Eulàlia Bonet

Maria-Rosa Lloret

Sascha Gaglia

Marc-Olivier Hinzelin

Roberta D ' Alessandro

Diego Pescarini

Jaume Mateu Fontanals

Susann Fischer

Maria Goldbach

Pieter Muysken

Antje Muntendam

José Ignacio Hualde

Ioana Chitoran
email: chitoran.ioana@gmail.com

Élisabeth Delais-Roussarie 3 Prosodic phonology and its interfaces 75

Keywords: allophony, lenition, fortition, assimilation, neutralization, vowel reduction, vowel harmony, coda consonants, palatalization

IV The role of the interfaces in language acquisition and change Conxita Lleó 17 Acquiring multilingual phonologies (2L1, L2 and L3): Are the difficulties in the interfaces?

Scope of this chapter

This chapter on the phonetics-phonology interface focuses on phenomena that can be considered facts of pronunciation, including both postlexical or phrase-level phonological rules and conventionalized, language-specific, phonetic processes. We are thus excluding from our overview morphophonological (or lexical) phonological alternations, which will be dealt with in a different chapter.

An example may be useful in order to clarify the set of phenomena that we are excluding from the scope of our discussion. In the Romance languages the evolution of mid vowels in stressed syllables (under different conditions) has created numerous morphophonological alternations, e.g. Sp. puedo/podemos 'I/we can', Fr. bois/buvons 'I/we drink', It. buono/bontà 'good/goodness', Rom. seară/seri 'evening/s', etc. The treatment of this type of alternation is different in different theoretical frameworks. In Generative Phonology, morphemes are given a single invariant form in the underlying representations of all words containing them. Accounting for these alternations is thus an important part of phonological analysis within this framework. Morphophonological rules account for the mapping between allomorphs of the same morpheme in different words. In a volume like the present one, however, these facts clearly belong to the phonology-morphology interface, rather than to the phonology-phonetics interface, and thus they will not be examined further in this chapter.

Instead, in this chapter we will study both regular obligatory allophony, such as the spirantization of /b d ɡ/ in Spanish, e.g. /la bodeɡa/ [laβoˈðeɣa] 'the tavern, shop' (but not in Brazilian Portuguese [aboˈdeɡa]), and language-specific but optional, variable processes, such as the aspiration of /s/ in Spanish varieties and the spirantization of /p t k/ in Florentine Italian.

The contemporary Romance languages differ substantially in their phonology and phonetics, although common processes are also found. Interestingly we often see that certain phenomena are recurrent. We wish to draw special attention to the fact that what is an active process at the phonetics-phonology interface in one language may mirror a completed sound change in another language. For instance, the variable aspiration and deletion of coda /s/ in many Spanish dialects ran its full course centuries ago in French, e.g. Sp. escuela [ehˈkwela] ~[eˈkwela] 'school ', cf. Fr. école. This view of the evolution of sound systems, with specific application to Romance, was first presented by Pierre Delattre in a 1946 paper explicitly entitled "Stages of Old French phonetic changes observed in Modern Spanish". Delattre discusses 31 well-known sound changes of Old French for which an equivalent synchronic stage characterized by phonetic variation can be found in Modern Spanish. We will give just one example here. Glide strengthening in initial position takes place in French, with subsequent reduction to a fricative (cf. also section 2.4 below): Germanic [wadja] 'wage' > Gallo-Roman [ɡwaɟja] > Fr. [ɡaʒ]. A similar synchronic variation is encountered in Spanish, where huesos 'bones' is frequently pronounced [ˈɡwesos]. We refer the reader to [START_REF] Delattre | Stages of Old French phonetic changes observed in Modern Spanish[END_REF] for other examples of parallel sound changes in Old French and Modern Spanish.

In the remainder of this chapter we classify phonetic/phonological phenomena by the nature of the segments that are affected and by their environment. For each main type of phenomenon we will consider the extent to which synchronically active processes at the phonetics-phonology interface find parallels in completed sound changes in the same or other Romance languages. Phenomena affecting consonants are considered before those that apply to vowels.

Consonants

Consonants are often weakened in the intervocalic context and are subject to various neutralizations (in place, manner and/or voicing) in the coda. When in contact with front glides and vowels, palatalization is frequent. At the phonetic level, strengthening of consonants in phrase-initial position has been observed in several languages, and this phenomenon may be phonologized as word-initial fortition, although such conventionalized processes are relatively rare.

Intervocalic lenition

The weakening of intervocalic consonants is a common phonological phenomenon that is abundantly attested in the synchronic and diachronic phonology of the Romance languages.

The historical voicing (and further lenition) of intervocalic obstruents is one of the main features that serve to separate the Western Romance languages (Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan, French, etc.) The voicing of intervocalic obstruents, which must have started as an across-the-board postlexical rule of allophony [START_REF] Weinrich | Phonologische Studien zur romanischen Sprachgeschichte[END_REF], eventually produced phonological recategorization word-internally in the Western Romance area.

Voiced stops were subsequently weakened to different extents in different languages, along a common path of development, e.g. [t] > [d] > [ð] > 0. In French, word-internal intervocalic /d/ and /ɡ/ were eventually lost (

[ˈvita] > [ˈvida] > [ˈviðə] > [ˈviə], [aˈmika] > [aˈmiɡa] > [aˈmiɣə] > [aˈmiə]
) and the labial (from Latin P, B and V) remains as /v/, so that there is no active rule of allophony in modern French. In Spanish and Catalan, on the other hand, the spirantization of /b d ɡ/ both inside words and across word boundaries is an essentially obligatory allophonic phenomenon and an important aspect of the phonology of these languages, e.g. Sp. dama [ˈdama] 'lady', but la dama [laˈðama] 'the lady'.

Unlike the phonological recategorization of voiceless obstruents in Western Romance, which affected exclusively postvocalic consonants, the allophonic spirantization of /b d ɡ/ applies after vowels, glides and most consonants in Catalan and most Spanish varieties, e.g. Sp. árbol [ˈaɾβol] 'tree'. There are, nevertheless, Spanish dialects (spoken in parts of Central America and Colombia) where systematic spirantization is limited to the intervocalic context, e.g. cada [ˈkaða] 'each' but cardo [ˈkaɾdo] 'thistle' (cf. Carrasco/Hualde/Simonet 2012).

In Brazilian Portuguese intervocalic voiced stops do not undergo systematic weakening. This is thus a major phonological difference between this language and Spanish:

( In the varieties of central and southern Italy, as well as Corsica and Sardinia, where Latin intervocalic /p t k/ did not undergo phonological recategorization, we find that, nevertheless, these consonants are often voiced and sometimes spirantized synchronically, both word-internally and across word boundaries, e.g. ho capito [oɡaˈbido] 'I have understood'. In a recent study, Hualde/Nadeu (2011), over 50% of all tokens of intervocalic /p t k/ were found to be realized as fully voiced in a corpus of Rome Italian. Sardinian has a more systematic alternation, e.g. [ˈtɛrːa] 'land', [saˈðɛrːa] 'the land' (cf. e.g. [START_REF] Jones | Sardinian[END_REF]). Less widespread voicing (and spirantization) of intervocalic /p t k/ is also found in some varieties of Spanish. Velar /k/ appears to be especially prone to reduction, e.g. Peninsular Sp. lo que te digo [loɣedeˈðiɣo] 'that which I tell you' (cf. Hualde/Simonet/Nadeu 2011; Torreira/ Ernestus 2011). In the case of Spanish, this is a 'second round of voicing' [START_REF] Oftedal | Lenition in Celtic and in Insular Spanish. The second voicing of stops in Gran Canaria[END_REF] from a historical point of view, although continuity with the first round (without recategorization across word boundaries) cannot be excluded. Interestingly, European Portuguese appears to be undergoing the opposite process: partial devoicing of obstruents [START_REF] Pape | Devoicing of phonologically voiced obstruents. Is European Portuguese different from other Romance languages?[END_REF].

Florentine Italian is well known for showing a different type of lenition of intervocalic /p t k/, where these segments are variably realized as voiceless fricatives, e.g. la tavola [laˈθavola] 'the table' (Canepari 1979, 214;[START_REF] Giannelli | L'indebolimento consonantico in Toscana I[END_REF][START_REF] Giannelli | L'indebolimento consonantico in Toscana II[END_REF][START_REF] Giannelli | L'indebolimento consonantico in Toscana II[END_REF][START_REF] Cravens | Intervocalic consonant weakening in a phonetic-based phonology. Foleyan hierarchies and the Gorgia Toscana[END_REF][START_REF] Marotta | Non solo spiranti. La 'gorgia toscana' nel parlato di Pisa[END_REF]2008;[START_REF] Sorianello | Un'analisi acustica della 'gorgia' fiorentina[END_REF][START_REF] Dalcher | Consonant weakening in Florentine Italian. An acoustic study of gradient and variable sound change[END_REF]2008).

The Western Romance intervocalic voicing sound change also affected singleton /s/ and other fricatives, e.g. PASSU(M) > Por. passo [ˈpasu] 'step' vs. CASA(M) > Por. casa [ˈkazɐ] 'house'. As a synchronic variable across-the-board process, voicing of intervocalic fricatives is also found in those languages where stops voice in this context (cf. Torreira/Ernestus 2012 and Hualde/Prieto 2014 for Spanish as well as Nocchi/Schmid 2007 for Southern Italian).

In the history of the Romance languages we find other processes of intervocalic weakening. In particular the Latin geminates, which are preserved in Italo-Romance, were systematically simplified in both Western Romance and Balkan Romance (e.g. CUPPA(M) > Sp. copa, Rom. cupă vs. It. coppa; PECCATU(M) > Sp. pecado, Rom. păcat vs. It. peccato), but these sound changes did not give rise to any robust synchronic alternations (excluding a few limited morphophonemic processes). 1When sequences of identical consonants arise across morphemes or words, sometimes they are reduced to the duration of a single consonant and sometimes they are preserved as geminates. In Spanish, consonants with full contact between the articulators, such as /l/ and /n/, preserve a single vs. geminate contrast more effectively than approximants and fricatives (e.g. come nueces 's/he eats walnuts' vs. comen nueces 'they eat walnuts'; inútil 'hopeless' vs. innoble; but /des-alaɾ/ 'to remove the wings' ~/des-salaɾ/ 'to remove the salt'; sabe solo 's/he knows only' sabes solo 'you know only'; cf. Hualde 2005, 97-98). In French, schwa deletion may produce geminates, as in là-d(e)dans (cf. Walker 2001, 130).

In some Romance languages intervocalic sonorants have also undergone weakening. Thus, in Portuguese intervocalic /n/ and /l/ delete, e.g. LŪNA(M) > lua 'moon', COLŌRE(M) > cor 'colour', and in Romanian intervocalic /l/ becomes /r/, e.g. SŌLE(M) > soare 'sun'. This deletion of intervocalic consonant has produced some morphophonological alternations, e.g. Port. sol 'sun' vs. 'suns' < SŌLES, but again, nowadays we do not seem to find any systematic processes of intervocalic sonorant weakening at the phonology-phonetics interface.

Lenition/neutralization in the coda

A number of phenomena may affect coda consonants, generally resulting in a reduced inventory compared to that found in the onset position. Common processes include place assimilation, cluster simplification, voice assimilation and complete assimilation.

Assimilation and weakening of coda obstruents

Whereas, as already mentioned, the Latin geminates underwent simplification in both Western Romance and Balkan Romance, Italian has not only preserved the etymological geminate consonants but also developed new geminates. One important source of new geminates that must have already been present in Late Latin (Loporcaro 2011, 93) is the total assimilation of coda obstruents, e.g. AD CASA(M) > [aˈkːasa] 'to the house', which is the origin of the phenomenon known as raddoppiamento (fono)sintattico (RS) or syntactic doubling in central and southern Italian. The synchronic status of RS is particularly interesting. Nowadays it is simply the case that an arbitrary set of function words trigger the gemination of word-initial consonants, since there is no longer any evidence for the word-final consonant that gave rise to the phenomenon; for example, in these Italian varieties, there is gemination of the word-initial consonant in a casa, but not in la casa. RS also takes place after oxytonic words, as in città [pː]iccola 'small town'. Interestingly, word-initial consonants in the context of RS are protected from intervocalic weakening processes. Thus in Rome Italian, the word-initial stop may be voiced in la casa 'the house', but not in a casa 'to the house' or tre case 'three houses', where it geminates instead (cf. Loporcaro 1997, 1-2). Thus a seemingly low-level, probabilistic, phonetic phenomenon (intervocalic voicing) is blocked by a lexical feature (i.e. the fact that the preceding word belongs to the class of RS-triggering items). In Catalan, there is obligatory devoicing of word-final consonants, which produces many morphophonological alternations, e.g. amic/amica 'friend M.SG/F.SG '.

The treatment of coda /s/ requires particular attention. The loss of word-final /s/ in Eastern Romance is ultimately responsible for one of the most striking differences between Western and Eastern Romance, plural formation by the addition of /s/ vs. vowel change, e.g. Sp. libro/libros 'book/books' vs. It. libro/libri.2 This phenomenon affected only word-final consonants and is thus different from the weakening of /s/ in coda position (both word-internally and word-finally) that historically operated in French and is active in a large number of present-day Spanish varieties, with different degrees of incidence. In French, the process is no longer operative, so that coda /s/ in the lexical items where it has been preserved (e.g. espagnol 'Spanish') is no longer subject to weakening. Its only synchronic remnant can be seen in the phenomenon of liaison, whereby resyllabification as a syllable onset has allowed a word-final consonant to survive, as in, for example, les garçons [leɡaʁsɔ͂ ] 'the boys' vs. les enfants [leza͂ fa͂ ] 'the children' (↗3 Prosodic phonology and its interfaces; ↗4 Phonology and morphology in Optimality Theory).

Besides French liaison, the voicing of resyllabified word-final /s/ is found in both Catalan and Portuguese and was undoubtedly found in Old Spanish (as it still is in Judeo-Spanish). In standard European Portuguese and some Brazilian varieties the treatment of word-final /s/ is particularly complex. Coda /s/ is palatalized to

[ ʃ ], but if it resyllabifies it is realized as [z], e.g. queres [ ʃ ] 'you want', queres algo [z]
'you want something' (Mateus/d'Andrade 2000, 12, 145;Perini 2002, 15). Thus, both the voicing and the place of articulation of word-final sibilants are conditioned by phrase-level phonology in these varieties of Portuguese.

In Spanish dialects with aspiration and deletion of coda /s/ there are sometimes other associated phenomena. For instance, geminates may result from the assimilation of /s/ (and other consonants in the coda) to a following consonant as in Eastern Andalusian Sp. isla [ˈilːa] 'island', caspa [ˈkapːa] 'dandruff' (cf. [START_REF] Gerfen | Andalusian codas[END_REF]. A recent phenomenon is the metathesis of the aspiration in Western Andalusian Spanish, e.g. costa [ˈkotʰa] 'coast' (cf. Torreira 2012; Ruch/Harrington 2014). In Eastern Andalusian, on the other hand, word-final /s/ is almost categorically deleted, but its underlying presence is manifested in the opening of the preceding vowels, e.g. paso [ˈpaso] vs. pasos [ˈpasɔ]; tiene [ˈtjene] 's/he has' vs. tienes [ˈtjenɛ] 'you have', with possible vowel assimilation in the word domain (cf. e.g. Hernández-Campoy/ Trudgill 2002; Penny 2000, 122-126). For both the Canary Islands and Central America, it has been reported that after deleted /s/, voiced obstruents are realized as stops, so that, for instance, las vacas [laˈbːaka] 'the cows' may contrast with la vaca [laˈβaka] 'the cow' (cf. Amastae 1989; Dorta/Herrera 1993).

In Romanian, weakening of coda consonants occurs only in a limited set of environments in spontaneous, casual speech. For instance, final stop clusters tend to be reduced before word-initial stops: a[kt] [d]e ~a[kd]e 'act of', with an unreleased C1 and variable voicing assimilation in the two stops. A more systematic deletion affects the [l] of the masculine singular definite article, which is enclitic: omul de pe stradă ~omu de pe stradă 'the man in the street'. In casual speech [l] may delete even before a vowel-initial word: omul a plecat ~omu a plecat ~om[w] a plecat 'the man left', omul ăsta ~omu ăsta 'this man' (Chitoran et al. 2014). This variation the development of a more systematic, morphophonological change, whereby the marking of definiteness is transferred over to the vowel /u/. This vowel is the masculine singular desinence vowel. It only surfaces in cliticized forms (om-u-l 'the man', om-u-l-ui 'to/of the man') and in non-cliticized forms ending in a consonant cluster (patru 'four').

Coda nasal place neutralization and assimilation

Most Romance languages show a smaller number of phonemic oppositions among nasals in the coda than syllable-initially. Spanish has three nasal phonemes /m n ɲ/ in syllable-initial position. In word-final position, on the other hand, there is only /n/, which before a pause is realized as [n] or [ŋ] depending on the dialect, e.g. pan /pan/ [pan] ~[paŋ] 'bread'. Nasals assimilate in place to following consonants, both word-internally and across word boundaries: so[m] pocos 'they are few', so[ŋ] grandes 'they are big'. In Catalan, unlike in Spanish, there is no coda neutralization. The labial, alveolar and palatal nasal contrast word-finally, som 'we are', són 'they are', any /aɲ/ 'year', and, in addition, there is a fourth surface contrastive nasal in word-final (but not in syllable-initial) position, velar [ŋ], sang [saŋ] 'blood'. However, the alveolar nasal assimilates to the place of articulation of a following consonant, producing contextual neutralization with the other nasal phonemes: só[m] petits 'they are small' neutralized with som petits 'we are small', but só[ŋ] grans 'they are big' vs. som grans 'we are big'.

Nasal place assimilation occurs in Romanian, as well. Romanian has two nasal phonemes /m n/. Word-or morpheme-final /n/ variably assimilates in place to a following stop, for example, the nasal in the preposition în In French, we find a quite different type of nasal assimilation, whereby oral stops become nasal in contact with a nasal consonant or vowel, e.g. et demie /edəmi/ → [enmi] 'and a half', bombe atomique /bɔbatomik/ → [bɔmatɔmik] 'atomic bomb' (Walker 2001, 135).

Coda liquids

The alveolar lateral /l/ may be "light" (with the dorsum in the position for a front vowel, cf. Proctor 2011), as in Spanish, French and Italian, or "dark" or velarized (with the dorsum in the position for a back vowel), as in Portuguese and Catalan. Relaxation of the apical constriction of a "clear" lateral produces [j] in varieties of Dominican Spanish, e.g. papel [paˈpej], whereas, if the lateral is "dark", its weakening results in [w], as in Brazilian Portuguese, e.g. Brasil [braˈziw] vs. brasi[l]eiro 'Brazilian'. In the diachrony of the Romance languages both types of vocalization are abundantly attested, e.g. MULTU(M) > Por. muito 'much' (> Sp. mucho, with subsequent palatalization), ALTERU(M) > *[awtro] > Por. outro 'other', Sp. otro, Fr. autre, CABALLOS > Old Fr. chevals > Fr. chevaux 'horses'.

The neutralization of lateral and rhotic liquids in the coda is also a common phenomenon, found, for instance, in Andalusian and Caribbean Spanish and in Rome Italian. In several Spanish varieties with liquid neutralization, coda liquids may assimilate to certain following consonants, e.g. carne [ˈkanːe] 'meat', pulga [ˈpuɡːa] 'flea'.

Palatalization

The palatalization of consonants in contact with glides and front vowels is widely attested as a sound change in Romance. Whereas Classical Latin lacked palatals and prepalatals altogether, a whole range of these consonants arose in Romance via palatalization phenomena, sometimes later developing into sibilants and other consonants, e.g. DĪCIT /diːkit/ > Rom. zice /ziʧe/ 's/he says', VĪNEA(M) > Port. vinha, Sp. viña, Cat. vinya, Fr. vigne, It. vigna 'vine', all with /ɲ/ (cf. Alkire/Rosen 2010 for a convenient summary of palatalization sound changes from Latin to Romance).

Palatalization has its source in coarticulation, and most frequently affects coronals and dorsals, as in the examples just given, but in some Romance languages even labials have palatalized historically, e.g. SAPIAT ', exécu[ʧi]f 'executive'. This tendency to palatalize dentals in contact with high front vowels in present-day French may be related to the high articulatory setting of its vowel system, as compared to, for instance, Spanish [START_REF] Torreira | Realization of voiceless stops and vowels in conversational French and Spanish[END_REF].

Probably as a universal phenomenon of coarticulation, velars have a more fronted place of articulation in contact with front vowels than in contact with back vowels (car vs. key). The exaggeration of this coarticulation produces distinctively palatalized allophones, like in Chilean Spanish, e.g. mujer /muˈxer/ [muˈçer] 'woman'.

A common unconditioned weakening phenomenon repeatedly attested in the Romance family is the weakening of /ʧ/ to /ʃ/ and /ʤ/ to /ʒ/ (e.g. in the history of both Portuguese and French). Nowadays /ʧ/ is variably or systematically realized as [ ʃ ] in several Spanish varieties (Southern Andalusia, Northern Mexico, Panama, Chile).

Initial fortition

As already mentioned, consonant fortition has been observed to occur at the phonetic level as a correlate of the phrase-initial position [START_REF] Fougeron | Articulatory strengthening at edges of prosodic domains[END_REF]. Interestingly, a correlate of emphatic stress in French is consonant gemination: quel Walker 2001, 131). The phonologization of phrase-initial fortition (as word initial), however, appears to be rare. One example would be the fortition of rhotics in Spanish, where the trill occurs to the exclusion of the tap in word-initial position. Catalan also underwent fortition of word-initial /l/ (which later evolved to palatal /ʎ/, like word-internal geminate /lː/), and in Asturian/Leonese both word-initial /l/ and /n/ show this sound change, e.g. Cat. llop /ʎop/ 'wolf', Ast. llobu /ʎobu/ 'wolf', ñome /ɲome/ 'name', but this is no longer an active process in these languages.

[kː]rétin 'what an idiot!', c'est [fː]ormidable 'it's great!' (cf.
Word-and syllable-initial yod strengthened in Late Latin, generally converging with the results of /ɡ/ before a front vowel, e.g. IUNIU(M) > Fr. juin, Port. junho, It. giugno 'June'. In modern Spanish both syllable-initial [j] and [w] undergo optional fortition, e.g. yegua [ˈɟeɣwa] 'mare', huevo [ˈɡweβo] 'egg'.

Having considered the main phenomena affecting consonants, in this section we examine other processes that target vowels. We classify these processes in three major types: vowel reduction in unstressed syllables, vowel-to-vowel coarticulation and assimilation (including coalescence and harmony), and vowel epenthesis. As we have done for the consonants, productive synchronic processes will be considered in the light of completed sound changes of the same type.

Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables

An important parameter of variation among the Romance languages is the extent to which unstressed vowels are reduced in their duration and centralized in their quality. Iberian Portuguese and Spanish offer a striking contrast in this respect. Even though these are two very closely related languages and their phonological syllable structure is rather similar, they have radically different rhythms. Whereas in Iberian Spanish differences in duration and vowel quality between stressed and unstressed vowels are relatively small, to the extent that it is difficult to identify systematic ways in which they differ in their quality [START_REF] Nadeu | Stressand speech rate-induced vowel quality variation in Catalan and Spanish[END_REF], in Iberian Portuguese, unstressed vowels are greatly reduced and often dropped, mirroring in many respects completed sound changes in a language like French.

Although most Spanish varieties have very little reduction of unstressed vowels, the reduction in duration, devoicing and deletion of unstressed vowels in certain positions is a feature of both Mexican (Lope [START_REF] Blanch | Sobre las vocales caedizas del español mexicano[END_REF] and Andean Spanish [START_REF] Delforge | Unstressed vowel reduction in Andean Spanish[END_REF]), e.g. cafecito [kafˈsito] 'a little coffee'. A different type of reduction, with vowel raising, has been found in some varieties of Judeo-Spanish in contact with Slavic languages, such as that of Bulgaria, where both /a/ and /o/ raise in unstressed syllables (cf. Gabriel/Kireva 2014). This latter phenomenon finds a parallel in Central Catalan, where the seven-vowel system found in stressed syllables is reduced to /i ə u/ in most unstressed syllables, giving rise to many morphophonological alternations.

Schwa deletion in French is a very complex phenomenon. It is systematic, which qualifies it as a lexical phenomenon, but it is also subject to phonetic, prosodic, dialectal, idiolectal, sociolinguistic, and stylistic constraints. It has been extensively studied and is still not fully understood. Alternating schwas occur word-internally (semaine [səmɛn] ~[smɛn] 'week') and across word boundaries ( je ne sais pas [ʒənəsepa] ~[ʒənsepa] 'I don't know'). The conclusion at this point is that schwa alternation is lexical and phonological (cf. Bürki/Ernestus/Frauenfelder 2010). Variants without schwa are reported in careful speech as well as in casual speech [START_REF] Côté | The nature of the schwa/zero alternation in French clitics. Experimental and non-experimental evidence[END_REF]. Nevertheless, Bürki et al. (2011), based on the analysis of a large spoken corpus, conclude that schwa in connected speech also undergoes phonetic reduction typical of interface phenomena.

In contrast with French, in Central Catalan, schwa, which replaces /a ɛ e/ in unstressed syllables (e.g. renta [ˈrentə] 's/he washes', rentar [rənˈta] 'to wash'), is a stable vowel and is not subject to deletion.

A recurrent phenomenon in Romance is the raising of mid vowels in pretonic syllables. This phenomenon has the status of a regular sound change in standard Italian, e.g. SECŪRU(M) > It. sicuro 'safe M .SG ', FENESTRA(M) > It. finestra 'window' (Alkire/Rosen 2010, 80). In Brazilian Portuguese it is a variable rule, where variants with pretonic high vowels are seen as less formal (without being stigmatized), and are subject to a number of phonological conditions and lexical marking, e.g. perigo (Perini 2002, 37-38). In Spanish and closely related dialects the phenomenon is nowadays stigmatized as "rural" and it is mostly found as an assimilatory phenomenon (cf. below), when the stressed vowel is high, e.g. comer [koˈmeɾ] 'to eat' vs. comería [kumiˈɾia] 'I would eat' (Penny 1978, 86).

[e]~[i] 'danger', tomate [o]~[u] 'tomato', but verdade [e], *[i] 'truth'
As for word-final unstressed syllables, the pan-Romance tendency is to have a smaller number of contrasts in this position than elsewhere. Thus Italian only has four word-final unstressed vowels /i e a o/, Spanish three (leaving aside a few exceptions) /e a o/, and Central Catalan also three /i ə u/. In several Spanish varieties, both in Spain and in Latin America, /e/ and /o/ tend to rise in this position. This is a stigmatized "rural" phenomenon in Spanish. In Brazilian Portuguese, on the other hand, this is a regular rule of pronunciation: mid vowels become high in unstressed word-final syllables, e.g. /ɡato(s)/ Sp. [ˈɡato(s)] vs. BP [ˈɡatu(s)] 'cat(s)'. This raising process feeds palatalization, BP parte [pahʧi] 'part'.

Finally the devoicing of phrase-final (or word-final) vowels has different degrees of incidence or regularity in different Romance languages. Portuguese shows pervasive devoicing and deletion of word-final vowels and differs strikingly in this respect from Spanish. Phrase-final devoicing in French primarily affects high vowels and has been well documented and studied experimentally (cf. [START_REF] Fagyal | Sound change and articulatory release. Where and why are high vowels devoiced in Parisian French[END_REF][START_REF] Smith | Vowel devoicing in contemporary French[END_REF]). It should be noted, however, that phrase-final devoicing is not considered an instance of vowel reduction in French, but rather a prosodic and discourse marker. [START_REF] Meunier | Vowel reduction in conversational speech in French. The role of lexical factors[END_REF] found that vowels in word-final syllables are less often reduced than preceding ones, in terms of duration and centralization. Similarly, [START_REF] Torreira | Realization of voiceless stops and vowels in conversational French and Spanish[END_REF] show that in French phrase-medial devoicing shows characteristics of vowel reduction, such as shortening and increased coarticulation.

Vowel-to-vowel coarticulation

Vowel coalescence

Vowel coalescence in Romanian occurs in restricted environments in spontaneous speech. We will consider the example of vowel-final function words, such as the prepositions pe 'on' and de 'of'. Coalescence takes place between [e] and a following stressed [a] or [ʌ], but not with other vowels. The following are some representative examples from a casual style of speech: p[e] [a]sta ~p[e̯ a]sta / p[a]sta 'on this one F ', p[e] [ʌ]sta ~p[ʌ]sta 'on this one M '. This type of coalescence does not seem to occur across lexical words, or at least it is not as salient. It should be noted that all the connected speech phenomena reported here still need to be studied experimentally, preferably in spontaneous speech corpora.

In Spanish, sequences of vowels are reduced in connected speech (cf. e.g. Hualde 2005, 89-94). Unstressed high vowels glide in contact with other vowels, e.g. m[ja]migo 'my friend', t[wa]buelo 'your grandfather', and sequences containing non-high vowels may be reduced to a single syllable in various ways, including deletion, coalescence and gliding, e.g. te acuerdas [taˈkwerðas] ~[tjaˈkwerðas] 'you remember' (cf. Hualde/Torreira/Simonet 2008 for experimental results). In Portuguese these phenomena of syllable coalescence are perhaps more systematic. Thus, for Brazilian Portuguese Perini (2002, 50) states that when both vowels across a word boundary are unstressed, /i/ and /u/ become glides before a non-identical vowel and in all other cases the first vowel is deleted, as in his examples bule amassado [ˈbuljamaˈsadu] 'dented coffeepot', casa enorme 'huge house ' [ˈkazinɔhmi]. This situation seems to also obtain in European Portuguese (Mateus/d'Andrade 2000, 146;Vigário 2003, 104-114).

Within words, the reduction to diphthongs of sequences where an unstressed mid vowel is followed by another vowel is widespread in Latin American Spanish, e.g. pelear [peˈljaɾ] 'to fight'. The phenomenon is subject to lexical and phonological conditions that are still not well understood. For instance, /ea/ is much more readily reduced to [ja] in, for example, golpeamos 'we strike' than in leamos 'we read SBJV '.

Vowel assimilation and harmony-type effects

A well-known vowel-to-vowel assimilation phenomenon in Italo-Romance is metaphony, which generally involves the raising or diphthongization of stressed vowels under the assimilatory effects of a word-final high vowel, e.g. /verde/ 'green SG ' vs. /virdi/ 'green PL ', /pɛde/ 'foot' vs. /pjɛdi/ 'feet'. Metaphonic phenomena are found in both northern and southern Italo-Romance (cf. e.g. [START_REF] Maiden | Interactive morphonology. Metaphony in Italy[END_REF], but not in standard Italian. Similar phenomena are also found in Asturian and Cantabrian dialects in northern Spain (e.g. in Lena Asturian /ɡata/ 'she-cat' vs. /ɡetu/ 'he-cat'; cf. [START_REF] Martínez | El habla de Lena[END_REF][START_REF] Hualde | Autosegmental and metrical spreading in the vowel-harmony systems of northwestern Spain[END_REF]1998).

Romanian morphophonology exhibits a process of diphthong/singleton alternation that fits the description of metaphony and has consequently been analyzed as such (cf. Vowel-to-vowel coarticulation can interact in Romanian with an effect of labial centralization, which is attested as a sound change, but is not known to be synchronically active. Historically, /e/ after a labial becomes central, unless the following vowel is front (Alkire/Rosen 2010, 258). This sound change explains forms such as *MĒLU > Rom. măr /mʌr/ 'apple' (cf. It. mela) vs. *MĒLE > Rom. mere /mere/ 'apples'. It is not clear what the phonetic basis of labial centralization may be, but casual spontaneous speech seems to exhibit a surprisingly similar tendency. A preliminary experimental study of this phenomenon based on a large corpus is presented in Chitoran et al. (2016). We report here some examples typical of a very casual style of speech, involving the vowel of the preposition pe 'on', pe urmă p[ʌ] urmă 'after that', pe el ~[pʌjel] 'him ACC ', pe la mama ~p[ʌ] la mama 'at mother's house', pe seară ~p[ʌ] seară 'towards evening', pe ziuă ~p[ʌ] ziuă 'during the day', pe iarnă ~p[ʌ] iarnă 'during the winter'.

Notice that vowel centralization in Romanian is heard before both back and front vowels; therefore it cannot be attributed to vowel-to-vowel coarticulation, at least not exclusively. However, vowel backing is attested independently, consistent with the vowel fronting presented earlier. We can see this in the behaviour of the preposition de 'of', where no labial is present, e.g. de unde ~d[ʌ] unde 'from where'. This is most commonly observed in a very casual pronunciation of the very colloquial phrase da de unde ~da d[ʌ] unde 'on the contrary'. Evidence that this centralization is due to vowel backing comes from its absence when the following vowel is front, e.g. de seară, *d[ʌ] seară, as in rochie de seară 'evening dress', de zi, *d[ʌ] zi 'of the day', de iarnă, *d[ʌ] iarnă 'of the winter'.

More extensive phenomena of vowel harmony, characterizing in some cases whole phonological word domains, have been described for Asturian/Cantabrian Ibero-Romance (cf. e.g. [START_REF] Hualde | Autosegmental and metrical spreading in the vowel-harmony systems of northwestern Spain[END_REF]), for some Italo-Romance varieties (cf. e.g. [START_REF] Nibert | Processes of vowel harmony in the Servigliano dialect of Italian. A comparison of two non-linear proposals for the representation of vowel height[END_REF][START_REF] Mascaró | An analysis of stress-dependent harmony in Servigliano[END_REF], for Valencian Catalan [START_REF] Jiménez | Valencian vowel harmony[END_REF]) and, as mentioned above, for Eastern Andalusian/Murcian (cf. [START_REF] Hernández-Campoy | Functional compensation and Southern Peninsular Spanish /s/ loss[END_REF].

The distribution of lower and higher mid vowels in Southern French is said to be dictated by the so-called loi de position 'law of position', i.e. high-mid vowels in open syllables, low-mid vowels in closed syllables. In other varieties of French the distribution is less predictable and depends in part on harmonic rules, e.g. bête [bɛt] 'animal; silly', but bêtise [betiz] 'silliness', where the vowel of the root raises under the influence of the high vowel /i/ in the following syllable (cf. Walker 2001, 54).

Above, in section 3.1, we made reference to the raising of pretonic mid vowels, which is sometimes an assimilatory phenomenon conditioned by the presence of a stressed high vowel. The opposite assimilatory phenomenon, the lowering of pretonic mid vowels, is found in Portuguese. In pretonic syllables there is no contrast between /e/ and /ɛ/ or /o/ and /ɔ/. Normally, mid vowels are pronounced as midhigh [e], [o] and may even be raised to [i], [u]. However, we find pretonic [ɛ] when the stressed vowel is /ɛ/, as in Pelé [pɛˈlɛ], and [ɔ] when the stressed vowel is /ɔ/, as in bolota [bɔˈlɔtɐ] 'acorn' (cf. Perini 2002, 37).

Vowel epenthesis

Perhaps the most remarkable phenomenon of vowel epenthesis in Romance is the prosthesis of /e/ before word-initial /sC/ clusters. In Spanish and Catalan this is a synchronically active, obligatory rule of pronunciation, a phonotactic constraint that applies to borrowings exceptionlessly (e.g. Sp. estrés 'stress') and is observable in the second-language pronunciation of native speakers of these languages. For Ibero-Romance speakers sequences like [st-] and [est-] are not distinct (for experimental evidence, cf. [START_REF] Hallé | Do smid and esmid sound the same? A cross-language comparison between Spanish and French listeners[END_REF], so that, for instance, the English words state and estate may perceptually be homophones. Portuguese has the same neutralization, but in varieties with palatalization of preconsonantal sibilants, deletion of the initial vowel is frequent in colloquial speech, e.g. espaço [ˈʃpasu] 'space' (Mateus/ d'Andrade 2000, 43).

Vocalic prosthesis before word-initial /sC/ clusters is a phenomenon with a surprisingly long pedigree. French does not have this phonotactic constraint, but evolutions like SPATHA(M) > Fr. épée 'sword', SPATIU(M) > Fr. espace 'space', etc., show that it once did. At some historical point, however, /sC/-initial sequences became acceptable in French and words like statue started being incorporated into the lexicon without adaptation. At most, one can speak of a lexical morphophonological rule in French relating words like espace 'space' and spacieux 'spacious M .SG '.

  [ɨn] 'in': î [ŋ] [k]asă 'in the house', î[m] [p]arc 'in the park'. The same type of assimilatory coarticulation takes place when a final cluster is reduced and the nasal becomes adjacent to the following word-initial stop, e.g. sînt prieteni → sî[m] [p]rieteni 'they are friends', sînt pe drum → sî[m] [p]e drum 'I am on the road', sînt curat → sî[ŋ] [k]urat 'I am clean'.

  from Eastern Romance (Italian, Romanian), cf. (1):

	(1) Latin intervocalic /p t k/: Eastern vs. Western Romance
	Lat.	It.	Sp.	Fr.
	SAPĒRE	sapere saber savoir 'to know'
	VĪTA(M)	vita	vida	vie	'life'
	AMĪCA(M) amica amiga amie	'female friend'

  > Old Fr. /sapʧə/ > [saʃ ] sache '(that) s/he know', LŪPI > Rom. lupi [lup j ] 'wolves'. Universally, palatalization appears to follow a hierarchy of triggers [j] » [i] » [e]. Palatalization triggered by a (fronted) low vowel, as in French, e.g. CANTĀRE > Fr. chanter 'to sing', is less common. Similarly, the trigger usually follows, but palatalization by a preceding glide is found in developments like NOCTE(M) > /noi ̯te/ > Sp. noche 'night'. Historical palatalization has produced morphophonological alternations in many Romance languages, e.g. Fr. blanc/blanche 'white M .SG/F.SG ', It. amico/amici 'friend M .SG/M.PL ', Rom. stradă/străzi 'street SG/ PL '. In Québec French, /t/ and /d/ are affricated to [ts] and [dz], respectively, before the high front vowels /i/ and /y/, e.g. petit [ptsi] 'small', tu [tsy] 'you'. Recent sociolinguistic studies of urban continental French (cf. Lodge 2004; Fagyal 2010) document a type of palatalization/affrication that occurs before high front vowels and glides, but results in [ʧ, ʤ], as in Brazilian Portuguese, rather than the Quebec French [ts, dz]: y a [ʤy] monde 'it's crowded', [ʧy] m'as [ʤi]t 'you told me'. This phenomenon has been associated with the speech of working class youth of immigrant descent, but more recently has been reported in political discourse (cf. Trimaille 2008) and broadcast news (cf. Candea/Adda-Decker/Lamel 2013). The latter study, based on a large speech corpus, verifies that affrication occurs predominantly with the voiceless variant, before [j] and [i]. Some frequent examples are: moi[ʧj]é 'half', chré[ʧj]en 'Christian', poli[ʧi]que 'politics

As an active process of allophony, we find palatalization of /t/ and /d/ before /i/ in Brazilian Portuguese, e.g. tia [ʧia] 'aunt', dia [ʤia] 'day'. The raising of word-final front vowels (e.g. sublime [sublimi]) results in palatalization before orthographic final <e>, e.g. BP parte [ˈpahʧi] 'part', verde [ˈvehʤi] 'green'.

  Chitoran 2002; Renwick 2012, including a comparative experimental study of Romanian and Italian). Such alternations can be found, for example, in nominal morphology in singular-plural forms (e.g. poartă [ˈpoartʌ] ~porți [ˈports j ] 'gate/ gates') and in verb morphology (e.g. treacă [ˈtreakʌ] 'he/they pass(es) SBJV 'treci [ˈtreʧ j ] 'you pass IND '). The stressed singleton vowel is conditioned by the high vowel in the following syllable, as in the classic case of metaphony, but also by the front vowel /e/: treacă [ˈtreakʌ] 'he/they pass(es) SBJV ' ~trece [ˈtreʧe] 's/he passes IND ', deasă [ˈdeasʌ] 'thick F. SG ' ~dese [ˈdese] 'thickF. PL '. These systematic synchronic alternations are the morphologized outcomes of a sound change involving vowel diphthongization under stress (SERA(M) > Rom. seară [ˈsearʌ] 'evening'); cf. Alkire/Rosen (2010) for a detailed account. A related phenomenon, the lowering of stressed mid vowels under the influence of final low vowels, is found in Portuguese, e.g. fam[o]so 'famous M .SG ' vs. fam[ɔ]sa 'famous F. SG '.In running speech, vowel-to-vowel coarticulation is attested variably in Romanian in forms such as bun[ʌ] ziua ~bun[e] ziua 'good day' (greeting), uit[ʌ]-te ~uit[e]-te 'look!'. As these examples show, a final central vowel tends to be fronted before a front vowel in the following word. 'To look' is a reflexive verb of the first conjugation (a se uita), and should regularly form the imperative in [ʌ]. However, when the imperative of this verb is used without the reflexive pronoun, the form is exclusively uite! [ˈujte]. This can be attributed to lexicalization of the effects of coarticulation originally induced by the reflexive pronoun te.

José Ignacio Hualde and Ioana Chitoran Brought to you by | Université de Paris Mathematiques-Recherche Authenticated | chitoran.ioana@gmail.com Download Date | 11/1/16 3:55 PM

Brought to you by | Université de Paris Mathematiques-Recherche Authenticated | chitoran.ioana@gmail.com Download Date | 11/1/16 3:55 PM

In Spanish and Catalan, geminate /n l r/ had a special evolution. In particular /ll/ and /nn/ became palatals. A related fact is the synchronic alternation that we find in cases like Sp. él 'he', ella 'she'.

Generally speaking, in Western Romance, the plural of nouns continues the Latin accusative plural (e.g.ROSĀS, MŪRŌS). The early loss of /-s/ in these forms in Eastern Romance made them identical to the singular, so that only the nominative could mark the plural (e.g. ROSAE > It. rose 'roses', MŪRĪ > It. muri 'walls').

A historically related phenomenon functioning as a phonotactic rule in word sequences is found in some conservative varieties of Italian that display alternations like strada 'road', in istrada 'on the road', scritto 'written', per iscritto 'in writing' (cf. [START_REF] Sampson | Vowel prosthesis in Romance. A diachronic study[END_REF].

Conclusion

We have provided a general overview of phonetic/phonological phenomena in Romance. We have chosen examples that we think are particularly common in the Romance languages or particularly interesting, since obvious reasons of space prevent us from being exhaustive in this chapter. An interesting fact, already noticed by [START_REF] Delattre | Stages of Old French phonetic changes observed in Modern Spanish[END_REF], is that, often, what appears as a variable process at the phoneticsphonology interface in one Romance language may mirror a completed sound change in another (e.g. syllable or word-final /s/ aspiration).

Alkire, Ti/Rosen, Carol (2010), Romance languages. A historical introduction, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Amastae, John (1989), "The intersection of s-aspiration/deletion and spirantization in Honduran Spanish", Language Variation and Change A window into the evolution of a sound system." Talk presented at the 46th Linguistic Symposium on Romance Languages (LSRL 46), Stonybrook University, 31 March-3 April 2016.

Surface sound and underlying structure: The phonetics-phonology interface


Xiao Shi

Jianxin Yu
email: yujianxin@cug.edu.cn

Jean Broutin

Denise Pons

Camille Rossignol

Sylvie Bourquin

Sylvie Crasquin

Qiang Li

Wenchao Shu

a novel woody branch discovered in Early Triassic deposits of the

Keywords: Turpanopitys taoshuyuanense gen. et sp. nov., Palaeoecology, Palaeobiogeographic distribution, Early Triassic, Turpan Basin

published or not. The documents may come

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Introduction

Five mass extinctions were recognized in the Phanerozoic in animal families [START_REF] Jablonski | Extinctions in the fossil record[END_REF], while only two major extinctions could be clearly recognized in plant families [START_REF] Cascales-Miñana | The plant fossil record reflects just two great extinction events[END_REF]. The end-Permian mass extinction is the only one affecting conjointly terrestrial ecosystems (including plants) and marine ecosystems (Twitchett et al., 2001;[START_REF] Cascales-Miñana | The plant fossil record reflects just two great extinction events[END_REF]. Based on the palaeobotanical data for the end-Permian from Northern China Block, several environmental stresses that affected end Permian terrestrial ecosystems were identified, for instance, wind activity, fungal proliferation, water stress, elevated atmospheric CO 2 concentration and wildfire (Wang and Zhang, 1998). After this severest extinction, the physical environments remained very disturbed during the next 5-6 Myr [START_REF] Retallack | Multiple Early Triassic greenhouse crises impeded Retallack[END_REF][START_REF] Chen | The timing and pattern of biotic recovery following the end-Permian mass extinction[END_REF]Sun et al., 2012;Retallack, 2013;Benton and[START_REF] Benton | Impacts of global warming on Permo-Triassic terrestrial ecosystems[END_REF]. As a result, plant diversity did not return to the pre-extinction levels until the Late Triassic [START_REF] Chen | The timing and pattern of biotic recovery following the end-Permian mass extinction[END_REF].

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T

The reconstruction of palaeoenvironmental conditions prevailing during the end Permian mass extinction and subsequent Triassic recovery is essential to better constrain the potential causes and mechanisms that lead to this major biotic turnover. Anatomical features observed from fossils, including plants, provide key palaeoecologic and palaeoclimatic information (e.g., [START_REF] Royer | Correlations of climate and plant ecology to leaf size and shape: potential proxies for the fossil record[END_REF][START_REF] Knoll | Paleophysiology and end-Permian mass extinction[END_REF]. In this paper, we describe a new woody branch discovered in the transitional Permian-Triassic deposits of the Guodikeng Formation in the Turpan Basin, Northwest China. The results of a quantitative growth-ring analysis are good enough to give accurate palaeoecological interpretations. A bibliographical survey allowed us to analyse the palaeogeographic distribution of Protophyllocladoxylon-type woods during late Palaeozoic.

Geological setting, materials, and methods

The Turpan Basin, located in the Xinjiang Uygur autonomous Province, northwest China (Fig. 1), covers about 53, 500 km 2 , and constitutes the third lowest exposed terrestrial point on the earth's surface. The present boundaries of the basin are the Bogda and Haerlike Mountains to the north and the Juluotage Mountains to the south. During the Late Permian to the Early Triassic, the basin was located on the Junggar block that constituted a part of the Pangea supercontinent (e.g., Domeier and Torsvik, 2014; Fig. 2). The Turpan Basin was further located on the northwest coast of a Palaeotethys branch (Fig. 2) that progressively disappeared as a result of a northwestward subduction (e.g., [START_REF] Xiao | Geodynamic evolution of Central Asia in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic[END_REF]. The Turpan Basin consequently migrated northward from 40 to 50°N palaeo-latitude during Kungurian-Wuchiapingian time [START_REF] Mcelhinny | Fragmentation of Asia in the Permian[END_REF][START_REF] Sengor | Paleotectonics of Asia: fragments of a synthesis[END_REF]Ziegler et al., 1997;[START_REF] Scotese | Atlas of Earth history[END_REF][START_REF] Yang | Depositional environments and cyclo-and chronostratigraphy of uppermost Carboniferous-Lower Triassic fluvial-lacustrine deposits, southern Bogda Mountains, NW Chinaa terrestrial palaeoclimatic record of mid-latitude NE Pangea[END_REF]. Late Permian to Early Triassic deposits mainly correspond to alluvial and lacustrine settings (e.g., [START_REF] A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T Greene | Integrated Provenance Analysis of a Complex Orogenic Terrane: Mesozoic Uplift of the Bogda Shan and Inception of the Turpan-Hami Basin, NW China[END_REF] emplaced in many small grabens

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T

and half grabens [START_REF] Allen | Junggar, Turfan and Alakol basins as Late Permian to ?Early Triassic extensional structures in a sinistral shear zone in the Altaid orogenic collage, Central Asia[END_REF][START_REF] Sengor | Paleotectonics of Asia: fragments of a synthesis[END_REF][START_REF] Yang | Sedimentary evidence of Early-Late Permian mid-latitude continental climate variability, southern Bogda Mountains, NW China[END_REF][START_REF] Yang | Depositional environments and cyclo-and chronostratigraphy of uppermost Carboniferous-Lower Triassic fluvial-lacustrine deposits, southern Bogda Mountains, NW Chinaa terrestrial palaeoclimatic record of mid-latitude NE Pangea[END_REF].

The Taoshuyuan section is located on northern side of the Turpan Basin, in the foothill of the Bogda Mountains (Fig. 1). The section crops out on the southern flank of a WNW-ESE trending axial plan syncline (Fig. 1C). The lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy and cyclostratigraphy of this area are well established [START_REF] Zhang | Regional Stratigraphic Chart of northwestern China, Branch of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region[END_REF][START_REF] Liao | Carboniferous and Permian in the western part of the east Tianshan Mountains[END_REF][START_REF] Cheng | The Permian-Triassic sequences in the southern margin of the Junggar Basin and the Turpan Basin, Xinjiang, China[END_REF][START_REF] Wartes | Permian sedimentary record of the Turpan-Hami Basin and adjacent regions, Northwest China; constraints on postamalgamation tectonic evolution[END_REF]Zhu et al., 2005;[START_REF] Yang | Sedimentary evidence of Early-Late Permian mid-latitude continental climate variability, southern Bogda Mountains, NW China[END_REF][START_REF] Yang | Depositional environments and cyclo-and chronostratigraphy of uppermost Carboniferous-Lower Triassic fluvial-lacustrine deposits, southern Bogda Mountains, NW Chinaa terrestrial palaeoclimatic record of mid-latitude NE Pangea[END_REF].

The specimen was collected from the Guodikeng Formation in the southern limb of Taoshuyuan syncline (GPS: 43° 57′ 59.6″ N, 88° 52′ 02.2″ E; Fig. 1C). The fossil plants, spores and pollen assemblages, palaeomagnetism and δ 13 C org data suggest the Permian-Triassic boundary within 61-66 m below the basalmost deposits of the Jiucaiyuan Formation in the northern limb of the Taoshuyuan syncline (Sun, 1989;[START_REF] Li | Study on paleomagnetism of Permian-Trassic in Pantaoyuan of Turpan, Xinjiang[END_REF][START_REF] Cao | Two episodes of 13 C depletion in organic carbon in the latest Permian: Evidence from the terrestrial sequences in northern Xinjiang, China[END_REF][START_REF] Yang | Depositional environments and cyclo-and chronostratigraphy of uppermost Carboniferous-Lower Triassic fluvial-lacustrine deposits, southern Bogda Mountains, NW Chinaa terrestrial palaeoclimatic record of mid-latitude NE Pangea[END_REF]. The sample has been found in fine-grained sandstone deposits, 25 m below the basalmost beds of Jiucaiyuan Formation, with current and wave ripples, attributed to coastal lake environment (Fig. 3). In the silty clay level above the bed where we collected the wood specimen, [START_REF] Cheng | The Permian-Triassic sequences in the southern margin of the Junggar Basin and the Turpan Basin, Xinjiang, China[END_REF] found fossils of vertebrate Lystrosaurus (Fig. 3). Lystrosaurus is classically considered as an Early Triassic marker (succeeding to the Permian Dicynodon, e.g., [START_REF] Lucas | Global Triassic tetrapod biostratigraphy and biochronology[END_REF][START_REF] Lucas | Timing and magnitude of tetrapod extinctions across the Permo-Triassic boundary[END_REF]. In consequence, the upper part of the Guodikeng Formation is traditionally considered as Early Triassic in age (Fig. 3). However, a stratigraphic overlap of Dicynodon and Lystrosaurus has been documented in the closely located Junggar Basin (e.g., [START_REF] Metcalfe | Stratigraphy, biostratigraphy and C-isotopes of the Permian-Triassic non-marine sequence at Dalongkou and Lucaogou, Xinjiang Province, China[END_REF] as well as in other part of the world (e.g., Smith and Ward, 2001 for the Karoo Basin, South Africa). As a result, although the exact location of the Permian-Triassic boundary in this section is still unknown, the bed where we found the specimen can be considered as Early Triassic in age.

To investigate the wood fossils, thin-sections were made using conventional cutting and polishing methods for optical microscopic observations. Slides were photographed with

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T

Panasonic a DMC-FZ28 digital camera. The anatomy of the wood was studied using a microscope Leica DM4000B. Photomicrographs were taken with Nikon D300 digital camera.

Images in plates are basically processed and stitched together by Adobe Photoshop CS v. 6.

All the specimens and slides are housed in the State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), under catalogue number:

XTT-C-4.

To infer intraseasonal conditions and leaf longevity patterns of the tree, Falcon-Lang (2000a) developed the CSDM curve (Cumulative Sum of the Deviation from Mean diameter).

We selected five adjacent growth rings and measured the radial diameter of five adjacent rows of cells for each growth ring to construct the CSDM curve. The radial diameters of the cells were then averaged using the method of Falcon-Lang (1999).

Systematic palaeontology

Description

The calcified fossil wood piece is about 12.5 cm long with a maximum diameter of 9.0 cm (Fig. 4A). Interestingly, a young lateral branchlet emerges horizontally from the main branch (Fig. 4B,C). No cortical tissues are preserved. The pith was preserved only in the branchlet.

In the branch, it was impossible to get any slides of the pith. Several leaf traces, helically arranged, occur in the secondary xylem of the branchlet and cross the growth-ring boundary (Fig. 4C,E). This indicates that the species is evergreen (Falcon-Lang and Cantrill, 2001).

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T

Pith -The pith is circular in outline. Along the direction of the branchlet extension, the pith diameter increases from 0.6 to 1.65 cm (L=5.5 cm) (Fig. 5A). Two slides along the transversal direction and two slides along the radial direction were made. The pith of the branchlet is heterogeneous. It consists of parenchyma cells and diaphragms made of sclerenchyma-like cells. The parenchyma cells are isodiametric, circular or polygonal in transverse section, diameter 25 to 152.5 μm (Fig. 3D). The wall is mean 2.4 μm thick. Some cell walls are dark brown. Intercellular spaces are visible.

Seven complete diaphragms can be observed in the present specimen (Fig. 5A). In the radial section, the diaphragms are lense-like (Fig. 5A,B). Two perpendicular radial sections of the pith indicate that these diaphragms are true platforms (Fig. 5C,D). The intact diaphragms are horizontal or slightly curved, but three incomplete diaphragms at the top of the branchlet appear bent (Fig. 5A). Their thickness decreases gradually from the middle part of the pith to the periphery and reduces to one or two cells at the contact with the primary xylem or the initial secondary xylem (Fig. 5E,F). The middle part of the diaphragm is 0.32 to 1.24 mm thick and only one or two cells thick at the peripheral ends.

The sclerenchyma cells of the diaphragms are brick-like. In radial section, the sclerenchyma cells are very close and vertically regularly arranged in lines. The intercellular spaces are absent. The sclerenchyma cells are ca. 7.5×29 to 40×76 μm in size with 2.5 to 15 μm thick walls (Fig. 6A). The pith cells display lining-like structures inside the cell lumens and the cell walls are separated in some area. These artifact structures are caused by white rot.

Primary xylem -The primary xylem shows endarch maturation (Fig. 6B). The primary xylem tracheids are ca. 17.5 to 25 μm wide and show annular, helical and reticulate thickenings (Fig. 6C).

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T

Secondary xylem -The secondary xylem is pycnoxylic, with tracheids and parenchymatous rays. Eight growth rings were preserved in the transverse section of the main branch (Fig. 6D).

Early wood tracheids are circular or polygonal, while late wood ones are elliptical or rectangular. The percentage of late wood is 8.79-19.57%. The tracheids are 16 to 66 μm in diameter. The lumens of some tracheids are fully filled by tyloses.

In the radial section, pits on the tracheid walls are of araucarian type. In the branchlet, they are uniseriate (24%) or biseriate (74%), occasionally triseriate (2%) (Fig. 6E, F), while in the main branch, they are uniseriate (60%) or biseriate (40%) (Fig. 7A). When uniseriate, the pits are contiguous, circular or flattened, 5-15 μm from the tracheid internal walls, and the flattening index is 0.58-0.95; when biseriate or triseriate, the pits are alternate, crowded hexagonal, close to the internal wall of the tracheids, and the flattening index is 0.63-0.96.

Near to the pith, some opposite pits can be observed (<1%). The pits are 7.5 to 20 μm in diameter, with circular or elliptical apertures.

Cross-field pits are rectangular, oval or round. They are simple, sometimes slightly areolate. In the branchlet, there is 1 or 2, rarely 3, pits in each cross-field unit (Fig. 7B,C). In the main branch there is only one pit in each cross-field unit (Fig. 7D). The pits are 9×12 μm to 28×35 μm (width × height).

The information for the tangential view is based only on the main branch. The lumens of tracheids are secondarily septate by numerous tyloses originating from ray cells (Fig. 7F).

The homogeneous rays consist of elliptical or sub-rectangular parenchyma cells. The horizontal and tangential ray walls are smooth. They are uniseriate, or very rarely biseriate (< 1%). Rays are constituted by 1-15 (> 90%), up to 40, cells (30-1110 μm) high (Fig. 7E).

There are 35 rays per square millimetre. Ray cells are 12.5 to 27.5 μm wide, and 17.5 to 32.5 μm high. Vertical parenchyma cells and secretory canals are absent.

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T

Comparisons

The anatomical features of Turpanopitys gen. nov. closely resemble some extinct and extant conifers that also display a heterogeneous pith, endarch primary xylem and thick pycnoxylic secondary xylem. As the anatomy of the pith and primary xylem constitute critical criteria for the classification of gymnosperms woods [START_REF] Lepekhina | Woods of Palaeozoic pycnoxylic gymnosperms with special reference to North Eurasia representatives[END_REF][START_REF] Pant | Xylotomy of some woods from Raniganj Formation (Permian), Raniganj Coalfield, India[END_REF]Feng et al., 2011), we thus consider Turpanopitys gen. nov. as a coniferophyte of uncertain systematic affinity.

Turpanopitys gen. nov. possesses unique solid lenticular diaphragms in the pith. All the sclerenchyma cells of the diaphragms are morphologically different and smaller than the parenchyma cells and closely arranged without intercellular space. The sclerenchyma cell walls are thicker than that of parenchyma cell. Based on these characters, these diaphragms play clearly a role of support to the pith.

The secondary xylem of Turpanopitys gen. nov. is identical to Protophyllocladoxylon Kräusel: (1) presence of growth rings, (2) araucarian radial pitting of tracheids, (3) simple large oval or round cross-field pits, (4) absence of axial parenchyma and resin canals, (5) unpitted ray walls. About six morphogenera of fossil woods with a Protophyllocladoxylontype secondary xylem and different structures of pith and primary xylem have been documented as far as we know from the Paleozoic and early-middle Triassic (Table 1).

Among them, the pith of Junggaropitys Shi, Yu, Broutin and Pons, 2015 is homogeneous that is different from Turpanopitys gen. nov.

In some Late Palaeozoic coniferophytes related to the walchian Voltziales clade, sclerotic nests occur in the piths (e.g., Barthelia, Emporia, and Hanskerpia from the Upper Pennsylvanian of Hamilton Quarry, Kansas, U.S.A.; Macdonaldodendron from the Lower Permian and Upper Pennsylvanian, New Mexico, U.S.A.) [START_REF] Rothwell | Barthelia furcata gen. et sp. nov., with review of Paleozoic coniferophytes and discussion of coniferophyte systematics[END_REF][START_REF] Rothwell | Hanskerpia gen. nov. and phylogenetic relationships among the most ancient conifers (Voltziales)[END_REF]Hernandez-Castillo et al., 2009a, 2009b, 2009c; Falcon-Lang et al.,

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T

2014, 2016). In most of these genera, the isolated sclerotic nests are irregularly distributed in the piths. But in Emporia, the sclerotic diaphragms occur as those in Turpanopitys. However, the secondary xylem of walchian conifer is characterised by predominantly uniseriate tracheid pitting and typically shows only one cupressoid pit per cross-field [START_REF] Rothwell | Barthelia furcata gen. et sp. nov., with review of Paleozoic coniferophytes and discussion of coniferophyte systematics[END_REF][START_REF] Rothwell | Hanskerpia gen. nov. and phylogenetic relationships among the most ancient conifers (Voltziales)[END_REF]Hernandez-Castillo et al., 2009a, 2009b, 2009c;Falcon-Lang et al., 2014, 2016). Austroscleromedulloxylon [START_REF] Mussa | Estudo estratigráfico e paleoecológico em ocorrências fossilíferas da Formação Irati, Estado de São Paulo, Brasil[END_REF] was erected as a genus based on samples from the Early Permian of Brazil [START_REF] Mussa | Estudo estratigráfico e paleoecológico em ocorrências fossilíferas da Formação Irati, Estado de São Paulo, Brasil[END_REF][START_REF] Mussa | Eustelos Gondwanicos de medullas diafragmadas e a sua posicão estratigrafica[END_REF][START_REF] Crisafulli | Leños gimnospérmicos de la Formación Melo (Pérmico Inferior), Uruguay. Parte II. Stiloxylon, Polysolenoxylon y Bageopitys[END_REF]. In its pith, the supporting sclerenchymatous diaphragms are present and display a very similar morphology to those of Turpanopitys gen. nov. However, the secondary xylem of Austroscleromedulloxylon is of Australoxylon-type instead of Protophyllocladoxylon.

Nandorioxylon saksenae, described by [START_REF] Biradar | Nandorioxylon saksenae gen. et sp. nov.a new gymnospermous wood from the Kamthi Stage of Chandrapur District, Maharashtra State, India[END_REF] based on specimens collected from the Late Permian of India, and Xuanweioxylon He, Wang, Hilton and Shao, 2013 was discovered in strata from the Late Permian of South China, display some similarities with those of Turpanopitys gen. nov. In the piths of Nandorioxylon saksenae and Xuanweioxylon, sclerenchymatous sheaths form peripheral annuli in radial direction that is different from the complete diaphragms in Turpanopitys gen. nov. Additionally, the secondary xylem of Nandorioxylon is also of Araucarioxylon-type that is different from Turpanopitys gen. nov. Xuanweioxylon also contrast with Turpanopitys gen. nov., because the tracheids of the latter display scalariform bordered pits.

Discussion

Palaeoecological implications

Growth-ring patterns provide essential information to determine the tree habit (e.g., Falcon-Lang, 2000a, 2000b, 2003;[START_REF] Brea | Ecological reconstruction of a mixed Middle A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T Triassic forest from Argentina[END_REF][START_REF] Brea | Paleoecology and paleoenvironments of Podocarp trees in the Ameghino Petrified forest (Golfo San Jorge Basin, Patagonia, Argentina): constraints for early Paleogene paleoclimate[END_REF][START_REF] Shi | Junggaropitys, a new gymnosperm stem from the Middle-Late Triassic of Junggar Basin, Northwest China, and its palaeoecological and A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T extinction in North China and their survival strategies[END_REF]. The radial diameter of five adjacent rows of cells were measured to construct the CSDM curve (Fig. 8). We calculated four parameters based on the CSDM curves: (1) skew of CSDM curves, (2) percentage of late wood, (3) percentage of cell diminution in a ring increment and (4) Ring

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T

Markedness Index (RMI). (Fig. 9). Deciduous conifers have dominantly left-skewed CSDM or symmetrical curves, whereas evergreen conifers have dominantly right-skewed CSDM curves. The CSDM curves of Turpanopitys taoshuyuanense are from + 4.92% to + 82.41%

(mean percentage of skew + 38.18%), right-skewed, suggesting that this species was evergreen. This result is consistent with the leaf trace characteristics of Turpanopitys taoshuyuanense (see section 4).

The percentage of late wood in conifer woods could be related to foliar retention (Falcon-Lang, 2000a, 2000b). The late wood development may be strongly influenced by both leaf longevity and the intensity of climate seasonality. The percentage of late wood in Turpanopitys taoshuyuanense is 8.79-19.57%, with a mean of 13.66%. The percentage of cell diminution ranges from 60.61% to 72.00%, with an average of 73.02%. The RMI varies between 5.86% and 14.12%, with a mean of 9.48% (Table 2). Falcon-Lang (2000a) found a strong inverse linear relationship between the leaf retention and the different quantitative parameters of growth rings (percentage of skew, late wood, cell diminution and RMI values) in the group of extant conifers. The results show that the foliar retention of Turpanopitys taoshuyuanense is similar to those of extant conifers with 3-15 years of foliar retention (Table 3).

Palaeoclimatic conditions

The growth ring analysis is a powerful tool to deduce palaeoclimatic conditions that prevailed during the tree growth (e.g., [START_REF] Schweingruber | Annual growth rings and growth zones in woody plants in southern Australia[END_REF][START_REF] Schweingruber | Tree Rings and Environment Dendroecology[END_REF]Falcon-Lang, 2000a, 2000b, 2003;[START_REF] Brea | Ecological reconstruction of a mixed Middle A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T Triassic forest from Argentina[END_REF][START_REF] Brea | Paleoecology and paleoenvironments of Podocarp trees in the Ameghino Petrified forest (Golfo San Jorge Basin, Patagonia, Argentina): constraints for early Paleogene paleoclimate[END_REF]. The the mean radial diameter of five adjacent rows of cells for each growth ring is fluctuant (Fig. 8). Variability in mean cell diameters may result from fluctuations in water supply or other environmental disturbances.

But the factors controlling the formation of growth rings are very complex. Firstly, the

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T

growth ring studies must include a taxonomic analysis [START_REF] Brison | Are Mesozoic wood growth rings climateinduced?[END_REF] 4). The four species described in the southern hemisphere were found in the cool temperate zone. However, Protophyllocladoxylon-type woods of the northern hemisphere were found in different climatic zones. Late Permian P. henanense [START_REF] Yao | Permian wood from western Henan, China: implications for palaeoclimatological interpretations[END_REF] occurred in the tropical areas, while P. jingyuanense (Zhang et al., 2010), from the early Carboniferous North China block, lived in an arid climatic zone.

Ten species belonging to five morphogenera of coniferous fossil woods with a Protophyllocladoxylon-type secondary xylem from the late Palaeozoic have been documented

(Table 5). All the species found in the southern hemisphere were distributed in the cool temperature zone. (Fig. 10).

Cordaixylon andresii sari, lvareque , M nde -Bedia, lvarea , Turrero and Arbizu, 2015 was documented from late Pennsylvanian Spain. During the Pennsylvanian, Spain was located in the equatorial area. Protophyllocladoxylon henanense Yao, Liu and

Zhang was found in the Early Permian deposits of North China block, located in the tropical area. This species does not show growth rings as well. [START_REF] Maheshwari | Permian wood from Antarctica and revision of some Lower A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T Gondwana wood taxa[END_REF] has investigated the fossil woods from the Permian Antarctica where the climate was cool-temperate [START_REF] Boucot | Phanerozoic global climatic reconstruction[END_REF]. The species was evergreen. Thus, the leaf abscission is not the reason for the growthring formation. Growth rings displaying subtle ring boundaries are related to weakly developed climate seasonality (Falcon-Lang, 1999). During the Late Permian to Early Triassic, palaeoclimatic reconstruction shows a temperate climate in this area (e.g., [START_REF] Kiehl | Climate simulation of the latest Permian: Implications for mass extinction[END_REF][START_REF] Péron | Paleoenvironment reconstructions and climate simulations of the Early Triassic : mpact of the water and sediment supply on the preservation of fluvial systems[END_REF][START_REF] Boucot | Phanerozoic global climatic reconstruction[END_REF], in accordance with the mean annual temperature of 7-15 (± 4.4) °C estimated from palaeosols proxies from the Turpan Basin (Thomas et al., 2011). Consequently, the growth rings of Turpanopitys taoshuyuanense do not appear to be related to these relatively moderate annual temperature ranges. On the contrary, Late Permian to Early Triassic palaeosoils from the Turpan Basin display features indicative of variable soil moisture regimes (Thomas et al., 2011). Thus, we speculate that dry episodes trigged the formation of growth rings. Moreover, the width of growth rings ranges from 3.8 mm to 8.4 mm. Variability in mean cell diameters may result from fluctuations in water supply or other environmental disturbances (Fig. 8). It indicates that the growing environment was not uniform. In conclusion, Turpanopitys taoshuyuanense developed under a mainly warm humid climate condition with short dry periods or of hydric stresses due to the

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T

irregularity of water supplies.

Conclusions

The genus Turpanopitys gen. nov. is discovered for the first time in the Early Triassic deposits of the Turpan Basin. This genus displays diaphragms in the pith, a unique characteristic that distinguish it from any other species with Protophyllocladoxylon-type wood reported up to now. The presence of diaphragms within the pith plays a supportive role. The quantitative growth-ring analysis allows hypothesizing that T. taoshuyuanense was an evergreen [START_REF] Kräusel | Hölzer aus dem Südlichen Gebiet der Karru-Schichten Südwest-Afrikas[END_REF][START_REF] Kräusel | Gymnospermous woods with primary A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T structures from Gondwana rocks-a review[END_REF][START_REF] Lepekhina | Woods of Palaeozoic pycnoxylic gymnosperms with special reference to North Eurasia representatives[END_REF][START_REF] Maheshwari | Permian wood from Antarctica and revision of some Lower A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T Gondwana wood taxa[END_REF] [START_REF] Kräusel | Paläobotanische Notizen, X. Über ein Keuperholz mit cordaitem Mark[END_REF][START_REF] Kräusel | Gymnospermous woods with primary A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T structures from Gondwana rocks-a review[END_REF][START_REF] Lepekhina | Woods of Palaeozoic pycnoxylic gymnosperms with special reference to North Eurasia representatives[END_REF] Megaporoxylon kaokense [START_REF] Kräusel | Hölzer aus dem Südlichen Gebiet der Karru-Schichten Südwest-Afrikas[END_REF] South-West Africa, southern hemisphere; Early Permian Cool temperate [START_REF] Kräusel | Hölzer aus dem Südlichen Gebiet der Karru-Schichten Südwest-Afrikas[END_REF][START_REF] Kräusel | Gymnospermous woods with primary A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T structures from Gondwana rocks-a review[END_REF][START_REF] Lepekhina | Woods of Palaeozoic pycnoxylic gymnosperms with special reference to North Eurasia representatives[END_REF] Medullopitys sclerotic [START_REF] Kräusel | Paläobotanische Notizen, X. Über ein Keuperholz mit cordaitem Mark[END_REF] South-West Africa, southern hemisphere; Early Permian.

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T

Cool temperate [START_REF] Kräusel | Paläobotanische Notizen, X. Über ein Keuperholz mit cordaitem Mark[END_REF][START_REF] Kräusel | Gymnospermous woods with primary A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T structures from Gondwana rocks-a review[END_REF][START_REF] Lepekhina | Woods of Palaeozoic pycnoxylic gymnosperms with special reference to North Eurasia representatives[END_REF] Megaporoxylon

  U S C R I P T homogeneous with isodiametric parenchyma cells and differs from the pith in Turpanopitys gen. nov.

  . To recognise whether the growth-ring type can indicate the climate conditions, we investigate the palaeobiogeographic distribution of Protophyllocladoxylon-type woods in the Palaeozoic and Early Triassic. Zhang et al. (2010) investigated the distribution of Protophyllocladoxylon woods without pith from the Mississipian (Early Carboniferous) to the Palaeogene. Six species of Protophyllocladoxylon-type woods were found from the late Palaeozoic (Table

  He evidenced that Protophyllocladoxylon dolianitii Mussa 1958, Magaporoxylon antarctium Maheshwari 1972 and Magaporoxylon canalosum Maheshwari 1972 all possessed the Protophyllocladoxylon-A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T type secondary xylem. The growth-ring types of M. canalosum and M. antarctium are hard to distinguish in Maheshwari's article. The growth rings of P. dolianitii show thick latewood. Septomedullopitys szei Wan, Yang and Wang, 2014 has been found in the Tarlong area of Turpan Basin in the Late Permian deposits. The climate was considered to be humid climate with short-term, nonperiodic droughts. The growth rings of S. szei show a very thin band of latewood. In consequence, the Protophyllocladoxylon-type woods were widely distributed in the southern and northern hemispheres during the Palaeozoic and Early Triassic. The growth rings of the woods with Protophyllocladoxylon-type secondary xylem can be used as indicator of palaeoclimate.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure captions:

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Simplified palaeogeographic reconstruction showing the location of the Turpan

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Sedimentological section for the south limb of the Taoshuyuan syncline where the

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Turpanopitys taoshuyuanense gen. et sp. nov. A. General view of the specimen

Figure 5 :

 5 Figure 5: Turpanopitys taoshuyuanense gen. et sp. nov. A. Overview of the pith and the

Figure 6 :

 6 Figure 6: Turpanopitys taoshuyuanense gen. et sp. nov. A. Close-up of the diaphragm cells.

Figure 7 :

 7 Figure 7: Turpanopitys taoshuyuanense gen. et sp. nov. A. Radial section showing the

Figure 8 :

 8 Figure 8: A. The growth rings with the subtle growth-ring boundary, in the main branch; B.

Figure 9 :

 9 Figure 9: Right-skewed CSDM curves of five growth rings and cell diameters of growth ring

Figure 10 :

 10 Figure 10: Distribution of the woods with Protophyllocladoxylon-type secondary xylem

Fig. 1 A

 1 Fig. 1

  Fig. 2

  Fig. 3

  Fig. 5

  Fig. 9

  Fig. 10

  That is different from the Protophyllocladoxylon-type secondary xylem in the new genus.Medullopitys[START_REF] Kräusel | Paläobotanische Notizen, X. Über ein Keuperholz mit cordaitem Mark[END_REF] Megaporoxylon (Kräusel, 1956) were found in the Early Permian sequences in southwest Africa. They both possess large heterogeneous piths but without diaphragms, contrary to Turpanopitys gen. nov.

	Cordaixylon andresii sari, lvare -	que , M nde -Bedia, lvare -a , Turrero

Septomedullopitys

[START_REF] Lepekhina | Woods of Palaeozoic pycnoxylic gymnosperms with special reference to North Eurasia representatives[END_REF]

was first found documented in Russia. S. szei Wan, Yang and Wang 2014 was first described in the Late Permian deposition of Turpan Basin. In the pith of S. szei, parenchymatous bands composed of closely arranged brick-like cells are observed. However, these bands are irregularly distributed in the pith, of S. szei which is different from the lenses-like diaphragms in the present specimen. Besides, the pith of S. szei is septate and heterocellular, long secretory ducts with dark contents being distributed throughout the pith. It differs from the pith of Turpanopitys gen. nov., which is solid and lacks secretory ducts.

Phyllocladopitys

[START_REF] Kräusel | Paläobotanische Notizen, X. Über ein Keuperholz mit cordaitem Mark[END_REF]

was first collected from southwest Africa. It possesses a Protophyllocladoxylon-type secondary xylem and homogeneous pith. However, the primary xylem of Phyllocladopitys is mesarch or exarch, compared to the endarch primary xylem of Junggaropitys. and Arbizu, 2015 was documented from Late Pennsylvanian (Stephanian) outcrops at Arnao beach, Spain. It has a Protophyllocladoxylon-type secondary xylem, but its pith is

Table captions :Table 1 :

 captions1 Comparative features of pith and primary xylem for the species with aProtophyllocladoxylon-type secondary xylem.

Table 2 :

 2 Results of the quantification of ring markedness parameters for Turpanopitys taoshuyuanense gen. et sp. nov.

Table 3 :

 3 Comparison of the quantification of ring markedness parameters for Turpanopitys taoshuyuanense gen. et sp. nov. with the five extant taxa taken from the data-base of Falcon-

	Lang (2000a, b).

Table 4 :

 4 Distribution of morphographic "species" Protophyllocladoxylon based only secondary xylem structure during the Palaeozoic.

Table 5 :

 5 Distribution of the species with Protophyllocladoxylon-type secondary xylem during the Palaeozoic.

Table 1

 1

	Genus	Pith	Primary xylem	Type locality and age	References
	Turpanopitys gen.	Large,	Endarch	Xinjiang, China; Early	The present paper
	nov.	heterogeneous		Triassic
		with supporting
		diaphragms and
		isodiametric
		parenchyma cells
	Phyllocladopitys	Variable,	Mesarch	South-West Africa; Early	Kräusel, 1928;
	Kräusel, 1928	homogeneous with		Permian.	Kräusel et al., 1961;
		different size of		Argentina, South America;	Lepekhina, 1972;
		parenchyma cells		early Carboniferous	Brea and Césari,
				(Pennsylvanian).	1995
	Medullopitys	Large,	Endarch	South-West Africa; Early	Kräusel, 1928;
	Kräusel, 1928	heterogeneous with		Permian.	Kräusel et al., 1961;
		parenchyma cells			Lepekhina, 1972
		and longitudinal
		sclerenchyma cell
		strands
	Megaporoxylon	Large,	Endarch	South-West Africa and
	Kräusel, 1956	heterogeneous with		Antarctica; Early Permian.
		parenchyma cells
		and secretory
		canals

  ;

		ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
	Septomedullopitys Lepekhina, 1969 Junggaropitys Shi, Yu, Broutin and Pons, 2015	Large, septate, heterogeneous with branched secretory canals and irregularly distributed bands Small, homogeneous with variable	Endarch Endarch M A N U S C R I P T Russia and China; Late Permian. Lepekhina, 1969, 1972; Wan et al., 2014 Xinjiang, China; Middle-Late Triassic. Shi et al., 2015
	sclerenrenchyma cells A C C E P T E D

Table 5

 5

	Species	Type locality and age	Climatic zone	References
	Turpanopitys	Xinjiang, China, northern
	taoshuyuanense	hemisphere; Early	Warm temperate The present paper
	gen. et nov. sp.	Triassic
	Septomedullopitys sibirica Lepekhina 1969	Kuznetsk Basin, Russia, northern hemisphere; Late Permian.	Warm temperate	Lepekhina, 1969, 1972
	Septomedullopitys	Xinjiang, China, northern
	szei Wan, Yang	hemisphere; Late	Warm temperate Wan et al., 2014
	and Wang 2014	Permian
	Cordaixylon	Spain, equator;
	andresii sari et	Stephanian, Late	Tropical	sari et al., 2015
	al., 2015	Carboniferous
	Phyllocladopitys petriellae Brea and César 1995	Argentina, southern hemisphere; early Late Carboniferous	Cool temperate	Brea and Césari, 1995
	Medullopitys	Argentina, southern
	menendezii	hemisphere; Late	Cool temperate	Petriella, 1982
	Petriella 1982	Carboniferous
	Phyllocladopitys capensis Kräusel, 1928	South-West Africa, southern hemisphere; Early Permian.	Cool temperate

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to Prof. Wu Zhang and Prof. Shaolin Zheng of Shenyang Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources and Anais Boura of Pierre et Marie Curie University for their help in identifying the fossil woods and providing relevant materials. We thank Dr. Daoliang Chu and Mr. Wei Zhang of China University of Geosciences for collecting the sample. We also thank two anonymous reviewers for extremely helpful feedback and constructive comment on the article. The study was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41572005, 41272024).

Its intraseasonal conditions and leaf longevity patterns were discussed.

The palaeoclimatic conditions were discussed.