Guillaume Cabanac
email: guillaume.cabanac@univ-tlse3.fr

Muthu Kumar Chandrasekaran

Ingo Frommholz
email: ingo.frommholz@beds.ac.uk

Kokil Jaidka
email: jaidka@adobe.com

Min-Yen Kan

Philipp Mayr
email: philipp.mayr@gesis.org

Dietmar Wolfram
email: dwolfram@uwn.edu

Joint Workshop on Bibliometric-enhanced Information Retrieval and Natural Language Processing for Digital Libraries (BIRNDL 2016)

Keywords: Bibliometrics, Information Retrieval, Digital Libraries, Natural Language Processing, Text Mining

The large scale of scholarly publications poses a challenge for scholars in information-seeking and sensemaking. Bibliometric, information retrieval (IR), text mining and NLP techniques could help in these activities, but are not yet widely used in digital libraries. This workshop is intended to stimulate IR researchers and digital library professionals to elaborate on new approaches in natural language processing, information retrieval, scientometric and recommendation techniques which can advance the state-of-the-art in scholarly document understanding, analysis and retrieval at scale.

INTRODUCTION

Current digital libraries collect and allow access to digital papers and their metadata -inclusive of citations -but mostly do not analyze the items they index. The scale of scholarly publications poses a challenge for scholars in their search for relevant literature.

After the success of two parent workshops series -the 1st NLPIR4DL workshop in 2009, and the series of three Bibliometric-enhanced Information Retrieval (BIR) workshops in 2014, 2015 and 2016 -BIRNDL 1 will focus on scholarly pub-1 http://wing.comp.nus.edu.sg/birndl-jcdl2016/ lications and data. The workshop will investigate how natural language processing, information retrieval, scientometric and recommendation techniques can advance the state-ofthe-art in scholarly document understanding, analysis and retrieval at scale. Researchers are in need of assistive technologies to track developments in an area, identify the approaches used to solve a research problem over time and summarize research trends. Digital libraries require semantic search, question-answering as well as automated recommendation and reviewing systems to manage and retrieve answers from scholarly databases. Full document text analysis can help to design semantic search, translation and summarization systems; citation and social network analyses can help digital libraries to visualize scientific trends, bibliometrics and relationships and influences of works and authors. These approaches can be supplemented with the metadata supplied by digital libraries, such as usage data. This workshop will be relevant to scholars in several fields of computer science and computational linguistics; it will also be of importance for all stakeholders in the publication pipeline: implementers, publishers and policymakers -with this workshop we hope to bring a number of these contributors together. Today's publishers continue to seek new ways to be relevant to their consumers, in disseminating the right published works to their audience. Formal citation metrics are increasingly a factor in decision-making by universities and funding bodies worldwide, making the need for research in such topics more pressing.

The event is split into two parts: the paper presentations and the CL-SciSumm Shared Task.

WORKSHOP TOPICS AND FORMAT

Our goal is to encourage insights from bibliometrics, scientometrics and informetrics to applications in digital libraries. We invite stimulating submissions on topics including -but not limited to -full-text analysis, multimedia and multilingual analysis and alignment as well as citationbased NLP, information retrieval, information seeking and digital libraries (DL). Specific examples of fields of interests include (but are not limited to):

• Summarization of scientific articles; automatic creation of reviews and automatic qualitative assessment of submissions; question-answering for scholarly DLs The workshop will start with an inspirational keynote by Dietmar Wolfram (University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee) followed by paper presentations. There will be a special session with presentations of the participating groups in the CL-SciSumm Shared Task as well as a planned fishbowl-style panel.

THE CL-SCISUMM SHARED TASK

To highlight and bring together the scholars working on above topics, BIRNDL will also host a shared task on scientific document summarization on open access literature in the computational linguistics (CL) domain. The output summaries will be of two types: faceted summaries of the traditional self-summary (the abstract) and the community summary (the collection of citation sentences or citances) [START_REF] Preslav I Nakov | Citances: Citation sentences for semantic analysis of bioscience text[END_REF]. This task follows up on the successful CL Pilot Task conducted as a part of the BiomedSumm Track at the Text Analysis Conference 2014 (TAC 2014), and re-uses the SciSumm14 manually-annotated dataset [START_REF] Jaidka | The computational linguistics summarization pilot task[END_REF], to enhance impact and visibility. In this shared task, we will extend the SciSumm14 dataset of ten, by releasing pairs of training and test datasets: each pair comprising the annotated citing sentences for a research paper, and summaries of the research paper. The resulting CLSciSumm16 corpus is expected to be of interest to a broad community including those working in computational linguistics and natural language processing, especially in the sub-disciplines of text summarization, discourse structure in scholarly discourse, paraphrase, textual entailment and text simplification. Microsoft Research Asia is generously supporting the development, annotation and dissemination of the dataset as well as the organization of this shared task.

PREVIOUS RELATED WORKSHOPS

Our workshop is a continuation of several previous ones on similar topics. We present a summary of some relevant recent events, which underpin our claim of the workshop topic being spot-on and relevant.

• The 1st Workshop on text and citation analysis for scholarly digital libraries (NLPIR4DL) was held in conjunction with ACL-IJCNLP 2009, Singapore.

• Scholarly Big Data: AI Perspectives, Challenges, and Ideas at AAAI 2016 -This workshop is related to our topics but appears earlier in 2016. It indicates a high degree of interest for our topic, and will be synergistic due to its complementary date.

• 3rd Workshop on Argumentation Mining at ACL 2016 -This related workshop is synergistic and complementary. We overlap to a small extent in being interested in argumentation (their workshop) in scientific documents (our workshop).

• 3rd Workshop on Bibliometric-enhanced Information Retrieval (BIR2016) at ECIR 2016 [START_REF] Mayr | Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Bibliometric-enhanced Information Retrieval[END_REF]. The scope of the BIR workshops (2014, 2015 and 2016) were on information retrieval, information seeking, science modelling, network analysis, and digital libraries, applying insights from bibliometrics, scientometrics, and informetrics.

• 1st Workshop on Mining Scientific Papers: Computational Linguistics and Bibliometrics at ISSI 2015 [START_REF] Atanassova | Proceedings of the First Workshop on Mining Scientific Papers: Computational Linguistics and Bibliometrics[END_REF] brought together researchers to study the ways Bibliometrics can benefit from large-scale text analytics and sense mining of scientific papers, thus exploring the interdisciplinarity of Bibliometrics and NLP.

OUTLOOK

This workshop is the first step to foster the reflection on the interdisciplinarity and the benefits that the disciplines Bibliometrics, IR and NLP can drive from it in a digital libraries context. In the future we plan follow-up workshops at IR, NLP and Digital Libraries venues. Furthermore we are working with the International Journal on Digital Libraries to offer a special issue on topics discussed at BIRNDL, for extended versions of BIRNDL workshop papers, shared task descriptions, as well as a general call for submissions. Dates for first submission of camera-ready papers will likely be around September 2016, with a target of producing an issue by mid 2017.


Alexis El Khoury

Bouchra Bejjany

Marie Debacq

Catherine Porte

Catherine Porte Wet

Wet Air Oxidation of Methyl-tertiary-butyl-ether (MTBE) in a fixed bed tubular reactor over a Ruthenium-Cerium/Alumina catalyst

ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

EA 21

Oxydation par Voie Humide Catalytique de micropolluants présents dans les eaux résiduaires et effluents industriels

➢➢

  Alexis EL KHOURY, Bouchra BEJJANY, Marie DEBACQ, Catherine PORTE Laboratoire de Chimie Industrielle -Génie des Procédés, 2 rue Conté, 75003 PARIS ea21@cnam.fr L'oxydation par voie humide (OVH) est une technologie destructive basée sur l'oxydation en phase aqueuse de polluants organiques sous forme de suspensions ou de liquides (effluents des industries chimiques, pétrochimique et pharmaceutique, boues biologiques, matières fécales, etc.) en présence d'un gaz oxydant pour aboutir à un rejet gazeux propre, à un liquide valorisable et un solide essentiellement minéralisé. La technique fournit des rendements équivalents à ceux d'un four d'incinération pour une consommation d'énergie inférieure. Le procédé peut se présenter comme complément d'installations existantes pour des eaux moyennement chargées en polluants organiques à l'exemple du phénol qui a servi de molécule modèle et du MTBE qui fait l'objet de l'étude présentée ici. L'oxydation par voie humide est ici effectuée en présence de catalyseur, afin d'adoucir les conditions de température et de pression. ➢ Pour des conditions opératoires relativement douces et des concentrations faibles en Cérium, on obtient une minéralisation importante de la matière organique. ➢ Les meilleurs résultats d'oxydation du MTBE sont obtenus pour des teneurs en Cérium dans le catalyseur comprises entre 2 et 3%. ➢ L'application à d'autres effluents persistants (pesticides) et le couplage avec d'autres techniques (procédés biologiques) sont en cours. Mise en contact des complexes métalliques en solution et du support sec Oxydation améliorée en présence en Cérium ➢ Dégradation optimale avec des teneurs en Cérium dans le catalyseur comprise entre 2 et 3% Inhibition partielle de l'activité catalytique au-Average Oxidation Sate of Carbon) ➢ Degré d'oxydation des produits de la réaction est amélioré en présence de Cérium ➢ Minéralisation optimale (AOSC=3) pour des teneurs en Cérium comprises entre 2 et 3% ➢ Production d'espèces réductrices dans le milieu réactionnel au-delà de 3% de Cérium


C Laloux

F Gouel

C Lachaud

K Timmerman

B Do Van

A Jonneaux

M Petrault

G Garcon

N Rouaix

C Moreau

R Bordet

J A Duce

J C Devedjian

D Devos

Gouel

Lachaud

Petrault

Devedjian Jc

MD Devos David
email: david.devos@chru-lille.fr

Continuous cerebroventricular administration of dopamine: A new treatment for severe dyskinesia in Parkinson's disease?

Keywords: Dopamine, DA, i.c.v., intra-cerebro-ventricular, L-dopa, Levodopa, MPTP, 1 méthyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6 terahydropyridine, 6-OHDA, 6-hydroxydopamine, PD, Parkinson's disease, SMBS, Sodium metabisulfite, SNpc, Substantia nigra pars compacta

In Parkinson's disease (PD) depletion of dopamine in the nigro-striatal pathway is a main pathological hallmark that requires continuous and focal restoration. Current predominant treatment with intermittent oral administration of its precursor, Levodopa (Ldopa), remains the gold standard but pharmacological drawbacks trigger motor fluctuations and dyskinesia. Continuous intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of dopamine previously failed as a therapy because of an inability to resolve the accelerated dopamine oxidation and tachyphylaxia. We aim to overcome prior challenges by demonstrating treatment feasibility and efficacy of continuous i.c.v. of dopamine close to the striatum. Dopamine prepared either anaerobically (A-dopamine) or aerobically (O-dopamine) in the presence or absence of a conservator (sodium metabisulfite, SMBS) was assessed upon acute MPTP and chronic 6-OHDA lesioning and compared to peripheral L-dopa treatment. Adopamine restored motor function and induced a dose dependent increase of nigro-striatal tyrosine hydroxylase positive neurons in mice after 7 days of MPTP insult that was not evident with either O-dopamine or L-dopa. In the 6-OHDA rat model, continuous circadian i.c.v injection of A-dopamine over 30 days also improved motor activity without occurrence of tachyphylaxia. This safety profile was highly favorable as A-dopamine did not induce dyskinesia or behavioral sensitization as observed with peripheral L-dopa treatment.

Indicative of a new therapeutic strategy for patients suffering from L-dopa related complications with dyskinesia, continuous i.c.v of A-dopamine has greater efficacy in mediating motor impairment over a large therapeutic index without inducing dyskinesia and tachyphylaxia.

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T Introduction

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most frequent neurodegenerative disorder worldwide. The loss of dopamine through denervation in the striatum as a result of progressive neuronal degeneration in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc), is the primary neurotransmitter marker of the disease (de [START_REF] De Lau | Epidemiology of Parkinson's disease[END_REF]. Since dopamine does not cross the digestive mucosa or the blood brain barrier, its lipophilic precursor L-dopa has been employed and remains the pivotal oral medication [START_REF] Chaudhuri | Non-motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease: dopaminergic pathophysiology and treatment[END_REF].

However, after persistent use over several years, many pharmacokinetic drawbacks contribute to the occurrence of motor fluctuations and dyskinesia [START_REF] Fahn | Does levodopa slow or hasten the rate of progression of Parkinson's disease?[END_REF]. Indeed L-dopa has a short half-life, limited and variable reabsorption through the digestive and blood brain barriers and potentially harmful peripheral distribution. Moreover, L-dopa requires the aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase for the synthesis of dopamine, which declines in the striatum with disease progression [START_REF] Ciesielska | Carbidopa-based modulation of the functional effect of the AAV2-hAADC gene therapy in 6-OHDA lesioned rats[END_REF].

Under normal conditions, dopaminergic neurons of the SNpc generate a short phasic discharge firing pattern. The frequency and duration of this pattern embeds them in the tonic low-frequency background range and maintains the striatal dopamine concentration at a relatively constant level [START_REF] Paladini | Generating bursts (and pauses) in the dopamine midbrain neurons[END_REF]. However, in the dopamine-depleted state relevant to PD, intermittent oral doses of L-dopa can induce discontinuous stimulation of striatal dopamine receptors that in turn contribute to dysfunctional dopaminergic pathways.

Thus, continuous dopamine administration is considered more physiologically appropriate by preventing oscillations in neurotransmitter concentration [START_REF] Olanow | Drug insight: Continuous dopaminergic stimulation in the treatment of Parkinson's disease[END_REF][START_REF] Gershanik | Moving from continuous dopaminergic stimulation to continuous drug delivery in the treatment of Parkinson's disease[END_REF][START_REF] De Yebenes | Continuous intracerebroventricular infusion of dopamine and dopamine agonists through a totally implanted drug delivery system in animal models of Parkinson's disease[END_REF] previously demonstrated that intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administered dopamine with an anti-oxidant adjuvant (sodium metabisulfite; SMBS) transiently improved motor handicap and increased dopamine in rat brains with unilateral neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced damage as well as 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) intoxicated monkeys. The clinical feasibility of this administrative route has been supported by two PD patient case reports of dopamine infusion to the frontal ventricle, whereby a reduction in motor handicap was observed [START_REF] Venna | Treatment of severe Parkinson's disease by intraventricular injection of dopamine[END_REF][START_REF] Horne | Intraventricular infusion of Dopamine in Parkinson's disease[END_REF]. However, both preclinical and clinical reports also highlight two overriding problems that prevented further development; (i) occurrence of tachyphylaxia and

(ii) oxidation of dopamine causing enhanced dopamine metabolism and oxidative stress.

Dopamine oxidation can be limited by preparing, storing and administering dopamine in very low oxygen conditions. In addition, greater advances in programmable pumps now

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T
minimize tachyphylaxia by allowing administration of a lower effective dopamine dose in accordance with the circadian cycle. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate that continuous circadian i.c.v. administration of dopamine close to the striatum is feasible, efficient and safe in mouse and rat models of PD, supporting clinical development of this strategy to be revisited in PD patients with L-dopa related complications with dyskinesia.

Material and methods

LUHMES cells

Lund human mesencephalic (LUHMES) cells (gift from Pr. Marcel Leist; CAAT, University of Konstanz, Germany) were grown for 2 days in differentiation medium (advanced DMEM/F12, 1 × N2 supplement, 2 mM l-glutamine, 1 mM cAMP, 1 μg/ml tetracycline and 2 ng/ml recombinant GDNF) before seeding in 6 or 24 well plates and grown for a further 3 days before treatment. See supplementary material for details.

After 5 days of differentiation, LUHMES cells were treated with 1-methyl-4phenylpyridinium (MPP+; 5µM) for 24 hours (h) before exposure to dopamine or L-3,4dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-dopa)(Sigma Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA) for a further 24h.

Viability was measured on 10,000 cells by flow cytometry (CANTO II) using propidium iodide (0.5µM) and analysed with DIVA software (BD Biosciences, Le pont de Claix, France).

Rodent neurotoxic models

All experiments were carried out in accordance with the recommendations for the care and use of laboratory animals (FELASA) as well as European Directive 86/609-2010/63/UE guidelines for animal experimentation. Protocols were approved by an Ethical Committee (Nord-Pas-de-Calais;CEEA75) to induce MPTP neurotoxicity on 5 month old C57Bl/6J mice (Ethical permit number: CEEA102012) or 6-OHDA neurotoxicity in 5 month old Wistar rats (Ethical permit number: CEEA 262011 and CEEA2016020911207601). Animals were grouphoused (10 mice or 5 rats per cage) and a habituation period of 7 days after transportation was respected before any experimental manipulation was carried out. All surgery was performed under anesthesia and all efforts were made to minimize suffering.

Experimental procedures for obtaining the MPTP mice and 6-OHDA rat models have been previously described [START_REF] Laloux | Differential susceptibility to the PPAR-γ agonist pioglitazone in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine and 6-hydroxydopamine rodent models of Parkinson's disease[END_REF]. Briefly, mice received four intraperitoneal

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C

Treatment parameters for rodent models

L-dopa methyl ester hydrochloride (Sigma Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA) was extemporaneously prepared in saline with 12 mg/kg Benserazide, independent of L-dopa dose [START_REF] Cenci | Ratings of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia in the unilateral 6-OHDA lesion model of Parkinson's disease in rats and mice[END_REF]. During the treatment regime L-dopa was administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) twice a day at doses previously reported for mice and rats [START_REF] Espadas | L-DOPA-induced increase in TH-immunoreactive striatal neurons in parkinsonian mice: insights into regulation and function[END_REF][START_REF] Fornai | Time-course and dose-response study on the effects of chronic L-DOPA administration on striatal dopamine levels and dopamine transporter following MPTP toxicity[END_REF]. Anaerobia-dopamine (A-dopamine, Patent #WO2015173258 A1) was prepared by dissolving in saline (0.9% NaCl, pH 7.4) before the osmotic pump was filled and connected to a brain infusion cannula under an atmosphere that contained 5% hydrogen, 5% carbon dioxide and 90% nitrogen (BACTRON anaerobic/environmental chamber). Before stereotaxic surgery, osmotic pumps were primed under anaerobia for over 4 hours at 37°C. The stability of the A-dopamine solution in osmotic pump at 37°C was checked for up to 30 days using an HPLC assay for dopamine (data not shown). Chronic dopamine treatments (30 days) on rats began 3 weeks after unilateral 6-OHDA or saline cerebral injection. Only 6-OHDA rats displaying more than 5 turns/min in the Apomorphine-induced rotation test were used in the study (75% of the rats). Rats were divided into 6 experimental groups; saline only, 6-OHDA only, 6-OHDA + A-dopamine (3 different doses) and 6-OHDA + L-dopa. After surgical cannula-pump (programmable IPRECIO® SMP200 pumps) implantation on the 6-OHDA lesion side (see supplemental material for details) A-dopamine was administered to the right lateral ventricle by i.c.v at a rate of 3µl/hr for 16h out of 24h (Zeitgeber time 13 to 5). Rats were housed in a 12hr light/12hr dark cycle and the implanted pump was set to deliver dopamine over 16hrs,

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T

predominantly during the active (dark) phase of the rat while it is awake. However this also included part of the resting (light) phase to allow behavioural assessments under treatment (see supplemental image 1 for the time delivery settings). L-dopa was administered by i.p.

twice a day over the same treatment period.

Behavioral assessment

Actimetry. Spontaneous motor activity in mice and rats was recorded by an actimeter (Panlab, Barcelona, Spain) over 10 minutes [START_REF] Laloux | Differential susceptibility to the PPAR-γ agonist pioglitazone in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine and 6-hydroxydopamine rodent models of Parkinson's disease[END_REF]. This apparatus and the associated Actitrack software allowed distance travelled, speed and rearing behavior to be measured based on infrared beams obstructions.

Drug-induced rotation test. To assess rotational asymmetry, contralateral rotations over 10 minutes were counted 30 minutes after rats were subcutaneously (s.c.) injected with apomorphine (APOKINON®; 0.5 mg/kg). Only nigro-striatal-lesioned animals performing >5 turns/min were included in the experimental cohorts as these have more than 80% depletion of striatal dopamine terminals [START_REF] Francardo | Impact of the lesion procedure on the profiles of motor impairment and molecular responsiveness to L-DOPA in the 6-hydroxydopamine mouse model of Parkinson's disease[END_REF].

Cylinder test. Rats performed the cylinder test [START_REF] Schallert | CNS plasticity and assessment of forelimb sensorimotor outcome in unilateral rat models of stroke, cortical ablation, parkinsonism and spinal cord injury[END_REF] to evaluate spontaneous forelimb lateralization. The number of vertical forepaw explorations on the cylinder wall using the right or left paw was assessed during 3 minutes.

Stepping test. The Stepping test [START_REF] Olsson | Forelimb akinesia in the rat Parkinson model: differential effects of dopamine agonists and nigral transplants as assessed by a new stepping test[END_REF] is designed to monitor forelimb akinesia.

Rats were gently dragged by the hindquarters across a bench over a distance of 0.90 m in 5 sec. Supportive leg adjustments by the rat were counted over 3 consecutive trials.

Treatments-induced dyskinesia assessment. The principles and classifications of dyskinesia have been standardized and well-described for the rat [START_REF] Cenci | Ratings of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia in the unilateral 6-OHDA lesion model of Parkinson's disease in rats and mice[END_REF]. Following the injection of L-dopa or during treatment, dyskinesia analysis consisted of scoring rat motor behavior for 1 min every 20 min over 3 h. Based on duration and persistence of the dyskinetic behaviour during the 1-min observation period, abnormal involuntary movements (AIM) were divided into locomotive, axial, forelimbs and orolingual subtypes. For each subtype, a score from 0 to 4 was given to culminate into an overall dyskinesia score for each rat.

Nigro-striatal tyrosine hydroxylase staining and analysis

After treatment and behavioural analysis, mice and rats were sacrificed and 4% paraformaldehyde perfused brains were microscopically sectioned by cryostat for tyrosine

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T 8
hydroxylase immunochemistry (1:1000; Chemicon International, CA, USA). SN and striatal terminal THr+ neurons were counted by stereological analysis software (Explora Nova, La Rochelle, France)(See supplemental material for details).

Striatum analysis by HPLC

Striatal samples were homogenized (0.1M perchloric acid, 2.6 mM sodium disulfite, 0.7 mM EDTA, 25 ng/ml 3,4-dihydroxybenzilamine) before supernatants were separated by HPLC using a Chromsystems column for Dopamine, DOPAC and 5-cysteinyl-dopamine or an

Uptisphere column for HVA. Glutathione status (i.e. GSSG/ GSH) was also determined chromatographically after derivatization with orthophthalaldehyde was accomplished using isocratic elution on a Symmetry Shield C18 column (Waters SAS, France) (See supplemental material for details).

Statistical analysis

All data were expressed as mean ± SEM, mostly as a percentage from the saline or vehicle control group. For all parameters, a one-way ANOVA was used to assess group effect, followed by LSD Fisher post hoc test. If data did not follow a Gaussian distribution, a Kruskal-Wallis variance analysis was performed, followed by Mann-Whitney post hoc test.

The threshold for statistical significance was set to p<0.05. All statistical analyses were performed with IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 20).

Results

Dose-related effects of dopamine on dopaminergic neurons in vitro

In order to eliminate the possibility of dopamine being systematically deleterious, we demonstrated in vitro that low to moderate dopamine dose (≤3µM) prevented MPP+ induced neurotoxicity whereas L-dopa was substantially less efficient (Figure 1). Conversely, high doses of either dopamine or L-dopa (10-to 100-fold higher) had moderate to no neuroprotective effect and a very high dose of dopamine (1000-fold higher) increased cell death. The optimal window of neuroprotection for both dopamine and L-dopa was determined to be 0.05 -0.2µM. In order to avoid the use of SMBS, due to its poor anti-oxidant properties with additional detrimental effects (Nair et al., 2003), an A-dopamine preparation protocol was developed to maintain the neurotransmitter in an anaerobic environment throughout the filling and pump priming procedures. Similar to O-dopamine with SMBS, high A-dopamine dose (240 µg/day) without SMBS improved motor impairment but was still deleterious to SNpc TH-ir+ neurons (Figure 2B). However, A-dopamine at 120 µg/day without SMBS improved motor activity without neuropathology to the nigro-striatal pathways (Figure 2A). Very low intensity in brown discoloration of the brain's ventricular walls was observed in some mice (~30%).

A C C E P T E

Functional recovery induced by A-dopamine

The safety profile of A-dopamine was further studied in MPTP-treated mice using a broad dose range (40 -120 µg/day) and compared to O-dopamine (60 -120 µg/day) and i.p.

L-dopa (twice daily, 25 -100 mg/day) (Figure 2 C-F). After 7 days, A-dopamine functionally restored mean speed and distance covered by the mouse and had a broader therapeutic index than peripheral L-dopa treatment (i.e. only 50 mg/kg/day L-dopa was beneficial)(Figure 2C-D). Dose-effect on SNpc and striatal TH-ir+ neuron survival by A-dopamine was u-shaped, without hemispheric preference in the SNpc (Figure 2 E-F). The increase in TH-ir+ neurons induced by A-dopamine at 60 and 80 µg/day was determined to be optimal whereas 120µg/day also reversed TH-ir+ terminal loss in striatum. Conversely, neither O-dopamine nor L-dopa prevented reduced TH-ir counts after MPTP in the SNpc and striatum.

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T

10

Diffusion and metabolism of A-dopamine within the brain

Lateral ventricular administration of 80 and 120 µg/day A-dopamine demonstrated good diffusion into the ipsilateral striatum post MPTP intoxication. Similar results were observed upon peripheral L-dopa administered at 50 and 100 mg/day, with 120 µg/day Adopamine and 100 mg/day L-dopa having comparable maximal diffusion (Figure 3A).

The reduction in DOPAC and HVA metabolites caused by MPTP in the striatum (75% loss) was significantly restored by 60 to 120 µg/day of A-dopamine and in a dose-dependent manner with L-dopa (Figure 3B-C). Of note, A-dopamine preferentially increased HVA whereas L-dopa favored a DOPAC increase, potentially revealing alternate metabolism pathways.

As bilateral distribution from the lateral ventricle through the third ventricle to both striatum is not evident in mice, A-dopamine did not alter the contralateral striatal level of dopamine or metabolites (except for the highest dose which significantly increased HVA).

Changes to A-dopamine oxidative metabolism

The oxidative metabolism of dopamine was determined by 5-cysteinyl dopamine; a glutathione-dependent covalent modification of dopamine quinones derived from dopamine oxidization [START_REF] Chen | Unregulated cytosolic dopamine causes neurodegeneration associated with oxidative stress in mice[END_REF]. Levels were not modified with doses of A-dopamine below 120 µg/day (i.e. ≤ 0.3 nmol/mg) or with the peripheral L-dopa treatment (undetectable) (Suppl. Table 1). Glutathione was strongly oxidized by MPTP intoxication (as indicated by low GSH/GSSG ratio) but the GSH/GSSG ratio was significantly increased by both Adopamine and L-dopa treatments. This suggested that both were equally protective in regard to the redox state of dopaminergic neurons.

Lack of tachyphylaxia following chronic A-dopamine stimulation in 6-OHDA rats

In 6-OHDA treated rats, A-dopamine was chronically administered by i.c.v for 30 days (16h/day) at 3 doses (1, 2 and 3 mg/day). This regime was compared behaviorally to peripherally administered L-dopa (6 mg/kg twice daily) over the same time period. For Adopamine, 'stepping' and the 'cylinder' tests were consistent with actimetry analysis. At both 15 and 30 days post-neurotoxin injection, a dose response effect was observed for Adopamine, whereby 1mg/day was considered ineffective, 2mg/day restored the mean locomotive speed and distance of the rat and 3mg/day induced over-activity (Figure 4A-D).

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T 11

Observationally, it was noted that differences between 2 and 3 mg/day at 15 days were reduced after 30 days of treatment. As previously reported 6-OHDA rats responded well to Ldopa treatment in all three motor tests [START_REF] Laloux | Differential susceptibility to the PPAR-γ agonist pioglitazone in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine and 6-hydroxydopamine rodent models of Parkinson's disease[END_REF] despite an over compensation after 30 days of treatment of the contralateral paw in the cylinder and stepping test (Figure 4C & D).

Lack of dyskinesia and dopaminergic sensitization following A-dopamine stimulation

Chronic peripheral treatment with L-dopa (6 mg/kg twice daily for 30 days) induced a consistent and high dyskinesia score compared to sham or 6-OHDA-treated rats (Table 1).

However throughout the treatment period, all doses of A-dopamine (1-3mg/day) produced minimal abnormal locomotive movements and dyskinesias was undetectable (Video 1).

Moreover, as previously reported [START_REF] Bordet | Involvement of the direct striatonigral pathway in levodopa-induced sensitization in 6-hydroxydopaminelesioned rats[END_REF], by the end of the 30 day treatment period behavioral dopaminergic sensitization associated with dyskinesia was evident in Ldopa treatment (Figure 4E). Conversely, a reduced number of apomorphine-induced rotations were observed with A-dopamine administration.

Good safety profile of A-dopamine

Neither L-dopa or A-dopamine had supplementary deleterious effects on the remaining 10% TH-ir+ neurons after ipsilateral 6-OHDA injection (Figure 4G & H). Highest doses of A-dopamine may even have had a positive impact (Figure 4G). A significant body weight gain was observed in higher doses of A-dopamine and may be attributed to dopamine effect on motivation to eat (via its action on mesolimbic system) or an orexigen effect (via the hypothalamic system). In L-dopa treated rats this gain was reduced after 30 days compared to shams (Figure 4F) and could be associated with higher daily energy expenditure as a result from the observed dyskinesias. No overall harmful effects could be attributed to body weight changes and no anatomopathological alteration of heart, liver, pancreas, spleen, kidney, spinal cord, eye, and brain were observed after 30 days of either treatment.

Discussion

Results obtained in these three different models of PD demonstrate a promising therapeutic regime for A-dopamine treatment. In vitro, a positive effect of dopamine was observed on LHUMES cell survival. In vivo, A-dopamine restored motor function and

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T

induced a dose dependent increase of nigro-striatal tyrosine hydroxylase positive neuron survival in mice after 7 days of MPTP insult, suggesting a strong safety profile that was not evident with either O-dopamine or L-dopa. In a chronic rat model using 6-OHDA-lesioning, continuous circadian i.c.v injection of A-dopamine over 30 days also improved motor activity without occurrence of tachyphylaxia. Significantly, A-dopamine did not induced dyskinesia or behavioral sensitization observed with peripheral L-dopa treatment.

Similar to L-dopa treatment in previous clinical and preclinical studies, inconsistencies are reported in the use of dopamine, whereby high doses are described as neurotoxic [START_REF] Hastings | Role of oxidation in the neurotoxic effects of intrastriatal dopamine injections[END_REF] but sub-toxic concentrations have neuroprotective and neurotrophic effects [START_REF] Jia | Dopamine as a potent inducer of cellular glutathione and NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 in PC12 neuronal cells: a potential adaptive mechanism for dopaminergic neuroprotection[END_REF]. We confirm that the positive impact of dopamine on TH-ir+ neurons of the nigro-striatal pathways was predominantly dependent on dose, but the oxidation state of dopamine is also paramount. As well as illustrating that O-dopamine was detrimental to neurons, higher A-dopamine concentrations in the presence of MPTP also induced significant neurotoxic 5-cysteinyl-DA production. However a low A-dopamine dose promoted TH-ir+ neuronal counts with no evidence of oxidized dopamine.

To our knowledge, this is the first to describe such a SNpc and striatal TH-ir+ neuronal plasticity with dopamine administration. We suggest that this could be explained by a culmination of events. Low A-dopamine dose prevented TH stained neuronal death caused by synaptic inactivity [START_REF] Jeon | 6-Hydroxydopamine lesion of the rat substantia nigra: time course and morphology of cell death[END_REF], restored dopaminergic cell markers required for maintained dopamine production [START_REF] Datla | Chronic L-DOPA administration is not toxic to the remaining dopaminergic nigrostriatal neurons, but instead may promote their functional recovery, in rats with partial 6-OHDA or FeCl(3) nigrostriatal lesions[END_REF], scavenged rather than promoted ROS formation [START_REF] Agil | Plasma lipid peroxidation in sporadic Parkinson's disease. Role of the L-dopa[END_REF] and may have enabled a switch in striatal neurons from a serotonergic to dopaminergic phenotype [START_REF] Carta | Dopamine released from 5-HT terminals is the cause of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia in parkinsonian rats[END_REF].

A viable optimal therapeutic regime would be to continuously compensate the deficit in dopamine that mediates neuronal communication within the SNpc. A continuous nonpulsatile i.c.v administration better mimics the physiological released of dopamine caused by the tonic background activity of SNpc neurons [START_REF] Olanow | Drug insight: Continuous dopaminergic stimulation in the treatment of Parkinson's disease[END_REF]. In animal models of PD, several studies have proven the efficacy of continuous dopamine infusion. [START_REF] Hargraves | Chronic intrastriatal dopamine infusions in rats with unilateral lesions of the substantia nigra[END_REF] showed that striatal injection of 12 or 120 µg/day dopamine with SMBS (during 13 days) reduced locomotive abnormalities, whereas others studies confirmed this result with alternative administration parameters (e.g. i.c.v injection, dose at 240 µg/day or time over 7 days) [START_REF] De Yebenes | Continuous intracerebroventricular infusion of dopamine and dopamine agonists through a totally implanted drug delivery system in animal models of Parkinson's disease[END_REF][START_REF] Kroin | Dopamine distribution and behavioral alterations resulting from dopamine infusion into the brain of the lesioned rat[END_REF]. The first human case report [START_REF] Venna | Treatment of severe Parkinson's disease by intraventricular injection of dopamine[END_REF] described a good tolerance to dopamine infusion over 1 year. A subsequent human case report [START_REF] Horne | Intraventricular infusion of Dopamine in Parkinson's disease[END_REF] supports our current data by illustrating that long-term i.c.v.

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T

dopamine provides a smooth control of motor symptoms. However until now, concerns regarding dopamine oxidation and patient tachyphylaxia have restricted further development.

Of note, PD patients from previous studies received O-dopamine and at the same dose throughout a 24 hours cycle. Prior experience obtained from the use of an apomorphine pump and duodopa® has identified the need to differentiate between diurnal and nocturnal minimum efficient dose in order to avoid worsening motor fluctuations [START_REF] Devos | Patient profile, indications, efficacy and safety of duodenal levodopa infusion in advanced Parkinson's disease[END_REF][START_REF] Drapier | Quality of life in Parkinson's disease improved by apomorphine pump: the OPTIPUMP cohort study[END_REF].

In summary, far from being deleterious, we observe that when dopamine levels and oxidative state are harnessed it can be beneficial to neuron survival. Minimizing dopamine administrative dose, focusing delivery location and restricting the oxidative states all had a positive impact on the nigro-striatal pathways. Long-term i.c.v of A-dopamine using a circadian cycle also dramatically reduced the detrimental side effects of the current therapeutic regime of L-dopa (i.e. L-dopa related complications with dyskinesia).

A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T

Treatment over 7

 7 days began one week post MPTP or saline injections in mice. Mice were divided into 13 experimental groups; Saline only, MPTP only, MPTP + A-dopamine (3 to 5 different doses), MPTP + O-dopamine (3 different doses), and MPTP + L-dopa (3 different doses). A-or O-dopamine was administered continuously by i.c.v (1µl/hr; 24h/24h) after surgical cannula-pump (ALZET 2001) implantation in the right lateral ventricle (see supplemental material for details). L-dopa was administered by i.p. twice a day over the same treatment period.

  Continuous i.c.v. administration of 240 µg/day O-dopamine induced dopamine oxidation even in the presence of SMBS. This was visually detectable via a brown to black discoloration of the brain's ventricular walls. Despite an improvement in motor activity compared to sham treated mice (Figure2A), addition of O-dopamine lowered the count of tyrosine hydroxylase positive (TH-ir+) neurons in SNpc (Figure2B). A reduction in the administered O-dopamine dose (120µg/day) negated the changes to TH-ir+ neuron counts, but strong discoloration of the ventricular walls was still observed in >65% of the mice.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Dose-related effects of dopamine on LUHMES dopaminergic neurons. Overall LUHMES viability was greater after A-dopamine compared to L-dopa treatment (0.01 -300µM). Significant differences * vs. saline condition, # vs. MPP+ condition, § between the dopamine and L-dopa conditions, p<0.05 (Mann-Whitney comparison test).

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Neuroprotection of nigro-striatal pathway and functional recovery induced by cerebral A-dopamine infusion in MPTP mice. Distance covered in actimetry arena (A) and TH-ir+ neuronal count in SNpc (B) was measured in MPTP mice after 7 days of dopamine treatment, either supplemented with SMBS or prepared anaerobically. To determine the optimal dose of each treatment on motor function post-MPTP insult, distance covered (C) and mean speed (D) within the actimetry arena was assessed after i.p. L-dopa (25-100mg/kg/day) or i.c.v. dopamine prepared anaerobically (A-dopamine)(40-120µg/day) or aerobically (Odopamine) (60-120µg/day). Neuropathological outcomes were also assessed within the same parameters by measuring ipsilateral and contralateral TH-ir+ optical density in dorsal striatum (E) and TH-ir+ neuronal counts in SNpc (F). Data are expressed in percentage from saline mice, means ± SEM (n=6/group for A&B, 12/group for C&D, 8/group for E&F). Significant differences * vs. saline mice, # vs. untreated MPTP mice, p<0.05 (one-way ANOVA and LSD Fisher post-hoc tests or Mann-Whitney comparison test).

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Diffusion and metabolization of striatal A-dopamine. Within the striatum, dopamine (A) 3,4 dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) (B) and homovanillic acid (HVA) (C) were measured in each hemisphere after 7 days of L-dopa or anaerobic dopamine (Adopamine). Ipsilateral and contralateral represents the side in which i.c.v. dopamine was infused. Data are expressed in percentage from saline mice, means ± SEM (n=6 animal per group). * vs. saline mice, # vs. untreated MPTP mice, p<0.05 (one-way ANOVA and LSD Fisher post-hoc tests).

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Functional recovery without tachyphylaxia or dopaminergic sensitization following chronic circadian A-dopamine stimulation in 6-OHDA rats. 6-OHDA rats were administered i.p. L-dopa (12 mg/kg/day) or i.c.v. anaerobically prepared dopamine (Adopamine; 1-3 mg/day) and motor skills assessed after 15 or 30 days. Distance covered (A) and mean speed (B) in the actimetry arena as well as right paw support in the cylinder test (C) and right step adjustment in the stepping test (D) were evaluated. All data was compared to vehicle control set at 100% within the actimetry arena (A&B) or 50% representing equal

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank Jean Christophe Corvol and Erwan Bezard for helpful comments on the manuscript and the functional exploration platform for rodent behavior experiments (Federation of Neurosciences, University of Lille).

This academic study was funded by a PHRC grant from the French Ministry of Health and France Parkinson.

Authors's roles

Full Financial Disclosures of all Authors for the Past Year

The authors have no financial disclosures to make or potential conflicts of interest to report in relation to this study. Caroline Moreau serves on the Scientific Advisory Board for Aguettant.

Régis


Issaka Dialga Lemna

A Sustainability Index of Mining Countries

Keywords: Top down/ Bottom-up approach, Weak sustainability, Environmental cumulative impacts, Tool for decision making, Mining country, Composite index, Burkina Faso, Niger

 weak sustainability theoretical framework and the Brundtland et al. (1987) SD's vision. The specific studies on mining and Top down/ Bottom-up approach allow us to identify five dimensions of sustainability of mining countries namely an economic dimension, a social dimension, an environmental dimension, a transverse dimension and a dimension involving governance, political and institutional issues. Each dimension is declined into measurable indicators, and then, the indicators are weighted and aggregated. An implementation of the constructed tool with Burkina Faso and Niger data reveals a dichotomy between perceived rents and development indicators. A sensitivity and robustness analysis of the SIMC with other development indicators confirms the strength of the tool.

Introduction

The countries with exhaustible natural resources (gas, oil, diamonds, gold, uranium ...) face a major issue: how to reconcile the operation of an exhaustible resource with the vision of sustainable development as defined by [START_REF] Brundtland | [END_REF] 1 ? Specifically, how to ensure a sustainable extraction of exhaustible resource? How to minimize the cumulative negative impacts of the extraction both on the environment and local communities? How do the rents from the extraction of exhaustible resource improve the living conditions of local people?

How to ensure the sustainability of a harmonized development after the exhaustion of the resource? The answers to all these questions can be synthesized using an index that assesses the level of sustainability of exhaustible natural resources countries. This paper aims to develop a Sustainability Index of Mining Countries2 (SIMC) applied to Burkina Faso and Niger. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the approach used to build the SIMC. Section 3 establishes the theoretical framework of the index. This section identifies the dimensions of Sustainable Development (SD) in the context of mining countries and defines the individual indicators for each dimension. Section 4 describes the data collection method, the nature of the collected data and the sources used for the collection of such data. Section 5 discusses the choice of normalization, weighting and aggregation of the composite index (CI). In Section 0, we perform an analysis of robustness and validity of the SIMC. Section 7 concludes by recalling the main outcomes, lessons learned and limitations of the study.

Methodology

The construction of the SIMC is based on the so-called Top down bottom up approach. This approach mobilizes academic knowledge, professional experiences and life experience of citizens. In the CIs area, the top down bottom up approach defines a set of candidate 3indicators (from the literature) on the requirements of SD and issues related to the exploitation of mining resources. The candidate indicators are grouped by themes related to issues of development and exploitation of mining resources (see Survey form in appendix). The Citizens and local residents close to mining exploitation are also involved. The survey also includes three key open questions. These questions are intended to enable participants in the survey (176 participants) to response about the expectations, reflections in connection with both development and mining activities in their countries that would not be identified by the literature. Participants evaluate the relevance of the identified themes on a scale of 0 to 9 in where 0 indicates that the identified theme is not important at all and 9 is quite important (see section III of the Survey form). The stakeholders also involved in the choice of indicators weighting through the so-called the Budget Allocation Process (BAP) weighting approach described in Section 5. After the field survey, we proceed to a reforming of initial indicators.

Indicators for which the themes were considered not important at all are excluded. We also perform lexical analysis of participant responses. Lexical analysis helps us to detect new emerging themes. Such themes are subsequently declined into measurable indicators.

Theoretical framework, dimensions and sub-indicators identification

Theoretical framework

The construction of the SIMC is based on the SD vision proposed by [START_REF] Brundtland | [END_REF], which still meets the basic needs of the present generations and ensures the ability of future generations. The issue of this kind of development in connection with the operation of a nonrenewable resource is organized around the [START_REF] Hartwick | Projet aurifère de banfora, Burkina Faso, étude d'impact environnemental et social[END_REF]

Economic Dimension

Environmental Dimension

Mining resources

I2

The SIMC's theoretical framework is illustrated by Figure 1. There is a perfect one-way substitutability between mining resources (natural capital) and the five dimensions of the SIMC. The perfect substitutability is due to the fact that the reinvestment of the entire mining revenue (Hartwick 1977 rule) improves the performance of the five pillars of development. However, it is not possible to reconstitute the mining resource stock after its exhaustion. We postulate that the indicators within the same dimension may be substitutable, i.e., it is possible to compensate the loss of an indicator by improvement of another indicator. By contrast, the substitutability is imperfect or limited between dimensions / pillars of the CI as each pillar reflects a different reality of this complex concept.

The SIMC's dimensions and sub-indicators

According to SD vision of [START_REF] Brundtland | [END_REF], [START_REF] Hartwick | Projet aurifère de banfora, Burkina Faso, étude d'impact environnemental et social[END_REF] indicator is also used to ensure that existing loans do not compromise the leeway of future generations [START_REF] Dialga | Du boom minier au Burkina Faso, opportunité de développement ou risques de péril pour des générations futures ?[END_REF]. It is defined as the ratio per capita GDP and public debt per capita.

In Employability Indicator (MEI) defined as the ratio between the number of jobs created by the mining sector per unit gross revenue and total employment of the economy reported to the country's GDP. Employment is at the crossroads of the economy and social in the sense of self-fulfillment [START_REF] Dubois | The Search for Socially Sustainable Development Conceptual and Methodological Issues[END_REF][START_REF] Ballet | La soutenabilité sociale du développement durable : de l'omission à l'émergence[END_REF][START_REF] Clément | Réflexions sur le concept de soutenabilité sociale dans le contexte des pays du Sud[END_REF].The second one is the Technology Access Indicator (TAI) due to its catalyst role in the achievement of the other indicators [START_REF] Cherchye | Creating Composite Indicators with DEA and Robustness Analysis: The Case of the Technology Achievement Index[END_REF]OECD and JRC 2008). The access to technology allows more environmentally friendly production (environmental dimension), optimizes the use of resources (economic dimension), improves working conditions in the company and strengthens family ties, social and professional ( social dimension), improves governance by the possibility of citizen control, synchronization services of the public administration, reduces direct contact with users of public services and officers. All these benefit effects reduce the risk of corruption (the fifth dimension of the CI).

The The construction of this indicator required the use of variables such as the level of equipment of the national army, the number of displaced people to conflict pattern, the number of political prisoners, etc. The synthesis of the SIMC's dimensions and the associated individual indicators is given in Table 5 in the Appendix.

Data collection and sources

The implementation of the SIMC requires both primary data and secondary data 7 . The collection of primary data through field survey mainly concerns the weight to assign to each dimension of the CI in the aggravation phase. Indeed, the field survey allows assigning the candidate indicators to the various actors of development for evaluation.

+ ∆ = + ∆ = ∑ ∑ = = - (1)
Where: t I is the cumulative impact at t ; t I ∆ the impact attributable to the operations of period 𝑡𝑡; r is a capitalization 10 rate. It is indexed to public investments rate. Since the environmental impacts are assessed in monetary terms (current value of the currency), it is important to capitalize the amounts of past impacts.

- = - = 1 1
is the net impact accumulation. The coefficient t a is an impact's multiplier that takes into account the aggravating nature of cumulative impacts of past years and their impact on the environment, biodiversity and local communities. If no action is taken, reducing the effort of the impact is zero and t a is 1. The impacts of the previous year's activities are added in full to those of the current year and so on. In contrast, if the remediation efforts are equivalent to the generated impacts, are zero, this implys a level of zero impact for the year.

Normalization, Weighting and Aggregation

Normalization step

The normalization of individual indicators is a mandatory step of the CIs construction. This step aims to unify the units of measure of core indicators. For the SIMC, this mandatory step is overcome. Indeed, the basic indicators, summarized in (2), where:

10 When it is to assess the future costs, r is called the discount rate.

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 is the normalized sub-indicator, 𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is the initial variable 𝑗𝑗 for the entity 𝑖𝑖 and 𝑉𝑉 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 is the maximum value reached by 𝑗𝑗 . Values of scaled ratio range from 0 to 1. Accordingly, ( )% 1 100 SI indicates the remaining effort to do to be in 𝑉𝑉 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 . Nevertheless the merits are presented, one can discuss the sensitivity of the results due to the change of method. Does a redefinition of the basic indicators by using min-max 11 method or based on a reference value change the results? In the case of both countries in this study, the changes of the scores of individual indicators following a change of normalization method are low. We found a negative variation of 0,6% on data from Burkina Faso and 1,6% on the Niger data when we change the scale-ratio normalization method to the min-max one.

Weighting step

The issue of individual indicators weighting is difficult because assign weights to the indicators or the SD dimensions is akin to a value judgment. How to legitimize weights associated to the indicators in a scientific approach? Literature specific to CIs provides several weighting methods (see OECD and JRC 2008;[START_REF] Dialga | Highlighting Methodological Limitations in the Steps of Composite Indicators Construction[END_REF]. The simplest but most arbitrary is to give equal weights for all individual indicators. This option, although transparent, has implications for the choice of aggregation method. Choosing an equal weighting assumes that elements are considered equally important. Another weighting system is the Principal Components Analysis (CPA) weighting system which allows generating weights that reflect the structure of statistical data. The weights reflect the changes in initial variables involved in the explanation of the total variance of the CI.

In this paper, we choose the so-called Budget Allocation Process (BAP). This method allows gathering opinions from various stakeholders (experts of respective fields, NGOs, policy makers) on the studied issue. The main motivation to adopt this method is the desire to give both scientific and professional legitimacy to the SIMC. The approach also aims to ensure local acceptability of the decision support tool. However we are aware of the methodological limitations inherent in such an approach. How to converge viewpoints of stakeholders with competing interests? How to engage stakeholders in order to reach a consensual compromise?

How to ensure coherence of the actors in their assessment? How to objectify the results from such a participatory approach? Although the aggregation of individual views does not necessarily lead to an optimal and consensual solution, it is close to what might be termed the second best. In addition, we calculate a consistency index 12 of appreciation to objectify the BAP method.

Source: author

Table 1 shows that the subjects in sustainability which are submitted for consideration of stakeholders can be categorized into two groups. Respondents believe that "health and education", "political stability and institutional quality," the "future of children," their "living conditions" and the current "employment" have almost the same importance. These issues constitute the first group. The average attributed weight is 0.12 with a slight appreciation rising to the theme "education and health". The "fairness" in the distribution of the fruits of growth, "satisfaction of the current needs", "environment and sustainable management of mines" and "rural development" belong to the second group of issues. On average, participants assigned a weight of 0.10; either a percentage point less than the emphasis on themes of the first class of SD issues. Dispersion statistics show a consistent appreciation by all stakeholders: the standard deviation is about 3%, the median blends perfectly average and the modal value is the average of the two groups categorized by stakeholders.

The extreme values (min and max) can be interpreted as specific weightings. They result differentiated assessments of the expert groups based on their deep or non knowledge of the submitted issues (see Table 6). As an illustration, the environmentalists tended to overestimate the importance of this pillar while the social workers did much for the theme "Education and Health". The zero weights can testify to the misconception of the issue or even ignorance of the issues raised by the theme submitted for their consideration. For example, the theme "sharing the fruits of growth" was understood differently by respondents.

Accordingly, it was poorly rated by a number of respondents. After a lexical analysis, it appears that some evil noted this theme because they think the benefits of growth should not be distributed directly to individuals (the term "sharing" was understood in the proper sense of the term) but rather allocated to the investment of works, public and community infrastructure. With others, talking about the equitable distribution of the fruits of growth, it is necessary to pose the issue in terms of distribution of the fruits of growth in proportion to the effort of every citizen in the creation of that wealth. According to other respondents, the equity in the distribution of the fruits of growth is not worth asking. For these last ones, in liberal economies, it is entirely appropriate that people who provide more effort are richer than others, even if they are a minority. All these different ways of conceiving the concept of sharing and social equity have justified the different appreciations from the solicited people, sometimes extreme assessments. The same exercise can be done when we analyze the respondents' answers by taking theme by theme. Therefore, it is important to consider the weight resulting from the BAP method as importance coefficients because emanating opinions of the different actors involved in sustainable development issues in the studied countries. The assessments are also consistent in regard to the zero value of the consistency index.

Aggregation step

The concept of aggregation in the synthetic indices area is an exercise that aims to condense the information contained in individual indicators to obtain a single number. Aggregation is a delicate step as well as the others because there are several methods, each leading to more or less different scores. The crucial question for the researcher therefore is: what method should be chosen in the absence of standard methodology framework [START_REF] Dialga | Highlighting Methodological Limitations in the Steps of Composite Indicators Construction[END_REF] or more specifically how to choose the right method of aggregation ? Here, we synthesize the most used aggregation methods.

Linear aggregation is defined as follows:

= = ∑ = =
It is a simple and transparent method. The indexes built from this method have the advantage of escaping from the criticism related to the complexity or those considering CIs as "black boxes" whose expertise is restricted to a small group; those who are insider. However, the perfect substitutability hypothesis own to this method [START_REF] Zhou | Comparing Aggregating Methods for Constructing the Composite Environmental Index: An Objective Measure[END_REF] is constantly controversial [START_REF] Munda | On the Methodological Foundations of Composite Indicators Used for Ranking Countries[END_REF][START_REF] Munda | Measuring Sustainability': A Multi-Criterion Framework[END_REF]Munda and Nardo 2009).

Regarding to the field of CIs, the method raises a problem of interpretation of the associated weights. The weight associated in linear aggregation method should be interpreted as "compromise coefficients" among different dimensions measured [START_REF] Munda | On the Methodological Foundations of Composite Indicators Used for Ranking Countries[END_REF]; what is different to importance coefficients that the weights would reflect . In the specific case of the SIMC, the linear aggregation method is inappropriate as we have conflicting dimensions. How and to what levels of tolerance, natural resources depletion and pollution levels can be offset by gains in economic or social performance? For Munda and Nardo (2009), the assumption of perfect substitutability between different dimensions is, descriptive point of view, not desirable: " Complete compensability implies that an excellent performance on the economic dimension can justify any type of very bad performance on the other dimensions, which is exactly what the concept of sustainability tries to avoid" [START_REF] Munda | Measuring Sustainability': A Multi-Criterion Framework[END_REF].

Non-compensatory aggregating method under perfect complementarity hypothesis: This method results from the multi-criteria approach. Given two entities j and k , the composite score of the entity j relative to the performance of entity k , considering M individual indicators is given by: The non-compensatory aggregating method is appealing in its approach. This is an advantageous method in which it relieves us the step of normalizing the individual indicators, thereby reducing the sources of uncertainty. Another advantage of this method is that it allows joint use of both qualitative and quantitative data (OECD and JRC 2008, p.115). The method is also suitable for indicators using ratios or interval scales as normalization method.

Following [START_REF] Bouyssou | Second EURO Summer InstituteSome Remarks on the Notion of Compensation in MCDM[END_REF]; [START_REF] Bouyssou | Noncompensatory and Generalized Noncompensatory Preference Structures[END_REF] this method imposes itself because it allows realizing and/or taking into account the social choices expressed by stakeholders.

However, it is a method which, theoretically, based on an assumption as strong as that of perfect substitutability i.e., the assumption that a country can improve its sustainability index if it in each dimension of the index at the same time. Therefore, it is difficult to verify in practice Also, we must have at least two countries to assess country score. It is a method to comparative vocation rather than national policy guideline. Yet, the SIMC aims to help public policies upstream and ensure their monitoring and evaluation downstream.

Another method usually used in the CIs aggregating step is the geometric aggregating method. It is defined by:

iables n j entities m i n i j w ij I i CI var ,... 1 ; ,..., 1 , 1 = = ∏ = =
. It admits imperfect compensation between aggregate variables. This method is consistent with our theoretical framework (see Figure 1). [START_REF] Zhou | Comparing Aggregating Methods for Constructing the Composite Environmental Index: An Objective Measure[END_REF] argue that the geometric method is preferable because it is less sensitive to extreme values.

However, the method penalizes all poor performance making that performing well in some areas of the measured phenomenon are overshadowed. The method also requires positive values for the variables, as well as associated weights.

In view of the merits and its relevance regarding to the SIMC's theoretical framework, the geometric method seems more realistic because if the assumption of perfect substitution between dimensions is undesirable in a context of sustainable development [START_REF] Munda | Measuring Sustainability': A Multi-Criterion Framework[END_REF], that of a perfect complementarity is methodologically not suitable for CIs and operationally ineffective. Also, OECD and JRC (2008) argue that when we are in the presence of noncomparable data, leading us to use the ratio as a normalization method, so, the geometric aggregation method is the most appropriate one 14 .

14 The previous described methods will be used in the robustness analysis step.

Hence, our SIMC is defined as follows:

( )

∏ = = 5 1 i Di SIMC i w i i ;
i Di is the normalized dimensional indicator, wi is the associated weight.

Source: Author

Table 2 shows the SIMC's scores of Burkina Faso and Niger for the years 2010 and 2015.

Table 2 associates the RPI for each of the countries and corresponding to the years 2010 and

2015. An overview shows a dichotomy between perceived natural resources rents and sustainable level of development in both studied countries. Indeed, Niger enjoys relatively better exploitation of subsoil resources compared to Burkina Faso. Despite of long experience in the extraction of uranium, the Niger's SIMC score is small compared to that of Burkina Faso, although the level of sustainability of this last one also remains low compared to the value maximum which is 1. These contradicted findings raise questions concerning the opportunity to establish a sustainable development based rents of exhaustible resources [START_REF] Dialga | Du boom minier au Burkina Faso, opportunité de développement ou risques de péril pour des générations futures ?[END_REF] as highlighted in the [START_REF] Hartwick | Projet aurifère de banfora, Burkina Faso, étude d'impact environnemental et social[END_REF] rule.

Sensitivity and Robustness analysis

In this section, we get down to the following three exercises: first, we evaluate the sensitivity of the index with respect to changes in weighting methods and aggregation. To do this, we consider three possible methods of weighting the index namely equal weighting, weighting by PCA and weighting by Budget Allocation Process (our baseline). These weighting methods are associated with three aggregation methods: the linear aggregation, the geometric mean (our baseline) and non-compensatory aggregation. We analyze changes in index scores for the two countries. Second, we assess the robustness of the composite index. In other words, it is to evaluate the ability of the CI to return the information contained in the individual variables.

For this we use the measure of Shannon-Spearman lost information proposed by [START_REF] Zhou | Comparing Aggregating Methods for Constructing the Composite Environmental Index: An Objective Measure[END_REF] and [START_REF] Zhou | Comparing MCDA Aggregation Methods in Constructing Composite Indicators Using the Shannon-Spearman Measure[END_REF]. The third step is to analyze possible links that may exist between the new index and some well-known indexes. We conduct a correlation test between the SIMC and the HDI, as well as between the SIMC and the Human Sustainable Development Index (HSDI) of Togtokh (2011).

Sensitivity analysis

In this sub-section, we drive two sensitivity analyzes of the SIMC's score. The first is a decomposition of the total variance of the CI to assess the influence of each dimensional indicator to the composition of the country's composite score. The second is to evaluate the sensitivity of the composite index following a change in method of weighting and aggregation.

Sensitivity analysis by variance decomposition

As described by [START_REF] Homma | Importance Measures in Global Sensitivity Analysis of Nonlinear Models[END_REF], [START_REF] Cherchye | An Introduction to 'Benefit of the Doubt' Composite Indicators[END_REF], [START_REF] Saisana | Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis of the 2010 Environmental Performance Index[END_REF] and adopted by [START_REF] Aguna | Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis of the Human Development Index[END_REF]; [START_REF] Aguna | Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis of the Human Development Index[END_REF] and [START_REF] Dialga | Highlighting Methodological Limitations in the Steps of Composite Indicators Construction[END_REF], the sensitivity analysis by variance decomposition is used to assess the contribution of each input variable (dimensional index) in the formation of the total output ( composite score). The contribution of each individual indicator is given by:

𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑉𝑉 𝑋𝑋 𝑖𝑖 (𝐸𝐸 𝑋𝑋 -𝑖𝑖 (𝑌𝑌\𝑋𝑋 𝑖𝑖 )) 𝑉𝑉(𝑌𝑌) = 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉(𝑌𝑌)
. 𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖 gives the relative contribution of the j-th variable (only) to the composition of the total variance. Thus, the more important the area or the dimension defined by variable 𝑋𝑋 𝑖𝑖 is, the greater 𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖 will be. In particular, when the variable explains almost all variations of output, sensitivity indicator tends toward unity. could say that despite of the different theoretical frameworks, linear geometric aggregation and aggregation lead to similar composite scores for both countries and that, whatever the weighting system adopted. Figure 3 thus indicates that the SIMC relies both on a sound theoretical basis and provides stable statistical results. This result is also interesting because most of previous studies (see [START_REF] Desai | Human Development: Concepts and Measurement[END_REF][START_REF] Coste | Methodological Issues in Determining the Dimensionality of Composite Health Measures Using Principal Component Analysis: Case Illustration and Suggestions for Practice[END_REF][START_REF] Zhou | Comparing Aggregating Methods for Constructing the Composite Environmental Index: An Objective Measure[END_REF][START_REF] Brand | Comparative Analysis of Alcohol Control Policies in 30 Countries[END_REF]OECD and JRC 2008;[START_REF] Cherchye | Creating Composite Indicators with DEA and Robustness Analysis: The Case of the Technology Achievement Index[END_REF][START_REF] Cherchye | Creating Composite Indicators with DEA and Robustness Analysis: The Case of the Technology Achievement Index[END_REF][START_REF] Nathan | An Alternative Approach to Measure HDI[END_REF][START_REF] Chinn | A New Measure of Financial Openness[END_REF][START_REF] Tarantola | Composite Indicators of Research Excellence[END_REF][START_REF] Perišić | Data-Driven Weights and Restrictions in the Construction of Composite Indicators[END_REF][START_REF] Dialga | Highlighting Methodological Limitations in the Steps of Composite Indicators Construction[END_REF] pointed out that the composite scores are unstable when both aggregation and weighting method change.

The large variation in the composite score observed in the non-compensatory aggregation method is justifiable by definition of the method. Indeed, the perfect complementary method contains a strong assumption, which assumes that each entity must perform in all areas where it is evaluated to improve its final score. Thus, the method artificially increases the composite score of Burkina Faso to the detriment of Niger with the simple reason that in 4 of the 5 dimensions of SD, Burkina performs better than its neighbor, Niger. This sensitivity analysis by changing aggregations methods and weights is somehow a confirmatory analysis of the choice made for the construction of the SIMC.

Robustness analysis: the Loss Information Measure (LIM)

The LIM or coefficient of adequacy of the aggregation method is a measure of the non restored information between the information contained in the original variables 𝑋𝑋 𝑖𝑖 and the restored by the composite score 𝑆𝑆 𝑘𝑘 for the entity 𝑘𝑘. It is a measure proposed by [START_REF] Zhou | Comparing Aggregating Methods for Constructing the Composite Environmental Index: An Objective Measure[END_REF] to assess the appropriateness of a method of aggregation of the CI over another. The LIM is defined as follows: e and e are performance measures for each entity. According to [START_REF] Zhou | Comparing Aggregating Methods for Constructing the Composite Environmental Index: An Objective Measure[END_REF], [START_REF] Zeleny | Multi Criteria Decision Making[END_REF] shows that 1 , 0 ≤ ≤ e e j . When j e and e are close to 1, it means a certain homogeneous of the sample. Source: Author Table 3 shows that the choice of the geometric aggregation and weighting by the Budget Allocation Process is both theoretically and statistically relevant. Indeed, when we compare the values of the LIM calculated for three different weighting methods and three different aggregating methods, the geometric method and the BAP restore better the information contained in the individual initial variables. Depending on the LIM's values, restitution of the information contained in individual indicators is much more effective for Niger data (LIM = 0.077) than those of Burkina Faso (LIM = 0.135). However, the loss of information related to the aggregation of the initial variables is minimized to the geometric method of aggregation and weighting BAP than any other aggregation-weighting method for each of the studied countries. This finding bodes a judicious choice of aggregating and weighting method although all sources of uncertainty are not eliminated. The main uncertainty source is related to the deficient quality of collected data. This significant limit requires a more careful analysis of these exploratory results.

Link with others development indices analysis

The aim of this sub-section is to conduct a correlation test between the SIMC and two Institutional dimension and transverse dimension contribute 42% to the explanation of changes in the SIMC score. When we remove these two dimensions, one enhances Burkina score of 28%. This finding is also checked for Niger which registers 7% growth when the two additional dimensions are removed. The expansion of the concept of SD improves its theoretical framework but it deteriorates countries' statistic performances (countries' scores).

Concluding remarks

This paper aimed to develop a Sustainability Index of Mining Countries. The [START_REF] Hartwick | Projet aurifère de banfora, Burkina Faso, étude d'impact environnemental et social[END_REF] rule served as a theoretical framework for the identification of the SIMC's dimensions. This We conducted sensitivity and robustness analysis on the obtained composite scores. The total variance decomposition analysis confirmed the relevance of expanding sustainable development dimensions with the introduction of a transverse dimension and Governance,

Political and Institutional dimension. The sensitivity analysis by changing the aggregation methods and weighting indicates a certain stability of the country scores, except for the aggregation method by multi-criteria approach. This stability of the composite scores is observed, regardless of the adopted weighting system. The robustness analysis of the CI aimed to assess the rendering power of the information contained in the original variables by the composite index. To do this, we mobilize the "information loss measure-LIM" developed by [START_REF] Zhou | Comparing Aggregating Methods for Constructing the Composite Environmental Index: An Objective Measure[END_REF]. This measure of LIM revealed that the aggregation and weighting methods which guarantee the lowest loss of information are the geometric aggregation and weighting BAP regardless of the selected country. Finally, we performed a linkage analysis of the index built with other well-known development indices. This analysis showed a very strong correlation between the SIMC and the HDI (0.979) and between the SIMC and theTogtokh (2011) HSDI (0.980). These strong correlations, therefore, suggest that the three indices reflect the same concept of development with the only difference that they are based on different theoretical and conceptual approaches. However, the analysis indicates a total lack of relationship between the rents collected by States and their sustainable development level, leading us to conclude partially that the perceived rents in these countries are sufficiently weak, they fail to initiate sustainable development. This conclusion is close to thoese of [START_REF] Dialga | Du boom minier au Burkina Faso, opportunité de développement ou risques de péril pour des générations futures ?[END_REF] which highlighted the high risk of non-sustainability of the Burkina Faso economy regarding to its current development path. The [START_REF] Hartwick | Projet aurifère de banfora, Burkina Faso, étude d'impact environnemental et social[END_REF] rule, even extended, is not satisfied in both studied countries. The study has some limitations including limits of the low quality of data and the uncertainties in the estimation techniques for missing data. Taking into account these limits, it is early to conclude on the existence of natural resources curse in both countries.

  identified themes are submitted to appreciation through a field survey. Participatory survey involved four categories of development actors: policy makers, mining companies, NGOs and citizens. The central government and local authorities participate in the survey through their technical and specialized services structures such as Ministry of Environment and SD, Ministry of Economy, Ministry of Mines, Petroleum and careers, Department of Child Protection, Ministries of agriculture and livestock, Directions of statistical studies, Directions of studies and planning, Design bureaus and environmental impact assessment. Mining companies are represented by Chamber of Mines of Burkina Faso and civil society organizations via associations of defense of human rights, environment and development.

Figure

  Figure 1-The SIMC theoretical framework

  weak sustainability theoretical framework and studies 4 on mining issues and the involvement of local development actors across the field survey, we identify five key dimensions of sustainability of mining countries. In that way, we identified two additional dimensions: a transverse dimension and governance, political and institutional dimension. The three traditional dimensions of SD are included: the economic dimension, the environmental dimension and the social dimension.The economic dimension of the SIMC is declined into four indicators: (i) Resource exploitation Profitability Indicator (RPI) is defined as the ratio measured by mining revenues paid to the state and local authorities, the amount of social achievements for the benefit of local people and net 5 profits of mining companies in the country. (ii) Household Purchasing Power Indicator (PPI) is calculated from the evolution of the country's household income and the evolution of inflation rate in the country. (iii) Rural Development Indicator (RDI): the rural sector (agriculture and livestock) has been identified as a sector that employs more labor force of the country and is able to replace the mining sector after the exhaustion of the resource. It is also a structuring sector(Irz et al. 2001). The RDI is defined as the share of the state budget and the domestic credit that feed the rural development fund and in proportion to the rural population regarding to the total population. (iv) Public debt sustainability indicator (PDSI) is set to assess the ability of the economy to cope with the state borrowing. This

  Governance, Political and Institutional (GPI) dimension is composed by five indicators related to political issues, governance, and institutions. Indeed, we have (i) the Institutional and Political Stability Indicator (IPSI) which reflects the quality and efficiency of institutions and the stability of political regimes in the country. (ii) Resource Governance Indicator (RGI) is defined to assess the resource management method in the country. The values for this indicator come from the Natural Resource Governance Institute publications. (iii) The National Sovereignty Index (NSI) is a simple average of two sub-indicators: an index of sovereignty on the exploited resource (SRI) (share of the state and national enterprises in the total shares of mining companies) and a monetary sovereignty indicator (MSI) revealing the limited degree of power of the two countries in the definition of monetary policies in favor of development of their populations[START_REF] Agbohou | Le Franc CFA et l'Euro Contre l'Afrique[END_REF][START_REF] Nubukpo | Sortir l'Afrique de la servitude monétaire[END_REF]. (iv) Corruption's Absence Indicator (CAI) based on the Transparency International publications is defined in order to reveal the level of integrity and sound management of mining rents in both countries. (v) The National Security Indicator (NSI) reflects the risk of conflict, the level of peace, human rights in the mining countries and the country's ability to deal with these contingencies. One of resource curse's manifestations is the permanent conflicts in areas with mining activities[START_REF] Auty | Resource Abundance and Economic Development[END_REF][START_REF] Hugon | Le rôle des ressources naturelles dans les conflits armés africains[END_REF][START_REF] Van Der Ploeg | Natural Resources: Curse or Blessing?[END_REF][START_REF] Busse | The Resource Curse Revisited: Governance and Natural Resources[END_REF].

11

  Min-max is defined by 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 -𝑉𝑉 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 -𝑉𝑉 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚 with 𝑉𝑉 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 and 𝑉𝑉 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚 the maximum and minimum values of the sample. The reader can refer to Dialga and Le (2016) for critical review.

  showing a preference and indifference relation respectively for entities j and k . The final score of the various possible rankings derived from the sum of the pairwise comparison scores 13 .

Figure 2 -

 2 Figure 2-The Burkina Faso and Niger SIMC score variance decomposition

  k p are respectively the normalized initial variables and the composite score.

Figure 4 -

 4 Figure 4-The Burkina Faso SIMC, HDI and HSDI 2015 scores

  rule has been extended to take into account the specific characteristics of the countries studied: the States who are holders of the exhaustible resources are not those who exploit dichotomy between operators and the exploited resource owners renders the[START_REF] Hartwick | Projet aurifère de banfora, Burkina Faso, étude d'impact environnemental et social[END_REF] rule inapplicable. The expansion of this theoretical framework has identified five dimensions of sustainable development. These dimensions are then declined into indicators. The so-called "Budget Allocation Process-BAP" weighting technique is used to aggregate the CI. The BAP method gives a professional legitimacy and local acceptability of the CI to actors involved in its construction process. The relevance and scientific validity of the approach have been proven by consistency tests. The method of geometric aggregation was deemed relevant in relation to its relevance to the theoretical framework of the index.

  theoretical framework. The author considers that the countries which rely heavily on rents from the extraction of non-

	renewable resources can register on a sustainable development dynamic called weak
	sustainability. The author develops a rule of that weak sustainability, which stipulates that
	countries with exhaustible natural resources can be on a sustainable path as soon as all the
	rents from the extraction of non-renewable resource are reinvested in reproducible capital
	such as physical capital (machines), and social capital (education, health, institutions,
	governance).

  The respondents access each indicator identified by assigning a value of appreciation (see Survey form in appendix) corresponding to the relative importance of the issue in terms of sustainable development that the indicator represents. As the SIMC aims to access the sustainability at country level, it is necessary to ensure the representativeness of the study sample. Burkina

	I	t	t	n 0	t a 1 (	t ) I r	t	t	n 0	t a	I	t	1 (	r	)	t
	Raymond (2000); Field, Kirchain, and Clark (2000); Levine, Gloria, and Romanoff (2007)
	and Sba-Ecosys-Cedres (2011) whose studies refer to the environmental cumulative
	damages, we define a computable function as follows:

Faso with 17.8 million in 2014, 53% of population is women, 46.2% are young i.e., less than 15 years old. 86% of people live in rural areas and engaged in two main sectors: agriculture and livestock 8 . In Niger, 50.6% of people (17.12 million people in 2014) are women. Young people represent 49.2% of the total population and 79% of Nigerien live in rural areas and do, as main activity, land work. These statistics help us to calibrate our sample.

Secondary data come from both national, international statistics institutes and mining companies' reports 9 . The main sources mobilized are: Burkina Faso Statistics and Demographic National Institute, Niger National Statistic Institute, Statistic department of Mine, Petroleum Ministry, Ministry of Economics and Finance of both countries. The international statistic institutes are mainly African Development bank, World Bank, Revenue Watch Institute, Statistical Yearbook, UNPD, UNESCO, UNICEF, Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, Transparency International, Perspectives Monde, Economist Intelligence Unit and IMF.

The environmental data are estimated. Using mining companies' yearly reports,

Leduc and

Table 5

 5

	, are neutral in units'

Table 1 -Summary of BAP weighting method

 1

							Environment&
		Political	Sharing	of	Future needs	sustainable
		stability&	wealth	from	(children'	s	management of	Rural	Children live
	Education &health	governance	growth	Actual needs	future)		mines	development	conditions	Employ
	Obs. 164	164	164	164	164		164	164	164	164
	Min 0.026	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.020		0.000	0.000	0.022	0.022
	Mean 0.126	0.119	0.104	0.090	0.119		0.100	0.106	0.118	0.118
	Median 0.126	0.119	0.104	0.090	0.119		0.100	0.106	0.118	0.118
	Mode 0.200	0.111	0.111	0.111	0.111		0.111	0.111	0.111	0.111
	Max 0.237	0.209	0.209	0.250	0.222		0.210	0.179	0.231	0.205
	t. Deviation 0.227	0.035	0.036	0.038	0.040		0.027	0.040	0.033	0.030
	Consistency index: 0.000

Table 2 -The Burkina Faso and Niger SIMC score and their associated Resources Profitability Index

 2

		SIMC 2010	RPI 2010	SIMC 2015	RPI 2015
	Burkina Faso	0.348	0.053	0.357	0.0096
	Niger	0.285	0.013	0.298	0.029

Table 3 -The Loss Information Measure according the Weighting and aggregating technique 15

 3

	Weighting	Equal		BAP		PCA
	Aggregation	Burkina Faso Niger	Burkina Faso Niger	Burkina Faso	Niger
	Linear	0.376	0.306	0.374	0.318	0.283	0.230
		(0.180)	(0.118) (0.151)	(0.083)	(0.171)	(0.121)
	Geometric	0.352		0.355	0.304	0.262	0.218
		(0.156)	(0.106) (0.135)	(0.077)	(0.152)	(0.098)
	Non-compensatory	0.800	0.200	0.754	0.245	0.978	0.022
		(0.706)	(1.283) (0.621)	(0.989)	(0.995)	(4.453)

  development CIs: the UNDP's HDI and the[START_REF] Togtokh | Time to Stop Celebrating the Polluters[END_REF] Human Sustainable Development Index (IDHS). The choice of both indices for the analysis of possible links with the SIMC is motivated by two main reasons. First, the HDI remains a development benchmark index even if it is partial. Second, it is an index for which the ranking covers our two countries in the study; this allows us to have data to conduct the test. We retain the Togtokh (2011) HSDI for his expanded vision of development which is close to the SIMC. Togtokh (2011) provides a "more complete" human development index with four dimensions by adding to the traditional HDI, an environmental dimension measured by CO2 emissions per capita. As the HDI, this index covers several countries, including Burkina Faso and Niger. For purposes of reasonable comparisons, the selected SIMC values for the correlation test are those obtained by simple geometric mean.

Table 4 -Correlation test between SIMC, HDI and HSDI

 4

		SIMC	HDI	HSDI
	SIMC	1,0000
	HDI	0,979***	1,0000
	HSDI	0,980***	1,0000***	1,0000
	*** denotes statistically significant correlation coefficients at the 1% level.
	The correlation test summarized in Table 4 shows that the three development indices are
	highly correlated. In addition, the correlation coefficients are statistically significant. What
	suggests this test? The strong correlation between SIMC, HDI and HSDI must be interpreted
	as redundant measurements of development translates by the new index or should it be
	interpreted as the capacity of the three indices to grasp the same development challenges in
	these countries with different conceptual frames? By definition, such strong correlations
	between the three composite indexes mean they translate the same concept of development.
	However, it is clearly to see that the SIMC is a richer index in terms of its conceptual
	enlargement including Governance, Political and Institutional dimension and a transverse
	dimension.

In the[START_REF] Brundtland | [END_REF] report, this vision establishes that development is said sustainable when it allows the satisfaction of basic needs for the present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

According to the Natural Resource Governance Institute, a country is said mining country when the income from the exploitation of mining resources contributes to at least 25% to the GDP of the country, or export revenues or the Budget of the State. From this criterion, Burkina Faso and Niger are mining countries insofar as the gold mining contributes to the export earnings of the country to the tune of 62.77% and 58% in budget of the State. In Niger, the mining of uranium provides 80% of the state budget. This contribution represents 70% of export earnings according to statistic institutions of both countries.

They are called candidate indicators in the sense that after the field survey, we reframe the initial set of indicators. During this realignment, we eliminate the indicators deemed irrelevant by the stakeholders. We also undertake a restatement of some initial indicators when these are not easily understood by the involved stakeholders.

Reader can find more details on mining case studies in[START_REF] Carney | Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: What Contribution Can We Make? Papers Presented at the Department for International Development's Natural Resources Advisers' Conference[END_REF];[START_REF] Hausmann | An Alternative Interpretation of the 'Resource Curse': Theory and Policy Implications[END_REF];[START_REF] Hugon | Le rôle des ressources naturelles dans les conflits armés africains[END_REF];[START_REF] Hilson | Once a Miner, Always a Miner': Poverty and Livelihood Diversification in Akwatia, Ghana[END_REF];Andersen and Aslaksen (2008); Van der Ploeg (2011); Arezki, Gylfason, and Sy (2012);[START_REF] Jensen | Resource Wealth and Political Regimes in Africa[END_REF];[START_REF] Auty | Resource Abundance and Economic Development[END_REF];[START_REF] Chen | The Inequality of Natural Resources Consumption and Its Relationship with the Social Development Level Based on the Ecological Footprint and the Hdi[END_REF];[START_REF] Papyrakis | The Resource Curse Hypothesis and Its Transmission Channels[END_REF];[START_REF] Bolt | Where Is the Wealth of Nations? : Measuring Capital for the 21st Century[END_REF]; Sba-Ecosys-Cedres (2011); Reed, Fraser, and[START_REF] Dougill | An Adaptive Learning Process for Developing and Applying Sustainability Indicators with Local Communities[END_REF];[START_REF] Kaufmann | Governance Matters VIII: Aggregate and Individual Indicators, 1996-2008[END_REF];[START_REF] Brollo | The Political Resource Curse[END_REF];[START_REF] Frankel | The Natural Resource Curse: A Survey[END_REF]; Oxfam (2013);[START_REF] Geiregat | Des richesses trop abondantes?" Fonds monétaire internationale[END_REF];[START_REF] Bardhan | Corruption and Development Policy (Drawing Upon the Recent Indian Debate)[END_REF][START_REF] Dialga | Du boom minier au Burkina Faso, opportunité de développement ou risques de péril pour des générations futures ?[END_REF].

The turnover of mining companies deducted from taxes, amortization of mining investment, interest rates of loan repayment, the amount of social achievements made by mining companies.

Green investment refers to investment in cleanup technologies, resource optimization used in the mining extraction, wastewater treatment, alternative technology to cyanide and mercury, etc.

Primary data: data from field survey; Secondary data: data compiled by national or international institutions or statistical data from government administrations.

Data sources: National Institute of Statistics and Demography (NISD-Burkina), NIS-Niger

[START_REF] Gold | Projet aurifère Kiaka, Burkina Faso, Etude d'impact environnemental et social, rapport final[END_REF]; SOMAIR-Société des Mines de l'Aïr (2012); SOMINA-Société des Mines d'Azélik (2014); COMNAK-Compagnie Minière d'Akouta (2012); Plan African Minerals LTD (2014); SEMAFO Burkina SA (2013); Midas Gold Sarl (2013); Endeavour mining-Avion Gold Burkina Sarl (2014); Bissa Gold SA (2014); Ampella Mining Limited (2013); IAM Gold Essakan SA (2013); Gryphon Minerals Limited (2014).

For a full and detail description of this method seeMunda and Nardo (2009).

We report in this table, composite scores from the different methods of aggregation and weighting and the corresponding values of the LIM in parentheses. Highlighted values indicate the optimum combination for each country

Source: Author

The variance decomposition applied to data of our study is highlighted by Figure 2. The dimension of economics Governance, Politics and Institutions and the transverse dimension explain the SIMC's variability (62.72%) both in Burkina Faso and Niger. Then, the social and environmental dimensions contribute 19.96% and 17.32% respectively. These differentiated contributions highlighted by the CI's total variance decomposition, consolidate our choice of differentiated weighting. However, this statistical evidence contrasts with the choices made by stakeholders from both surveyed countries which provide a first-rate importance to the social dimension and the Governance, Political and Institutional dimension firsly; the economic, environmental and transverse ones come in last position.

Sensitivity analysis by changing the aggregating and weighting methods

The baseline is the composite score built from the geometric method of aggregation and BAP weighting technique. The Figure 3 shows the variations of the SIMC scores relative to its benchmark. Apart from the non-compensatory aggregation method, the index scores are relatively stable regardless of whether the aggregation-weighting system considered. Indeed, there is a certain stability of the composite score if we admit a fluctuation band of plus or minus 6% around the reference value of the composite score. These small changes are certainly due to some differences in the weighting systems. For example, there is no significant difference in score between the geometric-equal-weighted aggregation method and the baseline. Similarly, we Referring to the themes listed 1 to 9 in the first page of the questionnaire, you are requested to wear your judgment in terms of "more important than" by comparing issues by pair. Example: if you believe that "the future of your children" (theme 5) is more important than "political stability and governance" (Theme 2), you will enter the number 5 in the case of intersection between column 5 and line 2 of the table.

Survey form

This questionnaire aims to gather the opinions of citizens on the development of their country in connection with the country's mining resources exploitation. We guarantee the anonymity of the collected responses and their exclusive use in the context of this research.

I.

Respondent characteristics (check the boxes that apply to you)

III. ''Candidate'' indicators assessment

In connection with mining, what do you seems important for an harmonious development and for future generations? You are requested to rank the topics listed below between 0 and 9 according to the importance you place on each of these topics knowing 0 means "not at all important" and 9 "quite important".

Note: Several themes can have the same importance.