Mechthild A2
email: mechthild.donner@a7supagro.inra.fr

Donner

Place branding, embeddedness and endogenous rural development

Keywords: place branding, rural areas, food networks, embeddedness, regional development, endogenous development

Place branding, embeddedness and endogenous rural development: Four European cases

INTRODUCTION

Rural regions are facing ecological, social and economic vulnerabilities and competition, embedded in wider processes of globalisation. Globalisation is the dominant force reshaping rural economies and societies at the start of the 21st century, which has a transformative impact on rural regions [START_REF] Macdonagh | Global-1500 ization and Europes' Rural regions-Challenge and Oppor-1501 tunity[END_REF]. For many rural regions, an obvious choice is to compete with other regions for global mobile capital and labour, for example via 'smart specialization' (McCann and Ortega-Argile ´s, 2015). These strategies are targeted towards gaining some form of economic advantage over other regions [START_REF] Bristow | Limits to Regional Competitiveness[END_REF]. This has been criticised as a competitiveness discourse, littered with the language of 'winners and losers', which lacks sensitivity to critical issues of context and place and the interdependencies between places [START_REF] Bristow | Resilient regions: re-'place'ing regional competitiveness[END_REF].

On the other hand, and as a counterforce to these global logics, new strategies for rural regions are being developed, which are more place-based, such as the construction of identities or images around new rural goods and services [START_REF] Horlings | Exploring the 'New Rural Paradigm' in Europe: eco-economic strategies as a counterforce to the global competitiveness agenda[END_REF]. These strategies can be seen in the context of the 'New Rural Paradigm' [START_REF] Moilanen | L'Etat social de la France[END_REF] challenging regions to valorise their local assets and exploit hitherto unused resources. The attention for the unique qualities and potential of areas is also mirrored in other policy-related documents such as OECD reports on regional development [START_REF] Moilanen | L'Etat social de la France[END_REF](OECD, , 2011)), the European cohesion policy [START_REF] Barca | An Agenda for Reformed Cohesion Policy: A Place-Based Approach to Meeting European Union Challenges and Expectations[END_REF] and the EU territorial Agenda 2020 (EU, 2011).

In this article, the focus is on the valorisation of regional rural assets via place branding. Here, place branding is not considered in a narrow sense as merely the promotion or the marketing of a place, butreferring to [START_REF] Pedersen | Place branding: Giving the region of Øresund a competitive edge[END_REF] as the construction of territorial ideas, signs and practices and devising new ways for a local society to identify itself. This includes the valorisation of unique qualities of rural regions which can be tangible (natural, agro-climatic or cultural, patrimonial resources), intangible (skills, knowhow, traditional recipes, lifestyle) or temporal (historical, e.g. family tradition linked to generations) [START_REF] Rastoin | The Concept of Terroir as the Basis of Corporate Strategy in Agribusiness: The European Social, Economic and Institutional Model[END_REF].

Place branding in research has paid attention to different scales, e.g. nation branding [START_REF] Anholt | Nation branding: a continuing theme[END_REF]Dinnie, 2008;[START_REF] Fan | Branding the nation: Towards a better under-Progress in Human Geography 32(1): 71-88. 1406 standing[END_REF], city branding (Kavaratzis and Ashworth, 2005;Kalandides et al, 2011) and, more recently, regional branding, showing how regions can distinguish themselves from others based on their unique qualities, cultural story-lines and the image they communicate [START_REF] Ashworth | Towards Effective Place Brand Management Branding European Cities and Regions[END_REF]Kavaratzis et al, 2015;Oliveira, 2015a, b, c;[START_REF] Zenker | Inter-Regional Place Branding[END_REF]. Place branding strategies have also become increasingly part of the regional public agenda [START_REF] Pedersen | Place branding: Giving the region of Øresund a competitive edge[END_REF][START_REF] Pasquinelli | The limits of place branding for local development: The case of Tuscany and the Arnovalley brand[END_REF].

With regard to specifically the branding of rural regions, it is argued here that despite interesting research in for example the North of Portugal (Oliveira, 2016a, b), the River Minho estuary in the borderland of Portugal and Spain [START_REF] García | City branding: An 1417 River Minho estuary. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy effective assertion of identity or a[END_REF], the Shetland Islands [START_REF] Horlings | Sustainable develop-1397 Towards an Inclusive, Smart and Sustainable Europe of ment and policies in rural regions; insights from the Shetland 1398 Diverse Regions; agreed at the Informal Ministerial Meeting Islands[END_REF], Catalonia (Eugenio-Vela and [START_REF] Eugenio-Vela | The characteristics[END_REF] and the Netherlands [START_REF] Horlings | Place branding by building coalitions; lessons from rural-urban regions in the Netherlands[END_REF], this topic is still under researched in the field of place branding [START_REF] Vuorinen | Challenges in joint place branding in rural regions[END_REF]. Therefore, in this article, four European regional rural cases on place branding are explored and analysed which aim to valorise their food and tourism assets, in order to understand how the process of rural place branding takes shape in the context of embeddedness and neo-endogenous rural development. Empirically, attention is paid to the pre-conditions for branding, brand management, forms of cooperation and development outcomes, and to the links between the branding of rural regions and localised food and tourism networks. This has become relevant as the system of food provisioning has become increasingly 'place-less', disconnected from the particular socio-cultural and ecological settings of places, and creating various sustainability problems which require a 're-embedding' of the food provisioning system [START_REF] Wiskerke | On places lost and places regained: Reflections on the alternative food geography and sustainable regional development[END_REF]. A regional strategy of re-orientation on territorial capital via the development of culturally embedded food products which reflect the 'story of the region' and offer experiences to citizens can support tourism [START_REF] Horlings | Exploring the 'New Rural Paradigm' in Europe: eco-economic strategies as a counterforce to the global competitiveness agenda[END_REF].

Theoretically, as only a few studies consider place branding from a rural sociological perspective [START_REF] Rausch | Place branding in rural Japan: Cultural commodities as local brands[END_REF][START_REF] Horlings | Place branding by building coalitions; lessons from rural-urban regions in the Netherlands[END_REF][START_REF] García | City branding: An 1417 River Minho estuary. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy effective assertion of identity or a[END_REF], the overall aim is to link place branding to the concepts endogenous development, territory and embeddedness, in order to provide more understanding of how place branding of rural regions can contribute to rural development. Four cases were selected, two from France (Sud de France and Produit en Bretagne), one from Ireland (A taste of Cork) and one from Germany (Echt Schwarzwald). The research questions are:

-What can be learned about the process and working mechanisms of place branding and the valorisation of food and tourism assets in these four rural regions? -How are the analysed place brands societally, structurally and territorially embedded? -What are the outcomes in terms of endogenous rural development?

It should be mentioned that the notion of territory is not unproblematic [START_REF] Paasi | Constructing territories, boundaries and 1555 regional identity[END_REF][START_REF] Tewdwr-Jones | Territory, Identity and Spatial Planning: Spatial Governance in a Fragmented Nation[END_REF]Elden, 2013). Territory in Anglo-Saxon literature often refers to territorial settlements and administrative or organisationally bounded areas. Others have referred to notions of territorialisation as a process which constructs places including the making of borders [START_REF] Raffestin | Territorialite ´: concept ou paradigme de la ge ´ographie sociale?[END_REF][START_REF] Raffestin | Space, territory, and territoriality[END_REF][START_REF] Horlings | Introduction: the role of culture in territorialisation[END_REF]. Here we apply the French definition of territory as a delimited area which results from a social construction of private and public actors who search for solving a common problem while sharing a common identity [START_REF] Pecqueur | Qualite ´ et de ´veloppement territorial: l'hypothe `se du panier de biens et de services territorialise ´s[END_REF].

The article is structured as follows. First, neoendogenous rural development will be defined. Then, the analytical framework on embeddedness will be outlined and the methodology described. Finally, results will be presented in terms of a comparison and analysis of the relations between regional rural brands, embeddedness and endogenous rural development.

ENDOGENOUS RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND PLACE BRANDING

The valorisation of rural assets is central in endogenous rural development (ERD). In rural sociology, (neo-)endogenous development has been defined as the utilisation and celebration of local and regional characteristics as the basis of its economic activity and livelihood [START_REF] Oostindie | The Endogeneity of Rural Economies[END_REF]. The emphasis in most sociological approaches to ERD is in understanding the (natural, human and cultural) characteristics of a place that makes it special and/or distinctive (different from other regions), and how these may become the focus of sustainable economic activity [START_REF] Vanclay | Endogenous rural development from a sociological perspective[END_REF]. Endogenous development is based on local resources, control and a redistribution of economic gains [START_REF] Oostindie | The Endogeneity of Rural Economies[END_REF]. The focus is on a reorientation of activities within the local territory to maximise the retention of benefits by valorising and exploiting local resources, and on the needs, capacities and perspectives of local peoples [START_REF] Horlings | Introduction: the role of culture in territorialisation[END_REF].

Endogenous development does not imply that external or global factors are not important [START_REF] Papadopoulos | Product-Country 1559 Images: Impact and Role in International Marketing[END_REF][START_REF] Verlegh | A review and metaanalysis of country-of-origin research[END_REF], which analyses the 'made-in' effect (buydomestic) on the consumers' perception and/or buying behaviour and has often been applied to agricultural products due to their intrinsic origin value, place branding incorporates a strategic marketing and brand management approach. Its main instrument is a collective umbrella brand, applying the same brand name, identity and logo for different product or service categories (Iversen and Hem, 2008;[START_REF] Horlings | Place branding by building coalitions; lessons from rural-urban regions in the Netherlands[END_REF]. With regard to the food sector, the approach incorporates the French concept of terroir, which links local actors, typical characteristics of agricultural products (quality, taste) and physical assets of a territory like geography, geology and climate [START_REF] Be ´rard | Les produits de terroir. Entre cultures et re `glements[END_REF][START_REF] Casabianca | Terroir et Typicite ´: deux conceptscle ´s des Appellations d'Origine Contro ˆ le ´e. Essai de de ´finitions scientifiques et ope ´rationnelles[END_REF]. Local food products reflecting urban consumers' ideas of the countryside are considered as particularly interesting for developing a place brand [START_REF] Tellstro ¨ M | Consuming heritage: The use of local food culture in branding[END_REF].

A challenge of place branding is the creation of a strong common brand identity, which incorporates the core values of the labelled territory and fits to the different sectors as well as different product and service categories [START_REF] Aaker | Consumer evaluations of brand extensions[END_REF][START_REF] Kotler | Country as brand, product[END_REF]. Stakeholders' involvement is an integral part of the branding process, since stakeholders coconstruct, give meaning to, and share identities of a place (Kavaratzis and Kalandides, 2015;Garcia et al, 2013). A challenge is to co-create an 'inner brand' or joint storyline with stakeholders in order to add value to local products through innovative ways of promoting, and to support sustainable perspectives for rural regions [START_REF] Horlings | Place branding by building coalitions; lessons from rural-urban regions in the Netherlands[END_REF][START_REF] Horlings | Exploring the 'New Rural Paradigm' in Europe: eco-economic strategies as a counterforce to the global competitiveness agenda[END_REF].

Other challenges described in literature are: how to find an appropriate marketing-mix [START_REF] Braun | Towards an Integrated Approach for Place Brand Management[END_REF], to keep a coherence of quality within the portfolio of products and services to avoid damaging the brand image [START_REF] Wernerfelt | Umbrella branding as a signal of new product quality: an example of signalling by posting a bond[END_REF]Iversen and Hem, 2008) and to create a strong governance structure, such as a publicprivate partnership [START_REF] Rainisto | Success factors of place marketing: a study of place marketing practices in Northern Europe and the United States[END_REF]; and finally, the challenge to orchestrate the cooperation between different actors [START_REF] Therkelsen | Umbrella place branding: A study of friendly exoticism and exotic friendliness in coordinated national tourism and investment promotion: SPIRIT, School for Postgraduate Interdisciplinary Research on Interculturalism and Transnationality[END_REF]. In the cases of regional branding presented in 322 this article, we take into account how these 323 challenges can be faced by developing rural 324 regional brands. As place branding capitalises on 325 local assets, strategic domains and place-specific 326 values and calls for specific governance and multi-327 stakeholder cooperation models, a link to the 328 socio-economic concept of embeddedness will be 329 made. The concept of embeddedness in its three 330 dimensions allows us to analyse the specific 331 (territorial, network and societal) context in 332 which place branding occurs.

BRANDING AND EMBEDDEDNESS

334 There are different meanings of embeddedness; 335 therefore, it has been characterised as a 336 'confusingly polyvalent concept' [START_REF] Jones | Beyond embeddedness: Economic practices and 1404 (El Lluc ¸anes)[END_REF]. In 337 the original sense, described by [START_REF] Polanyi | The Great Transformation. The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time[END_REF] in 338 'The Great Transformation', the economy is 339 related to a social, cultural and institutional 340 context (societal embeddedness). The author 341 emphasises the historical pathways of economic 342 actors and gives embedding an evolutionary 343 character. Polanyi argues that the great 344 transformation to a modern and capitalist market 345 economy is inextricably linked to social and 346 political changes [START_REF] Castles | Karl Polanyi's Great Transformation as a Framework for understanding Neo-Liberal Globalisation[END_REF]. While 347 Polanyi does not connect the concept directly to 348 social networks, a subsequent seminal work on 349 embeddedness by [START_REF] Granovetter | ): 1368-1382. 1423 the problem of embeddedness[END_REF] describes 350 relations between individuals or firms as 351 embedded in actual social networks (structural 352 embeddedness) [START_REF] Granovetter | ): 1368-1382. 1423 the problem of embeddedness[END_REF]. Both ideas of 353 Polanyi and Granovetter disapprove neoclassical 354 economic thoughts which under-socialise 355 economic behaviour and postulate a dominance 356 of pure market forces.

357

A third dimension of embeddedness, which 358 emerged in line with the new regionalism from 359 the beginning of the 1990 s, is linked to a specific 360 geographical or spatial aspect: territorial 361 embeddedness. It has been defined as ''the extent to 362 which an actor is anchored in particular territories or 363 places'' (Hess, 2004:177) and asks about the 364 relevance of the spatial dimension of the process 365 of embedding. In the context of food and 366 agriculture, embeddedness emphasises connectivity between a food product or food system to a place in a territorial, cultural or geographic sense. These understandings are constructed, negotiated and reinforced [START_REF] Hinrichs | The practice and politics of food system localization[END_REF] in the social conditions of a particular place.

Figure 1, below, is an adapted version from [START_REF] Hess | Spatial relationships? Towards a reconceptualization of embeddedness[END_REF]. At the interface of each two embeddedness dimensionsas indicated by the arrowsvarious socio-economic concepts are located that investigate either social-structural (New Economic Sociology, Organisation and Business Studies), structural-territorial (Economic Geography, New Regionalism) or socialterritorial (Business Systems) linkages. As a whole, the figure illustrates the three interrelated dimensions of embeddedness, which, combined, form the spatial (territorial) and temporal (historical) context of socio-economic activity (composition and structure of networks) and allow considering developments over time in the configuration of localised networks. Figure 1 serves as analytical framework to investigate possible links between embeddedness and regional branding.

Analysing regional brands with regard to the theory of embeddedness seems adequate for several reasons. First, branding geographies intersect economic (products and services in markets), social (collective action), historicalcultural (cultural heritage, traditional know-how, values) and political (public policy and governance) worlds [START_REF] Pike | Brands and Branding Geographies[END_REF]. Second, place branding is based on relations and interactions between different stakeholders [START_REF] Hankinson | Academic Papers Relational network chvermarktung im Schwarzwald. Landkreisnachrichten Baden-1429 brands: Towards a conceptual model of place brands[END_REF], including chain (farmers, processors, retailers, consumers) and non-chain actors (governmental institutions, intermediary organisations). It shows the vertical and horizontal interrelations in a local business system, including cooperation and competition (co-opetition; [START_REF] Pasquinelli | Competition, cooperation and co-opetition: Unfolding the process of inter-territorial branding[END_REF] in local clusters and networks [START_REF] Kasabov | A stakeholder approach to 1411[END_REF][START_REF] Uzzi | The sources and consequences of embeddedness for the economic performance of organizations: The network effect[END_REF][START_REF] Halinen | The role of embedded-Cities and Regions. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Interna-1426 ness in the evolution of business networks[END_REF]. In this context, the question of the role of public policy interventions is also important, as the state may influence the formal and informal institutional environment in which firms operate [START_REF] Helmsing | Value Chains, Social Inclusion and Economic Development: Contrasting Theories and Realities[END_REF]. Place branding can be a strategic spatial The analysis of the cases is based on branding 429 and marketing aspects (objectives and strategy, 430 brand identity and extension, distribution, 431 product quality), the concept of embeddedness 432 (pre-conditions, socio-economic, institutional 433 and territorial context, cooperation and 434 governance structure), and development 435 outcomes.

METHODOLOGY

437 In the past few years, an increasing number of 438 regional branding strategies have been applied in 439 Europe. Four cases of rural regional branding 440 were selected, two from France (Sud de France and Produit en Bretagne), one from Ireland (A taste of West Cork) and one from Germany (Echt Schwarzwald). With the term region, we refer here to a sub-national territory, not necessarily an administrative area.

The first reason for this choice was that France has a long tradition and a lot of experience with the valorisation and commercialisation of local food products. The INAO (Institut National de l'Origine et de la Qualite ´) is the oldest institute for legal food protection in Europe and has been the basis for the elaboration of the European legal framework for geographical indications. 1 France has the highest sales value of products with geographical indications 2 , and French retailers such as Carrefour and Leclerc have, for more than a decade, successfully promoted own brands for local food such as Reflets de France and Nos re ´gions ont du talent [START_REF] Beylier | Ro ˆ le des MDD de terroir dans la construction de la le ´gitimite ´ des distributeurs. Le cas «Reflets de France[END_REF]. Thus, France strongly capitalises on local food products and food culture to attract national and international tourists. 3 This is also reflected by the number of regional brands building on local food products in France. 4 The second reason was that the cases from Bretagne (Produit en Bretagne; launched in 1993) and Ireland (A taste of West Cork; since 1998) are two of the oldest rural regional branding Comment citer ce document : Donner, M., Horlings, L., Fort, F., Vellema, S. ( 2016 (2008) are more recent 6 and have not been researched before. The empirical analysis of these cases revealed valuable information on the conditions for place branding.

The methodology used was qualitative in nature, which allows describing and interpreting new or under-researched issues, theory development and policy evaluation and advice [START_REF] Bitsch | Qualitative research: A grounded theory example and evaluation criteria[END_REF]. Various secondary data, such as policy documents, press and academic articles as well as data from internet sites, were collected for all the cases in order to trace the branding processes, their history and development. Process tracing in social science allows studying decision making and causal mechanisms as well as revealing information about evolutions [START_REF] Beach | Process-Tracing Methods: Foundations and Guidelines[END_REF]. The origin and management of the brands were explored, events in time, related problems, and the value added by the brands for the place and its stakeholders, including network effects. In addition, primary data in the form of twelve semi-structured interviews with public and private key stakeholders were collected, but only for the two more recent rural regional branding cases (Sud de France: eight interviews and Echt Schwarzwald: four interviews); the two older brands being already well researched as isolated cases, but not in a comparative way. All interviews were done face-to-face and lasted between half an hour and one and a half hour. Notes were taken during the interviews and reviewed and completed immediately after. Questions with public stakeholders and brand managers concerned the strategic goals, the governance, the financing and the marketing-mix as well as benefits and critical issues of the brands. Brand members such as food enterprises or tourism providers were asked about their motivation for the brand adherence, the kind of cooperation and perceived benefits. The interview data were analysed according to the thematic method, as proposed by [START_REF] Berg | An Introduction to Content Analysis[END_REF]. First, a basic coding was done in order to identify overall themes, followed by an interpretation of the more specific patterns.

The purpose of the comparative case analysis was to develop a deeper understanding and to get more generic insights into the process and working mechanisms of rural regional brands, of how public-private interactions around them are formed and evolve; to explore whether and how territorial and societal embeddedness generate novel partnerships and synergies (structural embedding), and how regional brands can support rural development.

INTRODUCING FOUR EUROPEAN CASES OF RURAL REGIONAL BRANDING

In this section, the four different European cases of rural regional branding are presented in a chronologic order, to show how local food and tourism are marketed via place branding.

Produit en Bretagne (PeB)

Produit en Bretagne is one of the oldest regional brands for food in Europe. 7 It has evolved from a difficult economic context. In 1993-1994, Brittanysituated in the North-West of Francesuffered from a heavy crisis concerning one of its most important sectors, fishery. This went together with the general tendencies of de-industrialisation and de-localisation, giving the habitants a feeling of being marginalised. 8 As a consequence of this socio-economic context, four entrepreneurs from the Finiste `re department took the initiative to develop a regional brand in order to keep and create local employment, to enable people living in this territory and to contribute to the regional economic development (hence territorial embeddedness, as discussed later). The collective strategy was based on such ethical principles as solidarity and sustainability, inviting consumers to buy responsible, to buy 'Breton'. 9 Such a purchasing incentive was possible as regional identity and solidarity are strongly rooted in Brittany's culture, due to the specific history of the region (societal and territorial embeddedness). 10 In the 2010 report L'Etat social de la France, realised by the Observatoire du dialogue et de l'intelligence sociale (ODIS, 2010), Brittany was ranking as the second French region regarding social ties linked to economic performance.

The brand PeB soon became institutionalised via an association with the same name, which started with thirteen food enterprises but now has 370 members from many different business sectors (44 per cent from the agri-food sector, but also hotels, restaurants, financial and logistics services, cultural and creative sectors…). 11 The association constitutes the largest economic network in the region and is still growing. Together with the regional chamber of commerce and industry and the higher school of commerce Bretagne Brest, it also successfully created, in 2006, a business incubator, Incubateur Produit en Bretagne [START_REF] Merieau | L'incubateur Produit en Bretagne: essai de 1506 compre ´hension et de mode ´lisation[END_REF], which stimulates and supports innovative projects and the creation of new local enterprises (structural embeddedness). It is particularly interesting that the PeB network was the first to be set up in France by enterprises, not from a public or governmental side. However, the geographical extension from Finiste `re to other departments within the region has created tensions between brand members, who see their differential advantage threatened with an increasing number of (competing) brand members [START_REF] Stervinou | Une me ´thodologie pour analyser les groupements localise ´s d'entreprises: le cas de l'association ''Produit en Bretagne[END_REF].

In 2013, about 3900 different products carry the logo PeB [START_REF] Baldos | Produit en Bretagne, pre ´curseur du 'made in[END_REF]. While these were in the beginning mainly food products, the brand has over time been extended to other product categories (such as typical regional textiles, crafts, books or discs etc.) and various services. If enterprises want to sell products under the brand name, they must be members of the association, respect its values and ethics and pay an annual contribution fee. They are evaluated via audits by an independent agency, Bureau Veritas. Furthermore, each product is separately checked with regard to its origin and quality before it can be labelled. Concerning distribution, there is a strong interrelation between the association and the regional as well as national retail groups, but also alternative channels are used as bars or restaurants, special boutiques, e-commerce and also collective restaurants are foreseen.

The outcomes of the brand have been measured differently. [START_REF] Foutrel | Les logiques de ´cisionnelles du marquage territorial: branding clusters: Pointers to a research agenda. Regional 1412 une analyse par la cartographie cognitive applique ´e au cas de[END_REF] explored the meaning of the brand for different key stakeholders and concluded that the brand dimensions are going much further than a simple 'made-in' effect, but are mainly centred on three interrelated concepts: employment, solidarity and the brand itself. In 2010, a consumer study was done by the market research institute TMO whose results showed that 97 per cent of the consumers within the region and 49 per cent in Ile-de-France (Paris) know the brand and that they identify it with its values and commitment for quality, regional employment, economic development as well as environmental respect. 12 Although there are no exact figures, the brand is supposed to have significantly contributed to the creation and maintenance of local jobs [START_REF] Baldos | Produit en Bretagne, pre ´curseur du 'made in[END_REF]. Moreover, the regional cooperation and network efficiency is considered as a key success of the brand. The capacity to cooperate is in general regarded as the main reason for a higher independency of Bretagne, compared to other French regions: ''Brittany is far less dependent from foreign countries than other French regions, and this strong autonomy results from an important density of its regional groups''. 13 A taste of West Cork (ToWC)

The Irish case of regional branding has been documented in detail [START_REF] O'reilly | Fuchsia Brands Ltd: A case study of networking 1552 among the Food Producer Members[END_REF][START_REF] Woods | The Fuchsia destination quality brand: Low on quality assurance, high on knowledge sharing[END_REF][START_REF] Crowley | Selling regional identity: The case of Fuchsia Brands Ltd[END_REF][START_REF] Dempsey | Developing a regional branded identity to promote 1394 excellence[END_REF][START_REF] Messely | Branding 1509 regional identity as a driver for rural development[END_REF]. In 1994, West Cork, a rural agricultural region in the South-West of Ireland, made a bid for financial support from the European LEADER II programme with a positive outcome. Accordingly, the West Cork Leader Co-operative (WCLC) analysed regional strengths and weaknesses (EU LEADER European Observatory, 1999). It became clear that the area on the one hand had valuable assets such as beautiful and diverse landscapes, friendly hospitable people and food specialties, but on the other hand, there were no cooperative marketing initiatives and only a fragmented services sector (lack of territorial embeddedness). Therefore, the WCLC decided to promote the region by creating a strong umbrella brand for high quality local food products and tourism services. The main objectives of this strategy were to develop a branded identity and to stimulate collective action by bringing together key stakeholders into a single organisational structure. The Fuchsia Brands Ltd. was set up, incorporating the WCLC, West Cork Tourism, Cork/Kerry Tourism and West Cork Food Producers Association (WCFPA). This organisation was responsible for the brand management and provided infrastructure to network activities of various public agencies and private firms. 14 Operations of the WCLC were later been taken over by West Cork Development Partnership. 15 In 1998, the brand was launched commercially for food products (A taste of West Cork) and tourism services (West Cork, a place apart), and was later extended to crafts. It was set up to attract tourists on a regional, national and international scale. The logo carries the typical fuchsia flower, which has a strong association with the region and is easily recognisable (McCutcheon, online document). Promotion is done via trade fairs, tourism brochures, media, the publication of a guide showing the best and most typical West Cork products, in-store tasting etc. The brand is based on high quality and safety, guaranteed through internationally recognised Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points norms and reinforced by Fuchsia Brands Ltd. training programmes for product quality, customer care, marketing, food hygiene and safety [START_REF] O'reilly | Fuchsia Brands Ltd: A case study of networking 1552 among the Food Producer Members[END_REF]. Since 2003, a special Fuchsia Retail Affiliate Scheme has been developed, which includes a listing of Fuchsia branded products in qualified, labelled regional retail stores.

The West Cork Fuchsia brand produced a number of positive outcomes for regional development [START_REF] O'reilly | Fuchsia Brands Ltd: A case study of networking 1552 among the Food Producer Members[END_REF][START_REF] Dempsey | Developing a regional branded identity to promote 1394 excellence[END_REF][START_REF] Ryan | Rural Enterprise Development & Sustainability. Innovative Approaches to the needs of rural areas[END_REF]. The results are considered to be related to the European Leader+ programme initiated by the West Cork Leader Co-operative. Among these outcomes, perceived benefits are increased knowledge of brand members (through information and training), a high consumer awareness and a positive image of the place, improved market access and cooperation. In addition, the impact studies confirm the brands contribution to the regional economy in terms of total direct value creation, employment rate and multiplier effects on jobs and expenditure within the region. Furthermore, the brand has created a strong territory-based network with inter-sectoral synergies between the food and tourism sector, such as multifunctional agriculture (structural embeddedness). In his case study, O'Reilly (2001) shows that the institutional support and cultural environment have been key factors for the emergence and identity of the network, as they provide a basis for solidary economic behaviour among enterprises (societal embeddedness). Another study of [START_REF] Messely | Branding 1509 regional identity as a driver for rural development[END_REF] confirms that people in West Cork have a strong sense of belonging to the region and a strong regional identity.

Sud de France (SdF) 16

The region Languedoc-Roussillon is situated in the South of France and bordered by the Pyrenees Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea; its capital is Montpellier. Geography and culture are deeply contrasting due to different historical origins; the economy is still at the bottom of all French metropolitan regions, with a high percentage of unemployment (13.9 per cent in 2013). 17 Tourism and agriculture are economic key sectors -Languedoc-Roussillon is the world's largest wine producing region (territorial embeddedness). Compared to Provence or Co ˆ te d'Azur, the region has remained for a long time relatively unknown, despite its beautiful landscapes, cultural heritage (such as the Pont du Gard or the city of Carcassonne), and hundreds of kilometres of coast with sandy beaches.

The brand Sud de France was launched in 2006 due to the influence of the former president of the regional government, Georges Fre ˆche (2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010), who wanted to bring the region out of its seclusion, activating resources for internationalisation and creating a common identity (1, brand manager of Sud de France Development, 14 June 2013; societal embeddedness). He initiated the brand together with a new institution for wine professionals, Inter Sud de France, regrouping all different winemakers of the area for the first time (structural embeddedness): ''the brand has grouped different organisations within the wine sector which did not communicate before'' (2, director of a wine organisation, 22 January 2013). Even though SdF was firstly intended to be a common export label for wine producers, which were in crisis due to a worldwide increasing competition, it was extended to other food companies and tourism service providers in 2008. 18 The marketing strategy has, since its beginning, a strong focus on promotion, with enormous advertisement campaigns financed by the regional government as brand ownera fact which has been critically regarded. 19 The promoted image builds upon the values of the Mediterranean art of living, as expression of a convivial lifestyle, with authentic, diversified, healthy food and wine. These values are shared by member enterprises: ''The brand corresponds exactly to our own firm policy'' (3, marketing director of a food enterprise, 3 April 2013). Using the brand is free of charge and entrance criteria are defined in a catalogue of specifications, which until 2014 has not been subject to strict audits. However, problems concerning food provenance and quality were leading to dissatisfaction among brand members: ''A problem is the enormous increase of members, which not always have typical products of the South or good quality'' (4, director of a cooperative, 14 February 2013). Therefore, product specifications were redefined in 2014 and external quality controls were introduced (5, brand manager of Sud de France Development, 14 June 2013). Since then, the number of brand members and labelled products from the agrifood sector has considerably decreased (approximately by half). In 2015, Sud de France counted 4163 registered agricultural and food products from 1332 member enterprises and 1100 labelled quality tourism providers. 20 The brand related activities are coordinated by Sud de France Development, which defines collective strategies for distribution, export and business development: ''Sud de France Development gives an enormous support for export'' (6, wine grower, 24 April 2013). This organisation is financed by the regional government and supported by other public institutions. It plays a strategic role as interface between producers and buyers, principally the big retail groups. In addition, it cooperates with the international Maisons de la Re ´gion Languedoc-Roussillon, which give commercial and logistic support to exporting enterprises in key markets (embeddingdis-embedding).

Regarding the outcomes of SdF on rural regional development the interviews revealed two major brand values: ''An economic one for enterprises, as communication and commercialization tool and an institutional one that gives value to the region as a whole, by increasing the awareness and creating a common strong identity. This includes an extension of the brand to other sectors'' (7, member of the regional council, 7 February 2013). For tourism, the brand helps to attract visitors: ''The value of the brand is enormous, seen the number of visitors per year due to the promotion'' (8, manager of a tourist organisation, 4 April 2013). An indicator for the attractiveness of the brand was also the constantly growing number of brand members. However, this increase was most probably partly due to the fact that access to public support was only possible if one becomes a brand adherent. There is not yet a formal network among brand adherents: ''There is not yet a cluster or a network of enterprises around the brand, but it is in development, and there are several initiatives, like trade fairs, meetings etc.'' (9, project manager of the regional industrial food enterprise organisation, 25 January 2013; structural embeddedness). Particularly, a stronger cooperation between wine, food and tourism is desired by brand members: ''The region has an enormous potential for oenotourism, e.g. wine routes or wine cellars with tasting wine and food products for consumers'' (10, director of a wine organisation, 22 January 2013). [START_REF] Koch | Echt Schwarzwald[END_REF]. In 866 2007, the association Echt Schwarzwald e.V. was 867 founded as a steering organisation, coordinating 868 both production and commercialisation. 21 This 869 association now has about 100 members, princi-870 pally farmers, but also butchers, restaurants, local 871 communities and the two natural parks Sch-872 warzwald Mitte/Nord and Su ¨ dschwarzwald. 873 With the support of the consulting firm Ecozept 874 the brand was launched in 2008 and was rapidly 875 extended to other typical local food products. 876 Only extensive cooperation and a public-private 877 partnership made it possible to create and expand 878 the regional marketing project [START_REF] Koch | Echt Schwarzwald[END_REF]. On 879 the other hand, ''the motivation among farmers was 880 initially low, as they were convinced to already have 881 their own valuable products'' (12, chief executive of 882 Echt Schwarzwald e.V., 5 August 2013). Addi-883 tionally, ''the communication between the different 884 partners was difficult, because of strong discrepancies 885 between consultancy, administrative and an entrepre-886 neurial culture and way of thinking'' (13, project 887 coordinator of Ecozept, 7 August 2013). Accord-888 ing to the project coordinator, another problem was that brand management and financing had to be assigned from the public to the private sector after four years (societal embeddedness). This is why at present, all brand activities are handled by a single chief executive of Echt Schwarzwald e.V., which is not without its financial and managerial risks.

Echt Schwarzwald (ES)

The basket of goods currently comprises mainly beef and beef products, but also lamb, typical fruit schnapps and liquor, honey, milk and finally also pork products, such as the famous Schwarzwa ¨lder Schinken (Protected Geographical Indication since 2010). The brand is related to local tourism in the natural parks, but the promotion is done with a different logo. ES stands for healthy, qualitative and authentic food, guaranteed through high quality requirements and audits for producers. The commercialisation is effected by short distribution channels, preferring local sales at farms, farmer markets, butchers or restaurants, but also by an online shop.

The economic impact of the brand for farmers' incomes is ''signifi with on average a 10-12 per cent price premium'' (14, chief executive of ES e.V., 5 August 2013) and a 50 per cent sales increase from 2009 to 2010. 22 However, one interviewee who joined the initiative as it corresponded to his own beliefs, criticised the fact that the brand does not yet clearly shows its values: ''the brand does not bring off the ecological value and animal welfare, but focuses too much on economic goals'' (15, restaurant owner, 5 August 2013). Furthermore, ''cooperation among brand participants is important and exists'' (16, chief executive of ES e.V., 5 August 2013), but can be attributed to normal business exchanges rather than directly to the brand (structural embeddedness). According to the project coordinator of Ecozept, ''at present, the brand has not yet led to increased solidarity or a common identity among members, but it has the potential to create a strong local network' ' (17, project coordinator of Ecozept, 7 August 2013) In particular, a stronger cooperation with the tourism sector is pursued: ''Such a cooperation would be ideal as tourism is extremely well developed here'' (18, chief executive of ES e.V., 5 August 2013) (Table 1). In order to answer the three research questions, 940 the cases will first be compared with regard to the 941 main branding and marketing aspects. Then, the 942 findings will be analysed along the three 943 dimensions of embeddedness, and finally, the 944 outcomes of the brands on endogenous rural 945 development will be assessed.

946 The objectives of the four cases show similarities: 947 place branding supports regional economic actors 948 (employment, competitiveness, incomes) and 949 local sustainable development (common identity, 950 quality of life, preservation of cultural and natural 951 heritage). All cases follow a niche strategy, based 952 on specific cultural and/or qualitative 953 differentiation and exploiting unique territorial 954 assets, as landscapes, local products, or people's 955 traditions and know-how. Consequently, the 956 brand identities are strongly rooted in the 957 territories and their values, highlighting 958 geographic origins and characteristics. In the case of SdF it is notable that this origin does not correspond to the political, administrative term of the area, Languedoc-Roussillon, but rather profits from positive connotations related to French food and the South, in general associated with Co ˆ te d'Azur and Provence.

In the four cases brand extensions have been performed, i.e. the original portfolio has been enlarged by adding other products or services from the territory to the brand. This seems not to be negative for the brand images, if these newly entering products or services are in congruence with existing brand values and are included in a transparent way. However, in two cases, an influx of new brand members has been considered as a threat by interviewed participants, because of either inconsistency in product quality (SdF) or increased level of internal competition (PeB).

Distribution channels are primarily operating at the local level, which may correspond to the predominant consumer's idea that local food is linked to short distribution channels. An By comparing the cases, it can be observed that 987 strategic as well as operational marketing aspects 988 are important. The development of a strong brand 989 identity and related values are essential, 990 incorporating a territorial unique selling 991 proposition. Here, a future challenge will be to 992 differentiate and highlight the uniqueness and 993 distinctiveness of a place among an increasing 994 number of competing place brands. Furthermore, 995 a well-balanced choice of products and services is 996 important, with possible brand extensions already 997 in mind, whereby originality and coherence of 998 quality are imperative in order to avoid damage to 999 the brand's image. territory with a strong regional identity and 1025 solidarity among residents. ES is a particular case, 1026 as the brand was supported by public institutions 1027 from the start, but after a relatively short time, the 1028 responsibility has been handed over to the private sector; a fact which has been critically observed by the project coordinator of the supporting consultancy.

Territorial embeddedness deals with the spatial aspect of the embedding process and the anchorage of actors in a particular place. An illustrative example is the creation and management of the brand PeB by local entrepreneurs intended to develop their own territory. In a similar way, the founding father of SdF, Georges Fre ˆche, has for a long time advocated his region and its territorial capital, being a political actor with strong economic interestsas highlighted by one of the brand managers. Furthermore, the spatial aspect of embeddedness becomes evident considering the specific territorial determinants functioning as building blocks for the brands. This means e.g. the traditional landscape in the Black Forest, the 'friendly character of people in Cork', the Mediterranean atmosphere in the Languedoc-Roussillon and the strong historical independency features of Brittany.

The third analytical dimension is structural embeddedness. Considering the cooperation and network aspects, this is a kind of emerging outcome preceded by territorial and societal embedding. All cases have shown a need for a leading organisation as orchestrator to ensure various stakeholders' involvement (Echt Schwarzwald e.V., Association PeB, Fuchsia Brands Ltd., SdF Development). The cooperation forms are horizontal and transversal; they all include chain and non-chain actors, mainly within regional business systems. In all cases, branding results at least in some common activities such as seminars, workshops, trade fairs, platforms as well as in business agreements between producers and distributors. Thus, creating durable partnerships between various stakeholders is a key element of these place branding processes, but its strength is a question of time. In the older cases, ToWC and PeB, a regional network has already become more deeply rooted than in the case of ES and SdF.

The analysis of the four empirical cases confirms our initial assumption that place brands in rural regions are linked to the three dimensions of embeddedness as shown in the overview in In addition, branding outcomes reflect endogenous aspects, such as the use and control over rural resources and qualities (agriculture, landscape, cultural heritage and values), local activities (farming, food processing, small-scale tourism) as well as the retention of benefits (price premium, employment) in the place itself. Table 3 highlights the outcomes in terms of endogenous rural development for each of the four cases. While the two older brands (PeB, ToWC) show a high degree of exploitation and control over diverse local resources and qualities and keep economic benefits within the region, ES could profit from combing diverse local resources under its brand name. In addition, both SdF and ES could improve the way of cross-sector organisation, especially between food and tourism as stated by the respondents. Place branding strategies are increasingly implemented in Europe to stimulate regional and rural development, by valorising and promoting territorial assets based on distinctive identities. However, it was argued that until now in place branding literature, links between place branding, embeddedness and endogenous rural development have not sufficiently been addressed.

The comparison of four European cases has shown that the branding of rural regions is not only a matter of marketing a territory and its assets, but can be an endogenous development strategy, which should be interpreted in an integrative manner, including different dimensions of embeddedness. Branding rural places does not just incorporate marketing products and services or the development of a brand, but also the anchorage of actors in a particular place and its identity (territorial embeddedness) and public-private interactions (societal embeddedness), which may result in new Hence, using concepts from rural sociology has enabled us to gain new insights into the process and working mechanisms of rural regional brands and their outcomes. Place branding of rural regions is a collective process fostering cooperation, in which the exploitation and control over local resources is considered as more important than competition between areas. These brands depend on their specific social, institutional and territorial context. This includes their way of financing, governance forms, identity and values as well as cooperation structures. The relation between rural regional brands and embeddedness has emerged to be reciprocal and dynamic: on the one hand, rural regional brands can stimulate structural, societal and territorial embeddedness; on the other hand, the branding process itself is influenced by embeddedness expressed via its three dimensions. This leads us to conclude that embeddedness (potentially) can be a driver as well as an outcome of place branding processes.

Thus, place branding strategies can offer a basis for rural development plans for their strategic positioning in the long-term. This is even more relevant in the context of the increasing attention for place-based regional development in European policies, seeking for a greater resilience and competitiveness of rural areas by building on territorial capital and promoting cross-sector synergies.

NOTES

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Regional brand linked to embeddedness. Source Hess (2004), adapted by the authors.

1000A

  key research question was till what extent 1001 place brands can be linked to the three dimensions 1002 of embeddedness. 1003 First, regarding societal embeddedness, the analysis 1004 confirms that each brand has its origin in a specific 1005 socio-cultural, natural, institutional or economic 1006 context. All initiatives started as reactions to a 1007 concrete threatand not an opportunity: an 1008 economic (loss of competitiveness, sales decreases 1009 due to globalisation: PdB, SdF), social 1010 (marginalisation, rural depopulation, brain drain: 1011 ToWC), or natural (loss of cultural landscape: ES) 1012 threat. In three cases, brands were initiated by 1013 institutional actors, as a top-down strategy 1014 involving different public and private 1015 stakeholders. This public role in development is 1016 illustrative for ToWC and SdF; the first was 1017 financed by the EU Leader+ programme and the 1018 second was created by a local politician using 1019 public subsidies. However, PeB was developed in 1020 a bottom-up way and is uniquely governed by 1021 private entrepreneurs, leading to a strong 1022 network. This was feasible within the specific 1023 socio-cultural conditions of Brittany, i.e. a 1024

  and co-creation 1148 between the natural environment, unique and 1149 distinctive territorial resources and capacities of 1150 local people. Typical local food and tourism assets can play an important role as identity markers, expressing a specific culture and way-of-life.

  the four cases has demonstrated that local development outcomes of rural regional brands are various and reflect endogenous aspects, such as the exploitation and control over rural resources and qualities (agriculture, landscape, cultural heritage and place-specific values), local activities (farming, food processing, small-scale tourism) as well as the retention of benefits (price premium, employment) in the place itself. This indicates that rural branding in our cases seems to be directed towards the capacities and needs of local people and development 'from within', in contrast to nation and city branding which often focus on the attraction of immigrants, investors and tourists.

  with deep valleys, rivers, grassland and pastures 843 with animals, and dark mixed forest with the 844 typical white fir. A key feature, furthermore, is 845 the alternation between natural and cultivated 846 landscape. However, the use of agricultural 847 grazing areas has decreased in a sense that ''the 848 image of traditional cultural landscape, which is very 849 important for the tourist attraction, is threatened'' (11, 850 project coordinator of Ecozept, the supporting 851 consultancy, 7 August 2013). This is due to dif-852 ficult cultivation conditions (e.g. steep hill farm-853 ing) combined with low incomes for farmers, 854 who are searching for other job opportunities 855 (territorial embeddedness).In the light of a growing demand among 857 farmers for forestation of unprofitable grassland, 858 the Natural Park, together with the central 859 Ortenau community, started to think about 860 developing a collective strategy to preserve the 861 traditional landscape. The idea was to develop a 862 marketing concept for high quality beef products. 863 This niche strategy should create added value (via 864 price premium) for local farmers to keep grassland 865 farming attractive and profitable

		796
		797
		798
		799
		800
		801
		802
		803
		804
		805
		806
		807
		808
		809
	856	810
		811
		812
		813
		814
		815
		816
		817
		818
		819
		820
		821
		822
		823
		824
		825
		826
		827
		828
		829
		830
		831
		832
		833
		834
	The brand Echt Schwarzwald was initiated in 2006	835
	by the Naturpark Schwarzwald Mitte/Nord, which is	836
	situated in the South-West of Germany and	837
	belongs to the Bundesland Baden-Wu ¨ rttemberg.	838
	Covering an area of 3750 km 2 , this natural park is	839
	the largest one in Germany. The typical Black	840
	Forest (Schwarzwald) landscape is diversified,	841

Comment citer ce document : Donner, M., Horlings, L., Fort, F., Vellema, S. (2016). Place branding, embeddedness and endogenous rural development: Four European cases. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 1-20. DOI : 10.1057/s41254-016-0049-z Donner et al © 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 842

Table 1 :

 1 Review of the 4 cases

	Source Authors.
	937 ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON
	938 OF THE CASES
	939

Comment citer ce document : Donner, M., Horlings, L., Fort, F., Vellema, S. (2016). Place branding, embeddedness and endogenous rural development: Four European cases. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 1-20. DOI : 10.1057/s41254-016-0049-z Place branding, embeddedness and endogenous rural development © 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy

Author Proof

  Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 981 exception is SdF, which required a global strategy 982 in order to find new markets for its abundant 983 wine production. Since 2011, Brittany has also 984 started to export selected products under the sub-985 brand Bretagne Excellence.

			Produit en Bretagne	A taste of West Cork	Sud de France	Echt Schwarzwald
		Year of	1993	1998	2006	2008
		creation
		Governance	Produit en Bretagne is a	'Fuchsia Brands Ltd.'	La Re ´ gion Languedoc-	Echt Schwarzwald e.V. is
	986	structure; main	private association of about 370 local	incorporates the West Cork LEADER Co-	Roussillon is the owner of the brand;	an association of local farmers and butchers.
		stakeholders	enterprises from	Operative, the West	management support	Other stakeholders
			various sectors	Cork Food Producers	is given by Sud de	are: local communities
			(44 per cent from agri-	Association, West Cork	France Development	and the Naturpark
			food)	Tourism, Cork/Kerry	Other stakeholders are:	Schwarzwald Mitte/
				Tourism	food producers and	Nord
					processors, tourism
					service providers
		Geographical	The region Bretagne in	The West Cork region	The region Languedoc-	The Black Forest region,
		scale	the North-West of	situated in the County	Roussillon in the South	a large forested
			France	Cork, South-West of	of France	mountain range in the
				Ireland		state of Baden-
						Wu ¨ rttemberg in
						southwestern
						Germany
		Objectives	Maintain and create local Stimulate local	Increase the awareness	Preserve the traditional,
			employment, support	development; promote	of the region and its	cultural landscape by
			sustainable	West Cork by	assets as well as	adding value to high
			development of	developing a branded	facilitate wine export	quality regional food
			Bretagne	identity through		products in order to
				collective action		keep farming attractive
						and valuable
		Main targets	Residents and (inter-)	Tourists	International consumers	Local consumers and
			national consumers		and residents	tourists

Comment citer ce document : Donner, M., Horlings, L., Fort, F., Vellema, S. (

2016

). Place branding, embeddedness and endogenous rural development: Four European cases. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 1-20. DOI : 10.1057/s41254-016-0049-z Donner et al © 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040

  Comment citer ce document : Donner, M., Horlings, L., Fort, F., Vellema, S. (2016). Place branding, embeddedness and endogenous rural development: Four European cases. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 1-20. DOI : 10.1057/s41254-016-0049-z

	Place branding, embeddedness and endogenous rural development

© 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy

Table 2 .

 2 This includes their way of financing,

		and tourists (SdF), the employment rate (ToWC)
	governance forms, identity and values as well as	or the added value in financial terms as price
	cooperation structures. Regional brands are	premium (ES, PeB, ToWC). On the other hand,
	influenced by the level of embeddedness, but at	qualitative measures have revealed insights in
	the same time can also stimulate it. Therefore, the	individual stakeholder opinions (SdF, ES,
	relation can be characterised as reciprocal. The	ToWC), brand impact on local knowledge and
	cases also show that the dimensions of	innovations (PeB, ToWC) as well as on novel
	embeddedness are intertwined and	networking schemes (ToWC, PeB, SdF).
	interdependent, thus revealing a kind of blending
	or continuity pattern. For example, structural
	embeddedness in two of the cases has been
	influenced by the societal and/or territorial
	context (PeB, ToWC). SdF, however, partly
	building on extra-territorial partnerships, gives an
	example of forces of dis-embedding. Altogether,
	the concept of embeddedness with its three
	dimensions is useful to understand rural regional
	brands within their specific context.
	Finally, reviewing the various outcomes of the
	brands on endogenous rural development, it can be
	stated that different methods and indicators have
	been applied by varied stakeholders and
	researchers for measurement, thus complicating a
	direct comparative assessment. Quantitative
	indicators have shown the level of brand
	awareness and perception among consumers
	(PeB, ToWC), increased sales figures (SdF, ES)

Table 2 :

 2 Overview of the rural regional brands and dimensions of embeddedness

		Produit en Bretagne	A taste of West Cork	Sud de France	Echt Schwarzwald
	Origin (territorial,	Crisis of fish sector,	Bid for LEADER II funding	Crisis of the wine	Need for protection of
	societal	de-industrialisation Public initiative	sector, due to	cultural landscape
	embeddedness)	Private initiative		worldwide	Public initiative
				competition
				Public initiative
	Funding (societal	85 per cent private	EU LEADER II funding	100 per cent public	In the beginning
	embeddedness)	funding by	50 per cent; remainder	funding by the	supported by local
		members'	invested by the private	Languedoc-	communities, now
		contributions,	sector. From 2006, transition	Roussillon	financed by
		15 per cent public	to a fee-paying scheme	government	participants
		subsidies
	Identity and values	Traditional	Clean unspoiled environment,	Mediterranean and	True
	communicated	gastronomy, local	friendly people, and diversity	convivial lifestyle,	(echt) = authenticity
	by the brands	know-how	of the culture and landscape	authentic, tasty	What is outside
	(territorial	Values are based on		and diversified	(packaging, logo)
	embeddedness)	ethics, solidarity		food and wine	should be inside
		and strong			100 per cent
		historical ties			regional, quality and
					taste
	Cooperation	Largest economic	Strategic cooperation between Policy aim to develop No formal network until
	(structural	network of the	tourism and food	a sustainable	now
	embeddedness)	region		network
	Source Authors.

Comment citer ce document : Donner, M., Horlings, L., Fort, F., Vellema, S. (2016). Place branding, embeddedness and endogenous rural development: Four European cases. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 1-20. DOI : 10.1057/s41254-016-0049-z Donner et al © 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy

Author Proof

Table 3 :

 3 Regional branding and endogenous rural development

	1130	Altogether, these results suggest that place
	1131	brands (potentially) can have a positive influence
	1132	on (local) rural development, although there
	1133	remains a need for a more consistent method to
	1134	measure their impact, especially in terms of
	1135	qualitative outcomes. It can also be concluded
	1136	that the (rural) regional brands are strongly
	1137	directed towards supporting the capacities and
	1138	needs of local people, including entrepreneurs.
	1139	DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
	1140	Governments in rural areas are challenged to
	1141	develop new strategies to stimulate rural
	1142	development, to support agency on the ground,

  Comment citer ce document : Donner, M., Horlings, L., Fort, F., Vellema, S. (2016). Place branding, embeddedness and endogenous rural development: Four European cases. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 1-20. DOI : 10.1057/s41254-016-0049-z Place branding, embeddedness and endogenous rural development

		Produit en Bretagne	A taste of West	Sud de France	Echt Schwarzwald
			Cork
	Type of outcomes	High brand awareness Better access to Increased awareness of the	Price premium and sales
		and recognition of	markets	region and its local products	increase for farmers
		the brand values by Increased local	Better access to export
		consumers	employment	markets and increase of
		Positive effect on local Improved use of	sales
		employment	natural	Creation of a common regional
		Largest economic	resources	identity
		network of the
		region, business
		incubator
	Use of (different)	Use of multiple local	Multiple	Wine, but also other food	Mainly beef
	local resources	resources: History,	resources:	products. Mediterranean	Natural landscape used
	and qualities	culture, language,	Landscape,	climate and Sea exploited	to emphasise the
		human values,	food	for tourist attraction	product quality
		agriculture	products,
			friendly people
	Control over local	High level of control	Strong	Cross-sector cooperation not	Brand only covers food,
	resources	and organisation by	intersectoral	yet fully developed	while multi-
	(organisation,	the Association	cooperation		functionality
	models for	Produit en Bretagne	between food		(agritourism) well
	resource		and tourism		organised within the
	combination)				region
	Economic	Retention of benefits	Retention of	Farmers, food processors,	Price premium goes
	redistribution	(innovations,	benefits	tourism providers profit from	directly to farmers
		employment) in the	(incomes,	the collective brand, but also
		region	employment)	the large national
			in the region	distributors
	Source Authors.

© 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy

http://www.inao.gouv.fr/Les-signes-officielsde-la-qualite-et-de-l-origine-SIQO/Appellationd-origine-protegee-Appellation-d-origine-con trolee, accessed 11

July 2016. 2 FoodDrinkEurope (2012): Data & Trends of the European Food and Drink Industry 2012; http://www.fooddrinkeurope.eu/uploads/pub lications_documents/Data Trends_(interactive).pdf. 3 ''Food culture is a major element of the French identity and appeal… For many tourists, France not only evokes romance but culture in its broad sense… France has a special relationship with food, a unique importance on which it has capitalised for years in order to make itself better known, better appreciated and to export more''(Fouassier, 2012:159). 4 In 2011, about 20 of these regional brands existed in France, i.e. in nearly all of the (former) 23 metropolitan regions. Cf. http://

16 holds a Ph.D. 19 cooperation. She participated in the EU projects: DERREG, EUWelNet and GLAMUR and currently coordinates the Marie Curie 20 ITN programme SUSPLACE. She is or was involved in several European networks such as the RSA Research Committee, the 21 COST Action IS1007 ''Investigating Cultural Sustainability'', the RSA Research Network 'The Place of Leadership in Urban and 22 Regional Development' and the INTERREG IVB project on 'Rural Alliances'.

2 research unit.


Cyril Jermann
email: cyril.jermann@mpsa.com

Grégory Pujals

Philippe Méliga

Eric Serre

Philippe Meliga

Characterization of the streamwise

Introduction Description of the facility

The aerodynamic forces acting on road vehicles are governed by complex interactions between flow separations and the dynamic behavior of the vortex wake that require a more detailed knowledge to successfully design future cars. The Ahmed body is an academic test-case meant to reproduced a wide range of the flow features encountered in automotive aerodynamics. In the present study, we focus on the 25 o slanted rear end, which is known to produce a fully three-dimensional, turbulent unsteady state consisting of a separation bubble over the slanted surface with highly energetic streamwise vortices issuing from the slant side edges, as observed experimentally by [START_REF] Lehugeur | Contrôle des structures tourbillonnaires longitudinales dans le sillage d'une géométrie simplifiée de véhicule automobile: approche expérimentale[END_REF]. Since then, the 25 o configuration has received a lot of attention from experimentalists [START_REF] Thacker | Effects of suppressing the 3D separation on the rear slant on the flow structures around an Ahmed body[END_REF], [START_REF] Lehugeur | Contrôle des structures tourbillonnaires longitudinales dans le sillage d'une géométrie simplifiée de véhicule automobile: approche expérimentale[END_REF], among others) and numericists [START_REF] Serre | On simulating the turbulent flow around the Ahmed body: A French-German collaborative evaluation of LES and DES[END_REF], [START_REF] Minguez | Highorder large-eddy simulation of flow over the Ahmed body car model[END_REF], Krajnovic and Davidson (2005a), among others) but there is still a lack of experimental data for the dynamics of the longitudinal vortices to be fully unraveled. Past studies have attempted to manipulate heuristically these vortices [START_REF] Lehugeur | Contrôle des structures tourbillonnaires longitudinales dans le sillage d'une géométrie simplifiée de véhicule automobile: approche expérimentale[END_REF]) in view of reducing the drag, but optimized control methods remain out of reach as long as we will not have an accurate understanding of these vortices structure and dynamics. With the recent evolution of the measuring techniques, new approaches of the problem are yet possible. The present work aims at focusing on high resolution results to clarify the structure and dynamics of the longitudinal vortices through a detailed physical description.

Experiments and techniques

We use the generic geometry originally described in [START_REF] Ahmed | Some salient features of the time-averaged ground vehicle wake, Society of Automotive Engineers Krajnovic S[END_REF] (1.044 mm long, 390 mm width, 288 mm high and 50 mm as support high) and focus on the 25 o rear slant configuration with a sharp edge at the connection between the roof and the rear slant. The coordinate system is defined as x in the streamwise direction, z normal to the ground and y forming a direct trihedral. The axis system origin is taken at mid-width on the ground located on the separation line between the roof and the rear window, as located in Figure 1. The experiments are performed in PSA Peugeot Citroën in-house facility. We use an open wind tunnel with a rectangular cross-section of 2.1 m high, 5.2 m wide and 6 m long. The turbulence intensity in the free stream is 1.3%. The main flow velocity is U 0 = 40 m/s, which yields a Reynolds number of 2.8 × 10 6 based on the length of the geometry. The model is fixed on a 3 m wide flat plate located 0.5 m above the floor, whose leading edged has been covered with a Naca airfoil profile, which enables controlling the boundary layer development without any suction device. The test section is equipped with a moving Stereo-PIV system. It consists of a Quantal Big Sky Laser (dual pulse Nd : YAG) set outside the test section -on one side of the wind tunnel -and two DANTEC CCD sensors (FlowSense MkII 4mpx), covering both sides of the raised floor. All devices are fixed a 1D DANTEC traverses system set parallel to the raised floor. Moreover, they are synchronized with each other, hence offering the opportunity to acquire the velocity field along the x axis in several iso-x planes without any modification of the cameras and laser settings.

0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 -4 0 -0.716 -1.431 -1.68
Camera angles are oriented 40 o and 45 o relative to the Ahmed body symmetry plane, with particular attention paid to satisfy the Scheimpflug condition meant to ensure a satisfying sharpness on the whole image. The laser light sheet is set normal to the free stream to measure the velocity field through the longitudinal vortices. The test section is seeded with micro-sized droplets of olive oil to ensure goods reflection properties. The optical set-up was chosen to generate a sheet as thin as possible (roughly 4 mm) in order to avoid the particles to leave the laser sheet during the motion. Thanks to the moving part of the facility, only one calibration is required to set the Stereo-PIV parameters, greatly simplifying acquisitions. Laser and camera are externally synchronized, the separation time ∆t = 10 µs being optimized to have a displacement of about one quarter of the interrogation window in the potential flow. This is appropriate in view of further investigating the 3D mean dynamics, as it allows exploring and acquiring several planes along the streamwise direction. The third component of velocity is obtained by combination of the two images from CCD cameras based on the stereoscopy principle. Images are recorded using a 105 mm optical lens with large aperture and a 2048 × 2048 pixels CCD camera. We use a 16 × 16 pixels interrogation window with a 50% overlap leading to 255 × 255 vectors for each image. One thousand pairs of independent images with a sampling frequency of 7 hz are acquired to obtain a converged time-averaged velocity field.

After Stereo-PIV processing, the typical physical dimensions of the velocity field are 322 mm × 262 mm resulting in δy = 1.6 mm, δz = 1 mm spatial resolution. Two component classical PIV measurements were performed in the vertical plane of symmetry of the body, the comparison with representative SPIV velocity profiles being very good. The same agreement was also found with respect to the reference experiment of [START_REF] Lehugeur | Contrôle des structures tourbillonnaires longitudinales dans le sillage d'une géométrie simplifiée de véhicule automobile: approche expérimentale[END_REF], hence demonstrating the reliability of the protocol. In practice, we assume the mean flow to be symmetric. Consequently, we focus the acquisition only on one side of the model (passenger side) and use reflectional symmetry of the obtained fields to achieve the full representation. Since the aim of this study is to investigate longitudinal vortices, the acquisition field extends up to 150 mm of the ground, which means that we do not capture the lower spanwise structures in the near wake.

Characterization of the 3D base flow

The projected length of rear slant on x-axis L s and inlet velocity U 0 are used to obtain non-dimensional values marked in the following with an asterisk. Several cross-flow planes (y * , z * ) were acquired, 40 planes along of the rear slant, and 50 planes in the near wake, yielding to respectively δx = 5 mm, δx = 10 mm as spatial resolution (Figure 1). This collection of time-averaged plane was then used to reconstruct the fully three-dimensional (3D) mean flow by linear interpolation of the data. We present in Figure 2 the so-reconstructed 3D streamlines colored by the streamwise velocity. Two distinct structures emerge, namely the longitudinal vortex originating from the side of the slanted surface, and the large separation at the base organized under the form of a toroidal vortex. Both structures are clearly visible on Figure 3 which presents the evolution of the vorticity norm on the rear slant and in the wake up to x * = 3.5 together with the 3D separation bubble over the slanted surface. The vortices are well defined over the rear slant, with the vortex intensity gradually increasing while the core follows a straight line trajectory. The (y * , z * ) plane located immediately downstream the base evidences the existence of the two vorticity sheets, one coming from the lateral side and one from the rear slant. We observe the rolling up of these vorticity sheets following a deviated path as reported by [START_REF] Thacker | Effects of suppressing the 3D separation on the rear slant on the flow structures around an Ahmed body[END_REF], explained by interaction between the vorticity sheets of the trailing vortices and the wake structures. The streamwise vortices are no longer supplied by the rear slant, leading a loss of intensity in the near wake and a more drastic decrease as from x * = 1.89. It is worth noticing that this comes together with a dramatic drop in the streamwise velocity, as seen from Figure 2. Eventually, the trailing vortices loose their coherent behavior at x * = 2.29 and finally diffuse themselves in the wake.

The longitudinal vortex as three swirling structures

The leftmost part of Figure 4 represents a cut in the streamwise vorticity at x * = 0.95 with a focus on the global swirling structure. It is noteworthy there is no information at the center of the vortex core which is a consequence of no particles in this area due to the strongly centrifugal force. The principal swirling structure generates a secondary one which remains attached to the wall and counter-rotates relatively to the first one with a lower intensity, as reported initially by x < 0 : dashed lines, ω * x > 0 : solid lines) . Right: Iso-contours of Q-criterion identifying the three swirling structures over the rear window. The rotational direction is indicated by streamlines in white.

Indication of vortex breakdown in the near wake

Vortex breakdown is a classical phenomenon for this class of flows involving vortices with axial flow, which consists of an abrupt change in the flow topology, namely from a so-called columnar solution char-acterized by negligible longitudinal gradients, small rotational velocities and large longitudinal velocities, to a breakdown solution exhibiting an internal stagnation point and characterized by large rotational velocities and small longitudinal velocities. The sharply decay of the vorticity and the suddenly decline of streamwise velocity suggest that the longitudinal vortex may undergo vortex breakdown in the near wake (around x * = 1.89).

This point is now further investigated using a clas- Results are presented in Figure 5, with an instantaneous snapshot on the left, and the time-averaged image obtained processing a physical time of 10 s (i.e 1200 frames) on the right. In both cases, the longitudinal vortex exhibits very smooth variations while developing over the slanted surface and in the near wake, a behavior reminiscent of that of the columnar solution.

It then undergoes a sudden expansion at approximately x * = 1.5, where the smoke starts becoming disordered. These observations are similar to the experiment in a slightly diverging cylindrical tube at high Reynolds number described by [START_REF] Sarpkaya | Turbulent vortex breakdown[END_REF] and to the experiment on F-18 described by Mitchell and [START_REF] Delery | Research into vortex breakdown control[END_REF], hence suggesting the onset of the emergence of conical vortex breakdown in the near wake of Ahmed body 25 o when the vortex can no longer sustain the adverse pressure gradient.This conical vortex breakdown persists for all inlet velocity tested, the only difference being that the extrapolated stagnation point is shifted downstream as the velocity is increased from approximately x * = 1.3 (U 0 = 5 m/s) to x * = 1.7 (U 0 = 15 m/s).

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Sketch of the generic car model used in the present study.The two dashed boxes indicate the location of the Stereo-PIV (y * , z * ) planes measured during the experiment.

  visualization of timestreamlines colored by streamwise velocity U * , obtained by linear interpolation of 90 (y * , z * ) Stereo-PIV planes.

Figure 3 :Figure 4 :

 34 Figure 3: Experimental time-averaged vorticity magnitude over the rear window and in the wake. A mirror symmetry on the y * = 0 plane has been used to obtain the complete 3D view.

Figure 5 :

 5 Figure 5: Lateral view evidencing the longitudinal vortex with the help of smoke visualization on the 25 o Ahmed body with U0 = 10 m/s as inletvelocity. Left: instantaneous snapshot. Right: time-averaged image of 1200 snapshots, 10 s as acquisition time.


M Bailet

F Zara

E Promayon

Biomechanical model of the fetal head for interactive childbirth simulation

Introduction

Obstetricians and midwives practical training is mostly done through an apprenticeship on real parturient. In addition to the risks for the parturient and the fetus, this approach does not allow the student to see a large variety of cases and acquire related dexterity, especially for the least performed interventions such as forceps or vacuum delivery. For these reasons, the use of simulators appears to be a practical and safe approach to acquire task-oriented skills in obstetrics [START_REF] Gardner | Simulation in obstetrics and gynecology[END_REF] as well as condence.

There is a large variety of obstetrics simulators from the simple passive manikin to complex actuated device with graphic feedback. These simulator give a qualitative information on the user gesture. On the other side, [START_REF] Buttin | Biomechanical simulation of the fetal descent without imposed theoretical trajectory[END_REF] have proposed a nite element based biomechanical simulation of the fetal descent that gives quantitative information on the eort undergoing by the pelvic organs and related potential tissue injuries during childbirth. But nite element based simulation are computational expensive and could not be run in interactive time needed for training. The goal of this work is to provide a 3d biomechanical model of the fetal head that could be coupled with haptic simulator [START_REF] Silveira | A new mechanical birth simulator: Birthsim[END_REF]. Precision and computation time aspects have to be taken into account to provide an interactive simulation focused on the possible damages undergoing by the fetal head.

Method

The fetal head is the part of the fetus where the largest deformations (fetal head molding) and potential injuries can occur. To simulate the its deformation 1 during childbirth, we propose a triangular shell model combined with a volume constraint that guarantees the incompressibility of the fetal head.

Shell models of the cranial bones have already been used to statically simulate the fetal head molding during the rst stage of labor [START_REF] Lapeer | Fetal head moulding: nite element analysis of a fetal skull subjected to uterine pressures during the rst stage of labour[END_REF]. However, this simulation is static and do not take into account the intra-cranial matter since it model only the fetal skull. The shell mechanical model proposed integrates a membrane behavior using CST elements (Constant Strain Triangle) as well as bending behavior with DKT (Discrete Kirchho Triangle) elements [START_REF] Batoz | A study of three-node triangular plate bending elements[END_REF]. The CST membrane element is a two dimensional triangular element used for plane stress problem. It has six Degrees of Freedom (DOF), to model the plane displacements at each node. The DKT bending element is based on the well-known Kirchho thin plate theory where transverse shear deformations are neglected. This element has nine DOF to model the out-of-plane displacements and the rotations around x and y axis.

Our formulation use an element-based co-rotational formulation where the element stiness matrices are expressed in their respective local frame. Combined with a linear material, this formulation models a small-strain and large rotation behavior. The mesh model was reconstructed from a medical manikin. It has 8928 triangular elements divided in two material zones : one corresponding to cranial bones and one corresponding to fontanelles and sutures (see Fig. 1a). The isotropic linear material properties for these two areas were taken from Lapeer and Prager [START_REF] Lapeer | Fetal head moulding: nite element analysis of a fetal skull subjected to uterine pressures during the rst stage of labour[END_REF]. The cranial bones area has a Young Modulus of 2.65 GP a, a Poisson Coecient of 0.22, a density of 1800 kg.m -3 and a thickness of 0.8 mm. The fontanelles and sutures area has a Young Modulus of 7.23 M P a, a Poisson Coecient of 0.49, a density of 1000 kg.m -3 and a thickness of 0.6 mm.

To approximate the eect of the biological matter inside the fetal head, an incompressibility constraint is enforced on the volume dened by the shell element mesh.

Both the shell model and the volume constraint codes are implemented in GPGPU using a parallelization on elements. We use an implicit backward euler scheme for time integration with a matrix-free conjugate gradient as linear solver.

Three fetal head diameters were monitored during the simulation : the maxillo-vertical diameter (MaVD), the orbito-vertical diameter (OrVD) and the suboccipito-bregmatic diameter (SOBD) (see Fig. 1c).

Results

We present in Fig. 1 a simulation of the fetal head in the rst stage of labor when it undergoes intra-uterine and cervix pressure (see Fig. 1b). The geometric model chosen results from the scan of the head of a generic manikin used in the haptic simulator of Silveira et al. [START_REF] Silveira | A new mechanical birth simulator: Birthsim[END_REF]. The pressure load were computed using the Bell idealized model with a maximal pressure of 45 kP a. Our results were coherent with the in-vivo experiments from Sorbe and Dahlgren [START_REF] Sorbe | Some important factors in the molding of the fetal head during vaginal delivery -a photographic study[END_REF] and static fetal skull simulation from Lapeer and Prager [START_REF] Lapeer | Fetal head moulding: nite element analysis of a fetal skull subjected to uterine pressures during the rst stage of labour[END_REF] (see Table 1). We notice an overlapping of the two parietal bones (see Fig. 1d). This simulation was run with a time step 0.01 seconds and a frame rate of 21 frames per seconds on an NVIDIA Quadro 600 with 96 cores.

Conclusion

The biomechanical model presented in this paper oers precise dynamic simulation of the fetal head molding in a reasonable computational time making it suitable for use with haptic training simulators such as the one presented in Silveira et al. [START_REF] Silveira | A new mechanical birth simulator: Birthsim[END_REF]. The conjunction of an haptic device providing qualitative information of the gesture and biomechanical simulation providing quantitative information will improve the training experience of the student. Nevertheless, the biomechanical model can be improved by considering anisotropic material for the cranial bones. In future work, we plan to use our model with more complex scenarios involving the fetal head such as forceps and vacuum delivery. It could also be noticed that at this stage, a patient specic approach is not considered because the simulation is focused on training.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Fetal head undergoing intra-uterine and cervix pressure. Model and simulation results.

Table 1 :

 1 Fetal head diameter (ø) and its variation (disp) in mm.

	3

Acknowledgments

This work is nanced by a grant from the French Région Rhône-Alpes. It was supported by French state funds managed by the ANR within the Investissements d'Avenir program (Labex CAMI) under reference ANR-11-LABX-0004 and within the MN program under reference ANR-12-MONU-0006.