [START_REF] Wimbush | Toward an Understanding of Ethical Climate: It's Relationship to Ethical Behavior and Supervisory Influence[END_REF]. From another point of view, the caring climate perception leads to more outcomes of individuals because when employees feel valued, they give back the organization with loyalty and trustworthiness [START_REF] Martin | Continuities and Extensions of Ethical Climate Theory: A Meta-Analytic Review[END_REF].

CONCLUSION

The first section of this chapter has been devoted to highlight the importance of organizational justice study (procedural, distributive and interactional), sense of mastery and powerlessness in preventing and controlling of workplace corruption and deviance.

CHAPTER 3: MODELING CORRUPTION: A CONSERVATION OF RESOURCES PERSPECTIVE INTRODUCTION

In the first section of this chapter, COR theory is presented to better understand the concept of theory of conservation resources. An important task for studying organizational corruption is to replace this deleterious process within a relevant framework of understanding.

We thus present an original taxonomy of workplace corruption research based on two intersecting continuity of individual motivations, including patterns of sociability and levels of prime emotional focus. The second section indicates the independent, outcome and moderator variables of our research model. In fact, the second part of this chapter is devoted to theorize our research model and fix our research hypotheses.

WORKPLACE CORRUPTION ACCORDING TO COR THEORY

One of the very popular theoretical models of the stress process is developed by Stevan Hobfoll (1989), known as the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory. Conservation resources theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF](Hobfoll, , 2001;;Hobfoll &[START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A general stress theory applied to burnout[END_REF]Hobfoll &[START_REF] Hobfoll | Stress and burnout in the workplace: conservation of resources[END_REF] is one of the principal theories in the study of acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace, this theory has been proven in various situations and professions (Benight, Sanger, Smith et al, 2006;[START_REF] Ito | Resources, coping strategies, and emotional exhaustion: A conservation of resources perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Ito | Resources, coping strategies, and emotional exhaustion: A conservation of resources perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Neveu | Jailed resources: Conservation of resources theory as applied to burnout among prison guards[END_REF].The fundamental tenet of COR theory is that "individuals strive to obtain, retain, protect and foster those things that they value" (Hobfoll , 1989: 341).

The theory of conservation resources is one of the most common theories which is used in literatures to understand the organizational behavior of individuals at workplace (Halbesleben et al., 2014). Today, this theory is considered as one of the major theories of psychological health [START_REF] Freedy | Stress inoculation for reduction of burnout: A conservation of resources approach[END_REF][START_REF] Kaiser | A conservation of resources approach to a natural disaster: Sense of coherence and psychological distress[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources caravans in engaged settings[END_REF][START_REF] Halbesleben | Burnout in organizational life[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Exposure to terrorism, stress-related mental health symptoms, and defensive coping among Jews and Arabs in Israel[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Exposure to terrorism, stress-related mental health symptoms, and defensive coping among Jews and Arabs in Israel[END_REF][START_REF] Armon | A prospective study of the association between obesity and burnout among apparently healthy men and women[END_REF] and allows us to understand the reaction of individuals when they face with a stressful situation. The principal theory of conservation resources (COR) is based on the principle that individuals are motivated to protect their current resources (conservation) and to acquire new resources (acquisition) (Halbesleben, et al., 2014).

Resources and COR Theory

The basic tenet of conservation of resources (COR) theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF], is that people strive to retain, protect, and build resources and that what is threatening to them is the potential or actual loss of these valued resources. A "resource" is anything that is important to the person, contributes positively to their well-being and enables them to adjust. Individuals make effort to both preserve resources and to accumulate resources in order to better conduct their way through life's demands and challenges.

In COR theory, resources are defined as objects, conditions, personal characteristics, and energies that are either themselves valued for survival, directly or indirectly, or that serve as a means of achieving these resources [START_REF] Hobfoll | Stress, Culture, and Community: The Psychology and Philosophy of Stress[END_REF]. In the overview of COR theory and its applications, 74 different types of resources have been identified by Hobfoll through his researches, he classified and identified these resources in four principal categories:

a. Personal Resources

Personal resources are defined as aspects of the self that are generally related to resiliency and refer to individuals' sense of their ability to control and impact over their environment successfully [START_REF] Hobfoll | Resource loss, resource gain, and emotional outcomes among inner city women[END_REF]. [START_REF] Hobfoll | Social and psychological resources and adaptation[END_REF] has been recognized three typical personal resources as fundamental components of individual adaptability, namely, self-efficacy [START_REF] Bandura | Self-efficacy Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change[END_REF], organizational-based self-esteem [START_REF] Pierce | Organization-based self-esteem: Construct definition measurement and validation[END_REF], and optimism [START_REF] Scheier | Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies[END_REF].

b. Object Resources

These resources are tangible and have a physical presence which are particularly are necessary for survival or culturally valued by individuals. We find in the [START_REF] Hobfoll | Stress, Culture, and Community: The Psychology and Philosophy of Stress[END_REF] list many examples of this type of resources (housing, company car, clothing, meal vouchers, location of the parking space and etc).

c. Condition Resources

These resources are important because they are basically needed to keep and facilitate access to other resources. They are included good health, employability, employment status, seniority and marriage [START_REF] Hobfoll | Stress, Culture, and Community: The Psychology and Philosophy of Stress[END_REF]. These resources require a significant investment because they provide slowly and are difficult to maintain.

d. Energy Resources

These resources are included such as time, money, and knowledge. These resources are typified not by their intrinsic value so much as their value in aiding the acquisition of three other categories of resources [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF]. "Energy resources are typically the ones people invest and even deplete, with the expectation based on prior experience that they will get replenished without much effort" (Gorgievski & Hobfoll, 2008: 6).

Principles and Corollaries of the COR

The COR theory is based on the preservation of resources. Indeed, the primacy of loss compared to the effective gain is clearly highlighted in the perspective approach of duality gains and losses (Hobfoll & Lilly, 1993;[START_REF] Wells | When it rains it pours: The greater impact of resource loss compared to gain on psychological distress[END_REF][START_REF] Wells | When it rains it pours: The greater impact of resource loss compared to gain on psychological distress[END_REF][START_REF] Wright | Commitment, psychological well-being and job performance: An examination of conservation of resources (COR) theory and job burnout[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Stress, Culture, and Community: The Psychology and Philosophy of Stress[END_REF]. The motivation to secure, protect, and gain resources is difficult to tranquilize and a continuous process. According to COR theory this process is governed by several key principles and corollaries.

Principle 1: The Primacy of Resource Loss

The first principle of COR theory is based on that resource loss is disproportionately more prominent than resource gain, which means that real or anticipated resource loss has stronger motivational power than expected resource gain. Recourses are included; object resources, condition resources, personal resources and energy resources, the resources loss impacts larger and faster on individuals rather than resource gain. However, "resource loss is typically accompanied by negative emotions, impaired psychological well-being, and ultimately impaired mental and physical health, especially when primary resources get threatened, individuals may be inclined to focus on their losses and weaknesses rather than their strengths" (Gorgievski & Hobfoll, 2008: 5).

The related interpretation of the first principle of COR theory is important for an understanding engagement. Therefore, that actual or anticipated loss of considerable resources will impact on the process of engagement which is characterized by positive effect, resilience, and an approach orientation. For developing engagement, prevention of significant losses is critical, "the environment may actively need to emphasize individuals' strengths, and encourage striving for gain" (Gorgievski & Hobfoll, 2008: 5).

Principle 2: Resource Investment

The second principle of COR theory is related to the investment resources of individuals, "individuals should invest resources in order to protect against resource loss, recover from losses, and gain resources" (Gorgievski & Hobfoll, 2008: 5). Indeed, the second principle highlights that individuals need to invest the resources to preserve their gains and current resources and also to gain more (Hobfoll & Shirom, 2001).

On the basis of this principle, the strategies individuals employ to compensate resource loss may lead to secondary losses. If individuals are placed in chronic situation, "the resources people employ may get depleted, and they need to shift their strategies towards other, usually less favorable ones at higher costs (e.g., resources need to be invested that are less easy to replenish) and with a smaller chance of success". The related principle for the engagement side of the continuum is that individuals should have the environmental and personal capacity to invest resources to assure and raise engaging resource gain process (Gorgievski & Hobfoll, 2008: 5).

First Corollary of COR Theory

A related corollary of principle 2 (Corollary 1) is that "those with greater resources are less vulnerable to resource loss and more capable of orchestrating resource gain.

Conversely, those with fewer resources are more vulnerable to resource loss and less capable of resource gain". This corollary is emphasized on engagement, it means, individuals who are personally resource rich in terms of quantity and variety are enabled to have a flexible management (Gorgievski & Hobfoll, 2008: 6). According to the corollary 1, resources can be used either individually or in combination and that stress makes multiple demands that call for various combinations of resources. (Southwick et al., 2011).

Principle 3: The Salience of Gain Increases under Situation of Resource Loss

Principle 3 is paradoxical. Although resource loss is stronger than resource gain, the salience of gain increases under situations of resource loss [START_REF] Wells | When it rains it pours: The greater impact of resource loss compared to gain on psychological distress[END_REF]). The paradoxical increase in saliency of resource gain is emphasized during traumatic situations and is a critical insight as to the substance and even the paradoxical strength of resiliency efforts. This is happening because, under conditions of high loss, even efforts which eventuate in small gains may evoke positive expectancy and hope, and lead to further goal-directed efforts (Southwick et al., 2011).

Resource Loss and Gain Spirals

According to the COR theory, the process of motivation and stress is like films not snapshots. This results stress on loss and gain cycles. The individuals who have fewer resources, as they lose resources, they are subtractive capable to tolerate further threats to resource loss. These loss cycles are more significant and move faster than gain cycles.

However, for work engagement, "it is important to highlight that COR theory suggests that gain cycles also build on themselves and as people make some resource gains they experience more positive health and well-being and are more capable of further investing resources to sustain, enhance, and increase the speed of the engagement process". Since the resource reservoir of individuals consolidates then they will be more likely to take increasing resource investment risks which are critical in many high demand work environments where just "staying the course" is equivalent to work fail (Gorgievski & Hobfoll, 2008: 6). The first two principles of COR theory concerning loss primacy and investment, in turn, lead to two key further corollaries, which depend to resource loss and gain spirals (Hobfoll, 1988[START_REF] Hobfoll | Stress, Culture, and Community: The Psychology and Philosophy of Stress[END_REF].

Second Corollary of COR Theory

Continuing the first corollary of COR theory, the second one declares that individuals who do not have many resources, losses are subject to a "snowball effect". "Those who lack resources are not only more vulnerable to resource loss, but that initial loss begets future loss" (Hobfoll, 2001: 354). These losses are concerned to as loss spirals and are most likely to occur for individuals who have fewer resources or individuals whom earlier losses have depleted their reserve of resources. This is exclusively true for repeated traumatic stress, "which is likely to lead an initial significant, swifi loss of resources followed by a wave of further strains that attack a weakened state, rendering one's resources further depleted and thus leaving the individual less able to respond at each interaction of cycle" (Duckworth & Follette, 2012: 114).

Third Corollary of COR Theory

Mirroring corollary 2,"those who possess resources are more capable of gain and initial resource gain begets further gain, because loss is more potent than gain, loss cycles will be more impactful and more accelerated than gain cycles" (Hobfoll, 2001: 355). Gains normally require the investment of major resources to occur, and when gains happen they tend to occur slowly. These gains cycles are related to as gain spiral. However, because resource gain is less strong and moves slower than resource loss then the process of gain cycles is more breakable than loss cycles. It's very significant to consider that individuals are often less interested to invest resources to initiate a gain cycle, because they are motivated to sustain a resource excess in the event which they may be needed in the future (Duckworth & Follette, 2012: 114).

Fourth Corollary of COR Theory

"Those who lack resources are likely to adopt a defensive posture to protect and conserve their resources" (Hobfoll, 2001: 536). The fourth corollary of COR theory is critical but actually the most understudied. It is quite logical that those with fewer resources would search to protect the resources that they do possess (Duckworth & Follette, 2012: 114). The fourth corollary of COR theory appears a consequence of above principles and corollaries. In fact, by focusing on the concept of loss, it specifies the nature of the actions which are taken by individuals by limited resources. Individuals focus their efforts to preserve and defend their current resources and relegate to a secondary investment.

Modeling Corruption Motivation through the Theory of COR

In the present study, we draw from conservation of resources (COR) theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF](Hobfoll, , 2001)). Recent research has indeed showed how perceptions of such decreased personal resources as self-esteem and interpersonal justice had a significant impact on daily work corruption and deviance [START_REF] Ferris | Interpersonal injustice and workplace deviance: The role of esteem threat[END_REF]. We thus put to test a model that links perceived depletion of individual resources, e.g. powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive and procedural justice, to workplace corruption and deviance An important task for studying organizational corruption is to replace this deleterious process within a relevant framework of understanding. We thus present an original taxonomy of organizational corruption research based on two intersecting continua of individual motivations, including patterns of sociability and levels of prime emotional focus (Figure 3). and Nohria (2002). Specifically, quadrant A corresponds to the need to learn. Adapted to corruption, it reflects a perversion rooted in a desire to dominate. Individual finds jouissance learning about others' weak points, and to manipulate through seduction and lies [START_REF] Tomasella | La perversion: renverser le monde [Perversion: turning the world upside-down[END_REF].

Still high on aggressive social interaction patterns, quadrant B relates to more socialoriented individuals. Here, ruthless people are more attuned to their social environment, and their corrupt behaviors are to be understood within the context of conflicting relationships with their social environment. Corruption corresponds to a need to be acquired by retaliation, a tit-for tat to get even with despised/evil others [START_REF] Cullen | Personality and counterproductive workplace behavior[END_REF]. For instance, individuals may have no qualms about cheating their organization when distress or disillusion has set-in [START_REF] Aghion | Regulation and distrust[END_REF].

Quadrants C and D refer to corruption behaviors rooted in defensive patterns of social interactions. In quadrant C, individuals engage in corruption through a need to affiliate. They conform to social norms of corruption by imitating/reproducing dominant social values [START_REF] Akers | Social structure and social learning[END_REF] as in the case of Chinese guanxi [START_REF] Fan | Questioning guanxi: Definition, classification, and implications[END_REF]. Research also focuses on how ''otherwise ethical'' individuals become socialized into wrongdoing [START_REF] Ashforth | The Normalization of Corruption in Organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Brief | Collective Corruption in the Corporate World: Toward a Process Model[END_REF].

Finally, quadrant D corresponds to a need to defend one's turf and properties. Here, corruption is akin to a preventive strategy to ward off possible threats to valued resources. In a context of job insecurity, real or perceived, individuals use corruption as a protection against the anticipated onslaught of organizational aggressions. In other words, corruption is a tool for "buying" peace and stability. At the macro-level, this drive for preventive corruption for survival has been well documented in the context of diplomacy, as for the case of Byzantine foreign policy [START_REF] Neumann | Sublime diplomacy: Byzantine, early modern, contemporary[END_REF]. To our knowledge, however, this approach has not been explored at the individual level. It the present study, we postulate that COR theory offers a relevant framework for filling the gap.

COR theory explains human motivation from the perspective of an evolutionary-based drive for preservation. Fundamentally, the theory posits that individual motivation is primarily conditioned by the conservation of valued motivational factors known as resources, including individual, social, tangible and symbolic resources [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF](Hobfoll, , 2001;;Halbesleben et al., 2014). Hence, and while wishing to develop such resources, individuals' main motivation is to preserve them all from possible loss and exhaustion. We thus postulate that corrupt behaviors relate to a protective strategy of resource preservation.

Workplace corruption and deviance is both a pressing issue for effective human resource management and a challenging issue for research by industrial psychologists. In the present study, we propose to view corruption as an outcome of a process of resource preservation. In other words, we hypothesize that individuals thoughtfully engage in corrupt behaviors as a defensive move to protect perceived threats on valued motivation factors.

Drawing from COR theory, we developed a resource-based model of a corruption process that relates personal resources, including powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive and procedural justice, and workplace corruption and deviance. This approach is expected to enrich our understanding beyond simple cause-effect theorizing that links resource depletion to organizational deviance [START_REF] Chirasha | An Analysis of the Causes and Impact of Deviant Behavior in the Workplace[END_REF].

RESEARCH MODEL AND HYPOTHESES

The study leveraged the literature review to discuss several concepts that form the cornerstone of the research. As we discussed in the first part of this chapter, workplace corruption and deviance are considered as a protective strategy of resource preservation. In this research study, we aim to highlight and investigate the relationship mechanism between powerlessness/mastery/organizational justice (procedural and distributive) and corrupt acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace on the basis of COR theory. This research model considers power, sense of mastery, distributive and procedural justice as resources for individuals and when individuals feel that they are losing them, they will be motivated to engage in corrupt acts and behaviors to preserve theses resources. Drawing from a COR theorizing, we propose a resource-based model of employee corruption (Figure 4) that explores twelve main hypotheses. describes the heart of model (H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, H7 and H8) related to the positive impact of powerlessness and also the negative impact of sense of mastery, distributive and procedural justice on workplace corruption and deviance.

The second block of hypotheses describes how moderator variables of transparency (H9.1, H9.2, H9.3, H9.4, H11.1, H11.2, H11.3 and H11.4) and caring climate (H10.1, H10.2, H10.3, H10.4, H12.1, H12.2, H12.3 and H12.4) may alter relationship between powerlessness /sense of mastery/organizational justice and workplace corruption and deviance.

Direct Effect of Powerlessness, Sense of Mastery and Organizational Justice

In this part of chapter 3, we fix 8 main hypotheses of this research on the basis of literature review which highlight the direct impact of powerlessness, sense of mastery and organizational justice on workplace corruption and deviance. motivation and outcomes at workplace, the outcomes may take different shape of negative work behaviors and attitudes such as incivility, counterproductive behaviors and anger behaviors. The studies of [START_REF] Allen | Destruction and perceived control[END_REF], [START_REF] Ashforth | Socialization tactics: Longitudinal effects on newcomer adjustment[END_REF] and [START_REF] Spector | Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Research and practice[END_REF] highlighted that the employees who are perceived powerlessness are more engaged in corrupt activities and behaviors. Powerless employees are more likely to engage in deviant acts and behaviors as a "cathartic or corrective means to restoring control over his or her environment" (Bennett and Robinson, 2003: 257). In fact, individuals who perceive themselves as powerlessness over work environment, they attempt to regain their power and control over work environment by engaging in workplace deviance (Bennett, 1998: 225). We thus formulate the following hypotheses:

H1. Powerlessness is positively related to corruption H2. Powerlessness has a positive impact on workplace deviance -Direct Effect of Sense of Mastery

Sense of mastery is our second independent variable of our research model. It has been acknowledged a powerful psychological resource that provides individuals with a sense control and responsibility [START_REF] Antonovsky | Unravelling the mystery of health: How people manage stress and stay well[END_REF]. Hobfoll (1998: 52) thus defines it as a "mastery of the ability to negotiate the environment in order to meet reasonable needs".

Consequently, a depleted sense mastery conditions organizational deviance [START_REF] Bennett | The past, present, and future of workplace deviance research[END_REF][START_REF] Pablo | Identifying, enabling and managing dynamic capabilities in the public sector[END_REF]. Specifically, a lower sense of mastery relates to corrupt acts and unethical behaviors, while decreased intentions to cheat associate to perceptions of increased sense of control over the work tasks [START_REF] Sengupta | Care enough to cheat: Selfmastery and decision-making[END_REF][START_REF] Sengupta | Care enough to cheat: Selfmastery and decision-making[END_REF]Vohs &Schooler, 2008). This leads to the following hypotheses:

H3. Sense of mastery is negatively related to corruption H4. Sense of mastery has a negative impact on workplace deviance -Direct Effect of Organizational Justice

Organizational justice as independent variable of our research model refers to an individual's perception of how right and fair, he is treated at work [START_REF] Mccardle | Organizational justice and workplace deviance: The role of organizational structure, powerlessness, and information salience[END_REF].

Empirical findings have indeed highlighted a significant relationship between such outcomes as unethical behaviors, corruption and workplace deviance, and perceptions of unfair treatment by colleague and supervisors [START_REF] Ambrose | Sabotage in the workplace: The role of organizational injustice[END_REF][START_REF] Aquino | Justice Constructs, negative affectivity, and employee deviance: A proposed model and empirical test[END_REF][START_REF] Aquino | Justice Constructs, negative affectivity, and employee deviance: A proposed model and empirical test[END_REF]Skarlicki &Folger, 1997). Employees who are not satisfied with fairness of organizational procedures have been found to be more motivated to violate organizational norms and to commit acts of deviance and corruption [START_REF] Aquino | Justice Constructs, negative affectivity, and employee deviance: A proposed model and empirical test[END_REF][START_REF] Aquino | Justice Constructs, negative affectivity, and employee deviance: A proposed model and empirical test[END_REF][START_REF] Lim | The IT Way of Loafing on the Job: Cyber loafing, neutralizing, and Organizational Justice[END_REF]. Drawing from generally accepted taxonomies of organizational justice [START_REF] Cohen-Charash | The role of justice in organizations: A meta-analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Colquitt | On the Dimensionality of Organizational Justice: A Construct Validation of a Measure[END_REF][START_REF] Colquitt | On the Dimensionality of Organizational Justice: A Construct Validation of a Measure[END_REF]; we thus formulate the following hypotheses:

H5. Distributive justice is negatively related to corruption H6. Distributive justice has a negative impact on workplace deviance H7. Procedural justice is negatively related to corruption H8. Procedural justice has a negative impact on workplace deviance

Moderator Variables: Transparency and Caring Climate

Work environment of individuals generally leads to various reactions, attitudes and work behaviors of individuals. The environmental variables of organizations explain the counterproductive behaviors of individuals at workplace [START_REF] Iverson | Understanding the personological basis of employee withdrawal: The influence of affect disposition on employee tardiness, early departure, and absenteeism[END_REF]. In fact, Individuals tend to adapt their behaviors, acts, and attitudes in order to match better with their working environment. As we already discussed in chapter 2 transparency and caring climate are considered as important environmental factors that impact indirectly on acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace. Therefore, we present transparency and caring climate as moderators in the relationship between independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive and procedural justice) and outcome variables (workplace corruption and deviance) of our research model.

-Transparency as a Moderator Variable between Independent Variables and Workplace Corruption and Deviance

Transparency as the first moderator of our research model is expressed as "the possibility of accessing information, intentions, or behaviors" (Turilli and Floridi, 2009: 105).

Transparency is used to represent the notion of accuracy, truth, and the full disclosure of relevant information [START_REF] Murphy | An ethical basis for relationship marketing: a virtue ethics perspective[END_REF]. The lack of transparency is considered as an accelerator to promote corruption [START_REF] Klitgaard | Controlling corruption[END_REF]. Transparency is a core value of democracy and essential factor to fight against corruption. The empirical researches have highlighted that transparent policies and procedures of organization impact on employees moral to behave more accurately within organizations [START_REF] Korsgaard | Trust in the face of conflict: The role of managerial trustworthy behavior and organizational context[END_REF][START_REF] Limas | The influence of performance appraisal systems on leadership development[END_REF][START_REF] Harroll | Organizational transparency, employee perceptions, and employee morale: a correlational study[END_REF], according to [START_REF] Azfar | Report based on the public officials' survey in West Java[END_REF], increasing transparency will lead to reduce corruption in public officials. Transparency by making information available for internal and external members works as a mean to prevent and control the unethical acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace.

Several researches have explored that transparency is related to sense of mastery, power of employees [START_REF] Fox | The Uncertain Relationship between Transparency and Accountability[END_REF] and organizational justice [START_REF] Colquitt | On the Dimensionality of Organizational Justice: A Construct Validation of a Measure[END_REF][START_REF] Palanski | Team virtues and performance: an examination of transparency, behavioral integrity, and trust[END_REF], furthermore, there is a significant relationship between transparency and workplace corruption and deviance [START_REF] Azfar | Report based on the public officials' survey in West Java[END_REF][START_REF] Limas | The influence of performance appraisal systems on leadership development[END_REF]. Based on previous studies; our research model posited transparency as a moderator of the impact of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery and organizational justice) on workplace corruption and deviance. This leads to the following hypotheses:

H9.1. Transparency interaction amplifies the positive relationship between powerlessness and corruption H9.2. Transparency interaction amplifies the negative relationship between sense of mastery and corruption

H9.3. Transparency interaction amplifies the negative relationship between procedural justice and corruption

H9.4. Transparency interaction amplifies the negative relationship between distributive justice and corruption

H11.1. Transparency interaction amplifies the positive relationship between powerlessness and workplace deviance H11.2. Transparency interaction amplifies the negative relationship between sense of mastery and workplace deviance H11.3. Transparency interaction amplifies the negative relationship between procedural justice and workplace deviance 11.4. Transparency interaction amplifies the negative relationship between distributive justice and workplace deviance

Figure 6 -Transparency as moderator variable between independent variables and workplace corruption and deviance -Caring Climate as a Moderator Variable between Independent Variables and Workplace Corruption and Deviance

Caring climate as a second moderator of our research model is defined as "values and beliefs that are known and perceived by workgroup and/or organization members" (Victor & Cullen;[START_REF] Akers | Social structure and social learning[END_REF], 1990). In caring climate environment, individuals have genuine or sincere attitudes towards others' welfare within and outside the organization (Wimbush et al., 1997).

Caring climate is in relation with job satisfaction and ethical behaviors of individuals. The previous researches have emphasized that organizational misbehaviors and unethical behaviors of individuals at workplace are in relation with caring climate of organizations (Wimbush et al., 1997b;[START_REF] Peterson | Deviant workplace behaviour and the organisation's ethical climate[END_REF]Vardi, 2001;[START_REF] Carr | Neural mechanisms of empathy in humans: a relay from neural systems for imitation to limbic areas[END_REF][START_REF] Martin | Continuities and Extensions of Ethical Climate Theory: A Meta-Analytic Review[END_REF][START_REF] Martin | Continuities and Extensions of Ethical Climate Theory: A Meta-Analytic Review[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Deshpande | The impact of ethical climate types on facets of job satisfaction: An empirical investigation[END_REF], caring climate leads to more satisfaction, commitment, cohesive organizational units and raising personal attraction among members [START_REF] Hackman | Group influences on individuals in organizations[END_REF]. Individuals who perceive greater levels of caring or lower levels of instrumentality in decision-making; they behave more ethically at workplace [START_REF] Arnaud | A new theory and measure of ethical work climate: The Psychological Process Model (PPM) and the Ethical Climate Index (ECI)[END_REF].

In fact, individuals who feel that their organizations care about their welfare, then they are less interested to engage in deviant or unethical behaviors [START_REF] Peterson | Deviant workplace behaviour and the organisation's ethical climate[END_REF].

Caring climate is one of the variable of ethical climate, [START_REF] Victor | A Theroy and Measure of Ethical Climate in Organizations[END_REF] defined ethical climate as perceptions of what ethically correct behavior is, and how ethical issues should be handle in an organization. Ethical climate can be also seen as organization's policies, procedures, and ethical conduct that guide an individual to behave with maximum level of ethics for organizational success [START_REF] Schluter | Nurses moral sensitivity and hospital ethical climate: A literature review[END_REF].

Several studies were conducted to find the moderating role of ethical climate in the various field of academic literature. Recently, the study which was conducted by [START_REF] Nafei | Ethical Climate as a Moderator of the Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment: Evidence from Industrial Companies in Egypt[END_REF] used ethical climates as moderator on the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The study of [START_REF] Zehir | Total Quality Management Practices Effects on Quality[END_REF] tested ethical climate as moderator on the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment in Asian context [START_REF] Zehir | Total Quality Management Practices Effects on Quality[END_REF], and also the study of [START_REF] Saibu | Moderating Role of Ethical Climates on HRM Practices and Organizational Performance: A Proposed Conceptual Model[END_REF]

CONCLUSION

The first section of this chapter has presented three principals and four corollaries of COR theory and emphasized that COR theory explains human motivation from the perspective of an evolutionary-based drive for preservation. We have proposed to view power, sense of mastery, distributive and procedural justice as resources that individuals thoughtfully engage in corrupt acts and behaviors as a defensive move to protect them. In the second section of this chapter, the independent variables (powerlessness, senses of mastery, .

CONCLUSION OF PART 1

The first part of this research study has been compromised of three chapters and conducted on the basis of literature review about workplace corruption and the variables which are in correlation with corrupt acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace. In first chapter, we investigated about the phenomena of workplace corruption from different terms and context. The definitions, forms, types and causes of workplace corruption studied and investigated from different point of views. The second chapter is devoted to study and investigate about personal, internal and external variables which are in correlation with organizational corruption and workplace deviance. The literature reviews of previous researches have highlighted that powerlessness, sense of mastery and organizational justice are correlated with organizational corruption and deviance. Furthermore, we have found that transparency and caring climate, both of them as environmental variables impact indirectly on shaping and forming unethical acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace. Chapter three devoted to study the conservation of resources theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF](Hobfoll, , 2001[START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources caravans in engaged settings[END_REF] and in the second section of third chapter, we theorized our research model through COR theory. The hypotheses are divided by two blocs, the first bloc of hypotheses describes the heart of model which is related to the direct impact of independent variables on outcome variables and the second block of hypotheses describes how moderator variables (transparency and caring climate) impact on the relationship between independent variables and outcome variables.

INTRODUCTION OF PART 2

One of the objectives of this research is to highlight determinants of corrupt acts and behaviors of employees at workplace. This study can be useful for scholars in general and especially for managers in order to find out the reasons for which even honest and correct individuals engage in corrupt acts and behaviors at work. Corruption is admitted as a serious and costly problem which is prevalent in almost all types of organizations.

According to our literature review, we have found that some correlation exists between sense of mastery, powerlessness, distributive justice, procedural justice, transparency, caring climate and unethical acts and behaviors. Even number of studies have highlighted the direct and indirect impact of sense of mastery, powerlessness, organizational justice, transparency and caring climate on workplace corruption and deviance. The second part of this research seeks to explore the direct impact of sense of mastery, powerlessness, distributive and procedural justice on corrupt acts and behaviors of employees at workplace and also to explore the interaction effect of caring climate and transparency in the relationship of sense of mastery/powerlessness/distributive and procedural justice and workplace corruption and deviance.

The second part of this research is composed of three chapters:

-Chapter 4 is devoted to present the methodology of the research, data collection method and measurement scales which are used to measure the mobilized concept of this research.

-Chapter 5 presents the results of confirmatory factor analysis of measurement scales which are used in this research. In the second part of this chapter, hypotheses are tested and the statistical results are presented.

-Chapter 5 is devoted to present results discussion, theoretical and managerial implications, limitations and future research perspectives.

INTRODUCTION

The objective of chapter 4 is to present the research methodology that is used to conduct a quantitative study. In the first part of this chapter, the epistemology position of this doctoral dissertation is presented and afterwards, we explain the process of data collection method and the characteristics of individuals who participated in the survey of this research.

In the second part of this chapter, we present in details the measurement scales which are used to measure the concepts of the research model. Finally, the end of this chapter is devoted to reveal descriptive statistics and the correlation coefficients among the variables of research model.

DATA COLLECTION METHOD

In this research, we follow a specific epistemological position. Epistemology is the study of knowledge foundation (Piaget, 1967: 6). The epistemological position of every research study guides the direction and articulation of the issues and objectives of a research study. Our vision in this research is positivism; we tend to think that there is some subjectivity of the researcher, but this subjectivity is controlled and reality remains exterior to the research process. In fact, positivism is based on a deductive approach to test research refutable hypotheses [START_REF] Igalens | Méthodes de recherches en gestion des ressources humaines[END_REF]. Consistent with our problematic and research objectives, the conceptual framework helps to construct our theoretical research model and the positioning guide to choose our research design and mobilized tools.

Data Collection Mode

In this study, we couldn't use the qualitative research method because of the nature of this study. Workplace deviance and corruption is a very sensitive subject and individuals who are working in public and private sectors are not interested to talk and discuss about this type of subjects or even if they accept to be interviewed, they won't explain and talk freely about their own personal experiences. Therefore, the obtained results from a qualitative study would not be trustable as much as a quantitative study.

The empirical research, specifically quantitative research method is based on the data collection and statistical processing of collected data. The quantitative method is a very common research method that is used in international level. This method is used in many researches because of certain characteristics:

-Quantitative research normally is used with a deductive approach [START_REF] Saunders | Formulating the research design[END_REF], in order to test theory.

-Quantitative method is based on examining relationships between variables, where data is collected in numeric form and data are analyzed by using different statistical tools.

-Quantitative research is more attached to confirm or deny a hypothesis and its results are 'more readily analyzed and interpreted' [START_REF] Hughes | Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches to Social Research[END_REF].

In our quantitative research, we have constructed a self-administrated electronic questionnaire. We used an electronic questionnaire because of low cost, the timeliness of data and particularly, electronic data allows us to have a better data [START_REF] Dillman | Mail and internet surveys: The Tailored Design Method 2007 update with new internet, visual, and mixed-mode guide[END_REF]. Furthermore, our research subject is so sensitive, the individuals with electronic questionnaire were more comfortable to participate in our survey and by using this technique; we could ensure them that the anonymity of respondents are respected and maintained.

Researches of Usunier, Easterby-Smith & Thorpe (1993) shows that the response rate of postal survey is 10%, on the other hand the response rate of electronic survey varies between 8 to 37% [START_REF] Schuldt | Electronic Mail versus Mail Survey Response Rates[END_REF]. One of the most important advantages of electronic survey is time reductions of entering data in data file such as excel, because already automatically data are stored in data file.

In our survey, we contacted people who are working in public and private sectors in Canada, France and India. We found our participants via their professional online network profile such as: Linkdin and Viadeo. As Viadeo is a well-known professional network for

French professional people, we translated our survey in French and launched in Viadeo only for French speaker employees. Therefore, we decided to contact Canadian and Indian employees only through Linkdin because of popularity of this professional social network among English speaker people. Viadeo and Linkdin were so effective to find and contact employees. However, in some cases we had certain difficulties to contact the employees in public and private sectors because many of them don't update their online profiles regularly.

For being sure that the questionnaire of our survey is understandable for individuals in Canada, France and India, the questionnaire was pre-tested by 25 employees in Canada, 20 employees in France and 15 employees in India who are working in private and public sectors. Therefore, on the basis of their comments and suggestion, we modified our questionnaires in order to be more clear and understandable to Canadian, French and Indian employees. However, the pre-testing of questionnaire helped us to find that many people couldn't understand the third item of corruption scale "If public official acts against rules, help can be obtained elsewhere". In fact the participants had different perception from this item and it made them confuse.

In September 2015, we uploaded our questionnaire on Google drive and after searching and finding employees through their online profile; we sent the link of our questionnaire to them. From September 2014 to February 2015, we contacted 25700 employees but only 575 employees cooperated with us and accepted to participate in our survey. It means that only 2.1% of employees were interested to participate in a survey which is related to workplace corruption and deviance.

Characteristics of the Samples

In order to find the characteristics of participants; at the end of the questionnaire we asked some general questions from participants such as: sex, age, sector of activity (public or private), position, the country of residence and seniority in the actual position. The structures of our sample according to several socio-demographics are as follows:

-

Repartition by gender (in numbers)

In this survey 55% of participants were male and 45% of participants were female.

Gender

Repartition by the seniority in the actual position

Employees by different years of working experience in their actual position participated in our survey. We classified employees in 5 categories, 66% of participants had from 1 to 5 years of experiences, 18.8% of participants had from 5 to 10 years of experiences, 6.3% of participants had from 10 to 15 years of experiences, 3.3% of participants had from 15 to 20 years of experiences and 5.6% of participants had more than 20 years of experiences in their actual position.

Seniority N N by % From 1 to 5 years 380 66%

From 5 to 10 years 108 18.8%

From 10 to 15 years 36 6.3%

From 15 to 20 years 19 3.3%

More than 20 years 32 5.6%

MEASUREMENT SCALES

In this part we present the measurement scales which have been used in the survey of our dissertation.

Sense of Mastery

The measurement scale of sense of mastery concerns the extent to which an individual regards one's life-chance as being under one's own control in contrast to being fatalistically ruled. Sense of mastery is the first independent variable of research model. Sense of mastery is evaluated by using the seven items scale developed by [START_REF] Pearlin | The structure of coping[END_REF] which is widely-used and validated in different studies such as the study of Greenburg & Grunberg (2006). It comprises seven items ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree). The scale comprises five reverse items. The alpha for this scale is 0.82.

Master1-re I have little or no control over the things that happen to me.

Master2-re There is really no way I can solve some of the problems I have.

Master3-re There is little I can do to change many of the important things in my life.

Master4-re Sometimes I feel that I'm being pushed around in life.

Master5-re I often feel helpless in dealing with the problems of life.

Master6

What happens to me in the future mostly depends on me.

Master7

I can do just about anything I really set my mind to do.

Items 1 to 5 are reverse items

Powerlessness

Powerlessness prevents a loss, the questions that makes up the powerlessness scale ask about the power of employees for facing the things and problems which could be happen at workplace. This comprised a three-item measure of Ashford, Lee & Bobko (1989) on a fivepoint scale from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree" for measuring aspects of powerlessness perception. This scale has been used and validated in different studies which are related to the power of employees in organizations. The alpha coefficient of this scale in the study of [START_REF] Ashford | Content, cause, and consequences of job insecurity: A theory-based measure and substantive test[END_REF] is 0.83 which is quite good and acceptable.

Power1 I have enough power in this organization to control events that might affect my job.

Power2 In this organization, I can prevent negative things from affecting my work situation.

Power3 I understand this organization well enough to be able to control things that affect me.

Distributive Justice

Distributive justice scale has been taken from the scale of [START_REF] Niehoff | Justice as a mediator of the relationship between methods of monitoring and organizational citizenship behavior[END_REF], the origin of this scale was developed by [START_REF] Moorman | Relationship between organizational justice and organizational citizenship behaviors: Do fairness perceptions influence employee citizenship[END_REF] with reliabilities above 0.90 which has been used and has been validated in different studies. Distributive justice items assessing the fairness of different work outcomes, including work schedule, pay level, job responsibilities and work load. This scale comprised a five-item measure on a five-point scale of "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree".

Justdis1 My work schedule is faire.

Justdis2 I think that my level of pay is fair.

Justdis3 I consider my work load to be quite fair.

Justdis4 Overall, the rewards I receive here are quite fair.

Justdis5 I feel that my responsibilities are fair.

Procedural Justice

Procedural justice scale has been taken from the scale of [START_REF] Niehoff | Justice as a mediator of the relationship between methods of monitoring and organizational citizenship behavior[END_REF], the origin of this scale was developed by [START_REF] Moorman | Relationship between organizational justice and organizational citizenship behaviors: Do fairness perceptions influence employee citizenship[END_REF] with the alpha of 0.90. Procedural justice was measured by six items to measure the degree to which job decisions included mechanisms that insured the gathering of accurate and unbiased information, employee voice,

[123]
123 and an appeals process. All items used 5 scales from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree).

Justfor1 Job decisions are made by general manager in an unbiased manner.

Justfor2 My general manager makes sure that all employee concerns are heard before job decisions are made.

Justfor3 My general manager clarifies decisions and provides additional information when requested by employees.

Justfor4 To make job decisions, my general manager collects accurate and complete information.

Justfor5 All job decisions are applied consistently across all affected employees.

Justfor6 Employees are allowed to challenge or appeal job decisions made by the general manager.

Workplace Corruption

The literature study of the behavioral measurement of corruption is still in its infancy.

In fact, measuring corruption is a very difficult and complicated task in different countries because of two main reasons. First: corruption is a very secretive and sensitive subject and secondly: corruption takes different forms (Svensoon, 2005). The ranking of countries as more or less corrupt are based on subjective judgments, and then these judgments cannot be used to quantify the measurement of corruption [START_REF] Svensson | Eight questions about corruption[END_REF].

The first step to fight corruption is therefore its measurement. Measurement does much more than guiding our interventions: it provides a criterion against which we can measure progress. Perhaps the strongest discussion in favor of corruption measurement is that once corruption is measurably on the decline, this will itself be reinforcing as it changes expectations [START_REF] Collier | How to reduce corruption[END_REF].

As we indicated already, measuring the corrupt acts of employees at workplace is a complicated task. First, it's a very secret and sensitive subject, second, the individuals who participate or participated in corrupt acts at workplace are not interested to talk or share their

[124] 124 information, and even they get scared to share their information through indirect way by answering the questions of a questionnaire. In this study, the scale of [START_REF] Gbadamosi | Money ethic, moral conduct and work related attitudes: field study from the public sector in Swaziland[END_REF] has been chosen to measure workplace corruption, because in this scale questions related to corruption are asked in an indirect way. This corruption perception scale is comprised a four-item measure of on a five-point scale of "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree". The Cronbach alpha for this scale is 0.72.

Corrup1 Is it ok, individuals pay bribes and tips to get things done.

Corrup2 Is it ok, organizations pay bribes and tips to get things done.

Corrup3 If public official acts against rules, help can be obtained elsewhere.

Corrup4 Bribery and corruption is common in your organization.

Workplace Deviance

To measure the deviant acts and behaviors of employees at workplace, we used the workplace deviance scale of Syaebani & Sebri (2011). This scale is measured using selfreport questionnaire that developed by [START_REF] Peterson | Deviant workplace behaviour and the organisation's ethical climate[END_REF] and it validated in several empirical researches such as; Syaebani & Sebri (2011). The respondents were asked how often they are engaged in deviant workplace behaviors. Measurement is using six-point scale from 1 (never) to 6 (always).

Workplace deviance scale originally was measured and developed by [START_REF] Bennett | Development of a measure of workplace deviance[END_REF]. The items of this scale were adopted and used to measure workplace deviant behaviors of participants. This scale is a measure that specifically designed to assess workplace deviant behaviors among workers. This scale consists of three dimensions:

property deviance with Cronbach's alpha of 0.68, production deviance with Cronbach's alpha of 0.80 and political deviance with Cronbach's alpha of 0.73. The developer of this scale [START_REF] Bennett | Development of a measure of workplace deviance[END_REF] reported a coefficient of internal reliabilities of 0.81.

Property Deviance

Devprop1 Padded an expense account to get reimbursed for more money than you spent on business expenses.

Devprop2 Accepted a gift/favor in exchange for professional treatment.

Devprop3 Taken property from work without permission.

Production Deviance

Devprod1 Worked on a personal matter instead of worked for your employer.

Devprod2 Taken an additional or longer break than is acceptable at your place of work.

Devprod3 Intentionally worked slower than you could have worked.

Political Deviance

Devpoli1 Showed favoritism for a fellow employee or subordinate employee.

Devpoli2 Blamed someone else or let someone else take the blame for your mistake.

Devpoli3 Repeated gossip about co worker.

Transparency

This variable represents the acceptance of criticism, a sincere desire to improve functioning programs or performance in state services, and a willingness to be exposed to outside evaluators in order to improve future results [START_REF] Finkelstein | Transparency in Public Policy: Great Britain and the United States[END_REF][START_REF] Halachmi | Performance measurement: a look at some possible dysfunctions[END_REF].

Transparency scale is measured by 5 items of Vigoda & Yuval (2003), Individuals are asked to provide their attitudes on a five-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Internal reliability of the overall scale in 2002 sample was 0.85 compared with 0.84 in the 2001 sample.

Transp1 Public administration takes public criticism and suggestions for improvement seriously.

Transp2 Today, more than ever before, the public system is willing to be exposed to the public and to the media.

Transp3 Public administration treats defects found by the state comptroller seriously.

Transp4 Public administration sees criticism as an important tool for future service improvement.

Transp5 Public sector administration encourages public employees to accept criticism and use it to improve services for citizens.

Caring Climate

The six items for measuring caring climate has taken from ethical climate questionnaire of Victor & Cullen (1998). The highest loadings of the individual, local and cosmopolitan levels of the benevolence criteria descriptors are in this scale.

This scale has been widely used and validated in various studies like [START_REF] Tsai | The Relationship among Ethical Climate Types, Facets of Job Satisfaction, and the Three Components of Organizational Commitment: A Study of Nurses in Taiwan[END_REF]. This scale with the alpha of 0.80 has high reliability and validity. A six point scale ranging from 1 (mostly false) to 6 (mostly true) was used to measure the caring climate items.

Care1 What is best for everyone in the company is the major consideration here.

Care2

The most important concern is the good of all the people in the company as a whole.

Care3 Our major concern is always what is best for the other person.

Care4

In this company, it is expected that you will always do what is right for the customers and public.

Care5

The most efficient way is always the right way in this company.

Care6 In this company, each person is expected above all to work efficiently.

-Descriptive statistics Finally, descriptive statistics and the correlation coefficients among the variables have been revealed at the end of this chapter.

INTRODUCTION

The first part of chapter 5 presents the conduction process of confirmatory factor analysis which is done to validate measurement scales of research model concepts and furthermore to validate measurement model and structural model. The second part of this chapter describes the methodology used to test the research hypotheses and the obtained results from hypotheses test. In this chapter, independent, dependent and moderator variables of our research model are presented and we test the direct impact of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, procedural and distributive justice) on dependent variables (workplace corruption and deviance). Furthermore, we test the effect of moderators on the relationship of each independent and outcome variables separately in order to better understand the exact effect of the moderators (caring climate and transparency) on the relationship of each dependent and independent variables.

MEASUREMENT MODEL

In this part of our research, we validate the measurement scales of our research model; confirmatory factor analysis is a statistical technique which is used to verify the factor structure of a set of observed variables. In multivariate analysis, a confirmatory factor analysis is essential in order to validate the measurement scale. Before testing the research model, first, we explain the methodology used to test the reliability and validity of the measurement scales.

Second, we conduct the preliminary analysis, then; we launch a confirmatory factor analysis for each measurement scale in order to verify the good fit of each scale. In this research, the confirmatory factor analysis is conducted by AMOS 21.

-

Methodological Approach of Confirmatory Factor Analysis

A confirmatory factor analysis is used to study the relationships between a set of observed variables and a set of continuous latent variables. When the observed variables are categorical, the confirmatory factor analysis is also referred to as item response for theory analysis [START_REF] Baker | Item response theory: Parameter estimation technique[END_REF]. The method of structural equation is used to perform confirmatory factor analysis, this method developed in 1960 by [START_REF] Jöreskog | A general method for estimating a linear structural equation system[END_REF], furthermore, it spreads and is used in 1970 by the researchers in the field of organizational psychology [START_REF] Byrne | Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications and programming[END_REF].

Structural equation modeling includes models in which regressions among the continuous latent variables are estimated [START_REF] Bollen | Overall Fit in Covariance Structure Models: Two Types of Sample Size Effects[END_REF][START_REF] Browne | Specification and estimation of mean and covariance structure models[END_REF][START_REF] Joreskog | Advances in factor analysis and structural equation models[END_REF]. Structural equation modeling is used by a wide variety of models to represent the relationship between the observed variables, in order to provide a quantitative test of the hypothetical theoretical models which are developed by [START_REF] Schumaker | A beginner's guide to structural equation modeling[END_REF]. [START_REF] Byrne | Structural Equation Modeling with AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming[END_REF]. The structural equation modeling application is comprised of five steps [START_REF] Bollen | Introduction[END_REF], although they vary slightly from researcher to researcher. These steps are: specification, identification, estimation, testing and modification.

We present these five steps in order to provide an outline of the structural equation modeling.

a. Model Specification

Model specification involves using all available relevant theory, research, and information to construct the theoretical model. In model specification stage, we specify the hypothesized relationships among the observed and latent variables that exist or do not exist in the model. Relationships among variables are represented by parameters or paths. These relationships can be set to fixed, free or constrained [START_REF] Tenenbaum | Notations, conventions, and constraints: Contributions to effective uses of concrete materials in elementary mathematics[END_REF]:

-The first type of relationship is referred to free relationship where in variables are assumed to be related to each other.

-The second type of relationship is referred to a fixed relationship. In this type of relationship, a fixed parameter is fixed to specified value, normally either zero to one; usually this means that there is not a relationship as suggested by theory.

-The third type of relationship is referred to constrained relationship. In this relationship two or more relationships are set equal to each other.

b. Model Identification

In model identification stage, the concern is that a unique value for each free parameter can be obtained from the observed data but this is totally depended on the chosen model and the specification of fixed, constrained and free parameters. This is dependent on the choice of the model and the specification of fixed, constrained and free parameters.

According to [START_REF] Schumacker | A beginner's guide to structural equation modeling[END_REF], three identification types are possible.

-Under-identified: in this type of identification, one or more parameters are not determined due to lack of information.

-Just-identified: in this type of identification all the parameters are determined with just enough information.

-Over-identified: in this type of identification there is more than enough information, with more than one way of estimating a parameter. In this situation, models have to be over-identified in order to be estimated and test hypotheses about the relationships among variables.

The following formula is very effective to precise that the model is over-identified, just-identified and is under-identified. In other words, the goal of parameter estimation is to estimate population parameters by minimizing the difference between the observed (sample) variance/covariance matrix and the model-implied (model-predicted) variance/covariance matrix. There are several estimation methods such as: including maximum likelihood, robust maximum likelihood, generalized least squares, unweighted least squares, elliptical distribution theory, and asymptotically distribution-free methods. Among these methods, maximum likelihood method is a very common method which is used by many researchers; this method is an iterative technique, which means that an initially posited value is subsequently updated through calculation (In'nami & Koizumi, 2013).

d. Testing

As we explained in the parameter estimation stage, the main goal of structural equation modeling analysis is to estimate population parameters by minimizing the difference between the observed and the model-implied variance/covariance matrices. The model is better when the difference is smaller. There are various types of fit indices for evaluating. A statistically non-significant chi-square (χ2) value is used to indicate a good fit. Statistical nonsignificance is desirable because it indicates that the difference between the observed and the model-implied variance/covariance matrices is statistically non-significant, which implies that the two matrices cannot be said to be statistically different. On the other hand, a nonsignificant difference suggests that the proposed model can be considered correct and cannot be rejected [START_REF] Koizumi | Modeling fluency, accuracy, and syntactic complexity of speaking performance: A structural equation modeling approach[END_REF].

e. Model Modification

Model modification is related to improving the model-data fit. If the model fit is not acceptable, hypotheses can be adjusted and the model is retested. This step is often called as re-specification (Schumacker & Lomax, 2004). Normally the research model fit is not good enough, then the model must be modified and subsequently the fit of the modified model is evaluated. In this step, the researchers adds or removes some parameters to improve the fit, all the changes which are done should be supported by theory. Normally several software such as AMOS compute the modification indices for each parameter; these modification indices report the change in the χ2 value when parameters are adjusted [START_REF] Swe | Application of Structural Equation Modeling in Educational Research and Practice[END_REF].

-Preliminary Analysis

According to the principles of quantitative research method, before starting the confirmatory factor analysis, the normality of participant answers and the missing data of questionnaire should be verified precisely. In multivariate analysis, we have to be ensured about the adequacy of data; Edward et al. ( 2009) recommended exploring the collected data to identify possible problems, in order to make the appropriate corrections before starting confirmatory factor analysis. Data can be analyzed by multivariate methods by respecting certain conditions, the absence of missing values or data, extreme values and normality of values. Therefore, in the first step data should be controlled well in order to detect the missing data and outliers. In the second step, we have to ensure that the distribution of each variable is close to the normal law.

a. Extreme values and normality of variables

We observed some extreme values for three variables of participant's characteristics.

First, it was related to the age of the participants, 6 of them were younger than 18 years of age and 4 of them were elder than 85 years of age. Normally individuals who are younger than 18 years of age, they don't have a professional carrier and the individuals who are elder than 80 years of age are already retired. Therefore, we deleted the responses of these 10 participants from our survey answers.

Second, it was related to the professional experiences of 5 individuals in their actual positions, they indicated that they are from 20 to 30 years old by professional experiences more than 15 years old. We couldn't find a logical relationship between their ages and their professional experiences then we deleted their participations from our survey.

Third, it was related to the position of three participants, these participants indicated that they are manager in public service sectors with one year working experience; normally individuals by one year working experience can't take a manager position in public sector services. For this reasons, we decided to delete their participation from our survey. In total, the participation of 18 individuals removed from our survey because we were not sure about the rightness and honesty of their answers.

b. The missing data

When participants are not willing to answer to some questions of a survey then we will have some missing data which is a barrier for data analysis. Fortunately, in our survey we didn't have any missing data because we fixed our questionnaire in a way that participants without answering to all questions couldn't submit their answers.

c. Normality of distribution

The symmetry coefficient skewness and the flattening coefficient Kurtosis are effective methods to examine the distribution of the data. Kurtosis coefficient indicates a high concentration of observations when it is positive and a flatten curve when it is negative. When skewness coefficient is null, observations are normally distributed around the mean, when it is positive they are concentrated around low values and when it is negative they are concentrated around high values. According to [START_REF] Carricano | Analyse de données avec SPSS[END_REF], we consider that the variable follows the normal low when the symmetry coefficient is lower (in absolute value) than 1 and that the flattening coefficient is lower (in absolute value) than 1.5.

After verifying our samples, we found that there is a normality problem on the workplace deviance variable of our research. The normality problem of workplace deviance variable can't cause a problem in our analysis because this kind of normality problem is quite common in management researches. Finally, it is very rare that the data collected in the area of management science have a normal distribution [START_REF] Roussel | Méthodes d'équations structurelles : recherche et applications en gestion[END_REF]. As we presented in the data collection part, we have wide and vast samples (575 samples), therefore, we use analysis technique that are entirely strong to normality violation. Furthermore, the methodology of structural equations that we use in our analysis will reduce the related problems of measurement errors, the multicollinearity and non-normality of distributions [START_REF] Moulder | Comparison of methods for estimating and testing latent variable interactions[END_REF][START_REF] Moulder | Comparison of methods for estimating and testing latent variable interactions[END_REF]Shrout &Bolger, 2002).

Model Fit and Reliability of Sense of Mastery Scale

Sense of mastery is a scale with seven items scale developed by [START_REF] Pearlin | The structure of coping[END_REF]. We test the model and we compare different models to see which items should be kept and which ones have to be disposed. We obtained the following indices of the initial model (Table 9).

Indices

Model Fit and Reliability of Distributive Justice Scale

Distributive justice scale of [START_REF] Niehoff | Justice as a mediator of the relationship between methods of monitoring and organizational citizenship behavior[END_REF] is compromised of 5 items.

We tested the model and we obtained the following indices of the initial model ( Referring to both the standardized residuals and modification indices, we decided to add a covariance between two items (Justdis3 and Justdis5) to improve the model fit. After adding covariance between the two items still the model fit is not acceptable then we decided to remove Justdis1 item because the multiple correlation coefficients of this item is less than 0.05. We retest our modified model and we obtained the following indices (Table 13).

Indices

Model Fit and Reliability of Powerlessness Scale

Powerlessness scale [START_REF] Ashford | Content, cause, and consequences of job insecurity: A theory-based measure and substantive test[END_REF]) is comprised a three-item measure. We tested the model and we obtained the following indices (Table 18).

Indices

Model Fit and Reliability of Corruption Scale

In this study, we used the corruption scale of [START_REF] Gbadamosi | Money ethic, moral conduct and work related attitudes: field study from the public sector in Swaziland[END_REF] which is compromised of 4 items, we tested the model and we obtained the following indices (Table 20).

Indices

Model Fit and Reliability of Workplace Deviance Scale

We have taken the scale of [START_REF] Bennett | Development of a measure of workplace deviance[END_REF] to measure the deviant acts and behaviors of employees at workplace. We perform confirmatory factor analysis for this model which is compromised of three dimensions. In fact, this scale is a three-dimensional scale which consists of 9 items, 3 items to measure property deviance, 3 items to measure production deviance and 3 items to measure political deviance. Before conducting the confirmatory factor analysis, we have to indicate that because of overlapping concepts in dimensions of this scale, we decided to use a second-order measurement model analysis. We tested the model and we obtained the following indices (Table 23). and RMR (0.054 > 0.050). We can conclude that the model is not acceptable and we have to do certain modification on initial model to improve the model fit.

Indices

Refer to the standardized residuals and modification indices; we decided to add some covariance between items. We added a covariance between these items: Devprop1 and Devprop3 of property deviance dimension, Devprod1 and Devprod2 of production deviance dimension and Devpoli2 and Devpoli3 of political deviance dimension. We retested the model after adding a covariance between these items and the new indices are as follows (

Model Fit and Reliability of Transparency Scale

Transparency scale in this study is measured by 5 items (Vigoda & Yuval, 2003). We tested the model and we obtained the following indices (

Model Fit and Reliability of Caring Climate Scale

The six items for measuring caring climate has been taken from ethical climate questionnaire of Victor & Cullen (1998). We test the model, then we compare different models to keep or remove certain items. By testing the model, the following indices are obtained (Table 28). 5), RMSEA (0.206 > 0.08), RMR (0.155 > 0.05) are not acceptable at all. We find that the model is not acceptable and it should be re-specified.

Indices

Referring to both the standardized residuals and modification indices, we can work on the model to improve the fit of the initial model. By observing the multiple correlation coefficients of items Care6, Care5 and Care4, we found that they are less than 0.50. At first we removed Care6 item because its multiple correlation coefficient was lower than Care5 and

Care4 items but the model didn't improve, for the second time we removed Care4 item because its multiple correlation coefficients was lower than Care5 item but still the model didn't improve, at the end we added a covariance between Care5 item and Care3 item. After removing two items and adding a covariance, we retested the modified model and we obtained the following indices (Table 29). The confirmatory factor analysis confirms a structure in 4 items.

Indices

Measurement and Structural Model Fits

Before testing the hypotheses, we have to ensure that structural and measurement model of our theatrical model have a good fit. We have to note that the process of confirmatory factor analysis and testing of reliability and validity of measurement and structural models is the same process that we did for all the measurement scales of our research model. We tested the measurement model (Table 31) and structural model (Table 32), then we obtained the following indices. The result of confirmatory factor analysis of structural model indicate that all indices CMIN/df (2.165 < 5), RMSEA (0.045 < 0.08), GFI (0.914 > 0.9) AGFI (0.90 > 0.8), CFI (0.938 > 0.9) and NFI (0.90) have a good fit, therefore the structural model is acceptable.

Indices

Table 32 and 33 reports goodness-of-fit indices for both measurement and structural models are good and validate all models.

Convergent and Discriminant Validity

Convergent and discriminant validity are important part of confirmatory factor analysis which are considered as subcategories of construct validity. Both of them work together with the coefficient rhô (CR) in order to affirm that our research model has evidence of construct validity. The Average Variance Extracted (AVE) for each construct was evaluated against its correlation with other constructs to evaluate convergent validity.

Afterwards, when the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) was higher than the construct's correlation with other constructs, then convergent validity was considered to be confirmed. The total score for each scale was computed using the loadings from the CFA. Each scale was defined according to what it measures: corruption, powerlessness, Sense of mastery, distributive justice, procedural justice, caring climate, transparency and workplace deviance.

The different score measures for the convergent and discriminant validity for each scale measure is presented in table 34.

The result of convergent validity AVE highlights that measures related to each construct are related and reflect the idea of construct that they want to mean. In addition, the score for each construct is higher than 0.5. Moreover, the score for Maximum Shared Variance (MSV) and the Average Shared Squared Variance (ASV) for all the scales were found to be lower than the AVE which confirm their discriminant validity.

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HYPOTHESES TESTING

In this part of our dissertation, initially we present the adopted statistical approach to test the hypotheses and in the second part, we synthesize the results to our survey sample. To test our hypotheses, an analysis process is conducted twice. At first, we test the direct effect of independent variables (sense of mastery, powerlessness, distributive justice and procedural A moderation analysis seeks to determine whether the size or sign of the effect of some putative causal variable X on outcome Y depends in one way or another on a moderator variable or variables [START_REF] Hayes | Direct and indirect effects of a multicategorical causal agent in statistical mediation analysis[END_REF]. The purpose of using moderated mediation, mediated moderation, or conditional process modeling is to empirically quantify and test hypotheses about the contingent nature of the mechanisms by which X exerts its influence on Y [START_REF] Edwards | Methods for integrating moderation and mediation: A general analytical framework using moderated path analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Fairchild | R2 effectsize measures for mediation analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Morgan-Lopez | Demonstration and evaluation of a method for assessing mediated moderation[END_REF][START_REF] Muller | When moderation is mediated and mediation is moderated[END_REF][START_REF] Preacher | Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: theory, methods, and prescriptions[END_REF][START_REF] Preacher | Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: theory, methods, and prescriptions[END_REF].

The PROCESS approach of Heynes ( 2013) is used by researchers as a test method of moderation effects. In order to test the moderation effect, we use the PROCESS of Andrew F. [START_REF] Hayes | An introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis[END_REF]. PROCESS is a tool to use add-on for SPSS and SAS for statistical mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. PROCESS can estimate moderated mediation models with multiple mediators, multiple moderators of individual paths, interactive effects of moderators on individual paths, and models with dichotomous outcomes.

PROCESS uses an ordinary least squares or logistic regression-based path analytic framework in order to estimate direct and indirect effects in single and multiple mediator models (parallel and serial) , two and three way interactions in moderation models along with simple slopes and regions of significance for probing interactions, conditional indirect effects in moderated mediation models with a single or multiple mediators and moderators, and indirect effects of interactions in mediated moderation models also with a single or multiple mediators [START_REF] Hayes | An introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis[END_REF].

Test of the Impact of Independent Variables on Workplace Corruption

In this part of our research, we test the impact of independent variables on workplace corruption.

Figure 16 -The direct effect of independent variables on workplace corruption

The result test of direct effect of powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive and procedural justice on workplace corruption presents in table 35. Beta results highlight a significant negative impact of distributive justice, procedural justice, and sense of mastery on workplace corruption (respectively, γ= -0, 24; p < 0,001, γ= -0, 18; p < 0, 01 and γ= -0.9; p< 0, 05), this validates H5, H7 and H3 that have been fixed in the theoretical part of our study. Beta results also indicate a significant positive impact of powerlessness on corruption (γ= 0, 12; p < 0, 05), this result also validates H1; it means that powerlessness has a significant positive impact on corruption.

H1: Powerlessness is positively related to corruption H3: Sense of mastery is negatively related to corruption H5: Distributive justice is negatively related to corruption H7: Procedural justice is negatively related to corruption

Test of the Impact of Independent Variables on Workplace Deviance

In this part, we test the direct impact of independent variables on workplace deviance.

Figure 17 -The direct effect of independent variables on workplace deviance

We test the direct effect of powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive and procedural justice on workplace deviance and the result presents in table 36. Regression results validate significant negative impacts of procedural justice (γ= -0, 24; p < 0, 01), and sense of mastery (γ= -0, 16; p < 0, 01) on workplace deviance, then H8 and H4 are validated. The H2 is accepted and validated, the beta results highlight a significant positive impact of powerlessness on workplace deviance (γ= 0, 17; p < 0, 01). Results fail, however, to validate any significant effect of distributive justice on workplace deviance; consequently the H6 is rejected.

H2. Powerlessness has a positive impact on workplace deviance H4. Sense of mastery has a negative impact on property workplace deviance H6. Distributive justice has a negative impact on property workplace deviance H8. Procedural justice has a negative impact on property workplace deviance

Test of the Effect of Moderators

The aim of this part of our study is to observe if the interaction effect between our independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, procedural and distributive justice)

and dependent variables (workplace corruption and deviance) change the direction or magnitude due to the moderator effects of two different moderating variables: transparency and caring climate. In fact, at first by considering to the Beta result, we highlight the significant effect of moderators on the relationships of independent and dependent variables, then by considering to the result of regression coefficients we explore that moderators increase or decrease the impact of independent variables on dependent variables. A multiple regression is used to determine the effects of a moderating variable. As mentioned before, the procedure proposed by Hays ( 2013) is used to test what are called "moderated mediations"

through the PROCESS macro and its model 1 is used in our moderating analysis.

The Moderator Effect of Transparency between the Relationship of Independent Variables and Workplace Corruption

In this part, we test the moderating effect of transparency in the relationship of independent variables and workplace corruption.

Figure 18 -The moderating effect of transparency

The following results in table 37, present the moderating effect of transparency in the relationship of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive and procedural justice) and workplace corruption. We test the effect of transparency in the relationship of each independent variables and workplace corruption separately. The results highlight a significant effect of transparency on the relationship of powerlessness and workplace corruption (γ= -0.11; p < 0, 05). However, by comparing the regression coefficient of direct effect of powerlessness on workplace corruption, we explore that transparency reverse the positive effect of powerlessness on workplace corruption, then H9.1 is rejected. On the other hand, transparency has a very significant effect on the relationship of sense of mastery and workplace corruption (γ= -0.19; p < 0, 001), the result of regression coefficient shows that transparency increases the effect of sense of mastery on workplace corruption, therefore H9.2 is validated. Results do not validate any significant moderating effect of transparency on the relationship of procedural justice and workplace corruption (γ= -0.06(ns)) likewise distributive justice and workplace corruption (γ= 0.02(ns)), then H9.3 and H9.4 are rejected.

H9.1. Transparency interaction amplifies the positive relationship between

powerlessness and corruption H9.2. Transparency interaction amplifies the negative relationship between sense of mastery and corruption H9.3. Transparency interaction amplifies the negative relationship between procedural justice and corruption H9.4. Transparency interaction amplifies the negative relationship between distributive justice and corruption

The Moderator Effect of Caring Climate between the Relationship of Independent Variables and Workplace Corruption

In this part, we test the moderating effect of caring climate in the relationship of independent variables and workplace corruption.

Figure 19 -The moderating effect of caring climate

We have to indicate that we test the moderating effect of caring climate in the relationship of each independent variables and workplace corruption separately. Table 38 presents the moderating effect of caring climate in the relationship of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, procedural and distributive justice) and workplace corruption. By considering the obtained results, H10.1, H10.2, H10.3 and H10.4 are rejected.

Regression results do not highlight any significant effect of caring climate interaction on the relationship of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, procedural and distributive justice) and workplace corruption (respectively γ= -0, 05(ns), γ= 0, 01(ns), γ= 0, 00 (ns) and γ= 0, 02(ns)).

H10.1. Caring climate interaction amplifies the positive relationship between

powerlessness and corruption H10.2. Caring climate interaction amplifies the negative relationship between sense of mastery and corruption H10.3. Caring climate interaction amplifies the negative relationship between procedural justice and corruption H10.4. Caring climate interaction amplifies the negative relationship between distributive justice and corruption

The Moderator Effect of Transparency between the Relationship of Independent Variables and Workplace Deviance

In this part, we test the moderating effect of transparency in the relationship of independent variables and workplace deviance. The moderating effect of transparency on the relationship of each independent variables and workplace deviance is tested separately.

Figure 20 -The moderating effect of transparency

The following table 39 presents the interaction effect of transparency on the relationship of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery and procedural justice) and workplace deviance. According to the beta result, there is not any significant relationship between distributive justice and workplace deviance. Then, we avoid testing H11.4 (the effect of transparency on the relationship of distributive justice and workplace deviance). Beta results of moderating tests do not highlight any significant effect of transparency on the relationship of independent variables and workplace deviance. Result fails to validate any significant interaction effect of transparency in the relationship of powerlessness (γ= -0.02(ns)) / sense of mastery (γ= -0.05(ns)) / procedural justice (γ= 0.01(ns)) and workplace deviance, therefore, H11.1, H11.2 and H11.3 are rejected.

H11.1. Transparency interaction amplifies the positive relationship between

powerlessness and workplace deviance H11.2. Transparency interaction amplifies the negative relationship between sense of mastery and workplace deviance H11.3. Transparency interaction amplifies the negative relationship between procedural justice and workplace deviance

The Moderator Effect of Caring Climate between the Relationship of Independent Variables and Workplace Deviance

In this part, we test the moderating effect of transparency in relationship of independent variables and workplace deviance. The moderating effect of caring climate in the relationship of each independent variables and workplace deviance is tested separately. According to the statistical result of direct impact of distributive justice on workplace deviance, the beta result highlighted that there is not any significant relationship between distributive justice and workplace deviance. Therefore, we avoid testing H12.4 (the effect of caring climate on the relationship of distributive justice and workplace deviance). Table 40 presents the moderating effect of caring climate on the relationship of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery and procedural justice) and workplace deviance. The results highlight a significant effect of caring climate on the relationship of sense of mastery and workplace deviance (γ= -0.08; p < 0, 05). However, by comparing the regression coefficient of direct impact of sense of mastery on workplace deviance, we have explored that caring climate decreases the effect of sense of mastery on workplace deviance, and then H12.2 is rejected. Beta results also fail to validate H12.1 and H12.3 because caring climate interaction has not any significant effect on the impact of powerlessness (γ= -0.04(ns)) and procedural justice (γ= -0.02(ns)) on workplace deviance.

H12.1. Caring climate interaction amplifies the positive relationship between

powerlessness and workplace deviance H12.2. Caring climate interaction amplifies the negative relationship between sense of mastery and workplace deviance

H12.3. Caring climate interaction amplifies the negative relationship between procedural justice and workplace deviance

[170]

The following table (41) summarizes the hypotheses result of direct impact of independent variables on outcome variables and also the interaction effect of transparency and caring climate on the relationship between independent variables on outcome variables: Direct impact of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive justice and procedural justice) on outcome variables (corruption and workplace deviance)

CONCLUSION

In the beginning of chapter 5, we explained the methodology of confirmatory factor analysis, and then we presented the preliminary analysis that we have done before doing confirmatory factor analysis. Afterward, we presented the confirmatory factor analysis and testing of reliability and validity of all the measurement scales (sense of mastery, powerlessness, distributive justice, procedural justice, corruption, workplace deviance, transparency and caring climate). In the process of confirmatory factor analyzes, we considered and respected the recommendation for model adjustment and the measurement scales re-specified, tested and validated. We tested both measurement and structural model in order to ensure that structural and measurement model of theatrical model have a good fit and acceptable before testing the hypotheses.

In the second part of this chapter, we have tested the hypotheses, 7 out of 8 main hypotheses of our research model were validated. We highlighted that powerlessness impacts positively on workplace corruption and deviance, sense of mastery and procedural justice impact negatively on workplace corruption and deviance. However, distributive justice impact negatively only on workplace corruption. Moreover, we tested the moderating effect of transparency and caring climate in the relationship of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, procedural and distributive justice) and workplace corruption and also in the relationship of independent variables and workplace deviance with the help of the macro PROCESS of [START_REF] Hayes | An introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis[END_REF]. We validated only 1 hypothesis out of the original 16, about the moderating effect of caring climate and transparency between the relationships of independents variables and workplace corruption and deviance.

INTRODUCTION

In chapter 6, the empirical results from different aspects are discussed. As we presented in our methodological part, 575 international participants from international and multinational organizations who are living and working in Canada, France and India have contributed to our research survey. In our research discussion, we do not consider the multicultural aspect, because of existence of various nationalities in our research survey. As we have indicated in theoretical part of this dissertation, the role of culture in shaping the cats and behaviors of individuals at workplace is considerable but the aim of this study is not to investigate the impact and role of culture in shaping workplace corruption and deviance. This study aims to explore the impact of some variables: power, mastery and organizational justice in shaping and forming unethical acts and behaviors of employees in multinational and multicultural organizations without considering the cultures of individuals.

In the first part of this chapter, we follow our result discussion on the basis of our research hypotheses that are already fixed in our theoretical research part. In the second part, the theoretical and managerial implications of our research result are presented. Finally, limits and research perspectives are discussed at the end of this chapter.

DIRECT IMPACT OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES ON OUTCOME VARIABLES

In this section of our dissertation, we explain about the direct impact of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive justice and procedural justice) on workplace corruption and deviance.

Direct Impact of Powerlessness on Workplace Corruption and Deviance

According to the statistical results that are obtained from hypotheses test in the previous section, we validated H1 and H2. We highlighted that powerlessness impact positively on corruption (γ= 0, 12; p < 0, 05) and also powerlessness has a significant positive impact on workplace deviance of employees (γ= 0, 17; p < 0, 01). It's clear that by increasing the powerlessness of employees, the level of corrupt acts and deviant behaviors of employees at workplace increase.

In fact, powerlessness has a direct impact on employee's motivation at workplace; losing motivation of employees can be responded by different types of negative behaviors and attitudes. Powerlessness influences an enormous of corrupt acts and behaviors, such as cheating, manipulation, anger, aggressiveness and many other negative attitudes [START_REF] Howard | Sex, power, and influence tactics in intimate relationships[END_REF][START_REF] Keltner | Just teasing: A conceptual analysis and empirical review[END_REF][START_REF] Fiske | Controlling Other People -the Impact of Power on Stereotyping[END_REF][START_REF] Gruenfeld | Power and the objectification of social targets[END_REF][START_REF] Kraus | Social Class, Sense of Control, and Social Explanation[END_REF][START_REF] Kraus | Social Class, Sense of Control, and Social Explanation[END_REF].

Employees feel powerlessness when they do not have enough control over the things done at work or they do not have sufficient autonomy over their work activities (Bennett, 1998;[START_REF] Mckinlay | New wine in an old bottle: Does alienation provide an explanation of the origins of physician discontent[END_REF][START_REF] Mckinlay | New wine in an old bottle: Does alienation provide an explanation of the origins of physician discontent[END_REF]Tummers &Dulk, 2013). When employees perceive that they don't have enough power and control over their activities at work, they feel that they are losing their values and norms. Consequently, they engage in different types of corrupt acts and behaviors to prevent their norms and values. The finding of this research confirms the research finding of [START_REF] Pablo | Identifying, enabling and managing dynamic capabilities in the public sector[END_REF]; employees perceive powerlessness as a misfit of between employee-organization values and norms which is responded by workplace deviance or corrupt acts.

Authors and researchers have two different points of view about the power of employees at workplace; number of researchers believe that powerful individuals focus on any contextually activated goals [START_REF] Guinote | Power and goal pursuit[END_REF], thus, they are more engaged to cheat or corrupt when the rewards are attractive for them [START_REF] Anderson | Power, optimism, and risk-taking[END_REF][START_REF] Galinsky | Power and perspectives not taken[END_REF][START_REF] Inesi | Power and loss aversion[END_REF][START_REF] Lammers | Power Increases Hypocrisy: Moralizing in Reasoning, Immorality in Behavior[END_REF]. The second group of researchers believes that powerless employees do not feel secure at workplace, so they have more desire to acquire high-status products in an intention to raise their sense of power in order to return to status quo security [START_REF] Rucker | Desire to acquire: Powerlessness and compensatory consumption[END_REF]. By comparing different point of views about the power of employees at workplace, we conclude that power acts as an effective tool to promote social and ethical behaviors of individuals at workplace under certain condition [START_REF] Chen | Relationship orientation as a moderator of the effects of social power[END_REF][START_REF] Decelles | Does power corrupt or enable? When and why power facilitates self-interested behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Decelles | Does power corrupt or enable? When and why power facilitates self-interested behavior[END_REF].

According to the findings of [START_REF] Yap | How Power and Powerlessness Corrupt[END_REF], there are two groups of individuals at workplaces, individuals with prevention concerns and individuals with promotion concerns.

The individuals with prevention concerns, being in a powerless state persuade high level of negative effect, which motivates them to use some tactics such as: taking chances and behaving unethically to remand a secure state. The individuals with promotion concerns, being in a powerful state, make them greedy for additional power, and then through approach tactics try to catch their goals. The finding of our research focuses on the individuals with prevention concerns which in powerless state are more interested in corrupt acts and behaviors.

All individuals are not looking for only approach reward, but also for approach safety [START_REF] Gray | The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septohippocampal system[END_REF][START_REF] Gray | Brain systems that mediate both emotion and cognition[END_REF]; powerlessness perception has a direct impact on individuals who are looking for approach safety. Therefore, prevention individuals engage tactics to move toward safety when they are powerless. These findings of our research also emphasize the recent researches of [START_REF] Scholer | Responding to negativity: How a risky tactic can serve a vigilant strategy[END_REF] and [START_REF] Scholer | When risk seeking becomes a motivational necessity[END_REF] which found that prevention individuals would adopt risky approach strategies to fulfill their conscious goal of returning to safety when they are in a loss situation.

Therefore, the finding of this research develops this idea that powerlessness leads to corrupt acts and behaviors when it is coupled with a prevention focus but not with a promotion focus. In fact, when prevention employees feel powerless, they would engage to risky and unethical acts and behaviors, in an attempt to return to status quo security. The finding of this research also confirms the COR theory that we developed earlier in our theoretical section, power at workplace is considered as an individual resource for employees, when individuals perceive that they are losing their individual resources then they would be engaged in corrupt act and behaviors to prevent and preserve their resources. Workplace corruption and deviance are considered by them as a protective strategy for resource preservation. The finding of this research by considering COR theory highlights that the employees who perceive powerless at workplace, they feel that are not able to find a right mean to get back their control, consequently they feel unsafe then they engage in unethical acts and behaviors to protect themselves from possible loss.

Direct Impact of Sense of Mastery on Workplace Corruption and Deviance

The statistical result highlights that sense of mastery has a negative significant impact on workplace corruption (γ= -0.9; p< 0, 05) and workplace deviance (γ= -0, 16; p < 0, 01), hence, H3 and H4 are validated. Therefore, sense of mastery has a direct impact on workplace corruption and deviant behaviors of employees at workplace. These findings emphasize that sense of mastery acts as an effective tool to prevent and control the corrupt cats and behaviors of individuals at workplace.

Sense of mastery is an individual's subjective feeling that significant events in life can be controlled [START_REF] Pearlin | The structure of coping[END_REF][START_REF] Pearlin | The structure of coping[END_REF][START_REF] Michinov | Social Comparison, Perceived Control and Occupational Burnout[END_REF]. In fact sense of mastery is considered as perspective in which the employees feel effective and efficient in order to control and shape their life (Greenburg & Grunberg, 2006). These definitions of sense of mastery indicate that the sense of mastery has an important impact on individual's life to shape and control their life, furthermore to shape and control the acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace.

The findings of this research emphasize that the individuals who have lesser selfmastery are more intended to participate in corrupt acts and unethical behaviors and greater beliefs in self-mastery leads to lowered intentions to engage in deviant behaviors (Vohs & Schooler, 2008). Therefore, it's obvious that sense of mastery has an impact on shaping a broad range of attitudes and behaviors of employees. In fact, individuals with high sense of mastery are more intended to control their outcomes.

Sense of mastery can be considered as one of the important senses of human being in creation of the sense of responsibility in order to control the acts and behaviors of employees at workplace. Individuals with high sense of mastery are more aware about their weakness, strength, opportunities which leads to being more motivated, committed and responsible in order to act and behave more ethically at workplace [START_REF] Senge | The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization[END_REF].

The finding of our research and other researchers [START_REF] Senge | The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization[END_REF]Vohs &Schooler, 2008) highlights that sense of mastery has a significant impact on workplace corruption and deviance. Therefore, it can be considered as an efficient tool to increase the sense of confidence, responsibility, motivation and commitment of employees in order to control the acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace. Furthermore, our findings contribute to the literature on both organizational deviancy (workplace corruption and deviance) and COR theory. The finding of this study helps to better understand the workplace corruption which is grounded in COR theory and also by considering to COR theory the correlation of sense of mastery with corrupt acts and behaviors of employees at workplace are better expressed.

Our study highlights that corruption and deviance are considered as resource preservation strategy for employees who don't have enough mastery at workplace. In fact, sense of mastery is considered as personal resources for individuals at workplace. When individuals lose their sense of mastery at work, they feel that don't have enough control over their work activities then they are motivated to engage in corrupt acts and deviant behaviors to preserve their mastery from possible loss.

Direct Impact of Procedural and Distributive Justice on Workplace Corruption and Deviance

The finding of this study highlights the significant negative impact of procedural justice on workplace corruption (γ= -0, 18; p < 0, 01) and workplace deviance (γ= -0, 24; p < 0, 01), and also the beta result highlights that distributive justice has a very negative significant impact on workplace corruption (γ= -0, 24; p < 0,001), therefore H5, H6 and H8 are validated. On the other hand, the expected negative links between distributive justice and workplace deviance is rejected (.035(ns)), and H7 is not supported.

Organizational justice refers to individual's perception of how right and fair he or she is treated at work [START_REF] Mccardle | Organizational justice and workplace deviance: The role of organizational structure, powerlessness, and information salience[END_REF]. Distributive and procedural justices as two main components of organizational justice have been studied in this research. Distributive justice refers to the allocations or outcomes that some individuals get and others do not. Individuals perceive that whatever they receive are not fair compared to their allocations at workplace. In brief, distributive justice refers to the outcomes (salary, job security, job promotion and etc) being distributed proportional to outcomes (education, training, experience and effort) [START_REF] Adams | Inequity in social exchange[END_REF]. Procedural justice refers to the means by which outcomes are allocated, but not specifically to the outcomes themselves. Procedural justice establishes certain principles specifying and governing the roles of participants within the decision-making processes [START_REF] Gilliland | Effects of procedural and distributive justice on reactions to a selection system[END_REF].

In the present study, we find that individuals engage in direct and indirect behavioral responses such as: theft, withdrawal behaviors, vandalism to unfair treatment [START_REF] Greenberg | Employee theft as a reaction to underpayment inequity: The hidden cost of pay cuts[END_REF]Jermier, Knights, &Nord, 1994). In fact, procedural and distributive justice have a direct relationship with the emotions, attitudes and behavior of employees (Abu Elanain, 2010), employees are more intended to engage in corrupt acts and behaviors when they perceive that their managers or supervisors treat them in an unjust and unfair manner [START_REF] Lim | The IT Way of Loafing on the Job: Cyber loafing, neutralizing, and Organizational Justice[END_REF]. Furthermore, our studies highlight that corruption and deviant behaviors of employees at workplace are the reaction to unfairness and injustice which are perceived by employees in their relationship with their supervisors or employers [START_REF] Ambrose | Sabotage in the workplace: The role of organizational injustice[END_REF][START_REF] Aquino | Justice Constructs, negative affectivity, and employee deviance: A proposed model and empirical test[END_REF][START_REF] Aquino | Justice Constructs, negative affectivity, and employee deviance: A proposed model and empirical test[END_REF]Skarlicki &Folger, 1997).

According to our finding, procedural injustice leads to workplace corruption and unethical behaviors. On the other hand, distributive injustice has only a direct impact on corrupt acts of individuals at workplace. The main focus of procedural justice is related to the participation role of employees in decision-making process. It's clear that the participation of employees before and after decision making process has an important role in shaping the acts and behaviors of employees at workplace. The employees who are not satisfied with the fairness of procedures, policies and decisions that are related to them are more motivated to violate organizational norms and commit acts of deviance and corruption [START_REF] Aquino | Justice Constructs, negative affectivity, and employee deviance: A proposed model and empirical test[END_REF].

In fact, employers and managers who employ the individuals in the process of decision-making and take the organizational decisions on the basis of accurate and complete information from the employees, provide such a fairness perception to their employees. When fairness procedure are perceived by employees, they feel that the employers have fairly treated them, and as a result, they will be more satisfied, committed and responsible to the organizational norms and values in order to act and behave correctly in organizations.

Distributive justice is more related to the salary and remuneration of individuals at workplace. The individuals who do not find justice between their inputs and outcomes compared to the others who are in the same level and situation are more intended in corrupt acts. The finding of our investigation highlights a strong impact of distributive justice on corruption, with increasing the level of distributive justice; individuals are less engaged in workplace corruption.

Our investigation prolong the finding of [START_REF] Adams | Inequity in social exchange[END_REF]; employees compare the ratio of their outcomes like pay and promotion to the ratio of their inputs such as education, experience and skill, with the ratio of inputs and outcomes of other individuals who are in the same situation at their workplace and if they find injustice, they are motivated to engage in corrupt acts such as bribery and embezzlement to compensate their perceived injustice.

Employees who perceive that the ratio of their inputs and outcomes are just compared to their co-workers; experience equity at workplace and for this reason, they will be more satisfied, loyal and committed to the organization. Therefore, they avoid engaging in workplace corruption.

We previously mentioned that distributive justice is particularly is in correlation with workplace corruption but we couldn't find a significant relationship between distributive justice and workplace deviance. This finding explores that individuals who perceive injustice in the ratio of their inputs and outcomes compare to their co-workers are more motivated to engage in bribery and corrupt acts with monetary and reward purposes. In fact, they are not really intended to response to the distributive justice through deviant behaviors. It seems that individuals prefer through corruption compensate their unfair salaries and remunerations.

The direct impact and relationships that we explored between organizational justice (procedural and distributive justice) and workplace corruption and deviance contribute to the literature on corrupt acts and COR theory. In fact, procedural and distributive justices are personal resources for employees at workplace, when individuals perceive that these resources are losing, they will be motivated to use workplace deviance and corruption as resource preservation strategies to preserve their resources. In other words, individuals thoughtfully engage in corrupt acts and behaviors as a defensive move to protect perceived threats on valued motivation factors.

MODERATING EFFECT OF CARING CLIMATE AND TRANSPARENCY

In this part of our research, we argue about the moderating effect of transparency and caring climate in the relationship of independent variables (sense of mastery, powerlessness, procedural and distributive justice) and outcome variables (workplace corruption and deviance). The interaction effect of transparency and caring climate on the relationship of each independent variables and outcome variables are tested separately.

The Interaction of Transparency

The result highlights that transparency interaction increases the negative impact of sense of mastery on workplace corruption. On the other hand, the interaction of transparency reverse the positive impact to negative impact of powerlessness on workplace corruption then H9.2 is confirmed but H9.1 is rejected. The interaction of transparency has not any significant effect on the relationship of organizational justice (procedural and distributive justice) and workplace corruption; therefore, H9.3 and H9.4 are rejected. We explored that decreasing or increasing transparency has not any significant effect on the impact of powerlessness, sense of mastery and procedural justice on workplace deviance, consequently, H11.1, H11.2 and H11.3 are rejected.

Transparency is defined as the open flow of information, openness, communication and accountability in organizations. In organizations with high level of transparency, employees are aware of decisions, policies and actions that are taken in organizations by managers and supervisors and also when public demand information, the officers reveal information for them [START_REF] Holzner | Transparency in global change -The vanguard of the open society[END_REF][START_REF] Holzner | Transparency in global change -The vanguard of the open society[END_REF]Piotrowaski, 2007).

The finding of this research highlight that the beta result by transparency interaction changed from (γ= -0, 098; p < 0, 05) to (γ= -0, 19; p < 0, 01) on the relationship between sense of mastery and workplace corruption. We explored that the interaction of transparency increases the negative impact of sense of mastery on workplace corruption. It means that in organizations where transparency exists, individuals with high sense of mastery are less engaged in corrupt acts. As we expressed, sense of mastery is related to the mastery, authority and control of employees over their tasks and duties at workplace. Therefore, we underline that by existing of transparency at workplace, individuals are more oriented to use their mastery, control and authority in right and proper ways. Consequently, they are less motivated to do corrupt acts. In fact transparency by making clear and transparence the organizational system would not let the employees to use their mastery and authority in wrong ways.

Transparency makes sure that all internal and external parties are given access to organizational information then an internal and external control is created in organizations [START_REF] Lainhart | Why IT governance is a top management issue[END_REF]. In a transparent and clear organizational environment, there is more internal and external communication of individuals in order to share the information, results and decisions [START_REF] Harroll | Organizational transparency, employee perceptions, and employee morale: a correlational study[END_REF]. Normally, in this type of working environment, individuals are more motivated to use his/her authority and mastery to engage in ethical activity rather than corrupt acts.

The regression result highlights that powerlessness impact positively on workplace corruption (γ= 0, 12; p < 0, 05) but, by transparency interaction in the relationship of powerlessness and workplace corruption, we observe that the positive impact of powerlessness changes to negative impact on corruption (γ= -0, 11; p < 0, 05). This finding is significant, because it explores that in transparence organizations; even powerless employees are less motivated to engage in corrupt acts. Following our discussion, the individuals with prevention concerns, being in a powerless state persuade high level of negative effect which motivates them to use certain tactics such as: taking chances, acting or behaving unethically to remand a secure state but transparency by making transparence the organizational atmosphere, system, procedures, decisions and actions decrease the chances of individuals to engage in corrupt acts at workplace.

Transparency and accountability provide an indication such as internal mechanisms of managerial self-criticism, self-improvement and willingness to improve existing processes and procedures [START_REF] Finkelstein | Transparency in Public Policy: Great Britain and the United States[END_REF]in Vigoda & Yuval, 2003). In brief, transparency can be used as a controlling instrument that conducts employees to use their authority and mastery in correct and proper ways to prevent workplace corruption.

We were not able to explore any significant interaction effect of transparency on the relationship of powerlessness/sense of mastery and workplace deviance. In fact, workplace deviance is more related to the unethical behaviors of individuals at workplace then we emphasize that transparency has more influence on corrupt acts of employees rather than unethical behaviors of employees. Regarding the regression results, by transparency interaction, we cannot increase or decrease the impact of procedural and distributive justice on workplace corruption and deviance. This result is quite logic because organizations with high level of procedural and distributive justice, have such a transparent system. The concept of procedural justice is related to the participation of individuals in the process of organizational making-decisions, policies and procedures. On the other hand in organizations with high level of transparency, the policies, procedure and decisions are transparent for all individuals [START_REF] Limas | The influence of performance appraisal systems on leadership development[END_REF]. By considering the organizational justice and transparency concept, it is highlighted that both of them are following the same concept, therefore it's quite normal that transparency has not a very effective interaction in relationship of organizational justice and workplace corruption/deviance because the organizations with high level of transparency already have such a specific type of internal transparency.

The Interaction of Caring Climate

In this part of our research, the interaction of caring climate in the relationship of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive and procedural justice)

and outcome variables (workplace corruption and deviance) are discussed. In fact, caring climate doesn't have any significant effect on the impact of independent variables on outcome variables, so H11.1, H11.2, H11.3, H11.4, H12.1, H12.2 and H12.3 are rejected.

The major consideration of caring climate is taking decision on the basis of what is best for the individuals and what is best for the wall-being of employees in organizations.

Indeed, a caring climate utilitarian based in which the firm has a sincere interest in the wellbeing of individuals in organizations (Fu & Deshpande, 2012& 2013). From the finding of this research, we explore that caring climate by considering to the well-being of individuals won't increase the positive impact of powerlessness and negative impact of sense of mastery on workplace corruption and deviance because the organizations who consider to the power, authority and mastery of individuals, already they care about the well-being of employees in organizations.

Organizations by giving power and mastery to individuals are intended to care about the well-being of employees in organizations. Therefore, organizations by considering to the power and mastery of individuals at workplace care about the well-being of employees in order to make them more satisfied, motivated, committed and secure. Actually, senses of mastery, powerlessness and caring climate have such a similar concept and all of them by working on the similar psychological factors such as: well-being, motivation, commitment and security try to keep employees away from engaging in workplace corruption and deviance. It's quite logic that the interaction of caring climate doesn't change the impact of sense of mastery and powerlessness on workplace corruption and deviance because the organizations which consider to the power, authority and mastery of individual, already they have such a specific type of caring climate.

Our finding shows that caring climate doesn't act as an effective moderator to increase the impact of procedural and distributive justice on workplace deviance and corruption. The goal of caring climate is to create an environment that all the members of an organization care about the welfare and well-being of others. In this type of organizations, individuals perceive that they are supported by the policies, practices and strategies of the organization [START_REF] Martin | Continuities and Extensions of Ethical Climate Theory: A Meta-Analytic Review[END_REF]. On the other hand, the concept of organizational justice is making fairness outcomes for individuals compared to their inputs and also employing individuals in the process of decision-making and governing of organizations. According to the both concept of organizational justice and caring climate, we highlight that organizational justice creates particular type of caring climate by considering to the well-being and welfare of individuals.

Certainly, distributive justice by taking into account the salary and remuneration of individuals care about the welfare of employees, and also procedural justice by considering to the participation of individuals in the decision-making process of organizations care about the well-being of individuals at workplace. Following our interpretation, we explore that in organizations with high level of organizational justice; already such type of caring climate exists at workplace. Therefore, it's acceptable that caring climate don't interact significantly to increase the impact of procedural and distributive justice on workplace corruption and deviance because already procedural and distributive justice created a specific type of caring environment for individuals at workplace.

IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH

Corruption is a very sensitive subject in organizations; the individuals who are engaging in corrupt acts and behaviors at workplace are not interested to share their experiences with others. From September 2014 to February 2015, we contacted 25700 employees but only 575 employees cooperated with us and accepted to participate in our survey. It means that only 2.1% of employees were interested to participate in a survey which is related to workplace corruption and deviance. Therefore, the finding of this research can be interesting for scholars and particularly for managers to fix the effective policies against workplace corruption. Theoretical and managerial implications of this dissertation are discussed in below in order to highlight the importance of this research for scholars as well as managers:

Theoretical Implications

This research makes significant theoretical contributions from different orders. There are number of studies about workplace corruption [START_REF] Hillard | Corruption in the Public Sector: Causes and Remedies[END_REF][START_REF] Carvajal | Large Scale Corruption: Definition, Causes, and cures[END_REF][START_REF] Pelletier | The Aftermath of Organizational Corruption: Employee Attributions and Emotional Reactions[END_REF][START_REF] Pelletier | The Aftermath of Organizational Corruption: Employee Attributions and Emotional Reactions[END_REF] and workplace deviance (Robinson &[START_REF] Robinson | A typology of deviant workplace behaviors: A multi-dimensional scaling study[END_REF][START_REF] De Même | Les termes de déviance et de contreproductivité semblent être souvent utilisés de façon interchangeable. Ils reflètent le comportement potentiellement dangereux au travail, allant de formes mineures à des formes plus graves. « En outre, ce comportement nuisible peut être dirigé soit vers des individus, comme en témoignent des comportements tels que le harcèlement ou l'agression physique[END_REF]Wiener, 1996) but this research is different from previous studies and opens a new subject. In fact, the aim of this study is to explore some factors which are in correlation with workplace corruption and deviance. This study is one of the few quantitative studies with numerous samples (575 participants) that have been done about workplace corruption and deviance in human resource science.

The finding of this research is different from previous researches because most of the previous studies in organizational and workplace corruption don't study only corruption; they cover number of issues of relevance for development and business confidence. The majority of these indexes are based on vague and general questions about the level and frequency of corruption by experts and business managers, the other group of researches focuses on questionnaires sent to middle and high-level managers to either international or local firms.

But this research covers all levels of employees from different positions (managers, supervisors, accountant, auditor, officer, and consultant). Unlike, previous researches which don't distinguish between administrative and political corruption, this research concentrate only on administrative corruption.

Furthermore, this study explores new factors which are leading, forming and accelerating corrupt acts and behaviors of employees at workplace. This study worked on other variables rather than salaries, promotion and other types of reward tools to prevent administrative corruption and deviance. This research presents the process and mechanism in which, the lack of power, mastery and justice lead to misconduct acts and behaviors of employees in organizations. This dissertation explores the devaluation perception of personal resources such as power, self-esteem and organizational justice which has a significant impact on daily work deviances. We have emphasized that by working on the power, authority and sense of mastery of individuals, similarly, the justice in organizations, corrupt acts and behaviors of individuals can be prevented and controlled. To our knowledge, this study is one of the few studies that highlight the relationship of powerlessness, sense of mastery, procedural and distributive justice with workplace corruption and deviance through the theory of conservation of resources [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF].

This study in the field of human resource science investigates the relationship mechanism of power, mastery and justice with corrupt acts and behaviors on the basis of COR theory. Generally speaking, we highlighted that the power, mastery, distributive and procedural justice are considered as resources for individuals, when individuals feel that they are losing them then they will be more motivated to engage in corrupt acts and behaviors to preserve their resources, therefore workplace corruption and deviance are considered as a protective strategy of resource preservation.

The finding of this research has several contributions for COR theory. According to COR theory, resources are defined as objects, conditions, personal characteristics, and energies [START_REF] Hobfoll | Stress, Culture, and Community: The Psychology and Philosophy of Stress[END_REF]. Object resources have a physical presence (e.g., clothing, shelter).

Condition resources are structures or states (e.g., status at work, good health) that allow access to or the possession of other resources. Personal resources include skills and traits (e.g., occupational skills, self-esteem). This research explores that power of employee over work, sense of mastery of individuals at work and also procedural and distributive justice can be considered as resources of COR theory. This dissertation by framing within a motivational theorizing of corrupt acts and behaviors argues that COR theory defines and analyzes the process by which individuals are engaged into organizational crime. While partial, results

point toward an inclusive perspective of workplace corruption, where nature and objects of corruption relates to the characteristics of personal resources under strain. The COR theory can consider corruption as individual resource preservation strategies which is relevant to organizational and interpersonal corruption. Inversely, corruptive strategies inform on the nature of perceived sources of threat.

Furthermore, this study highlights the importance of COR theory of [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Stress, Culture, and Community: The Psychology and Philosophy of Stress[END_REF]Hobfoll ( & 2001) ) to understand the mechanism of engaging individuals in unethical acts and behavior at workplace. The finding of our research emphasizes that "individuals with many resources are less vulnerable to lose of resources and are more likely to invest in order to earn more. Conversely, individuals who have less recourses are more vulnerable to lose of resources and are not able to earn more" (Hobfoll, 2001: 349). On the basis of our finding, this research mobilizes a theoretical framework that provides and presents some possible actions for managers. On the basis of our theoretical framework managers are able to prevent and control the corrupt acts and unethical behaviors of employees at workplace by working on the indicated personal recourses of individuals (power, mastery and justice).

This research highlights the importance of power and sense of mastery of employees in preventing their corrupt acts at workplace. Many previous researches considered that powerful employees are more intended to engage in unethical behaviors [START_REF] Anderson | Power, optimism, and risk-taking[END_REF][START_REF] Galinsky | Power and perspectives not taken[END_REF], 2010 and[START_REF] Lammers | Power Increases Hypocrisy: Moralizing in Reasoning, Immorality in Behavior[END_REF] but our finding confirms the finding of [START_REF] Rucker | Desire to acquire: Powerlessness and compensatory consumption[END_REF] and [START_REF] Yap | How Power and Powerlessness Corrupt[END_REF] that powerlessness perception leads to corrupt acts and behaviors when it is coupled with a prevention focus. Furthermore, this research highlights the role and impact of sense of mastery in shaping the behaviors of individuals at workplace. The finding of this study emphasizes the employees who have less authority and mastery at workplace; they are more likely to take risks of acting and behaving unethically (Vohs &Schooler, 2008 and[START_REF] Sengupta | Care enough to cheat: Selfmastery and decision-making[END_REF][START_REF] Sengupta | Care enough to cheat: Selfmastery and decision-making[END_REF].

In our dissertation, we also point out that transparency increases the negative impact of sense of mastery on workplace corruption and also with transparency interaction the positive impact of powerlessness reverse to negative impact on workplace corruption. These findings highlight that individuals who have high sense of mastery in organizations with high level of transparency are less motivated to do corrupt acts. In fact transparency is caused when individuals use their mastery and authority more properly and correctly at work.

This study adds to previous researches because it explores the impact of powerlessness on workplace corruption with and without existing transparency. The result of direct impact of powerlessness on workplace corruption highlights that powerless employees with prevention concern are more indented to do corrupt acts to protect and secure themselves.

However, this result is changed by existence of transparency in organizations. In fact, in transparent organizations, organizational atmosphere, system, procedures, decisions and member activities are transparence and clear, then, powerless individuals are less encouraged to engage in workplace corruption. According to our finding, transparency can be considered as an effective variable to change the positive relationship of powerlessness and workplace corruption in organizations.

The finding of this research regarding the correlation of organizational justice with workplace corruption and deviance is different from other researches because most of pervious researchers focused on the impact of the organizational justice on the values, moral maturity and sensitivity of individual's fairness [START_REF] Liao | The impact of justice climate, climate strength, and justice orientation on work outcomes: A multilevel-multifoci framework[END_REF][START_REF] Liao | The impact of justice climate, climate strength, and justice orientation on work outcomes: A multilevel-multifoci framework[END_REF][START_REF] Appelbaum | Positive and negative deviant workplace behaviors: causes, impacts, and solutions[END_REF], similarly, the impact of organizational justice on performance, motivation, selfconfidence, job satisfaction and citizenship behavior (Cropanzano & Greenberg, 1997[START_REF] Koh | The Link Between Organizational Ethics and Job Satisfaction: A Study of Managers in Singapore[END_REF][START_REF] Cropanzano | Moral virtues, fairness heuristics, social entities, and other denizens of organizational justice[END_REF], only a few studies [START_REF] Aquino | Justice Constructs, negative affectivity, and employee deviance: A proposed model and empirical test[END_REF][START_REF] Lim | The IT Way of Loafing on the Job: Cyber loafing, neutralizing, and Organizational Justice[END_REF] concentrated specifically on the impact of organizational justice on unethical acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace. Most of previous researchers have studied the indirect impact of organizational justice on the acts and behaviors of individuals in organizations but this research studied the direct impact of procedural and distributive justice on corrupt acts and deviant behaviors of employees at workplace. This dissertation reveals that organizational justice has a direct impact on shaping the couple of corrupt acts and behaviors of employees. In fact, this study by using the theory of COR [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF], 2001and Halbesleben et al., 2014) highlights the particular mechanism that exists between organizational justice (procedural and distributive) and workplace corruption and deviance. This mechanism highlights that procedural and distributive justice are considered as resources for individuals so by engaging in unethical acts and behaviors, they are intended to preserve them.

In previous researches, corruption is considered as a part of workplace deviance but this research studied precisely and separately the direct impact of procedural and distributive justice only on corruption of employees at workplace. The investigation of this research explores that both of procedural and distributive justice impact directly on workplace corruption but only procedural justice has a direct impact on workplace deviance. This finding emphasizes that procedural and distributive justice play a key role in controlling and preventing corrupt acts such as bribery, which is so popular in administrative system of many countries.

This research reveals that the individuals who perceive procedural injustice are intended to engage in both workplace deviance and corruption but individuals who perceive distributive injustice; they are more intended to engage in workplace corruption which is more related to bribery. In this study, by comparing the consequences of procedural and distributive injustice, it is clear that both of them are dangerous for the health and performance of organizations but the consequence of procedural injustice is more serious than distributive injustice. According to our empirical findings, procedural justice is considered as a very important recourse for employees who are ready to engage any kind of unethical acts and behaviors to response to procedural injustice.

Finally, the intersection of several disciplines such as psychology, marketing services and human resource management can contribute to the advancement of knowledge by offering a multidisciplinary vision of these phenomena within organizations.

Managerial Implications

The result of this research allows giving several recommendations to all level of managers in public and private sectors, as well as mangers of national, international and multinational organizations. The finding of this study presents and gives recommendations to managers on how to prevent the corrupt acts and behaviors of employees at workplace by working on the sense of mastery, power of employees and also the justice in organizations. In this part, we present different managerial implications from the result of our doctoral research.

At first, we have to indicate that the finding of this research does not consider the multicultural aspect. Therefore, it is not limited to a certain nation; in fact, the result of this research can be applied to different types of organizations in different countries because the finding of this research has been obtained from an international survey, with the participation of 575 employees from different nationalities who are resident of three countries (Canada, France, and India). We emphasize that the finding of this research can be considered as a reflection of employees from different nationalities.

In these days corrupt acts and behaviors of employees such as: bribery, nepotism, greed, embezzlement, fraud, extortion and etc are common problem in all types of organizations. The finding of international transparency which is published every year highlights that the indicated unethical acts and behaviors exist in all countries, only the level of practices are different. In some countries like India and Nigeria, individuals are more engaged in corrupt acts and behaviors, in opposite in some countries such as: Scandinavian countries, individuals are less intended to practice in these types of acts and behaviors (Transparency International, 2015).

However, managers are aware of serious consequences of organizational corruption and workplace deviance such as: wasting public resources and money, undermining public trust in government and inefficient in operations, bad affection on investment, weakens economic growth, undermines the rule of law, direct effect on vulnerable people in society, causing mistrust, dysfunction of social model, the weakness of social dialogue, the lack of confidence in the market and finally, having difficulties to recruit and retain quality staff or obtain best value in tender process. Therefore, the findings of this research can be interesting for managers in order to present some effective tools to prevent and control organizational corruption.

By theoretical investigation, we have explored that preventing and controlling corrupt acts and behaviors of employees is one of the concerns of all managers in the entire world.

Therefore, this doctoral research by highlighting certain variables (power, sense of mastery, procedural and distributive justice) aims to present some effective tools to control and prevent the corrupt acts and behaviors of employees at workplace. We present the relationship and the existing mechanism of powerlessness, sense of mastery, procedural and distributive justice with workplace corruption and deviance in four different parts.

In these days, people cannot work under a condition that power is in the hand of limited number of individuals and the others are powerless, from revolutions and manifestations which happened in olden days to the recent Arab spring, all of these events illustrate that powerless individuals will act in ways that are characteristic of the individual powerful. Individuals who are participating in social political movement, they focus on prevention [START_REF] Yap | How Power and Powerlessness Corrupt[END_REF]. Mangers have to be conscious that a link exists between powerlessness and prevention of corrupt acts and behaviors of employees.

Mangers have to be aware of individuals who are looking for approach safety. When employees are sensitive to losses and when coupled with a sense of powerlessness or a state of loss, therefore, they are more intended to do something for passing from the state of loss to the state of safety and security. Individuals who are looking for a safety approach , when they find themselves in a state of loss, they are motivated to do something to preserve themselves, then they engage in couple of corrupt acts and behaviors such as bribery, violence and aggression at workplace as a strategy to preserve themselves from loss.

The first recommendation of this research study to managers is linked to work on the sense of power of employees at workplace. The sense of power gives the sense of safety and security to employees at workplace then managers by giving a controlled power to employees can improve the sense of safety and security of employees. Therefore, in this state employees are more honest and more motivated to behave ethically. Managers have to consider that power of employees which is not under the control of managers and organizations can lead to corrupt acts and behaviors of employees [START_REF] Kipnis | Does Power Corrupt?[END_REF][START_REF] Lammers | Power Increases Hypocrisy: Moralizing in Reasoning, Immorality in Behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Lammers | Power increases infidelity among men and women[END_REF]. Hence, "one practical strategy to reduce the corruptive effects of power is to instill a prevention focus orientation on leaders and decision-makers (think about one's duties and obligations to the organization and employees), especially in situations when opportunities to act selfishly and unethically are present" (Yap, 2013: 40).

To conclude the first recommendation, we have to highlight the key role of transparency in controlling of powerless individuals. We recommend the managers, who are not interested or can't give more power to employees because of the system or procedural function of their organizations, work on internal and external transparency of their organizations. Our research explores that powerless employees are less encouraged to do corrupt acts when there is high level of transparency in organizations. The managers by making clear and transparence of organizational atmosphere, system, procedures, decisions and employees activities, are able to control the corrupt acts of powerless employees.

The second recommendation of this study for managers is related to work on the sense of mastery of individuals at workplace. The finding of this research highlights that managers by working on the sense of mastery of employees are able to prevent and control unethical acts and behaviors at workplace. Individuals are able to improve their sense of mastery when they reach to certain level of proficiency. Therefore, managers should work on the proficiency of employees over their responsibilities at work. In order to improve the level of individual's By increasing the senses of mastery, individuals believe that they are effective across a broad range of life domains, that they can and do master, control and shape their life (Greenburg & Grunberg, 2006). Furthermore, individuals who have high personal mastery are learning to generate and sustain creative tension in their lives [START_REF] Senge | The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization[END_REF]. Managers by knowing the correlation of sense of mastery, sense of responsibility and ethical acts and behaviors of employees, are able to control a board range of acts and behaviors of employees at workplace. Individuals, who have high sense of mastery, believe in control of outcomes, therefore, they take more responsibilities at workplace in order to avoid engaging in corrupt acts and behaviors.

Managers and policy makers of organizations have to particularly consider to the role and importance of sense of mastery in shaping the acts and behaviors of employees in organizations. Employees with high level of mastery are deeply self-confident and are aware of their strongness, weakness, and incompetence. Employees who are self-confident are more committed, and initiatives, then they care more about the structural conflicts underlying their own acts and behaviors at workplace [START_REF] Senge | The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization[END_REF]. The findings of this research examines the fact that the sense of mastery creates the sense of self-confident, commitment and responsibility, then high level of personal mastery leads to broader and deeper sense of responsibility for individuals at workplace to act and behave more ethically.

Furthermore, the role of transparency in increasing the impact of sense of mastery in order to control the corrupt acts of individuals has been highlighted in our studies.

Transparency in organizations is leading to better functioning of sense of mastery to control and prevent the corrupt acts of employees at workplace. Transparency by making clear and transparence of organizational activities, system, procedures and decisions appreciates individuals to use their mastery and authority in right and proper ways because individuals are aware of controlling their activities in a transparence system.

The third recommendation of this study for the managers and policy makers is related to the impact of procedural justice on corrupt acts and behaviors of employees at workplace.

Following our empirical result, there is a strong correlation between procedural justice and workplace corruption/deviance. Procedural justice can be considered as one of the effective tool to prevent and control the workplace corruption and deviance. Procedural justice concerns the employee's participation in the process of decision making and fixing the policies in organizations [START_REF] Brockner | Making sense of procedural fairness: How high procedural fairness can reduce or heighten the influence of outcome favorability[END_REF]. Managers by knowing the mechanism between injustice and corruption are able to fix effective policies against workplace corruption.

Employees who are not satisfied with the fairness of procedures, policies, decisions of organization, are more likely to engage in corrupt acts and behaviors as a protective strategy to respond to injustices of organizations [START_REF] Ambrose | Sabotage in the workplace: The role of organizational injustice[END_REF].

Managers by employing the employees in the process of decision-making which is related to them or the decisions which are related to the general function of organizations are able to build procedural justice in organizations. Policy makers and managers should collect the accurate data and information from different level of employees, then on the basis of the collected data and information, the decisions and policies of an organization should be fixed.

When employees perceive that organizational decisions are taken by considering to their needs, wants and feedbacks, then they feel that organization is treating fairly to them. This way of treating with employees lead to more satisfaction of employees from the fairness procedure, finally individuals are more motivated to act and behave ethically and they respect more to the values and norms of their organizations.

In order to build a proper procedural justice in organizations, managers have to identify the variables which employees have specific attention and consideration on them at workplace, then the decisions and policies which are related to these variables should be taken by participation of employees. In fact, employees feel more responsible about the consequences of their acts and behaviors at workplace, when they are aware of policies and decisions of organizations which are related to them and don't deny the values and norms of the organization when they are satisfy and committed.

The fourth recommendation of this study for managers is related to the importance of distributive justice for employees in organizations. This research explores a very significant and strong impact of distributive justice on workplace corruption. It's clear that distributive justice has a key role in preventing the corrupt acts of employees at workplace. Managers have to know that distributive justice evaluates the ratio of inputs (education, experience and etc.) to outcome (salaries, promotion and etc.) of an employee compare to the ratio of inputs and outcomes of other employees [START_REF] Adams | Inequity in social exchange[END_REF]).

An individual is always comparing himself to other employees who are working in the same condition. For example, an individual compares the ratio of his education, experience and skill to the ratio of his salaries and wages with the ration of inputs and outputs of other individuals who are working in the same condition, if he finds that the other individuals are receiving more than him, in this situation an individual perceive injustice and unfairness. This comparison is happening among employees who are working in the same organizations or between the employees of two similar organizations.

The most important finding of this research explores that the employees who feel injustice in respect of their salaries; promotion and remuneration are more motivated to engage in corrupt acts such as bribery, embezzlement and fraud to compensate the organizational distributive injustice. According to our empirical finding, individuals prefer compensate their unfair salaries and remunerations through workplace corruption such as bribery. The employees who have unfair salaries and remuneration compared to their education, experiences and etc., they feel losing their resources then they are intended to engage in corrupt acts as a strategy to preserve their resources. According to the finding of this research, we highly recommend managers and policy makers of organizations to have a specific attention to the distributive justice in organizations. The feedback of employees from public and private organizations highlight that individuals perceive a lot of procedural injustice, therefore, they are not committed to their organizations, consequently they are not enough responsible at workplace in order to avoid corruption.

In order to build a proper distributive justice, managers of organizations have to fix a proper index for the ratio of inputs to outcomes for all level of employees. These indices should be enough fair and just to convince employees that the distributive justice is following in the policy of organizations. The managers have to be sure that all employees who have the same level of education, experience and skill are receiving the same salaries and promotions and if there is a difference, the reason should be well explained and cleared for all. Following our discussion, distributive justice is more related to the salaries and promotion of individuals, then managers by working on these variables are able to control and prevent the workplace corruption with a considerable degree.

LIMITS AND PERSPECTIVES

Limits of this dissertation and research perspective that future researchers can work on them to improve and complete our researches are discussed in below:

Research Limits

The limitations are matters and occurrences that arise in researches which sometimes are out of the researcher's control. Every study, no matter how well is being conducted or constructed, has limitations. This doctoral dissertation finds several methodological and theoretical limitations. Thereafter, the research questions can be answered positively or negatively, but only cautiously as the results apply to a very distinct context which might differ for other contexts [START_REF] Klassen | Experimental comparison of Web, electronic and mail survey technologies in operations management[END_REF]. This research like other researches has number of limitations; numbers of main limitations of this research are as follows:

Research studies with much larger sample size would be required to ensure appropriate generalization of the findings of the study. The large sample (575 participants) of this research is considered as the first limitation of this research in order to the data analysis and validation of results. As we indicated in discussion part, this study didn't consider the multicultural aspect, therefore the missing study of culture and its impact on workplace corruption and deviance of international employees who were participated in the survey of this research can be considered as a second limitation of this dissertation.

The survey of this research has been done in three countries (Canada, France and India) but we were not able to divide the participants in three groups to compare the differences. In fact, participants of our survey are the resident of Canada, France and India but they are from different nationalities. In our survey we aimed to contact international and multinational organizations, and then it's quite normal that different nationalities work in these types of organizations. The study of culture in corrupt acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace is important but in our study because of participation of various nationalities was impossible.

For example in our survey we had number of European participants who are working and living in India, then they were placed in our Indian samples, considerable numbers of French participants were from African and North African countries which recently immigrated to France who were participated in our survey as French employees. As we know Canada is a country that every year many professional people immigrate to this country to work and build their new life, then more than 30 percentages of Canadian participants of our survey were from the entire world. In fact, the variety of participant's nationalities in our survey didn't allow us to divide our samples by three countries/nationalities to study the impact of other variables such as culture on the workplace corruption and deviance of individuals in each country separately.

As a work in progress, a third limitation of the present study is its cross-sectional format. The study of motivational processes requires a longitudinal approach in order to verify the dynamics of corruption motivation. Longitudinal studies differ from both in making a series of observations more than once on members of the study population over a period of time. Corruption is a very sensible subject that enough researches have not been done from different point of views and angles about this phenomenon. Therefore because of the lack of enough studies, resource variables are missing, a fourth limitation relates to the limited number of corruption and resource variables. Researchers, however, are faced with strong field resistance from conspicuous individuals and organizations on corruption-related issues.

R-squared is a statistical measure of how close the data are to the fitted regression line.

A fifth limitation refers to the relatively low explained variance of the model. We suspect that adding more resource variables would increase R-squared results. We have to consider that a high R-squared does not necessarily indicate that the model has a good fit. In certain fields of study, it is entirely expected that the R-squared values will be low, in fact in any field that intend to predict human behavior, normally the value of R-squared is low because humans are simply harder to predict than, say, physical processes.

Research Perspectives

Building upon research limitations, we now suggest several complementary research avenues that future researchers can work on them to improve and complete the researches of corrupt acts and behaviors of individuals in organizations. First, in this study we used the theory of COR to posit that individual motivation is primarily conditioned by the conservation of valued motivational factors known as resources, including individual, tangible and symbolic resources [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF], 2001and Halbesleben et al., 2014). Therefore, keeping within a COR frame of understanding; we propose that further modeling include resource passageways. These correspond to environmental factors (social, structural, economical) that determine conditions of corruption development through patterns of resource exhaustion (Hobfoll, 2011a(Hobfoll, , 2011b)).

In addressing the stigmatized nature of corruption and workplace deviance; there are many personal variables which impact on shaping and forming of workplace corruption that in this research we could not concentrate on them. Therefore, we also suggest a second perspective where more personal variables would be investigated. Future analysis could thus check for the role and the impact of guilt feelings on corrupt acts and behaviors of employees [START_REF] Gil-Monte | The influence of guilt on the relationship between burnout and depression[END_REF].

One of the main limitations of this research is related to the multicultural aspect that we didn't consider in our research. In order to understand the role and impact of culture in shaping the workplace corruption, a third complementary research can study the impact of culture of each country on the corrupt acts and behaviors of employees at workplace. The future research can collect data only from Canadian, French and Indian employees who are originally from these countries to compare the impact of culture on corrupt acts and behaviors of employees in Canadian, French and Indian workplace.

In the annex of this research, we present our research result for each country separately. We have to indicate that the participants of our survey in each country are from different nationalities, then the research results of each country in annex does not really explain the corrupt acts and behaviors of a specific nationality. Therefore, the future research can extract local employees from each country samples, in order to study the multicultural aspect and study the impact of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, procedural and distributive justice) on workplace corruption of local employees of each country (Canada, France and India) separately.

Finally, a fourth complementary research can consider and concentrate more on crosssectional format. As we indicated already in the limitation of this research, the study of motivational processes requires a longitudinal approach. Therefore, the future researches about corruption of employees at workplace should be a study of longitudinal approach in order to verify the dynamics of corruption motivation that it will be so interesting for managers as well as scholars.

CONCLUSION

The first part of chapter 6 has devoted to explore and discuss the result of direct impact of powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive justice and procedural justice on workplace corruption and deviance. In the second part, we discussed about the result of moderating effect of transparency and caring climate in the relationship of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive justice and procedural justice) and outcome variables (corruption and workplace deviance). The third part has been devoted to present the theoretical and managerial implication of our research result in order to highlight how our research result can be useful for scholars and especially for managers to fix the policies and strategies of organizations to prevent and eliminate the corrupt acts and behaviors of employees at workplace. In the fourth part of this chapter limits and research perspectives of this doctoral dissertation have been discussed.

CONCLUSION OF PART 2

The second part of our research was devoted to the empirical study. A quantitative study was conducted through electronic means, 575 employees who are working in private and public organizations from different nationalities participated in this survey. In this part, we presented the participants and also the measuring scales that were used in this study. The confirmatory factor analysis that we used in this research is divided by two phases. The first phase of the confirmatory factor analysis is devoted to test the validity and reliability of all measuring scales that have been used in this research. The result of the measuring scales showed that reliability and validity of all the measuring scales, and also the model fit indices of all measurement scales (CMIN/df, CFI, GFI, AGFI, RMSEA, RMR, and NFI) are good and acceptable.

In the second phase of our confirmatory analysis, we tested the hypotheses of our research study. Similarly, we tested the effect of caring climate and transparency moderators on the relationship of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, procedural and distributive justice) and outcomes variables (workplace corruption and deviance). We have to indicate that the interaction of caring climate and transparency tested in the relationship of each independent and outcome variables separately with the using of the PROCESS macro of SPSS [START_REF] Hayes | An introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis[END_REF]. We explored that sense of mastery and procedural justice negatively and powerlessness positively impact on workplace corruption and deviance, however distributive justice impact negatively only on workplace corruption. Furthermore, we discussed about the finding of this research through the mechanism of COR theory (Hobfoll;1989, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2011, 2012) which is on the basis of losses and/or gains of resources. Finally, at the end of the second part, we discussed about theoretical and managerial implications, limitations and future perspectives of this doctoral dissertation. I can rely on other workers not to make my job more difficult by careless work.

ANNEXES

Management at my organization/firm is sincere in its attempts to meet the workers' point of view.

Our organization/firm has a poor future unless it can attract better managers.

Management can be trusted to make sensible decisions for the organization's future.

Management at work seems to do an efficient job.

I feel quite confident that the organization will always try to treat me fairly.

I have full confidence in the skills of my workmates.

Most of my fellow workers would get on with their work even if supervisors were not around.

Our management would be quite prepared to gain advantage by deceiving the workers.

I have enough power in this organization to control events that might affect my job.

In this organization, I can prevent negative things from affecting my work situation.

I understand this organization well enough to be able to control things that affect me.

My works schedule is fair.

I think that my level of pay is fair.

I consider my work load to be quite fair.

Overall, the rewards I receive here are quite fair.

I feel that my job responsibilities are fair.

Job decisions are made by general manager in an unbiased manner.

My general manager makes sure that all employee concerns are heard before job decisions are made.

Introduction Générale

À l'ère de la mondialisation et de la modernisation, la corruption organisationnelle est un phénomène multi-facette qui est liée à de multiples problèmes. La corruption est un fléau mondial, avec un impact sur le développement économique et humain [START_REF] Williams | The Politics of Corruption. 4 Volume Series[END_REF]. Au La corruption a été étudiée dans des champs différents d'application. Par exemple, certaines études se concentraient en soulignant les effets de la corruption [START_REF] Mauro | Corruption and Growth[END_REF]1998[START_REF] Rose-Ackerman | Corruption and Government: Causes, Consequences and Reform[END_REF], proposaient une réflexion sur les implications, les formes et les types de corruption [START_REF] Caiden | Corruption and Governance[END_REF][START_REF] Levin | Corruption and Institutions in Russia[END_REF][START_REF] Stohs | Codes and Conduct: Predictors of Irish Managers Ethical Reasoning[END_REF], et l'analyse des mécanismes de lutte contre la corruption comme des moyens efficaces de minimiser les méfaits et la prévention de la corruption [START_REF] Clark | Comparative Anti-Corruption Policy: The American, Soviet and Russian Cases[END_REF]. L'étude de la -La deuxième vague d'études, de recherches et d'activités contre la corruption qui continue encore à ce jour a été lancée au début à la mi-1990 du fait de certains événements et mouvements qui ont eu lieu pendant cette période de part le monde, tels que: la frustration dans les pays en développement et sous-développés, l'effondrement de l'Union soviétique et la considération de l'union internationale pour la communauté du développement international en ce qui concerne les effets néfastes de la corruption sur l'économie et le développement.

Plusieurs protagonistes tels que des moralistes, des fonctionnalistes, des révisionnistes, des scientifiques, des politiciens et des spécialistes ont différents points de vue sur le phénomène de la corruption. La révision de ces points de vue permet de mieux comprendre la nature de la corruption. L'approche moraliste comme [START_REF] Leys | What is the problem about corruption?[END_REF] a condamné la corruption.

Ils considèrent la corruption comme une forme déviante immorale du comportement qui a des effets graves et néfastes sur toute une gamme d'activités sociales, politiques et économiques des sociétés.

Nombreux fonctionnalistes tels que [START_REF] Krueger | The political economy of the rent seeking society[END_REF] et Rose- [START_REF] Rose -Ackerman | Corruption: A Study in Political Economy[END_REF] ont contesté le point de vue de la corruption à la fin des années 1970; ils ont convenu que la corruption et les comportements corrompus ont un effet négatif sur le développement politique et économique. Les fonctionnalistes considèrent la corruption comme un moyen d'éviter des obstacles administratifs pour accélérer les performances administratives [START_REF] Williams | The Politics of Corruption. 4 Volume Series[END_REF]. Les révisionnistes ne condamnent pas la corruption rapidement et ils conviennent que la corruption devrait être étudiée et définie de façon plus objective. Certains révisionnistes comme [START_REF] Bayley | The Effects of Corruption in a Developing Nation[END_REF], [START_REF] Nye | Corruption and Political Development: A Cost-Benefit Analysis[END_REF] et [START_REF] Huntington | Political Order in Changing Societies[END_REF] ont souligné que la corruption n'est pas nocive, mais est également un élément inévitable et nécessaire pour le processus d'ajustement. [START_REF] Leff | Economic Development through Bureaucratic Corruption[END_REF] est allé plus loin et a souligné que la corruption bureaucratique, dans certains cas, peut également promouvoir l'efficacité.

La corruption organisationnelle exprime le phénomène comme l'utilisation abusive du pouvoir organisationnel, la position ou l'autorité dont (par exemple : groupe, organisation, ou de l'industrie) bénéfice le personnel ou le collectif [START_REF] Anand | Business as Usual: The Acceptance and Perpetuation of Corruption in Organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Ashforth | Identification in organizations: an examination of four fundamental questions[END_REF].

La corruption organisationnelle ou administrative est une déviation des normes et des mesures de la bureaucratie moderne [START_REF] Alam | Anatomy of Corruption: An Approach to the Political Economy of Underdevelopment[END_REF]. Un groupe de chercheurs soulignent que la corruption administrative est un instrument pour dévier les individus des devoirs ou des performances résultant de leurs devoirs et des activités formelles liées aux politiques et problèmes économiques [START_REF] Okogbule | An Appraisal of the Legal and Institutional Frame Work for Combating Corruption in Nigeria[END_REF]. En fait, la corruption organisationnelle est un type de crime lorsque les individus utilisent leur autorité au sein des organisations pour leur propre bénéfice et le gain personnel [START_REF] Mbaku | Cameroon's Stalled Transition to Democratic Governance: Lessons for Africa's New Democrats[END_REF].

La corruption organisationnelle est un phénomène inter-systémique, intemporel et interculturel qui varie de temps en temps, qui affaiblit la confiance du public et détruit la structure des attentes mutuelles. Les études et les recherches mettent en exergue l'idée que le comportement dysfonctionnel est à la fois répandu et coûteux (Dunlop & Lee, 2004). La corruption et la déviance au travail sont causées par la réduction du respect national, par la réduction de l'efficacité administrative et par une barrière de développement économique et par l'affaiblissement de la stabilité politique d'un pays [START_REF] Williams | The Politics of Corruption. 4 Volume Series[END_REF]. Selon [START_REF] Bardhan | Corruption and development: A review if issues[END_REF], la corruption administrative conduit à:

-Réduire la croissance économique ; En considérant un certain nombre de conséquences de la corruption et de la déviance, il est clair qu'il s'agit de graves problèmes dans les organisations qui ont un immense impact sur différents aspects de la vie humaine. Il est alors nécessaire d'étudier la corruption organisationnelle sous différents aspects afin de trouver des solutions pour lutter contre ce problème mondial.

Plusieurs chercheurs en sciences de gestion ont étudié la corruption au niveau individuel (Laiton, Butterfield & Skaggs, 1998) et au niveau organisationnel [START_REF] Baucus | Can illegal corporate behavior be predicted? An event history analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Brief | Collective Corruption in the Corporate World: Toward a Process Model[END_REF]et Jill, Kelley, Agle, Hitt & Hoskisson, 1992), mais ce sujet est toujours inexploré. Cependant, dans cette recherche, la corruption et la déviance au travail sont considérés dans une perspective de gestion. L'impact de la gestion sur la corruption et la déviance est apparent car les managers considèrent l'éthique en général, la bureaucratie par rapport aux valeurs de gestion en particulier et les codes de conduite comme un instrument qui peut «stabiliser» l'infrastructure de l'éthique [START_REF] Maravic | Decentralized Corruption in Germany[END_REF].

Problématique et Objectifs de la recherche

Pour atteindre notre objectif de recherche, nous répondons à cette question principale :

CHAPITRE 1 : FONDEMENTS CONCEPTUELS DE CORRUPTION

Le premier chapitre est consacré à la présentation générale de la corruption et en particulier les actes et les comportements corrompus des individus dans les organisations. La première section de ce chapitre présente les trois principales classifications de définition de la corruption dans la revue de la littérature (Heidenheimer, 1970) ; les différents points de vue des auteurs et des chercheurs liés à la corruption qui ont amené à diverses définitions de la corruption, puis nous présentons les définitions les plus répandues de la corruption organisationnelle selon la catégorie de Heidenheimer (1970). La corruption systématique et

Conclusion Générale

Le but de cette recherche est de contribuer à mieux comprendre la corruption et la En nous appuyant sur la théorie de COR, nous avons développé un modèle de processus de corruption fondée sur les ressources personnelles, y compris l'impuissance, le sentiment de maîtrise et la justice distributive et procédurale. Cette approche devrait enrichir notre compréhension au-delà de la simple théorisation de cause à effet qui relie l'épuisement des ressources à la déviance organisationnelle [START_REF] Chirasha | An Analysis of the Causes and Impact of Deviant Behavior in the Workplace[END_REF]. [START_REF] Ambrose | Sabotage in the workplace: The role of organizational injustice[END_REF]et Skarlicki & Folger, 1997). Cependant, la justice distributive est liée à la corruption au travail telle que la compensation de promotion, de rémunération et de salaire.

VU et PERMIS D'IMPRIMER

A Montpellier, le

Le Président de l'Université Montpellier

Philippe Augé

"

  Don't try to figure out what other people want to hear from you; figure out what you have to say. It's the one and only thing you have to offer". STUDY ................................................................................... INTRODUCTION OF PART 1 ............................................................................................ CHAPTER 1: CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS OF CORRUPTION ........................... INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1. THE CONCEPT OF CORRUPTION............................................................................ 1.1. Overview ....................................................................................................................... 1.1.1. Public-Office-Centered Corruption .......................................................................... 1.1.2. Market-Centered Corruption .................................................................................... 1.1.3. Public-Interest-Centered Corruption ........................................................................ 1.2. Types of Corruption ....................................................................................................... 1.2.1. Systematic and Individual Corruption ...................................................................... 1.2.2. Grand, Petty and State Capture Corruption .............................................................. 1.2.3. Moral and Legal Corruption .................................................................................... 1.3. Forms of Workplace Corruption .................................................................................... 1.3.1. Bribery .................................................................................................................... 1.3.2. Nepotism/Favoritism/Patronage............................................................................... 1.3.3. Greed ...................................................................................................................... 1.3.4. Embezzlement ......................................................................................................... 1.3.5. Fraud .......................................................................................................................

Figure 1 -

 1 Figure 1-The perceived levels of public sector corruption in 168 countries/territories ..........

Figure 2 -

 2 Figure 2 -Organization of dissertation ..................................................................................

Figure 3 -

 3 Figure 3 -Theoretical framework of corruption motivational underpinnings .........................

Figure 4 -

 4 Figure 4 -A resource-based model of workplace corruption ...............................................

Figure 5 -

 5 Figure 5 -Direct effect of powerlessness, sense of mastery and organizational justice ........

Figure 6 -

 6 Figure 6 -Transparency as moderator variable between independent variables and workplace

Figure 7 -

 7 Figure 7 -Caring climate as moderator variable between independent variables and workplace

Figure 8 -

 8 Figure 8 -One dimension sense of mastery model ..............................................................

Figure 9 -

 9 Figure 9 -One dimension distributive justice model ...........................................................

Figure 10 -

 10 Figure 10 -One dimension procedural justice model ..........................................................

Figure 11 -

 11 Figure 11 -One dimension powerlessness model ................................................................

Figure 12 -

 12 Figure 12 -One dimension corruption model ......................................................................

Figure 13 -

 13 Figure 13 -Three dimensions workplace deviance model ...................................................

Figure 14 -

 14 Figure 14 -One dimension transparency model ..................................................................

Figure 15 -

 15 Figure 15 -One dimension caring climate model ................................................................

Figure 16 -

 16 Figure 16 -The direct effect of independent variables on workplace corruption ..................

Figure 17 -

 17 Figure 17 -The direct effect of independent variables on workplace deviance ....................

Figure 18 -

 18 Figure 18 -The moderating effect of transparency ..............................................................

Figure 19 -

 19 Figure 19 -The moderating effect of caring climate ............................................................

Figure 20 -

 20 Figure 20 -The moderating effect of transparency ..............................................................

Figure 21 -

 21 Figure 21 -The moderating effect of caring climate ............................................................

Table 1 -

 1 Repartition by sex ................................................................................................ Table 2 -Repartition by the sector of activity ..................................................................... Table 3 -Repartition by age ................................................................................................ Table 4 -Repartition by the position of individuals in organizations ................................... Table 5 -Repartition by the country of residence ................................................................ Table 6 -Repartition by the seniority in actual position ......................................................Table 7 -Descriptive statistics and correlations .................................................................. Table 8 -Selected indices for model fit. .............................................................................. Table 9 -Model fit of sense of mastery ............................................................................... Table 10 -Estimated parameters of sense of mastery ..........................................................Table 11 -Satisfaction and perceived value model of sense of mastery ............................... Table 12 -Model fit of distributive justice .......................................................................... Table 13 -Estimated parameters of distributive justice ....................................................... Table 14 -Satisfaction and perceived value model of distributive justice ............................ Table 15 -Model fit of procedural justice ........................................................................... Table 16 -Estimated parameters of procedural justice ........................................................ Table 17 -Satisfaction and perceived value model of procedural justice ............................. Table 18 -Model fit of powerlessness................................................................................. Table 19 -Satisfaction and perceived value model of powerlessness................................... Table 20 -Model fit of corruption....................................................................................... Table 21 -Estimated parameters of corruption .................................................................... Table 22 -Satisfaction and perceived value model of corruption......................................... Table 23 -Model fit of workplace deviance ........................................................................ Table 24 -Estimated parameters of workplace deviance ..................................................... Table 25 -Satisfaction and perceived value model of workplace deviance .......................... Table 26 -Model fit of transparency ................................................................................... Table 27 -Satisfaction and perceived value model of transparency ..................................... Table 28 -Model fit of caring climate ................................................................................. Table 29 -Estimated parameters of caring climate .............................................................. Table 30 -Satisfaction and perceived value model of caring climate ................................... Table 31 -Model fit of measurement model .......................................................................Table 32 -Model fit of structural model ............................................................................. Table 33 -Indicators for validity......................................................................................... Table 34 -Convergent and discriminant validity of the measures ........................................ Table 35 -Regression result with corruption ....................................................................... Table 36 -Regression result with workplace deviance ........................................................ Table 37 -Moderation of transparency ............................................................................... Table 38 -Moderation of caring climate ............................................................................. Table 39 -Moderation of transparency ............................................................................... Table 40 -Moderation of caring climate ............................................................................. Table 41 -Result summary of the research hypotheses .......................................................[20]

Figure

  Figure 2 -Organization of dissertation

  individualist cultures people tend to set their objectives based on what is good for them but collectivist cultures emphasize group objectives and the interest of a group has priority to the interest of an individual. In brief, individualism and collectivism refers to the strength of relationship between the members of a small group such as family, friend and organization. In high collectivism societies, family members and close friends have strong expectation of each other then rules and regulation are broken easily to meet some expectations and individuals

  Systematic and individual corruption; petty, grand and state corruption and moral and legal corruption have been highlighted as three popular classification of corruption. The final part of first section presented the most widely practiced form of corruption in organizations. The second section of this chapter has been devoted to present the internal, external and indirect sources of corruption. The personal policy, civil service pay and hierarchical/decentralization have been indicated as internal sources of corruption. However, legal framework and transparency have been identified as external sources of corruption. Finally, economical and cultural variables have been presented as indirect sources of corruption.

  as a way to explain and predict ethical conduct in organizations. In fact, different dimensions of ethical climate can guide individuals of a workgroup to better understand what type of behaviors are acceptable and unacceptable at workplace. Ethical climate is a type of work climate which guides ethical behavior within an organization; actually they help the individuals to decide what is right and wrong behaviors in an organization. A number of studies (Deshande, 1996;[START_REF] Goldman | Perception of ethical climate and its relationship to nurses' demographic characteristics and job satisfaction[END_REF][START_REF] Jaramillo | The role of ethical climate on salesperson's role stress, job attitudes, turnover intention, and job performance[END_REF] Tsai &[START_REF] Tsai | The Relationship among Ethical Climate Types, Facets of Job Satisfaction, and the three components of organizational commitment: a study of nurses in Taiwan[END_REF][START_REF] Meeusen | Work climate related to job satisfaction among Dutch nurse anesthetists[END_REF] have done about the various impact of caring climate on individuals and organizations.

  Furthermore, organizational justice, sense of mastery and powerlessness explored as motivational perspective variables in shaping and forming unethical acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace. The second part of this chapter has been focused on transparency and caring climate. The investigation of previous empirical and theoretical studies have identified transparency and caring climate as two environmental variables that impact indirectly on corrupt acts and behaviors of individuals at workplace.

Figure 3 -

 3 Figure 3 -Theoretical framework of corruption motivational underpinnings

Figure ( 3

 3 Figure (3) makes a distinction between four types of corruption underpinnings. These correspond to an evolution-based classification of motivational drives developed by Lawrence

Figure 4 -

 4 Figure 4 -A resource-based model of workplace corruption

Figure 5 -

 5 Figure 5 -Direct effect of powerlessness, sense of mastery and organizational justice

  procedural and distributive justice), outcome variables (workplace corruption and deviance) and moderator variables (transparency and caring climate) have presented and indicated as components of our research model. Drawing from a COR theorizing, this dissertation has proposed a resource-based model of employee corruption that explores twenty four hypotheses.

  Structural equation modeling has two parts: a measurement model and a structural model. The measurement model for both confirmatory analysis and structural equation modeling is a multivariate regression model that describes the relationships between a set of observed dependent variables and a set of continuous latent variables. The observed dependent variables are referred to as factor indicators and the continuous latent variables are referred to as factors. The structural model describes three types of relationships in one set of multivariate regression equations: the relationships among observed variables, the relationships among factors, and the relationships between factors and observed variables that are not factor indicators

  the number of observed variables which are measured c. Parameter Estimation In model estimation S (estimated sample covariance matrix) is the observed correlation matrix and Σ(θ) (estimated model-implied covariance matrix) is the model implied (theoretical) correlation matrix, which is a function of the model parameters. The main goal of the parameter estimation is finding such parameter values that the theoretical covariance matrix Σ is as close as possible to the empirical covariance matrix S. When S -Σ(θ) = 0, then χ2 becomes zero, and a perfect model is obtained for the data.

  Model fit of powerlessnessThe results indicate that the freedom degree of the model is zero and all the indices are quite good, which means that the model is "exactly identified". The confirmatory factor analysis confirms a structure in 3 items.

Figure 11 -

 11 Figure 11 -One dimension powerlessness model

  Estimated parameters of caring climate The obtained result after the model modification highlights that the values of CMIN/df (0.381 < 5), RMSEA (0 < 0.08), RMR (.005 < 0.05), NFI (1 > 0.09) and CFI (1 > 0.09) have improved and all the indices indicate a good model fit. The new model is "exactly identified".

  justice) on outcome variables (workplace corruption and workplace) which they synthesized by the hypotheses H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, H7, and H8. Secondly, we test the moderation effect of transparency and caring climate on the relationship of each independent variables and outcome variables, these moderator tests were synthesized by the hypotheses H9.1, H9.2, H9.3, H9.4, H10.1, H10.2, H10.3, H10.4, H11.1, H11.2, H11.3, H11.4, H12.1, H12.2, H12.3 and H12.4.

Figure 21 -

 21 Figure 21 -The moderating effect of caring climate

  a negative impact on workplace deviance ConfirmedThe moderating effect of transparency on the relationship of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive justice and procedural justice) and corruption H9.1 Transparency interaction amplifies the positive relationship between of caring climate on the relationship of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive justice and procedural justice) and corruption H10.1 Caring climate interaction amplifies the positive relationship between of transparency on the relationship of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive justice and procedural justice) and workplace deviance H11.1 Transparency interaction amplifies the positive relationship between powerlessness and workplace deviance Rejected H11.2 Transparency interaction amplifies the negative relationship between sense of mastery and workplace deviance Rejected H11.3 Transparency interaction amplifies the negative relationship between procedural justice and workplace deviance Rejected H11.4 Transparency interaction amplifies the negative relationship between distributive justice and workplace deviance Rejected The moderating effect of caring climate on the relationship of independent variables (powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive justice and procedural justice) and workplace deviance H12.1 Caring climate interaction amplifies the positive relationship between powerlessness and workplace deviance Rejected H12.2 Caring climate interaction amplifies the negative relationship between sense of mastery and workplace deviance Rejected H12.3 Caring climate interaction amplifies the negative relationship between procedural justice and workplace deviance Rejected H12.4 Caring climate interaction amplifies the negative relationship between distributive justice and workplace deviance Rejected Table 41 -Result summary of the research hypotheses [172]

  proficiency, organizations have to work on the skills and competences of individuals by different programs such as training or consultation sessions and etc. One of the efficient ways to improve the moral and the sense of mastery of individuals is, encourage them to share their ideas and feedbacks regarding the performance, decisions and policies of organizations, in this way employees feel that they are part of the organization and they get enough authority and mastery on his/her job.

  student MRM -CREGOR -IAE Questionnaires of attitudes of individuals at work Madam, Sir, In my researches I'm studding the attitudes of individuals at work. Your participation in this survey help to better understand the attitudes of employees at work. Be assured that all your responses will be anonymous. The survey results will be reported only in aggregate for research purposes. You will never be individually identified. Participation in the survey is completely voluntary. Your response is important and greatly appreciated. If you have any questions about this research, please contact me through this mail address: benjamin.kakavand@etud.univ-montp2.fr Thanks for your participation Benjamin KAKAVAND PhD student MRM -CREGOR -Université Montpellier 2 CC028 -BT 19 -Place Eugène Bataillon 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5. Could you please indicate how much do you agree or disagree with the following statements? (1) « Strongly disagree » ;(2) « Disagree » ; (3) « Neither agree nor disagree » ;(4) « Agree » ;(5) « Strongly agree ».Most of my workmates can be relied upon to do as they say they will do If I face difficulties at work, I know my coworkers will try to help me out.I can trust people I work with to lend me a hand if I needed it.

  cours des dernières décennies, la recherche en sciences sociales a considéré ce phénomène, mais il reste limité dans de nombreux aspects en raison du manque de données et des approches fiables pour éliminer la corruption. En fait, la corruption peut être considérée comme le résultat d'une mauvaise gouvernance; donc, un cadre solide de stratégies administratives pour gérer les besoins de la société est nécessaire dans l'état des entreprises publiques.La corruption est un phénomène dynamique, puisque les valeurs et les normes diffèrent considérablement suivant les pays. Par conséquent, la corruption n'est pas une variable évidente facile à cerner dans toutes les sociétés; les systèmes de croyances et de connaissances de la corruption varient selon les pays[START_REF] Bauer & Van Wyk | Causes, Manifestations and Effects of Corruption[END_REF]. Ainsi, les actes et les comportements qui pourraient être considérés comme de la corruption et un comportement déviant dans certains pays peuvent être acceptables dans d'autres pays.Cependant, la plupart des individus dans les organisations ont des attitudes et des comportements corrompus qui sont liés à leurs emplois[START_REF] De Même | Les termes de déviance et de contreproductivité semblent être souvent utilisés de façon interchangeable. Ils reflètent le comportement potentiellement dangereux au travail, allant de formes mineures à des formes plus graves. « En outre, ce comportement nuisible peut être dirigé soit vers des individus, comme en témoignent des comportements tels que le harcèlement ou l'agression physique[END_REF]. Ces attitudes et comportements ont été constatés aussi bien auprès des salariés membres de la direction que des salariés n'appartenant pas au corps managérial.En considérant l'indice de perception de la corruption publié chaque année par l'« International Transparency », il est clair que la corruption existe dans tous les gouvernements et dans tous les services publics, mais uniquement les degrés et formes de la corruption sont différents. Des affaires de corruption de la FIFA en 2015 prouvent l'existence de la corruption partout et dans différents niveaux de la structure de l'administration. Il n'y a pas un pays qui n'est pas connu la corruption[START_REF] Mbaku | Cameroon's Stalled Transition to Democratic Governance: Lessons for Africa's New Democrats[END_REF]; seul le niveau de corruption varie d'un pays à l'autre. Dans certains pays, la corruption a été acceptée comme une caractéristique de la société et ce problème est considéré comme l'une des plus grandes préoccupations de la vie quotidienne des gens. L'Inde est l'un des exemples de ces pays; Anna Hazare en Inde est devenu le leader du peuple indien pour lutter contre la corruption. En Avril 2011, suite au jeûne de quatre jours d'Anna Hazare, des milliers de gens sont sorties de l'ignorance et l'ont suivie dans sa croisade contre la corruption.En fait, la corruption est comme la pauvreté, elle existe toujours dans la vie des gens.Il semble que l'élimination (ou éradication) complète de la corruption dans la vie publique est impossible. La corruption affecte le développement économique, réduit les services sociaux, et détourne les investissements dans les institutions essentielles à l'existence de la nation(PNUD, 2004: 1). De plus, elle favorise un anti -environnement démocratique, caractérisé par l'incertitude, l'imprévisibilité et le déclin des valeurs morales et le manque de respect pour les institutions constitutionnelles et l'autorité. La corruption reflète donc une démocratie et une gouvernance déficitaire, en d'autres termes, il s'agit d'un système de faible gouvernance dans un pays(PNUD, 2004). L'un des types de corruption qui a fortement impacté la vie humaine, concerne la corruption organisationnelle. La corruption organisationnelle est considérée comme un phénomène global plutôt qu'un phénomène régional qui prend des formes différentes dans les organisations.Plusieurs chercheurs commeFleck & Kuzmics (1985) soutiennent que la corruption est un problème présent dans toutes les sociétés qui ont atteint un certain niveau de complexité ; certains pays développés avaient apparemment subi des phases de corruption avant que la corruption ne soit contrôlée par une combinaison de réformes administratives, politiques et judiciaires. La corruption existe dans presque toutes les sociétés humaines à travers l'histoire de l'humanité. L'indice de perception de la corruption de l'agence Transparence International (2015) qui a étudié le niveau de corruption du secteur public dans 168 pays / territoires souligne que la corruption existe dans tous les pays, mais que le niveau de corruption diffère selon que le pays est sous-développé, en développement ou développé. survenue dans tous les milieux de travail et dans toutes les professions. En fait, lorsque des fonctionnaires violent les règles de l'organisation ou enfreignent la loi, ces actes sont considérés comme de la déviance. La corruption est considérée comme un terme qui est étroitement lié à la déviance, et même comme un greffon à cette notion. Cependant, la corruption n'est pas le synonyme de la déviance, bien qu'il soit un sous-ensemble de cette pratique.

  corruption a été lancée à la fin du 20ème siècle et coïncide avec le moment de la démocratisation et le développement dans certains pays. En fait, deux vagues principales existent dans l'étude de l'histoire de la corruption: -La première vague d'intérêt académique a été transformée par les mouvements d'indépendance des années 1950 et 1960 avec la décolonisation. A la hauteur de la théorie de la modernisation, dans cette période, l'intérêt est de connaître et d'étudier la corruption inspirée par les expériences des pays nouvellement démocratisés et en développement. Entre les années 1950 et 1960, de nombreux économistes, sociologues et politologues ont commencé à écrire sur la corruption et ses effets sur la vie humaine, puis quelques universitaires à faire des recherches et écrire sur la corruption depuis le début des années 1990.

-

  Gaspiller les ressources publiques et l'argent dans un pays ; -Saper la confiance du public dans le gouvernement et rendre inefficace les opérations ; -Causer l'injustice en avantageant certains au détriment des autres ; -Rendre difficile la qualité du recrutement ou la rétention du personnel ou obtenir la meilleure valeur dans le processus d'appel d'offres ; -Conduire à une mauvaise affection sur l'investissement, affaiblir la croissance économique, saper la primauté du droit et l'effet direct sur les personnes vulnérables dans la société ; -Causer la méfiance, le dysfonctionnement du modèle social, la faiblesse du dialogue social et le manque de confiance dans le marché. La Banque mondiale, les Nations Unies, l'USAid et le département britannique pour le développement international sont d'accord sur le fait que la corruption est un obstacle majeur du développement et aussi l'une des principales causes importantes de la pauvreté dans le monde. Le nombre de personnes qui luttent contre la corruption dans les différentes sociétés augmente en raison des coûts et des conséquences de ce phénomène. Les actes et les comportements corrompus des individus sont coûteux non seulement en terme financier, mais aussi dans les perspectives sociales et psychologiques(Peterson & Flandre, 2002). Les conséquences négatives de la corruption et la déviance organisationnelles sont significatives pour le fonctionnement des organisations(Vardi & Wiener, 1996); par conséquent, les actes et les comportements corrompus au sein des organisations ne peuvent en aucun cas être négligés.

  Qu'est-ce qui motivent des individus honnêtes à s'engager dans des actes et des comportements corrompus au travail?Cette recherche vise à souligner les raisons pour lesquelles même les gens honnêtes dans les organisations sont motivés à s'engager dans les comportements contre-productifs.Les résultats de cette recherche présentent plusieurs variables qui sont en corrélation avec les actes et les comportements corrompus des individus au travail, afin de présenter de nouveaux outils aux chercheurs et aux gestionnaires pour prévenir et combattre la corruption et la déviance dans les organisations. de cette recherche doctorale est composée de trois chapitres et a pour objectif de dresser le cadre conceptuel de notre travail doctoral. L'objet de cette partie sera de clarifier et de délimiter des concepts centraux de cette étude : la corruption et la déviance organisationnelle.

  individuelle; la petite et grande corruption ; la corruption morale et juridique apparaissent comme les trois classements les plus courants de la corruption. La dernière partie de la première section présente les formes les plus répandues de la corruption dans les organisations. La deuxième partie de ce chapitre présente les sources internes, externes et indirectes de la corruption.CHAPITRE 2 : ANTÉCÉDENTS DE CORRUPTIONLa première section du deuxième chapitre souligne l'importance de l'étude de la justice organisationnelle (procédure, distributive et interactionnelle), le sentiment de maîtrise et de l'impuissance dans la prévention et le contrôle de la corruption et de la déviance dans les organisations. En outre, la justice organisationnelle, le sentiment de maîtrise et de l'impuissance explorent comme des variables en perspective de motivation dans la mise en forme des actes et des comportements des individus au travail. La deuxième partie de ce chapitre se concentre sur la transparence et le climat d'entraide. L'investigation sur les études empiriques et théoriques précédentes ont identifié la transparence et le climat d'entraide comme deux variables environnementales qui affectent indirectement les actes et les comportements corrompus des individus au travail.

France

  et en Inde ont contribué à notre enquête de recherche, ce qui représente un taux de seulement 2,1% de réponse. Dans notre discussion de recherche, nous ne considérons pas l'aspect multiculturel, en raison de l'existence de diverses nationalités dans notre échantillon.Cette étude vise à étudier l'impact de certaines variables: la puissance, le sentiment de maîtrise et la justice organisationnelle sur la formation des actes et des comportements des employés au travail dans les organisations multinationales et multiculturelles sans tenir compte des cultures des individus.La première partie du chapitre 6 est consacrée à explorer et discuter l'impact direct de l'impuissance, le sentiment de maîtrise, la justice distributive et la justice procédurale sur la corruption et la déviance des individus au travail. Dans la deuxième partie, nous avons discuté du résultat de l'effet modérateur de la transparence et du climat d'entraide dans la relation des variables indépendantes (l'impuissance, le sentiment de maîtrise, la justice distributive et la justice procédurale) et des variables dépendantes (la corruption et la déviance au travail). La troisième partie a été consacrée à la présentation des implications théoriques et managériales de cette recherche afin de souligner comment les résultats de cette étude peuvent être utiles pour les chercheurs et surtout pour les managers afin de fixer les politiques et stratégies des organisations pour prévenir et éliminer des actes et des comportements corrompus des employés au travail. Enfin, dans la quatrième partie, nous avons discuté des limites et des perspectives de recherche de cette thèse de doctorat.

  déviance au travail. La corruption et la déviance sont à la fois une question urgente pour une gestion efficace des ressources humaines et un challenge pour la recherche. Dans cette étude, nous avons supposé et considéré la corruption en tant que le résultat d'un processus de préservation des ressources. En d'autres termes, nous avons supposé que les individus se livrent à des comportements corrompus de façon préméditée comme un mouvement défensif pour protéger les menaces perçues sur les facteurs de motivation des valeurs.

  Encadrée dans une théorisation de motivation des actes et des comportements corrompus, et fondée sur la théorie COR, l'étude a mis en lumière le processus par lequel les individus choisissent de se livrer au crime organisationnel. Les études quantitatives de cette recherche ont souligné que l'impuissance positive, le sens de la maîtrise et de la justice procédurale négative ont un impact direct et significatif sur la corruption et la déviance des individus au travail. D'autre part, nous avons souligné que la justice distributive a seulement un effet négatif sur la corruption au travail. Il est clair que l'impuissance, le sentiment de maîtrise et la justice procédurale sont liés à la corruption et la déviance au travail. Face à une incapacité perçue d'obtenir leur statut organisationnel par des règles et des procédures régulières, les employés se livrent à la corruption et à la déviance au travail (Ambrose, Seabright &

  Legal interpretations of corruption indicate a very specific boundary between what a corrupt activity is and what is not. If an act or behavior is forbidden by established laws of government, then this act can be considered as a corrupt act,

otherwise if this act is not forbidden by laws then it is not considered as corruption even if it is unethical and indecent

(Gradiner, 1993)

. Moral corruption and legal corruption are sometimes in opposite of each other, some acts and behaviors legally are considered as corrupt acts but as per the moral of society's members, these acts are not considered as corrupt acts. In opposite, there are some acts and behaviors which are corrupt but according to the moral values and norms of society's members, legislators don't consider them as corrupt acts. In some cases, it is very difficult to call some acts as corrupt acts because "what is legal is not always broadly regarded in society as moral and legitimate and what is illegal as immoral and illegitimate"

Repartition by the sector of activity

	-Repartition by the age -Repartition by the country of residence
	In our survey, 28.8% of participants were from 20 to 30 years old, 27.7% of Employees from 3 countries participated in this research, 45% of participants were participants were from 30 to 40 years old, 26.8% of participants were from 30 to 40 years old, from Canada, 34% of participants were from France and 21% of participants were from India. 14.7% of participants were from 50 to 60 years old and 2% of participants were more 60 years We have to indicate that employees from different nationalities participated in this survey; old. this classification is not on the basis of nationalities of participants. In fact, this classification
	is done on the basis of the participant's country of residence.
	Age	N		N by %
	From 20 to 30 years old Country N	166 N by % 28.8%
	From 30 to 40 years old Canada 258	159	45%	27.7%
	From 40 to 50 years old France 196	154	34%	26.8%
	From 50 to 60 years old India 121	85	21%	14.7%
	More than 60 years old	11		2%
	Table 3 -Repartition by age
	N		N by %
	Female -Repartition by the position of individuals in organizations 316 55%
	Male The samples of this research are composed of employees who are working in different 259 45%
	Total positions in public and private sectors. 12.2% of participants are accountant and auditors, 12% 575 100%
	Table 1 -Repartition by sex of participants are consultant, 26.8% of participants are manager, 39.9% of participants are
	administrative officer and 9.6% of participants are supervisor.
	-The number of participants who were active in public and private sectors was not Position N N by %
	equal. In fact, 65% of participants were active in public sectors and 35% of participants were Accountant and Auditors 70 12.2%
	active in private sectors. Consultant		69	12%
	Manager		154	26.8%
	Sector of the activity Administrative Officer	N	227	N by % 39.4%
	Public Supervisor	374 55	65% 9.6%
	Private	201		35%
	Table 4 -Repartition by the position of individuals in organizations
	Total	575		100%
	Table 2 -Repartition by the sector of activity

Table 5 -

 5 Repartition by the country of residence -

Table 6 -

 6 Repartition by the seniority in actual position

  Table 7 presents descriptive statistics and correlations among variables. Most of the scales show acceptable levels of internal reliability. As the correlation coefficients reveals, Chapter 4 has been devoted to present the methodology approaches of this doctoral dissertation. The first part of this chapter has presented the mode of data collection and characteristics of individuals by repartition by gender, age, country of residence, sector of activity and seniority in the actual position. The measurement scales (powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive justice, procedural justice, corruption, workplace deviance, transparency and caring climate) of this research have been presented in the second part of this chapter.

	workplace corruption is supported by data. Significant correlations include corruption with
	distributive justice (-.31), procedural justice (-.29), sense of mastery (-.22), powerlessness (-
	.11), transparency (-.38) and caring climate (-.17). Workplace deviance relates significantly to
	procedural justice (-.14) and sense of mastery (-.12) but not to distributive justice,
	powerlessness, transparency and caring climate. [128]
	Table 7 -Descriptive statistics and correlations
	Variables	Mean	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	Age	39.05	10.51
	Gender	.55	.50
	1.Distributive Justice	3.49	.88	(.81)
	2.Procedural Justice	3.1	.90	.52**	(.87)
	3. Sense of Mastery	3.77	.67	.39**	.38**	(.76)
	4. Powerlessness	3.14	.90	.33**	.47**	.41**	(.79)
	5. Corruption	2.22	1.1	-.31**	-.29**	-.22**	-.11**	(.84)
	6. Workplace Deviance	1.32	.59	-.08	-.12**	-.12**	-.002	.19**	(.79)
	7. Caring Climate	3.88	.93	.28**	.50**	.21**	.41**	-.17**	-.07	(.83)
	8. Transparency	3.2	.94	.35**	.43**	.31**	.34**	-.38**	-.05	.38**	(.89)
					128

** p< 0.01;*p<0.05; Reliability coefficients alpha on diagonal CONCLUSION

Table 8 -

 8 There are other fit indices (table 8) which have been created in order to accept or reject a proposed model. In fact, researchers rarely consider only to chi-square tests to determine whether accept or reject the model. Selected indices for model fit.

	Indices	Definition and Authors	Thresholds
	CMIN / df	Chi-square divided by degrees of freedom	< 3 is good
		freedom (Joreskög 1973)	< 5 is acceptable
	GFI	Goodness Fit Index (Joreskög and Sörbom 1984) > 0.90
	AGFI	Adjusted Goodness Fit Index (Joreskög and	> 0.90
		Sörbom 1984)
	SRMR	Standardized Root Mean Square Residual	< 0.05 is good
		(Joreskög and Sörbom 1984)	< 0.09 is acceptable
	RMSEA	Root Mean Square Error of Approximation	< 0.05 is good
		(Steigerand Lind 1980)	< 0.09 is acceptable
	NFI	Non-normal fit Index (Bentler&Bonett, 1980)	> 0.90
	CFI	Comparative fit index (Bentler1990)	> 0.90

Table 9 -

 9 Model fit of sense of mastery Some indices of model fit for sense of mastery scale are not good.CMIN/df (13.123 > 5) is an important index which is not acceptable, RMSEA, RMR, NFI and CFI indices are not acceptable too, therefore the model is not acceptable and it should be re-specified.Referring to both the standardized residuals and modification indices, we are able to improve the fit of the initial model. By observing the multiple correlation coefficients of items Master1-re, Master6 and Master7, we find that they are less than 0.50, and then we decided to remove these items to improve the model fit. We retested our modified model and we obtained the following indices of new model (Table10).

		Thresholds	Model Fit
	CMIN/df	< 5	13.123
	GFI	Close or > 0,9	.918
	AGFI	Close or > 0,8	.837
	RMSEA	Close or < 0,08	.145

Table 11 -

 11 Satisfaction and perceived value model of sense of mastery

  Table 12).

	AGFI	Close or > 0,8	.864
	RMSEA	Close or < 0,08	.144
	RMR	< 0.05	.064
	NFI	Close or > 0,9	.934
	CFI	Close or > 0,9	.939
	Table 12 -Model fit of distributive justice
	Several indices like: GFI, AGFI, NFI and CFI have a good fit and they are acceptable
	but certain indices such as CMIN/df (12.948 > 5), RMSEA (.144 > 0.08) and RMR (0.064 >
	Indices	Thresholds	Model Fit
	CMIN/df	< 5	12.948
	GFI	Close or > 0,9	.955

0.05) don't have a good fit and we can't accept them. Therefore the model is not acceptable and it should be re-specified.

Table 15 -

 15 Model fit of procedural justiceThe result of model test shows that almost all the indices (GFI, AGFI, NFI, CFI and

		Model Fit
	CMIN/df	.003
	GFI	1
	AGFI	1
	RMSEA	0
	RMR	.001
	NFI	1
	CFI	1
	Table 13 -Estimated parameters of distributive justice

RMR) have a good fit and they are acceptable, except two indices, CMIN/df (5.495 > 5) and RMSEA (0.088 > .08) which don't have a good fit.

By considering to the standardized residuals and modification indices, we found that by adding a covariance between Justfor5 and Justfor6 items, the model can be improved to get such a good model fit. After adding a covariance between two these items, we retest the new model and we obtained the following indices (Table

16

).

Table 16 -

 16 Estimated parameters of procedural justice

Table 19 -

 19 Satisfaction and perceived value model of powerlessness

	Construct	Items	Standardized regression weight	T test *
	Power3	0.718	-
	Power2	0.788	14.376
	Powerlessness
	Power1	0.747	14.348
	AVE			0.565
	Joreskog rho		0.795

Table 20 -

 20 Model fit of corruptionAfter testing the model, we decided to remove the Corrup3 item because of two reasons. First, the feedback of participants cleared that this item confused them and they couldn't answer to this item properly and exactly. Second, the multiple correlation coefficient of this item is very low (.004) then we decided to remove the item 3 and continue our analysis without this item. We retested the model and we obtained the following indices (Table21).

	Thresholds	Model Fit

Table 21

 21

	Figure 12 -One dimension corruption model

-Estimated parameters of corruption The model is "exactly identified" because the results indicate that the freedom degree of the model is zero and all the indices are quite good. The confirmatory factor analysis confirms a structure of this model in 3 items.

Table 22 -

 22 Satisfaction and perceived value model of corruption

Table 24

 24

	):

acceptable and the confirmatory factor analysis confirms a structure in 9 items. Figure 13 -Three dimensions workplace deviance model

Table 25 -

 25 Satisfaction and perceived value model of workplace deviance

Table 26 -

 26 Table 26). Model fit of transparencyThe results show that all the indices of this model are perfect and don't need any modification. The CMIN (2.960 < 5), RMR (0.018 < 0.05) and RMSEA (0.058 < 0.08) indices are acceptable which means that the model is "exactly identified". The confirmatory factor analysis confirms a structure in 5 items.

	Indices	Thresholds	Model Fit
	CMIN/df	< 5	2.960
	GFI	Close or > 0,9	.990
	AGFI	Close or > 0,8	.970
	RMSEA	Close or < 0,08	.058
	RMR	< 0.05	.018
	NFI	Close or > 0,9	.991
	CFI	Close or > 0,9	.994

Table 27 -

 27 Satisfaction and perceived value model of transparency

Table 28 -

 28 Model fit of caring climate All the indices of caring climate model fit are not good. Especially CMIN/df (25.442 >

		Thresholds	Model Fit
	CMIN/df	< 5	25.442
	GFI	Close or > 0,9	.866
	AGFI	Close or > 0,8	.688
	RMSEA	Close or < 0,08	.206
	RMR	< 0.05	.155
	NFI	Close or > 0,9	.833
	CFI	Close or > 0,9	.838

Table 30 -

 30 Satisfaction and perceived value model of caring climate

		Figure 15 -One dimension caring climate model
	Construct	Items	Standardized regression weight	T test *
		Care5	0.502	-
		Care3	0.562	11.304

Table 32 -

 32 Model fit of structural model

		Thresholds	Model Fit
	c 2		1285.432
	Df		628
	CMIN/df	< 5	2.047
	GFI	Close or > 0,9	0.90
	AGFI	Close or > 0,8	0.871
	RMSEA	Close or < 0,08	0.043
	NFI	Close or > 0,9	0.879
	CFI	Close or > 0,9	0.934
	Table 31 -Model fit of measurement model
	The indices of measurement model indicate that CMIN/df (2.047 < 5), RMSEA (0.043
	< 0.08), GFI (0.90 = 0.90), AGFI (0.870 > 0.8) and CFI (0.933 > 0.9) have a good fit and the

Table 33 -

 33 On the other hand, discriminant validity is corroborated when Maximum Shared Variance (MSV) and the Average Shared Squared Variance (ASV) were both lower than the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) for all constructs. Indicators for validity

		CR
		Coefficient Rho	> AVE
	Convergent Validity	AVE
		Average variance extracted	> 0,5
		MSV
		Maximum shared value	< AVE
	Discriminant Validity	ASV
		Averageshared variance	< AVE

Table 34 -

 34 Convergent and discriminant validity of the measures

	157]

Table 35 -

 35 Regression result with corruption VariablesCorruption

		b	CR	SE
	Powerlessness	.121*	1.989	.095
	Sense of Mastery	-.098*	-1.963	.075
	Distributive Justice	-.249***	-4.053	.096
	Procedural Justice	-.180**	-2.670	.091
	Squared Multiple Correlations (R 2 ) =.15

*p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001

Table 36 -

 36 Regression result with workplace deviance

	Variables		Workplace Deviance
		b	CR	SE
	Powerlessness	.178**	2.457	.047
	Sense of Mastery	-.166**	-2.736	.037
	Distributive Justice	.035(ns)	.507	.045
	Procedural Justice	-.242**	-2.964	.045
	Squared Multiple Correlations (R 2 ) =.07

*p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001

Table 37

 37

		-Moderation of transparency
			Moderator effect of transparency
			coeff	se	T	R 2
	Powerlessness	Corruption	-.11*	.05	-2.24	.15
	Sense of Mastery	Corruption -.19***	.07	-2.84	.17
	Procedural Justice	Corruption	-.06	.05 -1.17(ns)	.16
	Distributive Justice	Corruption	.02	.05	.39(ns)	.18

*p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001

Table 38 -

 38 Moderation of caring climate Moderator effect of caring climate

	coeff	se	t	R 2

*p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001

Table 39 -

 39 Moderation of transparency Moderator effect of transparency

	coeff	se	t	R 2

Table 40 -

 40 Moderation of caring climate Moderator effect of caring climate

	coeff	se	t	R 2

*p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001

Résultats des effets de l'interaction de la transparence entre les variables indépendantes et la corruption au travail L'effet modérateur de la transparence

			coeff	Se	t	R 2
	Impuissance	Corruption	-.11*	.05	-2.24	.15
	Sentiment de Maîtrise	Corruption -.19***	.07	-2.84	.17
	Justice Procédurale	Corruption	-.06	.05	-1.17(ns)	.16
	Justice Distributive	Corruption	.02	.05	.39(ns)	.18
	*p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001

Résultats des effets de l'interaction du climat d'entraide entre les variables indépendantes et la corruption au travail L'effet modérateur du climat d'entraide

			coeff	Se	t	R 2
	Impuissance	Corruption	-.05	.05	-.93(ns)	.03
	Sentiment de Maîtrise	Corruption	.01	.06	.25(ns)	.06
	Justice Procédurale	Corruption	.00	.05	.10(ns)	.08
	Justice Distributive	Corruption	.02	.05	.45(ns)	.11

*p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .

001 Résultats des effets de l'interaction de la transparence entre les variables indépendantes et la déviance au travail L'effet modérateur de la transparence

			Coeff	Se	t	R 2
	Impuissance	Déviance au Travail	-.02	.02	-.69(ns)	.00
	Sentiment de Maîtrise	Déviance au Travail	-.05	.03	-1.92(ns)	.02
	Justice Procédurale	Déviance au Travail	.01	.03	.40(ns)	.01

*p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001

Résultats des effets de l'interaction du climat d'entraide entre les variables indépendantes et la déviance au travail L'effet modérateur du climat d'entraide

  Dans le chapitre 6, est présentée la discussion des résultats. Le thème de la corruption est un sujet sensible ; en effet, sur les 25700 individus contactés, seulement 575 participants des organisations internationales et multinationales qui vivent et travaillent au Canada, en

			Coeff	se	t	R 2
	Impuissance	Déviance au Travail	-.04	.02	-1.73(ns)	.01
	Sentiment de Maîtrise	Déviance au Travail	-.08	.02	-3.44***	.03
	Justice Procédurale	Déviance au Travail	-.02	.02	-.98(ns)	.02
	*p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001
	CHAPITRE 6 : DISCUSSION

The Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI), ranks countries in terms of the degree to which corruption is perceived to exist among public officials and politicians. It is a composite index, making use of surveys of business people and assessments by country analysts. http://www.transparency.org/cpi2015

FIFA officials accused of taking a possible total of $150 million in bribes since the early '90s.

Anna Hazare is an Indian social activist who led movements to promote rural development, increase government transparency, and investigate and punish corruption in public life.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is the United Nations' global development network, it provides expert advice, training, and grant support to developing countries, with increasing emphasis on assistance to the least developed countries.

The CPI 2015 ranks 167 countries, and draws on several different polls and surveys from independent institutions. Data from the following sources were included: -Country Policy and Institutional Assessment by the IDA and IBRD (World Bank), -Economist Intelligence Unit, -Freedom House 'Nations in Transit', -International Institute for Management Development (in Lausanne), -Merchant International Group Limited (in London), -Political and Economic Risk Consultancy (in Hong Kong), -United Nations Commission for Africa, -World Economic Forum (WEF),

PART 2: EMPIRICAL STUDY [113] CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY [115] CHAPTER 5: RESULTS [131] After modification of the initial model, the value of CMIN/df (.003 < 5), RMSEA (0 < 0.08) and RMR (.001 < 0.0) have improved and the indices indicate a good model fit. The confirmatory factor analysis confirms a structure in 4 items.

Model Fit and Reliability of Procedural Justice Scale

Procedural justice scale with six items has been taken from the scale of [START_REF] Niehoff | Justice as a mediator of the relationship between methods of monitoring and organizational citizenship behavior[END_REF]. We tested the model and we obtained the following indices (Table 15).

After modification of the initial model, the value of CMIN/df (2.279 < 5) and RMSEA (.047 < 5) have improved and the indices indicate a good model fit. The confirmatory factor analysis confirms a structure in 6 items.

GENERAL CONCLUSION

The purpose of the present research is to contribute to a better understanding of workplace corruption and deviance. Workplace corruption and deviance are both a pressing issue for effective human resource management and a challenging issue for research by industrial psychologists. In this study, we assumed to view corruption as an outcome of a process of resource preservation. In other words, we hypothesized that individuals thoughtfully engage in corrupt behaviors as a defensive move to protect perceived threats on valued motivation factors.

Drawing from COR theory, we developed a resource-based model of a corruption process that relates personal resources, including powerlessness, sense of mastery, distributive and procedural justice. This approach is expected to enrich our understanding beyond simple cause-effect theorizing that links resource depletion to organizational deviance [START_REF] Chirasha | An Analysis of the Causes and Impact of Deviant Behavior in the Workplace[END_REF].

Framed within a motivational theorizing of corruption behavior, and grounded in COR theory, the study brought light to the process by which individuals chose to engage into organizational crime. The quantitative studies of this research highlighted that powerlessness positively, sense of mastery and procedural justice negatively have a direct and significant impact on corruption and workplace deviance.

On one hand we highlighted that distributive justice only, has a negative impact on workplace corruption. On the other hand, powerlessness, lack of sense of mastery and procedural injustice are linked to workplace corruption and deviance. Faced with a perceived inability to secure their organizational status through regular rules and procedures, employees engage in workplace corruption and deviance [START_REF] Ambrose | Sabotage in the workplace: The role of organizational injustice[END_REF]Skarlicki & Floger, 1997). However, distributive injustice relates to workplace corruption as compensation for unfair promotions, remunerations and salaries. To make job decisions, my general manager collects accurate and complete information.

All job decisions are applied consistently across all affected employees.

Employees are allowed to challenge or appeal job decisions made by the general manager.

My general manager clarifies decisions and provides additional information when requested by employees.

I have little control over the things that happen to me.

There is really no way I can solve some of the problems I have.

I often feel helpless in dealing with the problems of life.

There is little I can do to change many of the important things in my life.

Sometimes I feel that I'm being pushed around in life.

What happens to me in the future mostly depends on me.

I can do just about anything I really set my mind to do.

Is it ok, Individuals pay bribes and tips to get things done.

Is it ok, Organizations pay bribes and tips to get things done.

Is it ok, if public official acts against rules, help can be obtained elsewhere.

Bribery and corruption is common in your organization.

Public administration takes public criticism and suggestions for improvement seriously.

Today, more than ever before, the public system is willing to be exposed to the public and to the media.

Public administration treats defects found by the state comptroller seriously.

Public administration sees criticism as an important tool for future service improvement.

Public sector administration encourages public employees to accept criticism and use it to improve services for citizens.

Could you please indicate, how accurately each of the items describes your general work climate?

(

1) « Completely false » ;(2) « Mostly false » ; (3) « Somewhat false » ; (4) ; « Somewhat true » ; (5) ; « Mostly true » ; (6) ; « completely true»

What is best for everyone in the company/organization is the major consideration here.

The most important concern is the good of all the people in the company/organization as a whole.

Our major concern is always what is best for the other person.

In this company/organization, it is expected that you will always do what is right for the customers and public.

The most efficient way is always the right way in this company/organization.

In this company, each person is expected above all to work efficiently.

Could you please indicate how often do you engage in the below behaviors at your workplace during the previous year. Accepted a gift/favor in exchange for professional treatment.

Taken property from work without permission.

Worked on a personal matter instead of worked for your employer.

Taken an additional or longer break than is acceptable at your place of work.

Intentionally worked slower than you could have worked.

Showed favoritism for a fellow employee or subordinate employee.

Blamed someone else or let someone else take the blame for your mistake.

Repeated gossip about a co worker.

General information:

Sex: Masculine or Feminine Age: …………..years.

Number of children under your charge:

Function:

Seniority in your actual position: …………………….years.

Country of your residence: