Helene Mainet

Quality of Life and Attractiveness Issues in SMSTs. Innovative or Commonplace Policies?

Introduction

This chapter aims at developing critical perspectives on the role of quality of life in attractiveness discourses and policies of small and medium-sized towns (SMSTs). In changing contexts linked with the economic restructuring process, accurate effects of metropolization, but also a growing residential mobility of population linked with social demand for better amenities and quality of life, SMSTs" local actors face challenges in the implementation of development policies. They are now confronted with different and sometimes ambivalent options: to develop productive and/or residential economies; to retain and attract businesses and/or people; to compete or cooperate with policy-makers in neighbouring towns; to reproduce successful models and/or try to promote innovative actions.

In a context of de-industrialization and global economic challenges, the attractiveness of places is indeed more topical than ever. In the nowadays competitive context between places and cities, SMSTs are sometimes said "to be doomed to decline because of a lack of critical mass and density in terms of economic and institutional resources" [START_REF] Selada | Creative-based strategies in small and mediumsized cities: key dimensions of analyses[END_REF]. However, the development of residential economy and creative class models illustrate the fact that other models of development are possible, based on an understanding of factors that enhance people attraction. As quoted by Bailly and Bourdeau-Lepage, (2010) "the homo oeconomicus is now substituted by the homo qualitus, trying to maximize his personal and family well-being"1 . The issue of quality of life deals with different aspects such as urban environment, social amenities, commercial and service equipments and infrastructures from an objective point of view, but also the demand of inhabitants, especially newcomers, for standard and "urban" equipments, and official discourses and marketing. At the same time, several measures and approaches are emerging in order to help the construction and promotion of local sustainable development programmes, such as Local Agenda 21, "Healthy Cities" or Cittaslow (amongst others). Then, the issue of mobility becomes important, associated with extended commuting distances, which can become a constraint or an opportunity for small towns, depending on how removed they are from bigger urban centres.

In this general context of political and social demand for a better quality of life, linked with the increasing impacts of sustainable development criteria, SMSTs stakeholders seem to have the opportunity to take part in the competition for people, by promoting amenities such as good images, "natural" environment, affordable property prices, social solidarities, interacquaintance, etc. The "reason for this stems partly from progressive disillusionment with materialistic goals" (Mc Call, 1980) and from the search for a quality of life, better than the countryside or the metropolis can offer, made up by tangible but also intangible assets.

The stakes for SMSTs policy-makers are also closely correlated with new forms of governance and collaboration. It is therefore interesting, to understand the capacity to implement local actions, to take into account the impacts of policies and trends like decentralization, privatization and liberalization, but also the reform of public services (and then the role dedicated to the first levels of the urban hierarchy in their polarizing influence).

At the same time, regional cooperation tools are developed such as inter-municipal integration in France.

It then becomes interesting to question the scope of innovative approaches in the implementation of quality-based actions, even those not directly addressing creative people. Are policies based on the promotion of quality of life in an attempt to attract new inhabitants and businesses really innovative or merely fashionable and reproductive?

There are four main parts to this chapter. After the introduction, the second part reviews literature dealing with the place of quality of life in attractiveness policies. We then present and discuss research data derived from a large set of case studies analyzed in recent works (French PHC Campus France Polonium project, AttracVil project). Some conclusions are finally presented so as to contribute to further reflections.

The Place of Quality of Life in Attractiveness Policies: Theoretical Framework

Productive activities have for long been the focus of urban attractiveness (attraction of economic actors to create employment). The concept is now widely open to residential aspects ("recruitment" of tourists and new inhabitants) and linked to issues of mobility and a higher social demand for quality of life.

The notion of "place attractiveness", leading local development strategies, is now widely used by policy-makers and researchers, even more so than the traditional notions of location in the urban hierarchy, to define and measure the influence of places. Both terms are different but, however, closely linked when articulated as attraction and influence. Towns have always shown their capacity to attract all kind of resources (very often at the expense of other towns or rural areas). The recent interest in "attractiveness" can be explained by the fact that mobility and flows of resources, capital and people, are accelerating. In a context of territorial competition, the capacity of attraction is highly strategic (Mainet and Edouard, 2014a).

The criteria for assessing attractiveness are therefore more and more complex and combined. The attractiveness of a territory is, in traditional terms, its capacity to durably attract different forms of resources (human, economic and financial). This notion is nonetheless not that simple. Attractiveness must be analyzed, firstly through an objective focus determining the attraction of a place (in a way similar to gravitational attraction). This capacity allows for the arrival of resources on the territory [START_REF] Hatem | Attractivité : de quoi parlons-nous ?[END_REF]. Attractiveness is therefore the driver of movements and changes, as well as a factor of settlement. It can be measured by the balance of in-and-out movements of people, capital, jobs, etc. But a more subjective aspect also exists: the appeal or desirability. Drivers of attraction are psychosociological and based on individual and collective decisions depending on representations, tastes and interests of various "actors" (inhabitants, tourists, local stakeholders). Towns and places can be attractive because of obvious and real resources and opportunities, but also because of images, atmospheres and some seductive capacity. Two drivers are and have always been important. The first one is centripetal. Historically, it explains the agglomeration of people and activities in towns. It is nowadays a powerful driver for metropolization processes to the benefit of large cities (with economy of scale and positive externalities). The second one is centrifugal. It explains the sprawl of people and activities from urban centres to suburbs and peripheral areas (or even to rural communes). The process is based on shortdistance mobility, but long-distance also, explaining movements from large cities to other places (regional centres, small and medium-sized towns, villages).

The consequences are not only demographical. Mobility entails powerful mechanisms of redistribution of wealth between regions and towns. Places of settlement can benefit from consumption but also equipment-spending for populations or tourists. Territory competition is not only based on productive economy (production of goods) but also on residential economy (production of services for inhabitants), as analyzed by economists [START_REF] Davezies | La République et ses territoires : la circulation invisible des richesses[END_REF]. This explains new demands for quality of life, correlated with sustainable development preferences [START_REF] Rogerson | Quality of life and city competitiveness[END_REF] and the attraction of highly-qualified migrants and of the "creative class" (Florida, 2002).

As pointed by [START_REF] Niedomysl | Towards a conceptual framework of place attractiveness: a migration perspective[END_REF], "the attractiveness of places is currently gaining a high policy salience in policymakers' efforts to draw mobile capital". In fact, many studies, either empirical or theoretical, have been conducted in order to estimate or evaluate place attractiveness. There is a frequent confusion between attractiveness and competitiveness as many studies are conducted based on economical perspectives. The focus is often on production factors and spatial planning in order to attract firms, investors or a qualified workforce, but analysing attractiveness is not a simple analysis of installation costs incurred by firms between places [START_REF] Krugman | Increasing Returns and Economic Geography[END_REF]. The development of studies on "creative cities" has shown the importance of space amenities and infrastructures in attracting well-educated active people, the so-called "creative class" (Florida, 2002). Urban performance depends not only on the city"s endowment of hard infrastructure ("physical capital"), but also on the availability and quality of knowledge, communication and social infrastructure ("human and social capital").

In this changing context, with more commuting and quality-demanding households, criteria of quality of life, well-being and well-living, are more often used by stakeholders as factors of attractiveness [START_REF] Indlay | Migration, places and quality of life: voting with their feet?[END_REF]. It is important to differentiate these notions. Well-being and well-living are linked with individual and personal aspects of life through elements of living conditions and standards (material and objective criteria) combined with value systems that match the needs, demands and priorities of individuals and families [START_REF] Mc Call | Quality of life[END_REF][START_REF] Call | What is quality of life?[END_REF][START_REF] Veenhoven | The four qualities of life, ordering, concepts and measures of the good life[END_REF][START_REF] Tobelem-Zanin | La qualité de vie dans les villes françaises[END_REF]. The notion of quality of life is directly linked with material and objective patterns of space environment, even if it integrates a subjective dimension due to inhabitants" representations (Fleuret, 2006;[START_REF] Rogerson | Quality of life and city competitiveness[END_REF]. "Indeed, if the quality of life is geographically distributed, it is also socially differentiated2 " [START_REF] Borsdorf | La qualité de vie dans les villes alpines. Le cas d'Innsbruck[END_REF]. Quality of life therefore refers to living conditions depending on space quality and opportunities for the well-being of inhabitants (such as public spaces, access to services, etc.). Public actors give increasing importance to the qualitative dimension of spaces. Space is not only considered from the angle of functional opportunities, but as a potential for well-being and well-living. It is questioned about its capacity to meet the needs and demands of inhabitants for high-quality surroundings (functionality, social links, emotional links, etc.) suitable for a personal and family (well-being) as well as collective blossoming (togetherness).

Many indicators have been developed in order to classify and rank cities according to such new and more combined criteria, but also to evaluate implemented policies [START_REF] Mccann | Best places": interurban competition, quality of life and popular media discourse[END_REF][START_REF] Niedomysl | Promoting rural municipalities to attract new residents: an evaluation of the effects[END_REF]. The role of sustainable development agendas and the implementation of European Union policies are important in the construction of criteria and indicators [START_REF] Musson | Revue de littérature sur les indicateurs d'attractivité et de développement durable : vers un indicateur d'attractivité durable[END_REF]. Notions or labels are created to qualify those new dimensions of attractiveness, such as "Smart cities", "Green cities", "Quality cities", "Healthy Cities" or "Slow cities", depending on either social, environmental or technical aspects. They can be applied to large cities but also, for some of them, to small towns that tend to take part in the competition between spaces and towns.

From a strictly competitive view point, most of them seem to be disadvantaged, disqualified even, in comparison with bigger cities which have more services and offer more opportunities. But in fact, small and medium-sized towns can take part in the competition; they may have the potential to attract activities (often through specialization processes), inhabitants and tourists. The context of higher social demand for quality of life is even good for some of them as they can be promoted as less expensive, less polluted and crowded spaces than metropolises, as places close to nice surroundings and offering a countryside feeling in urban spaces [START_REF] Bell | Small cities? Towards a research agenda[END_REF]Knox andMayer, 2009, Edouard, 2012).

As pointed by [START_REF] Jayne | The Cultural Economy of Small Cities[END_REF], the issue of liveability is regarded as important in studies of small cities in the USA, Canada and Australia, particularly "in terms of competitive advantage based on "quality of life" indicators that are attractive not only to footloose businesses and tourists but also to "downsizing" urbanites (including the creative class) trading city incomes for a quieter life, better work⁄ life balance, cheaper rents and inspiring hinterlands". Many studies have addressed economic growth in small cities, the social implications of the in-migration of "creative labour"; the importance of community and sense of place, as well as showing how urban regeneration is conceived and pursued in small cities [START_REF] Bishop | Growth of the Creative Economy in Small Regional Cities: A Case Study of Bendigo[END_REF][START_REF] Waitt | Creative small cities: Rethinking the creative economy in place[END_REF][START_REF] Selada | Creative-based strategies in small and mediumsized cities: key dimensions of analyses[END_REF]. Indeed, quality of life opens up opportunities for small cities to follow the Floridian script and to pursue economic growth through cultural-economic activity [START_REF] Jayne | The Cultural Economy of Small Cities[END_REF]. If Florida sets the optimal size/scale for his 3Ts theory (technology, talent, tolerance) for larger metropolitan areas, his idea that people tend to select places first and then look for job opportunities is intellectually invigorating for small settings.

Even for SMSTs not implementing official policies dedicated to the attraction of cultural economy or high-skilled workers, the liveability issue is now important in terms of their economic development [START_REF] Van Heur | Small cities and the socio-spatial specificity of economic development: a heuristic approach[END_REF]. Attracting new inhabitants, especially if they are young, middle-class or high-class working households with children, is now a major objective for many local stakeholders. SMSTs are often described as "places of well-being" and "human-sized" towns (Kwiatek-Soltys and Mainet, 2014;[START_REF] Mainet | Les petites villes françaises en quête d"identité : ambigüité du positionnement ou image tactiquement combinée ?[END_REF]. But beyond good images, the question is to identify whether smallness is conducive to developing experiments for local sustainable and creative policies, or if local actors only reproduce models successfully created and assessed in larger cities.

SMSTs, Places Where the Living Is Easy? Research Data and Discussion

Methods

The research material is largely based on data collected within several research programmes3 dedicated to attractiveness and quality of life in small towns. This chapter presents the results from the French case studies in the Auvergne region (sample zone for the Polonium project). Specific fieldwork was conducted in SMSTs involved in dedicated policies such as Local Agenda 21 and Cittaslow membership (outside Auvergne). In the different programmes, the focus was on small towns defined, according to the French classification, as urban units with over 2,000 inhabitants and fewer than 20,000. Sampling was made in order to get a variety of situations depending on demographic size, distance from bigger towns and socio-economic trends (declining and booming towns).

A first method consists of the analysis of official websites of small-town municipalities. Internet sites are undoubtedly among the most important media for place promotion nowadays. The description of towns, pictures used, kind of information, targets groups (investors, tourists and inhabitants) reveal the character and activity of the place and the policy-makers" orientations. Introductory Internet pages were systematically analyzed for over 80 French small-sized towns.

To highlight inhabitants" perceptions of quality of life and place amenities, a survey was conducted in twelve small towns in the Auvergne region. A questionnaire was handed out to pupils and completed by parents (data were collected online and with the teachers" help). This method was chosen in order to address recent inhabitants, but with the bias of a relatively low proportion of senior inhabitants (only 1.5% of respondents). A total of 328 questionnaires were returned, which was considered significant enough for an analysis of individuals" perceptions and representations.

Finally, meetings with local policy-makers were organized. Data were collected from semi-structured interviews in the same towns where the questionnaires were delivered, but also in towns previously identified based on the commitments of local actors to sustainable development and quality-based programmes.

Promotion of SMSTs amenities

Environmental, social and heritage aspects are very much used in city branding (table 13.1). The study of websites shows that the living environment (described as "natural" and "preserved") and quality of life references are more often quoted than economic aspects [START_REF] Mainet | Les petites villes françaises en quête d"identité : ambigüité du positionnement ou image tactiquement combinée ?[END_REF] The descriptions are highlighting a relaxed lifestyle, but also a bustling city centre. Short distances to surrounding natural and rural amenity allow people to enjoy the best of both urban and rural living. As noticed by Selada et al. (2010), the promotion is often two-fold: endogenous amenities and territorial embeddedness. The territorial position and place accessibility are referred to in almost one-half of the Internet sites. In a context of globalization and metropolization, such amenities must be taken into account for territories to be attractive as good location; but accessibility, proximity and connectivity to active nearby places are also important for attracting businesses and inhabitants. Local amenities are made of three main dimensions: the natural and built environment, which encompasses the architecture of the place (with photos of monuments of interest or typical architecture), the climate, public spaces and other tangible and natural assets (pictures of surrounding places with river, forest, mountains); social and cultural capital, linked with the community and its social interactions (genius loci, intangible heritage, identity, with pictures of festivals, fiestas, markets); economic activities associated with the business climate. It is noteworthy that the dynamism of local economy receives a low score (13.3%) compared to sheer space identity qualities ("gateway", "heart of"), with a score of 45.8%. The image is definitely "residential" rather than "production-orientated".

Inhabitants' views on liveability in SMSTs

Good images and the importance of environmental aspects are also noticeable in inhabitants" representations and perceptions (table 13.2). The survey conducted in small towns of the Auvergne region shows their evaluation of quality of life as "good" and "excellent", largely linked with the characteristics of the place and outdoor amenities, like the living environment assets. Social aspects are also important and outdistance economic features such as the existence of job opportunities or work proximity.

A The liveability factor should be mentioned in terms of quality of life components. For small-town inhabitants, local amenities are an important part of the quality of life. The place itself, with its quietness, nice surroundings and shops and services, is a key factor of residential choice (table 13.2). It must indeed be linked with residential mobility and the fact that the place quite often results from choice. [START_REF] Niedomysl | Towards a conceptual framework of place attractiveness: a migration perspective[END_REF] shows how a life-course perspective needs to be integrated in quality of life analyses since not only do migrants" needs, demands and preferences depend on their current life-course phase situation, but their resources and constraints are also likely to correlate with the life-course. The time of residence in a town can strongly influence the answers. In this case, the structure of respondents is quite balanced between newcomers and locals (or people living in town for several years). These data illustrate the fact that quality of life and quality of place can be key relocation factors in growing peri-urbanization and counter-urbanization processes (table 13

Quality-based strategies of public actors: a set of variation

Quality of life based on local amenities is promoted by policy-makers and appreciated by inhabitants, especially newcomers, as a key factor for residential choice. But beyond images and promotion, the analysis of policies implemented by local stakeholders shows that, at first glance, many actions are not original, and often mimetic, when visibility and differentiation are at stake. Amongst the most-observed policies are the measures dedicated to promoting city centres, with the upgrading of public spaces (namely Main Square or old town), revitalization and heritage promotion programmes, measures against housing vacancies, local trades and services support, etc. Official programmes exist, supported by national agencies (French schemes like OPAHprogrammed operation for the improvement of the housing environment or AVAP -Protection of Architectural, Urban, and Landscape Heritage). Other endeavours focus on the control of urban sprawl on the outskirts of town centres. Master plans are important to open (or not) natural and agricultural spaces to urbanization and housing projects. In Issoire (a small attractive town of 15,000 inhabitants, located 35 km from the regional city of Clermont-Ferrand), sprawl control is a strategy in order to protect landscapes, but also to avoid costs linked with the maintenance of excessive infrastructures and urban networks. Tools of action are quite limited: diversification of the housing market with construction or rehabilitation of public flats and houses, upgrading of the old part of the town to increase its attractiveness for young families, etc. Policies dedicated to cultural life have been developing significantly in small towns since the 1990s [START_REF] Sibertin-Blanc | La culture dans l"action publique des petites villes. Un révélateur des politiques urbaines et recompositions territoriales[END_REF][START_REF] Edouard | La petite ville : contexte scientifique et enjeux de développement/ aménagement[END_REF]. Summer festivities (Friday "After Boulevard" in Issoire from June to September, Art exhibitions in Brioude), festivals ("La Pamparina" street music festival in Thiers every July or Street Theatre Festival in Aurillac every August), but also cultural seasons (with specific programmes dedicated to young audience or families). The business part of the policies is also important. Besides classic plans like the creation of commercial or industrial zones, other schemes are developed such as "Place aux Jeunes" in Brioude, which aims at attracting young entrepreneurs (the town supports their settlement) or funding for store-fronts upgrading (in Brioude, with the support of the community of communes and regional agencies).

Other small towns demonstrate more ambitious and holistic policies. Examples can be taken in small towns that implemented Local Agenda 21 or set a Cittaslow process. Cittaslow, the "International network of cities where the living is easy 4 " is a quite interesting approach, 4 "Cittaslow-Rete Internazionale delle città del buon vivere". dedicated to villages and towns of fewer than 50,000 inhabitants. The initiative was launched in Italy in 1999 and spread worldwide. In June 2015, the association consists of 199 members, mostly in Europe. As stated by the official philosophy of the movement: "good living means having the opportunity to enjoy solutions and services that allow citizens to live in their town in an easy and pleasant way" (http://www.cittaslow.org/). Quality of life is central to the Cittaslow philosophy, in its various dimensions of tangible and intangible components (natural and built environment, social and community aspects, cultural events, etc.). It has been studied in different national contexts (Mayer and[START_REF] Mayer | Slow Cities, Sustainable Places in a Fast World[END_REF]2009;[START_REF] Grzelak-Kostulska | Cittaslow International Network: An Example of a Globalization Idea?[END_REF]Mainet and Edouard, 2014b). According to the survey conducted in French Cittaslow, the objectives are to base local policies on local amenities and to use the Cittaslow charter as a guideline as well as an element of international visibility. The mayor of Segonzac (the first French Cittaslow in 2010) says it clearly: "small towns are disadvantaged as they face the traps of anarchic development. What is interesting in Cittaslow is more the approach than the label. We have to take strategic decisions and Cittaslow helps us to have guiding principles and objectives"5 .

Strategies of differentiation are also important (Cittaslow is slowly developing in France with only nine members and the curiosity for the name is still important). This is particularly the case for small towns integrated in the influence zone of larger cities. Local actors tend to promote quality of life assets and amenities with the objective of notoriety (such is the case for Segonzac in the vicinity of Cognac, of Créon in Bordeaux metropolitan area or Grigny in Greater Lyon).

The charter insists on endogenous assets to promote strong-willed policies. As stated in Labastide d"Armagnac, "at a time when decisions are taken at national, European or international levels, it is important to root action at the local level6 " (Labastide d"Armagnac leaflet exposing the reasons for membership). Even if the measures themselves are not necessarily ambitious and remarkable, the objective is to emphasize the visibility and the differentiation of the place, its uniqueness and competitive assets, in the same way "Creative cities" develop quality-based actions. Even if creative people are not the main target, the tools used are quite similar. "While the towns in Cittaslow are pursuing a variety of different goals, what unites them, what they have in common, is a desire to protect the unique and distinctive aspects of their communities" (Beatley, quoted by [START_REF] Mayer | Slow Cities, Sustainable Places in a Fast World[END_REF].

Discussion

The main findings show that plenty of SMSTs tend to formulate quite ambitious policies addressing place images and promotions, but not many develop as really original or holistic actions. Amongst these, however, interesting examples have been analyzed, in different spatial contexts, showing the importance of local actors" competence and commitment.

The reasons for implementing (or not) place promotion policies are very interesting to analyze from small-town actors" view points. Small cities are at a distinct disadvantage when trying to enact sustainability policies due to capacity (staff time and skills, local revenue). They often have limited local government service delivery and planning capacity. In many small places, the limiting factor in terms of any policymaking is capacity. Professional management (both in the form of a city/town manager and the specific dedication of staff time) increased the adoption of policies. Furthermore, small towns depend more on citizen or political leadership. Local leadership is a decisive factor in promoting change and new strategic visions (Selada et al., 2010). If proactive, local leaders can be promoters or facilitators of creative ecosystems. The role of local leaders is very important in the decision to apply for programme participation or labelling to such programmes. The role of citizens can also be important in small towns. For example, in the first French Cittaslows, the idea originated from citizens (a resident of Italian origin in Labastide d"Armagnac; people from local tourist information centres in Segonzac and Créon) before being promoted by municipal councils. Local governments that created an official citizen commission to oversee sustainability actions seem to adopt more ambitious policies. The example of Issoire is typical, with a "Group 21" dealing with inhabitants and actors dialogues and organising field workshops aiming at in situ observations of local issues. Such examples remain uncommon, as most local actors tend to inform and involve citizens once the decisions and processes have started and only to the extent that it is important to create conditions for the acceptance and legitimization of the transformation process.

According to policy-makers having started programmes, the main reasons are associated with the promotion and acknowledgment of measures already settled or implemented, often separately. The formalization of a programme (Local Agenda 21, Cittaslow, etc.) is a way to give coherence to a holistic policy. Another key reason is linked to the advantage of being part of an outreaching network and sharing experiences and good practices. Small towns need structures to provide technical and management assistance and support (at regional or national levels). For example, in Auvergne, an eco-development network of small and medium-sized towns was created in 2013, with the support of the State for funding and engineering. This network aims at gathering 19 towns of the Massif Central area on planning and development topics and issues (in November 2013, the first meeting was dedicated to the development of downtown areas). Another example is the collaborative organization, "Platform 21 for sustainable development", created as "an animation, exchange and mutualisation tool on sustainable development (...) accompanying public and private actors7 " (http://www.plate-forme21.fr/). Such networks help sharing good practices, but also taking into account negative externalities of attracting people (especially for very attractive small towns), which can be very costly (charges, works) as budgets are often limited and incoming inhabitants can affect housing rent prices, let alone the cohabitation between new and longer-established inhabitants. In that context, medium-sized towns might be expected to benefit more than small towns. As pointed by [START_REF] Bishop | Growth of the Creative Economy in Small Regional Cities: A Case Study of Bendigo[END_REF], they contain a critical mass of population to attract businesses and services, yet are still small enough to enable strong partnerships and a personable and collaborative business network.

Finally, the studies show the need to take scales into account. SMSTs are constituted across multiple geographical scales. Possibilities always exist for residents, businesses and municipal authorities to engage in multi-scalar strategies through networks that rewrite how the "local" is constituted and "rescale" smallness. For example, the availability of jobs rather than amenities appears to have attracted creative people in some circumstances. [START_REF] Bishop | Growth of the Creative Economy in Small Regional Cities: A Case Study of Bendigo[END_REF] and [START_REF] Niedomysl | What Matters More for the Decision to Move: Jobs versus Amenities[END_REF] highlight the debate within various literature on whether investments in amenities bring jobs, or investment in jobs bring talent. Other factors being of equal importance (jobs and affordable housing), they suggested that highlyskilled people may have a preference for a place richer in amenities. The same process is noticeable in France and the issue of geographical scales is important. Our survey shows that job opportunities are important for residential mobility (table 13.3), but also that households plebiscite local amenities as main elements of good quality of life (table 13.2). People tend to draw a quite large area of potential residence, closely linked with job accessibility and housing affordability, and then choose the residential place by taking into account local amenities. It is particularly important for small towns in the vicinity of larger cities (with job opportunities), which can be attractive thanks to their natural, built and social characteristics and images.

The issue of scales is also important for policy-makers as they need to cooperate with other institutional actors. In the French context of implementation of inter-municipal grouping, local stakeholders can no longer think and work at the very local scale only, but must develop inter-territoriality actions, taking into account what is done and planned in the surrounding, often associated, municipalities.

Conclusion: Quality of Life and Innovation for SMSTs

The main objective of this chapter was not to analyze policies dedicated to the attraction or retention of creative people or creative businesses, art and culture in SMSTs, but to study actions based on amenities to attract people, often young workers and households with young children, ideally entrepreneurs, in a context of quality of life promotion, with local development objectives. The findings show that the attraction of people and businesses, whether creative or not, is a complex process.

Models of development should be based on the promotion of the place uniqueness and not on reproducibility. As analyzed by [START_REF] Jayne | The Cultural Economy of Small Cities[END_REF], a great deal is at stake when small cities seek to replicate creative city strategies of larger places. It is difficult for SMSTs to compete with large metropolises in terms of agglomeration economies, but it is possible, even crucial, to develop strategies based on specific assets. In recent years, many policy-makers have followed "metropolitan imaginaries" (Selada et al., 2010) with often disappointing results, as the preconditions and resources of small towns differ considerably from those of larger ones.

Affordability (housing) and liveability stand out as the primary drivers of attraction for SMSTs, supported by specific qualities of community and place, including non-economic dimensions of everyday-life. Policies should be context-sensitive as investment in infrastructure and amenity needs to be contextual and well-adapted to local circumstances. There are suggestions that local and national governments need to pay closer attention to the local context rather than adopt a "one-size-fits-all" approach [START_REF] Bishop | Growth of the Creative Economy in Small Regional Cities: A Case Study of Bendigo[END_REF]. There is also an opportunity for more qualitative studies to examine the "people climate" that is deemed attractive by (creative) people at different life stages.

Finally, and this is not the mere paradox, if quality of life is an important, if not the main, added-value of SMSTs, considering that their strictly economic competitiveness can be comparatively limited, what is the limit point where growth (being spatial and functional) negatively affects quality of life? To follow [START_REF] Tesson | Etre une Creative City ou une ville de qualité de vie[END_REF], the question for SMSTs is that being really innovative probably means to build on quality of life, on limited growth and controlled attractiveness. SMSTs could then become models of Quality cities and towns and references for larger cities looking for solutions to improve their conditions for quality of life, and some already do so.

Table 13 .1 -Examples of images and words used to describe small towns amenities Sources

 13 . Local amenities are notably promoted.

		Words and notions used		Number	%
	Total sample			83	100
	Of which	Location ("gate of",
		"gateway", "at the heart	38	45.8
		of")
	Of which :	Living	environment
		("natural"	and	20	24.1
		"preserved")
		Quality of life	17	20.5
		History, heritage	15	18.1
		Dynamism of local economy	11	13.3

: analysis of selected French small towns" websites (2010).

Table 13 .2 -Perceptions of quality of life by small-town inhabitants Sources

 13

	-Evaluation of quality of life	Percentage
	Excellent	49.0
	Good	43.2
	Rather good	4.2
	Bad	1.2
	B-Components of quality of life	Quotations rank
	Place amenities (quietness, living environment...)	1
	Personal aspects (family life, well-being...)	2
	Social aspects (neighbourhood, sense of security...)	3
	Job / work proximity	4

: authors" survey, 2012-2013.

Table 13 .3 -Residential mobility in French small towns

 13 .3). Sources: authors survey, 2012-2013.

	Auvergne Region

Original quotation: "À l'homo oeconomicus semble se substituer l'homo qualitus, qui cherche à maximiser son bien-vivre et celui de sa famille".

Original quotation: "En effet, si la qualité de vie est géographiquement distribuée, elle est aussi socialement différenciée".

The AttracVil programme was financed by Clermont-Ferrand MSH -USR 3550 in 2011-2012 and dedicated to the issue of SMSTs attractiveness (definition, indicators); the Campus France PHC Polonium was conducted in collaboration with the Pedagogical University of Krakow (Poland) and dealt with issues of quality of life in SMSTs in France and Poland.

Original quotation: "Les petites communes sont les moins armées face aux pièges d'un développement anarchique. Ce qui nous intéresse, c'est moins le label que la démarche. Nous avons des choix importants à faire. Cittaslow va donner un fil conducteur à notre politique d'aménagement" (Segonzac Mayor, Le Monde 03/10/10).

Original quotation: "A l"heure où les décisions se prennent souvent au niveau national ou encore européen et international, il est important d"ancrer l"action au niveau local".

Original quotation: "outil d"animation, d"échange et de mutualisation des informations et pratiques sur le développement durable (…) au service des acteurs professionnels et institutionnels du Massif central".


Gyu Myoung Lee
email: gm.lee@it-sudparis.eu

Noel Crespi
email: noel.crespi@it-sudparis.eu

INTERNET OF THINGS FOR SMART OBJECTS -UBIQUITOUS NETWORKING BETWEEN HUMANS AND OBJECTS

Keywords: Internet of Things, Ubiquitous Networking, Smart Object

As many new types of devices will be connected to networks, it is very important to provide ubiquitous networking capabilities for "connecting to anything" between humans and objects. In this paper, we introduce ubiquitous networking capabilities for the Internet of Things (IoT) and present our vision related to this topic with the basic concept. In addition, we clearly identify key technologies to be used for the IoT. For various services using ubiquitous networking of IoT, we propose object identification and identity processing for "connecting to anything" to smart objects. This mechanism will be essential for realization of IoT.

Introduction

The "ubiquitous" refers to the method of enhancing computer use by making many computers available throughout the physical environment, but making them effectively invisible to the user. Through this computing, it is predicted that computing devices with intuitive, intelligent interfaces will become embedded in all of devices and communications networks which will connect these devices together which will extend to become available anywhere and anytime [START_REF] Weiser | The Computer for the 21st Century[END_REF]. In this context, the ubiquitous networking is used for naming the networking capabilities which are needed to provide the support of various classes of applications/services which require "Any Services, Any Time, Any Where and Any Objects" type of operation [START_REF] Gyu | Standardization for ubiquitous networking in IPv6-based NGN[END_REF]. Ubiquitous networking supports three types of communications: -Human-to-Human Communication: humans communicate with each other using attached devices (e.g. mobile phone, PC); -Human-to-Object Communication: humans communicate with a device in order to get specific information (e.g. IPTV content, file transfer); -Object-to-Object Communication: an object delivers information (e.g. sensor related information) to another object with or without involvement of humans.

Ubiquitous networking for Internet of Things (IoT) [START_REF]Internet of Things[END_REF] aims to provide seamless communications between humans, between objects as well as between humans and objects while they move from one location to another. With the help of ubiquitous networking, an object can aware of its characteristics, context, and situation. The smart object shares and processes information, such as its identity, current location, physical properties and the information it senses from its surroundings while using the Internet as communication infrastructure. Ubiquitous networking requires key capabilities for the support of IoT as follows: connecting to anything, open webbased service environment, context-awareness, seamlessness, multi-networking, end-to-end connectivity, etc [START_REF] Myoung | Shaping future environments with the cloud and Internet of Things: networking challenges and service evolution[END_REF]. These capabilities are built upon capabilities of current Internet with necessary extensions and/or modifications of capabilities required for the support of ubiquitous networking services and communications.

In this paper, we describe the visions of ubiquitous networking for IoT. Based on perceived future features of networking, we explain the importance of interdisciplinary fusion technologies in terms of services expanding other industries beyond the information technology (IT) industry. In addition, we identify key technologies in the ubiquitous networking environment. For various services using ubiquitous networking, we propose object identification and identity processing for "connecting to anything" to smart objects. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we explain the visions of ubiquitous networking for IoT. Then, in Section 3, we propose a technical solution for providing connectivity to smart objects and illustrate several services using ubiquitous networking. Finally in Section 4, we summarize and discuss future work.

The Visions of Ubiquitous Networking for the Internet of Things

This section provides further information regarding the potential directions for network evolution and a vision of ubiquitous networking services, applications and capabilities. One of the ultimate objectives of ubiquitous networking is to meet the challenge of seamless communications of "anything" (e.g. humans and objects).

As a result, ubiquitous networking will also enable innovative services involving the use of technologies such as biotechnologies (BT), nano-technologies (NT) and content technologies (CT), thus allowing the provision of services that go beyond traditional telecommunication and IT services. These innovative services will require extensions in terms of networking capabilities as well as the availability of any types of objects. The concept of "5C+5Any" illustrated in Figure 1 represents key features of ubiquitous networking for IoT.

Figure 1. The visions of ubiquitous networking for IoT

New businesses using ubiquitous networking require multiple technologies to operate together such as radio frequency identification (RFID)/sensors, protocols, security, and data processing. In order to communicate with related technical parties accommodated in new business relationships, one of the most urgent needs consists in the integration and combination of technologies such as BT, NT or CT. In particular attention needs to be paid to "interdisciplinary fusion" technologies which combine BT, NT, CT as well as IT using ubiquitous networking capabilities. Thus, integrated engineering for new "Interdisciplinary Fusion Revolution" will emerge allowing for extension of services to other industries beyond the IT industry and constituting the vision of ubiquitous networking. Communication networks have been mainly supporting the evolution of information processing and service capabilities within IT industries. However, the capabilities of networks benefiting from ubiquitous networking should impact other industries such as medical industry, education industry, finance industry or transportation/distribution industry resulting in new requirements for medical or education networks and services taking into consideration of IT technologies. There are several examples of interdisciplinary fusion services using ubiquitous networking: remote medical services, intelligent transport systems (ITS), supply chain management (SCM), U-Building or U-City. Providing "fusion services" in future Internet will require that the following capabilities be supported: location tracking, sensing, surveillance and management capabilities. Businesses using ubiquitous networking will impact on many other industries. Thus, technologies related to architectural functions and enhanced capabilities for the support interdisciplinary fusion services using ubiquitous networking capabilities need to be developed once the basic concept and principles will be ready. Case studies for each service area are also required for helping future developments of future Internet technologies.

Providing Connectivity and Services for Smart Objects

In order to realize object to object communications, so-called IoT using ubiquitous networking, it is very essential to provide connectivity to smart objects. For this, there are specific technical considerations for connecting to anything in the following points: -Identification of fixed/mobile object(s); -Finding/tracking the location of object(s); -Provide seamless connectivity to the network in cooperation with naming and addressing. All of devices (i.e., objects) should be reachable to the other users/devices. Since managing a large number of different identification codes to use IP network infrastructure will become vital, it is very important to use both location information of IP address and uniqueness information of identification codes [START_REF] Gyu | Naming Architecture for Object to Object Communications[END_REF][START_REF] Gyu | Object identification for ubiquitous networking[END_REF]. As shown in Figure 2, the types of objects in end-user side include the following: personal devices, information devices, RFID/sensors, contents, appliances, vehicles, etc. We can provide the global connectivity with future Internet to objects through gateway and/or ad-hoc networks in heterogeneous networking environments with different protocols and physical access mediums.

Internet Personal Devices

Protocols • xDSL • Optical LAN • WLAN • WiMax • LTE • Femtocell, picocell (Different coverage)

Physical mediums

Wired/Wireless (Multiple interfaces)

Network Protocols

• IP/non-IP Figure 2. Basic concept for "connecting to anything" of IoT Identification of smart objects for providing end-to-end connectivity in ubiquitous networking environment is crucial. Identifier(s) in ubiquitous networking is capable enough of identifying all relevant objects and facilitating object-toobject communications. In particular, the globally unique identifier(s) will enable a great many applications including tracking, access control, and protection of objects, etc [START_REF] Engels | The networked physical world: an automated identification architecture[END_REF]. There are other kinds of identifiers such as E.164 number code, extended unique identifier (EUI)-64, media access control (MAC) address, uniform resource identifier (URI)/ uniform resource locator (URL), etc. Recently, the most important technology used to provide identity is the RFID tags. The code for the identifier used in RFID is an electronic product code (EPC) [START_REF]The EPCglobal website[END_REF]. It is simply a number assigned to an RFID tag representative of an actual electronic product code. Using these identifiers, all of devices using RFID tags should be reachable to the other users and/or devices such as RFID tag reader. As shown in our proposed diagram (see Figure 3), the layered architecture of network requires specific processing capabilities at each layer. Each user/object in applications identifies by identity like name with a set of attributes of an entity. An attribute can be thought of as metadata that belongs to a specific entity in a specific context, some of which could to be highly private or sensitive [START_REF]ITU-T IdM-GSI website[END_REF]. The identity should be associated with object IDs (RFID, content ID, URI/URL, etc) through identification and authorization. Each object ID also should be associated with communication IDs (session/protocol ID, IP address, MAC address, etc) through mapping/binding. We call these procedures "Ubiquitous Identity Processing". An ID resolution server such as domain name system (DNS) can provide a function to translate the identifier of object into object/communication ID to access ubiquitous networking services provided by database/application servers. From the IoT perspective, how to map/bind IP address with other identifiers for providing end-to-end IP connectivity is challenging issue for further study. -Directory services for searching and retrieving information from a catalogue of well-defined objects, and domain name services for translating humanreadable names into the IP addresses that network equipment needs to deliver information. -Networked ID (N-ID) services for providing communication service which is triggered by an identification process started via reading an identifier from identifier storage such as RFID tag, barcode label, smartcard, etc.

Conclusion

This paper has presented the issues to support ubiquitous networking for IoT. We have provided the visions of ubiquitous networking and clearly identified key technologies essential to the ubiquitous networking in the IoT environment.

For developing the relevant technical solutions, we have proposed key capabilities and ubiquitous networking services using object identification for further enhancement of current Internet. We hope that our proposals will provide some key inputs for realization of IoT.

As future work, we plan to focus on objects-to-objects communications for various use cases using ubiquitous networking in the IoT environment and business aspects. For this, it would be helpful if the relevant research efforts for realization of the ubiquitous networking are accelerated with special consideration of their commercial viability.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Identity processing for ubiquitous networking services Using the proposed ubiquitous identity processing, the future Internet can provide an integrated solution for personal location and management through identification/naming/ addressing including ID registration, location tracking, dynamic mobility control, and security using the following ubiquitous networking services: -Identity management (IdM) services for the management of the identity life cycle of objects including managing unique IDs, attributes, credentials, entitlements to consistently enforce business and security policies. -Context-aware services for improving the usability and providing personalized services based on context recognition through adapting the service to the context. -Location management services for real-time location tracking, monitoring, and information processing of moving objects similar with SCM.