Jonas Stein

Jérémie Poiroux

Camille Roth

USER CONFINEMENT ON TWITTER: WHERE STRUCTURAL AND SEMANTIC COMMUNITIES INTERSECT

Results

• Visual drawing of graphs suggest structurally

• Conversations with fewer structural communities tend to have stronger intersections of structural and semantic communities (#afd, #trump)

• Users in structural communities with many intersecting semantic communities tend to have lower snc (communities B, C in #spahn and #merkel)

• The ARI overlap is greater in conversations where intersections between structural and semantic communities are visually apparent (#afd, #trump)

Discussion

• Controversial conversations spark strong structural-semantic intersection: #trump, #afd ➢ Test hypothesis with larger graphs and different conversations for better generalizability ➢ Enhance NLP tools for semantic community detection ➢ Explore qualitative notion of semantic communities for improved understanding

• snc as a nouvel approach to measure semantic confinement and polarization in social networks ➢ Outline and analyze snc for extended neighborhoods

Aims & scope

Online communities typically feature clusters, be it social (interactional) or semantic (informational), which often significantly overlap [START_REF] Adamic | The political blogosphere and the 2004 US election: divided they blog[END_REF][START_REF] Baltzer | Interactional and Informational Attention on Twitter[END_REF][START_REF] Garimella | Quantifying controversy on social media[END_REF]. Several studies show and use the existence of such overlap, mainly to semantically map the areas of a given social network for a specific case study. Yet, the variety of the configurations of this kind of overlap and the extent to which structural clusters match semantic ones and vice versa [START_REF] Ding | Community detection: Topological vs. topical[END_REF] remains understudied. Focusing on several Twitter topic-induced networks, we examine the variation of the socio-semantic overlap, both at a macro-level (overlap between clusters in terms of nodes) and at a micro-level (overlap between neighborhoods of individual nodes).

  Spatialization of structural communities using ForceAtlas2 in Gephi. In the middle: Sankey graph for intersections of structural (left, capital letters) and semantic communities (right, roman numerals). Numbers indicate users per community. On the right: Frequency distributions (absolute) for semantic neighborhood confinement (snc) of users in structural communities.

Data

Tweets from 4,631 German Twitter users during March 2020 mentioning "corona" or "covid". We choose nine distinct conversations by assigning each of the most popular hashtags in the sample to one conversation. For each conversation:

• the structural network is a directed graph of unweighted follower-followee relationships between users • the semantic network is an undirected graph of weighted tweet links (cosine similarity of word co-occurrences for a user's aggregated tweets)

Method

• structural and a semantic partitions through unsupervised community detection (Louvain [START_REF] Blondel | Fast unfolding of communities in large networks[END_REF])

• spatialized structural graphs and their communities with the ForceAtlas2 algorithm [START_REF] Jacomy | ForceAtlas2, a continuous graph layout algorithm for handy network visualization designed for the Gephi software[END_REF] • intersection of structural and semantic communities using Sankey flow diagrams

• frequency distributions of user's semantic neighborhood confinement (snc) ○ users with structural neighbors of exclusively the same (resp. another) semantic community have an snc of 100 percent (resp. 0 percent)

• Adjusted Rand index (ARI) [START_REF] Hubert | Comparing partitions[END_REF][START_REF] Rand | Objective criteria for the evaluation of clustering methods[END_REF] as overall measure of intersection/overlap between structural and semantic partitions Sunbelt 2020 -Poster Session II -July 15. This poster has been made within the ERC socsemics project by the computational social science team at Centre Marc Bloch in Berlin.


Minab Abas

Hormuz Jask

Larak

Rudbar Kahnuj

Berentin

Strait of Hormuz

singular, while North Bashkardi agrees with Persian (P) in having postvocalic lenited stops and pronominal clitics (see 2.2.2.) where the plural is derived from the singular (e.g. PC1PL P =mān, NBš =mōn).

Noteworthy instances of both North and South Bashkardi agreeing with Balochi include the present stem for 'do', which is kan-as in Balochi, thus diverging from both Persian (kun-, Old Persian kunau-) and Parthian (kar-); 9 as well as the verb 'sit down', which is PRS nen-/ PST nešt (Bal. nind-/ ništ) vs. P nišīn-/ nišast and Parthian nišīδ-/ nišast. 10 This suggests the possibility that "Bashkardi" is not a genetic entity, but the result of a small linguistic area where Ir. varieties of various origins have come together. A Balochi element would not be surprising, given that Balochi is spoken in and around the area.

Evidence for language contact with Turkic -although otherwise abundant in many parts of the Iranian plateau -has not been detected so far. 8 [iii] This map is a slightly revised version of the one published in Korn (2017: 80). 9 [iv] This feature has been held to be one of the isoglosses differentiating South Western Iranian (Persian and closely related varieties) from North Western Iranian (Parthian, Kurdish, Balochi, Caspian languages etc.). These isoglosses hail from the dialectal differences observed by Tedesco (1921) and others in the Manichean fragments (differentiating Middle Persian from Parthian) which have been held to be valid as isoglosses for the subgrouping of Western Iranian. This is methodologically highly problematic (see the discussion in Korn 2016: 406-411) as some features mentioned by Tedesco are not suitable as isoglosses, while other potential characteristics have been disregarded because they do not constitute a difference between Middle Persian and Parthian. Also, there are features where Western Iranian shows more than two outcomes, as is the case of the present stem of the verb 'do'. 10 [v] For details about this verb, see sentences ( 2) and ( 14) of the text.

Elements of Bashkardi grammar

The following notes limit themselves to those parts of the grammar of North Bashkardi (NBš) needed for understanding the text and what is not clear from the glosses or from the reader's knowledge of Persian.

2.1. Phonology 2.1.1. As in many other minority languages of Iran, the (historically) short vowels /i/ and /u/ are pronounced as e, o as in Persian.

Historical /ā/ is likewise pronounced as in Persian; I am noting it as å. Characteristic of North Bashkardi is a fronting of historical /ō, ū/ to ü, and a diphthongisation of /ū/ to ue and of /ī, ē/ to ie. 11 This is also the case in our text, but there is a certain amount of variation, and variants with monophthong occur, too (cf. e. g. the variation har-čie / har-čī 'anything' in ( 22) and ( 23)). 12 I am not sure at present whether vowel length is distinctive; for the time being, I am marking vowels as long where this would be expected historically (and where I hear them as long), except in the cases just mentioned (which all reflect historical long vowels). ' (14) in our text (Bal. ōd(ā), Avestan auuaδa). 13 Loanwords are adjusted to the phonology of Bashkardi. For instance, Arabic/Persian q is rendered by k, as in karz (P qarẓ) 'loan' in (24), kabūl (P qabūl) 'acceptance' in (26) and mantaka (P manṭaqa) 'region' in (3). 14 2.1.3. Nasal vowels also occur; they are allophones of the corresponding combination of vowel + n. To some extent, the distribution is as might be expected, i.e. mon 'I' if a vowel follows and mõ elsewhere (see (3)-( 4)), but there is a certain amount of variation here as well (mõ also occurs in front of a vowel, see in ( 8) and (11). 15 [p. 304] Another phenomenon that may be described as sandhi is the variation of forms with wordfinal consonant if a vowel follows, but without elsewhere. This is the case for tou / tour (in četou 'how' (46)), ha / hast 'exists' and some of the verb endings (see Table 2), e.g. yåw a-yårand a-dah-an in (16) 'they bring water [and] give [it to me]', with the full form of the ending being triggered by the following vowel. The same applies to a-kan-t (19) vs. a-kan (47) 'he does' (see also 2.3.1.).

In some words, the expected final consonant seems to be dropped generally in har-ka (P har-kas) 'anyone'. 11 [vi] While fronting of ū to ü is found in Ir. languages in contact with Turkic such as Zazaki and Caucasian Tat, it also occurs in some others such as Sistani (cf. Okati, Ahangar & Jahani 2009), and the ī systematically found for ū in some of Southern Balochi is likely to have developed via ü as well. A diphthongisation of Ir. ē, ō (but not of ī, ū) to ie, ue, respectively, is also found in some Bal. varieties, viz. in the so-called Lashari dialect (spoken in and around Iranshahr and Bampur), and, according to Okati (2012: 127-133, 210-212) in Khash. 12 [vii] Such a variation in a dialect that in principle has these diphthongs is also noted by Okati (2012: 127-133) for the Bal. variety of Khash. 13 [viii] Such a change is also found in Taleshi and Caucasian Tat. For a survey of the phenomenon in Ir. languages in general, see Ėdel'man (2006). 14 [ix] The same phenomenon is found in Balochi, and in a number of Turkic languages. 15 [x] There is also a variant ma (42).

Nouns, pronouns and alignment 16

2.2.1. As in Persian, there is no distinction of case and gender. Directional prepositions (NBš a, ei 'to') may be used to mark the direct and indirect object in the PRESENT and the PAST domains (see below). There is also a directional marker -å (not occurring in our text). However, these are used only occasionally, and many nouns and pronouns are unmarked in any syntactic role. 17 The ezafe (EZ) is frequently used, but there are also instances without ezafe, particularly when the possessor is a pronoun (cf. dast=e mon (4) vs. dast mon (6) hand(=EZ) I 'my hand' and manzel mon (27) 'my home').

As in other Ir. languages, there is a clitic =ī (also =ie in our text), which I call "marker of specificity" for the purposes of Bashkardi. 18 2.2.2. Except for the occasional use of the elements just mentioned, the [intransitive] subject, [transitive] agent and patient are all unmarked, i.e. there is neutral alignment.

In the PAST domain (i.e. in clauses with a verb form based on the past stem), which historically had ergative alignment, the pronominal clitics / enclitic pronouns (which historically are forms in the oblique case) are used very frequently referring to the agent of a transitive verb in the PAST domain, even if the agent is also expressed by a noun phrase. However, this is not as systematic as in Sorani, where, as argued by Jügel,19 the clitics have developed into subject agreement.

In the PRESENT domain (clauses with a verb form derived from the present stem), the pronominal clitics may be used for the direct or indirect object. As in Balochi, certain frequent verbs have a 3 rd singular ending -t instead of -e(t), 20 of which a-kan-t 'does' is found in our text (see also 2.1.3.). 2.3.2. Similar to the nominal system, affixes are not used entirely systematically in the verbal system. As in Middle Persian, Parthian and the more archaic Balochi varieties, the unprefixed present stem may be used in present-future and modal functions. 16 [xi] See Korn (2017) for more details about the nominal system of Bashkardi. 17 [xii] This is one of the crucial differences between the Bashkardi of 1956 and of today, where, judging by the material quoted in Seddiqi Nejad (2010), definite direct objects are regularly marked (probably on the model of P =rå), either by -a or by the preposition ba. 18 [xiii] This term refers to the stage III of the grammaticalisation chain of a numeral 'one' into an article suggested by Heine (1997: 72f.); at this stage, the element introduces new entities into the discourse, and marks participants known to the speaker, but not to the hearer and expected to be mentioned again; its use is confined to singular countable nouns. 19 [6] Jügel (2009: 152-156). 20 [xiv] For this phenomenon, see Gershevitch (1970).

A prefix a-(glossed IPFV) may be used to mark a form as present (going on in this moment, or occurring habitually). The prefix is also found on forms where from a Persian perspective one would expect a subjunctive; in our text, this is the case e.g. in sentence (40). It seems possible to me that there are two prefixes a-with different etymologies, one marking aspect and the other one marking mood.

The (stressed) prefix be-(glossed IRR because it is used for both the subjunctive and the imperative as in Persian) is also found on modal forms. There is also a progressive; it is based on the infinitive and likewise has a prefix a-; 21 it is rare and does not occur in our text, surely because its function is to express something that is going on right here and now, for which there is no context in our text. 22 The negative prefix na-and the prohibitive ma-likewise attract the accent. na-in combination with the prefix a-yields nå-in North Bashkardi (see ( 26)), but a-n-in South Bashkardi.

2.3.3. Unlike Persian, but like Balochi and many other Ir. languages, there is no verb 'to have' in Bashkardi, and possession is expressed by a construction 'to/for me X exists' for 'I have X'. 23 In Bashkardi, the construction typically uses the pronominal clitics indicating the possessor, and the existential verb hast / ha 'exists' (negated: nī / nie 'does not exist') as predicate. Our text presents several instances of this construction: (10), ( 20), ( 25), ( 36), (39), and ( 47)-(48).

Text 24

Introduction

Unlike some other interviewees, who were intimidated by having to talk to a 1950s-style tape recorder (probably the first they saw in their lives), and the presence of a foreigner, and did not quite know what to say, the present speaker does not seem to feel uncomfortable in the unusual setting. He might be speaking more slowly than he usually would, but his speech is coherent throughout the text and largely without pause or false starts.

Judging from the confident voice, and the way he would expect to be treated when staying with someone as their guest, the speaker is a high-rank person. The name Mir Haji Kamrani on Gershevitch's list of tracks on his tapes appears to refer to him, the two elements Mir and Haji confirming his high status (see also 4.2. below). [p. 306] If the speaker is Mir Haji Kamrani, the place of recording is Rameshk by Gershevitch's list of tracks on his tapes.

We do not know who was present in the moment of recording aside from the speaker and Ilya Gershevitch. Given that the speaker seems to be a high-ranking person, one might expect that members of his household and/or other inhabitants of the village were present. The use of the pronoun 'you.PL' in (46) could imply that Lisbeth Gershevitch was likewise present (see note in 4.2. E.).

[xv]

The prefix might be identical to the aspect-marking a-, or to the directional preposition a (see 2.2.1.). The latter solution is suggested by a parallel progressive found in South Bashkardi, whose prefix be-is particularly likely to be a directional preposition (see Korn & Suleymanov 2017). This form would then be parallel to progressives / inchoatives based on locational constructions ("be in the situation of doing sth. / enter the situation…"). Such patterns are called "Turkic-type [p. 323] locative progressive" by Windfuhr (2009: 26) and are indeed particularly common in Ir. (and non-Ir.) languages of NW Iran and Azerbaijan (Vafaeian 2018: 141-198), but also occur in Ir. languages outside the area such as Bashkardi. 22 [xvi] This account differs from previous descriptions (Skjaervø 1989b: 848), which call the progressive "continuous present tense" and do not discuss the functions of the prefixed vs. unprefixed forms. 23 [xvii] This is the inherited situation for Indo-European languages (where any verb 'to have' is a secondary development), and it is common in many other languages. In Turkic languages, the possessor is typically in the genitive (or expressed by a possessive pronoun, but the dative is possible in certain contexts, and there are also structures with the possessor in the locative+ (Irina Nevskaya, p.c.). 24 [xviii] The text is no. NBš_B3t27.2 in our numbering (track 27, min. 2:30ff. of soundfile). The "min. 3:55" noted in Korn (2017: 97) is an error.

Glossed text

The section titles "A." etc. divide the text into the various phases of the imagined situation (see 4.2. for socio-cultural comments on these).

Overall, the speaker articulates rather clearly, but he hardly makes a pause, and the intonation is rather even. Sentence boundaries are thus not always clear, and alternatives to the ones I have chosen are certainly possible.

The glosses cite the general meaning of a given word rather than a specific meaning in the given context; an exception to this are items that are used in more than one word class (e.g. sar, which is a noun 'head' and an adverb/preposition 'on').

A. The text is overall narrated in the present. As it presents a hypothetical situation, the verb forms (most of them with prefix a-, see 2.3.2.) cannot refer to something occurring here and now, but can be interpreted as habitual, or as a prototypical situation. Specifically in the section on the roasting of the goat kid, however, the amount of detail given rather suggests a "real" present tense, even if the situation is hypothetical.

1
Several examples of the post-ergative construction occur (see 2.2.2.); they use the pronominal clitic to refer to the agent (30)-( 32).

[p. 312]

Notes for individual sentences:

(2) • As in Persian, ke may introduce all types of subordinates and also quoted speech, and it is enclitic (as is Turkish and Azeri ki), i.e. if the subordinate clause precedes the main clause, ke is placed after the first element.

• The verb 'sit down' is PRS nen-/ PST nešt in Bashkardi and Balochi (PRS nind-/ PST ništ, nist), see 1.2. The PST is likely to derive from the zero-grade form *ni-šd-ta-25 while P nišast goes back to the full grade (*ni-šad-ta-). For the present stem, see ( 14).

(3) • For mantaka see 2.1.2.

• gozer means 'big' and is derived from *wazṛka-, thus a cognate of P buzurg, by Gershevitch. 26 The implication here obviously is that the speaker is considered to be of high position, even if it is not clear whether 'big' is meant to refer to a certain office (one is tempted to think of P gazīr 'vazir, superintendent, collector of revenue'). See (40) for another development of *wa-.

(4) • Note that dast 'hand' vs. Avestan zasta-(Sanskrit hasta-) does not say anything about the sub-branch of Iranian a given language belongs to: dast is also used in Ir. languages for which one would expect zast, viz. in Parthian, Kurmanji, Balochi etc., vs. the distribution of z/d e.g. in zān-vs. P dān-'know'. It is obvious that the Persian form was indeed borrowed into neighbouring languages (including non-Ir. ones), but a form with d-is also implied by East Iranian (Sogdian δst-, Pashto lās etc.) and Nuristani (Ashkun dust etc.) languages,27 and it seems unlikely that all these languages have borrowed the Persian form. Some specific phenomenon thus seems to have taken place in this word, e.g. a dissimilation *dzasta-> *dast-or *zasta-> *dast-. 28 (5) • The PC =ah is only faintly audible.

(6) • Note the variation dast=e mon in (4) and the form without EZ here (similarly manzel mon in ( 29)), cf. 2.2.1.

• The function of the =e in mon=e is not quite clear. If it is SPC or PC, the sense might be roughly 'the one who kisses my hand, [I don't do anything particular to him]'. Alternatively, it might be a variant of the prefix a-for the following verb.

• hamå probably refers to the man (contrastive focus) whom the speaker meets (hamå then the subject of the sentence) rather than to the hand ('he kisses that hand [of mine]').

(7) • The PRS of 'give' is deh-or dah-(see ( 16)) in Bashkardi as in Persian; the form expected for Persian from Ir. *dadā-, viz. day-, may be seen in Balochi. 29 • wur deh-(lit. 'out/up give') usually means 'throw', and with regard to the intonation, the sentence appears to belong with what follows rather than with the preceding sentence. I assume that this complex predicate is meant more literally here as 'add (put on)'.

(10) • For ha 'exists', see 2.1.3. This is the first instance of the possessive construction ('to X is Y' = 'X has Y', see 2.3.3.) in our text. [p. 313] (11) • For nie 'does not exist', see 2.1.3.

• Note the variation of the SPC, which is =ī here, but =ie in (5), (6), etc.

(14) • The present stem of 'sit down' nen-(see (2) for the PST) might be from Ir. *ni-šnd-, 30 showing the change šn > n(n) typical for Balochi (e.g. *turšn > tunn 'thirst' vs. P tišna 'thirsty'), and (in Bashkardi) a subsequent change nd > n that recalls a parallel change in Manichean Middle Persian (band-'bind' > MPM benn-). 31 • For PRS kan-'do', see 1.2.

• As in Persian and other Ir. languages, sar 'head' is also used as an adverb ('up') and a preposition ('on'); I understand sar kan-in the sense of P sar kardan 'begin' and assume that the hosts start the water pipe and then give it to the guest.

• For ham-orå cf. yerå 'here', rendering Old Ir. *d with r (Avestan auuaδa, iδa, Balochi ōd(ā), idā), see 2.1.2.

(15) • It is possible that this sentence describes the tradition of offering water to a guest in general while the repetition in ( 16) refers to the actual (even if hypothetic) situation.

(16) • yåw 'water' (South Bš yåp) shows an unetymological y-; such a y-is also found in the Lāšārī dialect of Balochi 32 (y-āp).

(17) • Note the water being treated as PL as it would be in Balochi.

• The vocalic element a, which I had interpreted as a directional preposition marking the definite direct object 33 now rather sounds like a false start to me, removing the evidence of marking of an inanimate direct object by a preposition in the 1956 data.

(19) • The 'or' might perhaps mean: Depending on the time of the day, they will say one or the other.

• For čåšt, cf. P čāšt 'time between sunrise and midday; meal eaten at this time of the day', Armenian čaš 'breakfast'; for nåštå, cf. P nāsitā 'fasting, breakfast'.

• For kan-t 'does', see 2.1.3.

(20) • Considering the 2PL verb forms in the next sentence, biečåra-ūn 'helpless' appears to be meant as an address. Why the speaker says so is not clear to me, maybe his idea is that they are not obliged to offer him a costly meal, which would agree with the various indications that he is of very high rank.

(22) • For har-ka 'anyone', see 2.1.3.

(23) • Note the variation har-čī / har-čie 'anything' similar to the variation of the SPC =ie/ī noted for (11).

(24) • For karz 'debt' see 2.1.2.

• The inherited prohibitive prefix ma-used on imperatives (see also ma-koš 'don't kill' in ( 29)) is preserved in Bashkardi (as in Balochi) while it is no longer used in Persian. The subjunctive uses the normal negation prefix na-, as in (37). [p. 314] • a-bie is used here in a sentence of conditional meaning ('if you borrow money, you will / would become wretched'), see 2.2.2.

(25) • šīr 'milk' is often also used for dairy products such as yoghurt.

• båkliek are broad beans; in Balochi, they are called bā(n)klē(n)k / bā(n)klī(n)k, with unetymological nasals 34 vs. P bāqilā'.

• The meaning of naīnz is unknown to me; considering the series 'milk/yoghurt, X, beans, chicken', it might refer to cheese or to vegetables.

(26) • For kabūl 'acceptance' see 2.1.2.

• For nå-see 2.3.2.

(27) • Note åht 'came' vs. yåw 'water' ( 15)-( 17) with unetymological y-. The past stem of 'come' recalls Balochi āht / āxt / ātk and is likely to go back to *ā-gata-as does Parthian āγad (vs. P āmad from *ā-gmata-). The perfect may be meant in a resultative sense: you have come = you are here, so you are my guest.

(28) • čapešt is a young male goat (depending on the source, up to six months or one year).

• a-koš-om 'I will kill' is a good example of the verb prefixed with a-used for the future. 32 [xxiv] See note 11 [vi] for another feature shared by the speaker's variety of North Bashkardi and the Lashari dialect of Balochi. 33 [9] Korn (2017: 87). 34 [xxv] The n in the second syllable can be due to the moderately frequent word-ending -ēnk (cf. Mahmoudzahi & Korn & Jahani 2019: 25, 27). It is unclear how the ē arose.

(29) • The verb form is not quite clear to me; the 3SG ending would be -e(t); is there maybe a combination with the PC3SG ('he kills it') involved? (30) • weid-ī 'when' reflects P waxt-ī (ke) 'when' with an irregular lenition of the consonant group as in Bal. wahd-ē (ki).

• seil kan-is a comples predicate meaning 'see, discover' which also occurs elsewhere in the recordings.

• Here, the perfect has a resultative function (as in ( 27)). ( 30)-(32) • This passage shows typical examples of the Bashkardi ergative construction with the agent being expressed by the pronominal clitic (see 2.2.2.). The use of the simple past in ( 31) might be to refer to the killing of the goat as a simple fact while the perfect in ( 30) and ( 32) could imply a resultative meaning ('since the goat is dead [anyway]…').

(33) • As in the case naīnz in the list of modest dishes in ( 25), the precise meaning of some parts of the goat kid is rather guessed from the context. Judging by the intonation, pahlū-h 'its side' is part of the list of body parts; it could refer to some insides or meat parts (the meanings of P pahlū do include 'ribs, loin') rather than be used as an adposition (cf. P pahlū-yi 'besides') '[what is at] its side'.

• guerak might then perhaps be other insides, potentially the kidneys, maybe a cognate of P gurda, even if Voskanian & Boyajian-Sureniants35 have NBš. gordeg and South Bš. bok for 'kidney', the latter somewhat recalling Turkish böbrek, but probably from Ir. *wṛdka-even if the b-is unexpected (cf. verx < *wṛka-'wolf'36 ),37 see also ( 40) and ( 45). [p. 315] The variation guerakban here vs. guerak in ( 34) is likewise unclear (is there an element ban potentially linked to band 'bind' with a change nd > n as in nen-'sit' (14)?).

(34) • pieg (Bal. pīg) is a cognate of P pīh, Avestan pīuuah-, Sanskrit pīvas-'fat, bacon'.

• bo-patå-ie could be linked to pat-'hide' in Gershevitch's vocabulary cards (cf. maybe P patū 'woollen cloth, camlet'?), of which the form here might be a causative. Behrooz Barjasteh Delforooz remembers that traditionally, one would wrap fat around insides (P rūdahā).

(37) • na-ger-en and na-sūz-en (without a-) have subjunctive value.

(39) • tou corresponds to P tāb 'heat', tāba 'frying pan, brick'; it shows u/w corresponding to P b as in yåw 'water' (15) vs. P āb. See also 4.2.

(40) • Just like sar 'on' (see ( 14)), the preposition gwar=e is based on a body part, viz. gwar 'breast' (Avestan vahar-, Sanskrit uras-, P bar). The word shows the sound change Ir. *wa-> gwa-, which is typical for Balochi, while Persian changes wa-to ba-, e.g. Bal. gwāt 'wind' vs. P bād, Middle-Persian wād, Avestan and Sanskrit vāta-. It is not clear to me how much of the NBš. g-for Ir. *w-is due to P or Bal. loanwords, or attributable to North Bashkardi itself (see also ( 33) and ( 45)). From this word, Balochi derives a postposition gwarā 'besides' (-ā being the ending of the oblique case) while here, it is used with the ezafe in a structure parallel to P pahlū-yi (see ( 33)).

• The plural marking on kabåb-ōn might refer to the various pieces of meat and/or the insides.

• a-xwar-om is used in a construction where one would expect the subjunctive in Persian, see 2.2.2.

(45) • giešter 'more' (Bal. gēš-tir) 38 shows the Bal. sound change of word-initial w-to g-when a i/ī or ē follows while Persian has b-(P bēštar < Middle-Persian wēš), e.g. Bal. gind-'see' vs. Parthian wind-(Sanskrit vinda-), see also (40).

(46) • For če-tou, see 2.1.3.

38

(47) • aga 'if' vs. P agar need not show a loss of the final -r in Bashkardi (the word is thus not an instance of the type mentioned in 2.1.3.) since the variant aga is also found in Persian (and Balochi).

• a-kan is used here in a conditional sentence (cf. ( 24)).

Socio-cultural notes

General remarks:

In this text, the speaker presents us an account of how an encounter on the road (presumably), the greeting formalities and an invitation for a subsequent meal would typically proceed. The text gives a good picture of traditional rural customs of hospitality. The speaker "retells" a dialogue which is hypothetical in that it is not part of the current setting, but presents a prototypical situation.

The text contains some sentences that differ in style from the surrounding passages and sound formulaic to me (( 13), ( 22), ( 24)). They are difficult to understand and might be traditional sayings or proverbs. It seems that the speaker's name is Mir Haji Kamrani (see 4.1.), of which Mir and Haji are titles, and Kamrani is an adjective of appurtenance. In this sense, the name does not contain a personal (first) name. Name formulae in remote areas of Iran (and in Pakistan in general), have tended to be more [p. 316] flexible than those known in Europe, being composed of honorifics and affiliations to tribes or regions. 39 Notes for the individual parts:

A. ( 1)-( 13) Greeting I: ahwāl Without introduction, the speaker presents us with a hypothetical situation of himself meeting someone.

The dialogue that follows is a tradition called ahwāl (PL of ḥāl 'situation, news'), cf. ehwål (10) of our text and P aḥwāl-pursī 'news.PL-asking'. It serves on the one hand to exchange news in a society where traditionally communication was limited due to the remoteness of the region, and on the other hand it constitutes the opening part of meeting someone. To do this properly is an important element of traditional society in many parts of Iran. As detailed by Barker & Mengal 40 for Pakistanian Balochistan, the omission or attempt "to curtail" the exchange of greeting formula would be seen as rude. According to them, the person to start the conversation is either (a) the younger person, (b) the one who is riding, (c) or the passer-by towards someone "sitting by the roadside or to the occupants of a house or camp". 41 The latter case (and maybe also the second one) seems to fit the hypothetical situation here. For the Baloch in Karachi, Farrell (1990: 16) states that many traditional forms of greeting not used anymore, but "still greetings and enquiries after one's health can be quite extensive". 42 The part A. concludes with a sentence (13) that seems more formal than the preceding ones and appears to mean: Since you are well, all is fine. The formulation is reminiscent of an element of the introductory parts of letters in Bactrian, which incidentally provided a clue to the decipherment of Bactrian as they recall parallel parts of letters in Sogdian. 14)-( 17) Greeting II: water and tobacco According to our speaker, the next step prescribed by tradition for when one has a guest is to hand him water and tobacco. For Balochistan, Barker & Mengal note: "Once the formalities of greeting are completed, it is customary to offer the guest some refreshments, usually water, tea, etc. and a pipe of tobacco. The guest may refuse these if he wishes" 45 (scil. unlike ahwāl). Similarly, Pozdena 46 , who did [p. 317] his field-work in the Dashtiari region of Iranian Balochistan in the 1960s and 1970s, notes that water, followed by (if available) tea with milk are given to the guest after one has prepared a place for him to sit down (e.g. by spreading a mat). If there is no guest house in the village, this usually takes place next to the hut of the host or to the mosque. Thus, while part A. could take place between two people who meet (presumably on or near the road), the setting now presumably is (next to) the house of the host.

Sentence ( 16) seems to refer to the guest being greeted by other members of the household: The last clause (containing the polysemous sar 'head', see ( 14)) is an idiomatic expression 'they greet [me]'; it is also used in Balochi (Maryam Nourzaei, p.c.). According to Bakhtiar Seddiqi Nejad, the women of the family would kiss the hands of the guest, which would be in line with (4)-( 6) mentioning kissing of hands as a sign of respect. If this interpretation is correct, it is noteworthy that women are coming up to a male guest. This would be less surprising if guest is of very high rank, then more of a lord of the region than a male member of society.

C. (18)-(30) Negotiating the terms of mihmān-nawāzī

This part is particularly interesting in discussing what is expected in terms of hospitality, i.e. the tradition known as mihmān-nawāzī in Persian and Urdu.

The dialogue starts by the guest suggesting somewhat more affordable eatables that the host might have, and he mentions dairy products and beans as a possible meal, a chicken being the maximum suggested. 47 It is possible that he mentions these in order for the host being able to make an advance on his suggestion and present himself as generous.

The guest's attempts to suggest comparatively cheap food are rejected by the host ( 27), who insists on offering him a proper meal; the reasons he gives are that the guest is a high-rank person, and also the simple fact that he has come to his house, i.e. his status as a guest. To him, a proper meal seems to mean meat in the sense of P gōšt (red meat) -the chicken suggested by the guest would not do. Sentence (29) ('And whatever I say, he will kill a goat kid for me') highlights well the formalised nature of the hypothetical situation.

Sentence (22) sounds like a formulaic expression inserted into the narration. I take it to mean: a guest will accept anything that the hosts (who might be quite poor) are able to offer. There is also a Persian proverb to this effect, which is mentioned by Doulatabadi: "ein alter Spruch sagt: Alles, was im Haus ist, ist dem Gast genehm" (an old saying goes: Everything that is in the house is convenient for the guest). 48 44 [xxix] Letter xp, l. 3-5 (http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/iran/miran/baktr/baktcorp/baktc.htm, similarly in other letters, which confirm the reading given here), edition and translation Sims-Williams (2007: 162f.), my glosses. 45 [16] Barker & Mengal (1969: 215). 46 [17] Pozdena (1978: 80). 47 [xxx] Cf. Pozdena's note (1978: 80) that at simple people's homes, the meal will be bread with dried fish or beans. This seems to be to be seen in connection to (24), another formulaic-sounding sentence, 48 which is another parenthesis in the speaker's exposition of what the hosts could offer him. The point here is that one should not borrow money (or goods) in order to cater for a guest. 49 In this perspective, the speaker's 'anything you have' may be meant quite literally to limit expenses to what the hosts actually own (cf. the "everything that is in the house" just quoted). Indeed, in a folk tale recorded by Gershevitch a poor shepherd goes to his landlord to borrow money in order to feed a passing darwīš; and while one might think that the shepherd did a good deed according to the traditions of hospitality, he loses his family and house as soon as the darwīš leaves.

The guest rejecting the possibility of his host killing a sheep for him by calling this 'sin' (26) is likewise aimed at limiting the expenses the host should incur. Formulated as it is ('he (the guest) does [p. 318] not accept his (the host's) sheep', rather than 'I won't accept your sheep'), the sentence could be addressed to the listeners rather than be an element of the dialogue.

Overall, the negotiation in this part of the text reflects the conflicting norms of the host being supposed to offer the guest the best of what he has, and of treating any guest, important or not, to the best of his capacities, and the guest presenting himself as modest.

Traditional hospitality is proverbial in many parts of Iran (and elsewhere, of course), and in rural society, a host is obliged to feed and if necessary defend a guest with all the means he can command. Oral tradition e.g. in Balochi and Pashto preserves famous examples from tribal legends, but the tradition is by no means legendary only, and is still operating in remoter parts of the country if the case arises.

At the same time, tradition also provides for limits to the hosts' obligations, surely designed to avoid people getting into debt in order to fulfil social norms: Our speaker's insisting on 'anything you have', apparently implying 'any food that you actually own', and audibly stressing 'it is a sin' for the case that the host might offer a sheep seem to reflect this. As noted by Pozdena 50 , hospitality does not include anyone; a guest has to be either of high rank / tribe, or appeal to his relation to the host, even if the latter is somewhat far-fetched, such as bringing news from a relative or an acquaintance. The time one can stay and the number of meals one can expect is likewise limited (two meals and one overnight stay in Pozdena's data; if a guest stays longer, another relative or acquaintance takes over). 51

D. (31)-(40) Cooking

In this part, the speaker gives details how he wishes to have the goat kid prepared that the host killed for him according to (29)-(30).

Unlike the preceding text, which very much seems a prototypical situation imagined by the speaker for the purpose of explaining socially expected behaviour towards a guest, the amount of detail he develops here rather elaborates on how to roast a goat kid.

There is a series of insides (heart, liver, maybe kidneys and other parts) that he would like to be grilled alongside with the meat (33)-( 34); the meat is to be salted and those preparing it should make sure the pieces do not burn.

The torošī which the speaker suggests to add to the dish (36) does not refer to the pickled vegetables known in Persian as turšī, but to sour fruits such as pomegranate, which are added to meat for the sour, fruity note. 52 The speaker also wishes to have bread with his meal (38), which will be freshly made for the occasion. Incidentally, Gershevitch also recorded the same speaker explaining how various types of bread are made: taneki-bread is apparently a thin bread baked on both sides by putting it on hot stones, which are called šak or tou. As a meal on its own, it can be eaten with oil or with sugar. The speaker mentions that bread is prepared by the muelad of the household, which, judging by the Bal. word mōlid 'female servant', would refer to lower-rank female members of the household. Who exactly prepares the goat kid in our text is not mentioned. The meal concludes with dates being offered to the guest. Dates were (and still are) a major product of the region, and the date palm also provides material used in everyday life. Gerardo Barbera, who collected date palm terminology in Minab and around, states: "every part of the tree has its uses in everyday life: wood, fiber and leaves provide timber and fabric for houses and fences; the leaflets are used for making ropes, cords and baskets; and the fruit provides refreshment for people and, occasionally, food for animals throughout the year". 53 Activities connected to date farming provide the rhythm of the year, 54 and years are remembered according to whether the harvest was good or not.

The text concludes by the speaker saying that he is a date-eater while the addressee might be more of a tea-drinker. This could be addressed to Gershevitch, or maybe to him and his wife, or to the British in general represented by Gershevitch. This would explain the use of the plural pronoun šomå 'you': Unlike Persian, which uses this pronoun for polite address (similar to French vous), such a use is not usually found in the more remote minority languages such as Bashkardi and Balochi, where to 'you.SG' is employed to address a single person also in formal contexts, and in another recording, Gershevitch is addressed by to by the speaker. 55 It is not clear whether it is just this speaker who does not particularly like tea, or whether tea would be unusual for the conclusion of a meal in this region (in 1956). Note that Pozdena mentions tea as preceding the meal (see B. above).

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Region where Bashkardi is spoken 8 [p. 303]Noteworthy instances of both North and South Bashkardi agreeing with Balochi include the present stem for 'do', which is kan-as in Balochi, thus diverging from both Persian (kun-, Old Persian kunau-) and Parthian (kar-); 9 as well as the verb 'sit down', which is PRS nen-/ PST nešt (Bal. nind-/ ništ) vs. P nišīn-/ nišast and Parthian nišīδ-/ nišast.10 This suggests the possibility that "Bashkardi" is not a genetic entity, but the result of a small linguistic area where Ir. varieties of various origins have come together. A Balochi element would not be surprising, given that Balochi is spoken in and around the area.Evidence for language contact with Turkic -although otherwise abundant in many parts of the Iranian plateau -has not been detected so far.

  41)-(48) Conclusion of the meal: dates and tea

Table 1 :

 1 Vowel correspondences of Bashkardi and Persian

		(historical) long vowels		(historical) short vowels
	Middle Persian, Parthian ī ē	ā	ō	ū	i	(e)	a (o) u
	North Bashkardi

ī, ē, ie å (ō, ū /_n, m) ū, ü ū, ü, ue, ī e e, a, o o, u, e Fārsī ī ā [å] ū e e, a a o 2.1.2. Another characteristic feature of North Bashkardi is the change of postvocalic d to r, occurring e.g. in ham-orå 'there

Table 2 :

 2 North Bashkardi pronouns and verbal endings ( / copula where different)

		full pronouns	pronominal clitics endings (INFL) / COP
	SG	1 mo(n), mõ, ma	=(o/a)m	-om / =om, =un
		2 to	=(e)t	-ī; IMP -
		3 DEM1: ī/ie, hamī/hamie, hamē	=(e/a/i)h, =i, =e	-e(t), -t / =, =e, =i
		DEM2: ye, åye, å, hamå
	PL	1 må	=mōn	-īn
		2 šomå	=tōn	-ī(d) / -ie
	[p. 305] 3 DEM2: åūn, hamåōn	=šån,=šōn	-en(d), -an(d)
	2.3. Verbs
	2.3.1. The verb system is based on the opposition of the present (PRS) and the past (PST) stem,
	the latter of which triggers post-ergative alignment in the sense described in 2.2.2. The perfect is
	derived from the PST with the suffix -eh (and variants).

  PRS.3SG sour_fruit=PC3PL IRR-hit.PRS-IMP.2PL If you have torošī, add torošī to them [the insides, or the pieces of meat in general].

	če paim kan-ie ehwål=et kabåb 43 mõ čåī nå-xwar-om, a-xwar-ī ha? be-dah-ie.	såhob čåī-xwår	nah=am,
			which news=PC2SG exist.PRS.3SG ready do.PRS-IMP.2PL IRR-give.PRS-IMP.2PL grilled_meat IPFV-eat.PRS-2SG sir I tea NEG.IPFV-eat.PRS-1SG tea-drinker NEG=COP1SG
			What news do you have?" prepare [it and] give [it to me]. He says: "Now that we killed it, will you have meat, sir?" I don't drink tea; I'm not a tea-drinker.
	mõ har-čī ma 44 mõ xormå-xwår om. a-go-m: ke a-g-om:	dar, mehmōn har-ka ha, hå, hålå
			I anything SUB IPFV-say.PRS-1SG in I IPFV-say.PRS-1SG I date-eater COP1SG	guest yes	anyone exist.PRS.3SG now
			hēč xūna ke I'm a date-eater. ehwål=ī har-čī košt-e=tōn	nie ha.	kabåb	ba-ǰoz kan-ie	salåmatī;	[p. 310]
			nothing news=SPC NEG.COP.3SG except_for health house anything exist.PRS.3SG SUB kill.PST-PRF=PC2PL grilled_meat do.PRS-IMP.2PL
	I say: "There's no news except for health. Whatever [is] in [the house], [is for] whosoever [is] the guest; I say: "Yes, now that you killed it, grill it, 45 meil=e mõ giešter ba xormå ye,
			whatever [is] in the house (?). desire=EZ I more to date	COP3SG
			to del My taste rather goes to dates. ehwål=ie? o ǰager=eh,	pahlū=h,	guerakban=eh,
			you.SG news=SPC har-čie=tōn ha, heart and liver=PC3SG rib=PC3SG kidney(?)=PC3SG
	salåmon-alaikom, [What are] your news?" anything=PC2PL exist.PRS.3SG its heart and liver, its side (ribs?), its kidneys(?); 46 mels-e ke šomå če-tou čåī a-xwar-ie,
		(greeting) Whatever you have [in the house]... like SUB you.PL how tea IPFV-eat.PRS-2PL
		[When I meet someone, I will say:] "Salamun-alaikum." k' å a-go: ehwål=e bad nie o pieg=eh bo-patå-ie guerak-ōn=eh, For instance: like when you drink tea,
			SUB karz ma-kan-ie, DEM2 and fat=PC3SG IPFV-say.PRS.3SG news=EZ bad NEG.COP.3SG xwår-o-badbaxt a-b-ie IRR-wrap.PRS-IMP.2PL kidney(?)-PL=PC3SG
	2 åye ba-ǰoz debt PROH-do.PRS-IMP.2PL miserable ke nešt=a salåmatī=i åġå=m. kabåb kan-ie 47 aga čåī=tūn na-bū	a-gue:	IPFV-become.PRS-2PL ,	[p. 309]
		DEM2 except_for health=EZ sir=PC1SG SUB sit.PST=COP.PST.3SG IPFV-say.PRS.3SG -Don't borrow [from others]; you would become wretched and miserable. -grilled_meat do.PRS-IMP.2PL if tea=PC2PL NEG-become.SBJV.3SG
		alaikom-assalåm yållåh. and he says: "There's no bad news except for the health of my lord and wrap its kidneys(?) in fat [and] grill [them], sar=tūn dard a-kan.
		(greeting) (if you're fine, all is well)." (greeting) šīr=ie=tōn ha, head=PC2PL pain	naīnz=ie=tōn IPFV-do.PRS.3SG	ha,
		The one who is sitting says: "Alaikum-assalam, yallah." milk=SPC=PC2PL exist.PRS.3SG cheese(?)=SPC=PC2PL exist.PRS.3SG nemek=šūn be-zan-ie, If you don't have tea, you will get a headache.
	B.		båkliek=ie=tōn salt=PC3PL IRR-hit.PRS-IMP.2PL ha	yå murg=ie=tōn	ha,
	3 a-yå bād=ah bean=SPC=PC2PL exist.PRS.3SG or chicken=SPC=PC2PL ba råhger=e mõ nen-en ham-orå yår-en exist.PRS.3SG čelīm salt them. 48 mõ aga xormå=m na-bū
		IPFV-come.PRS.3SG to later=PC3SG ... [if] you have yoghurt, if you have cheese (?), welcome=EZ I sit_down.PRS-3PL EMPH-there bring.PRS-3PL waterpipe I if date=PC1SG NEG-become.SBJV.3SG
		ke sar a-kan-an gozer=e if you have beans, or if you have a chicken... mantaka am. dah-en aga torošī=tūn ha, torošī=šūn barå=i sar=om dard a-kan	mõ, be-zan-ie
	SUB He comes to greet me because I am in a high position. big=EZ region COP1SG 4 a-yå dast=e mon a-bues-e. on IPFV-do.PRS-3PL give.PRS-3PL for Then they sit down there, bring the water pipe, start [it and] give [it] to me, I [p. 308] yåw a-yår-and a-dah-en, guespand-ōn gonåh=ī; sheep-PL sin=SPC kabūl nå-kan åye guespand if na-ger-en, na-sūz-en head=PC1SG pain IPFV-do.PRS.3SG sour_fruit=PC2PL exist.dūt [But as for] me, if I don't have dates, I will get a headache!
	IPFV-come.PRS.3SG hand=EZ I water IPFV-bring.PRS-3PL IPFV-give.PRS-3PL IPFV-kiss.PRS-3SG acceptance NEG.IPFV-do.PRS.3SG DEM2 sheep smoke NEG-take.PRS-3PL NEG-burn.PRS-3PL 4. Commentary
		He comes [and] kisses my hand. they bring water [and] give [it to me]. [Offering] Sheep [is] a sin; he (the guest) doesn't accept his sheep." They shouldn't get smoked, they shouldn't burn,
	4.1. Linguistic notes
	5 aga ådam=e čelīm å a-gue: ya čand tå		xōb=ie a-kaš-om, bū, na, to tanekī nåzok xōb yåw åġå=i a-yår-and mon ī, ham be-kan-ie.
	if waterpipe human=EZ good=SPC become.SBJV.3SG IPFV-pull.PRS-1SG water IPFV-bring.PRS-3PL DEM2 IPFV-say.PRS.3SG no you.SG sir=EZ I COP2SG one some piece (type of bread) thin good also IRR-do.PRS-IMP.2PL General remarks:
		mõ ham a-dah-an, manzel mon Make also some pieces of nice thin Taneki-bread. badal dast=ah sar dast a-ger-en a-bues-om åht-ih=ī.
		I	also IPFV-give.PRS-3PL on exchange house I	hand=PC3SG hand come.PST-PRF=COP2SG IPFV-kiss.PRS-1SG IPFV-take.PRS-3PL
		If he is a good man, I kiss his hand in exchange. I smoke the pipe; they bring water and give [it to me]; they greet [me]. He says: "No, you are my lord, you have come to my house. aga tanūr=tōn ha, tanūrī… tanūrī,
	[p. 307] if	oven=PC2PL exist.PRS.3SG (type of bread) (type of bread)
	6 aga mon a... na, čapešt=ī tanūr=tōn kam-påya=ie yåw-on a-koš-om nie,	bū, a-xwar-om. . rū tou	kan-ie,
		if I goat_kid=SPC IPFV-kill.PRS-1SG no of_low_rank=SPC become.SBJV.3SG (false start) water-PL IPFV-eat.PRS-1SG oven=PC2PL NEG.COP.3SG on hot_stone do.PRS-IMP.2PL
		hamå dast mon=e I... I drink the water. I will kill a goat kid." If you have a Tanur-oven, [it will be] a Tanur-bread, a Tanur-bread; bues-e
		DEM2 hand I=? if you don't have a Tanur, bake it on a hot stone kiss.PRS-3SG
	C.	If not, [if] he is someone of low status, [only] he kisses my hand. har-čī mon a-g-om: ma-koš-,
			čånk a-b-en -anything I be-yår-ie	IPFV-say.PRS-1SG ke gwar=e hamie kabåb-ōn PROH-kill.PRS-IMP.2SG a-xwar-om
	7 å busy IPFV-become.PRS-3PL wur a-deh-i: å a-koš-i=e IRR-bring-IMP.2PL SUB besides DEM1 grilled_meat-PL IPFV-eat.PRS-1SG xwašål būd-ih=ī?
		DEM2 out IPFV-give.PRS-3SG healthy become.PST-PRF=COP2SG They become busy (start preparations for the meal): DEM2 IPFV-kill.PRS-3SG=PC3SG [and] bring it [so that] I can eat it with the meat."
		He adds: "Have you been fine?" However much I say: "Don't kill [it]!", he will kill it
	E.		če			meil=t	a-kan-t	paim be-kan-īn
	8 mõ a-go-m: what tå weid-ī=e seil ..., ke xwašål, to desire=PC2SG IPFV-do.PRS-3SG ready SBJV-do.PRS-1PL xwašål ī? košt-eh=e hormå a-xwar-ī såhob?
		I	IPFV-say.PRS-1SG healthy you.SG healthy COP2SG nåštå=t, yå čåšt=et? until when=EZ look SUB kill.PST-PRF=PC3SG date IPFV-eat.PRS-2SG sir
		I say: "[I'm] fine, are you fine?" breakfast=PC2SG or until [I] see... that he has killed [it]. [Later, he will ask:] "Will you eat dates, sir?" lunch=PC2SG
			"What would you like us to prepare for you as breakfast, or lunch?"
	9 a-go: D. ma a-gõ:		xwašål hå,
		IPFV-say.PRS.3SG healthy ma a-gõ: har-čī=tōn a-gū: hålå I IPFV-say.PRS.1SG yes [p. 311]	ke	ha	košt=mūn,	biečåra-ūn,
		He says: "[I'm] fine. I IPFV-say.PRS.1SG anything=PC2PL exist.PRS.3SG helpless-PL IPFV-say.PRS.3SG now SUB kill.PST=PC1PL I say: "Yes,
			I say: "Whatever you have, you unfortunate ones,

[xix] Thus Bartholomae (1890: 553) for the Bal. form.

[7] Gershevitch (1965: 12-13, n. 4).

[8] Morgenstierne (2003: 45).

[xx] Klingenschmitt (2000: 200f. note 2) suggests that the Proto-Iranian output of PIE *ǵ(h) , conventionally noted "*ź", was pronounced [ʣ], and that *ʣasta-would have undergone a dissimilation to *dasta-while in the oral transmission of the Avestan text, *ʣasta-yielded zasta-.

[xxi] SeeKorn (2010: 105) for discussion.

[xxii] For suggestions regarding the P PRS nišīn-seeKorn (2005: 127).

[xxiii] For Balochi sound changes, see[START_REF] Korn | Towards a Historical Grammar of Balochi[END_REF] and Geiger (1891).

[10] Voskanian & Boyajian-Sureniants (2007: 123).

[11] Voskanian & Boyajian-Sureniants (ibid.).

[xxvi] Note that this word (Avestan vərəδka-, Sanskrit vṛkka-) shows an unexpected γ in Sogdian γwrdtq-, Yaghnobi γurkak, etc. (Sims-Williams 1985: 178).

[xxvii] The Bal. word is borrowed from Persian according toGershevitch (1964: 87); whether this really needs to be so is not clear to me.

[xxviii] For Balochistan,[START_REF] Badalkhan | Language Contact in Balochistan and Its Impact on Balochi Personal Names[END_REF] describes this situation and in what ways an individual's name may change in the course of his/her life.

[12] Barker & Mengal (1969: 215).

[13] Barker & Mengal (1969: 168).

[14] Farrell (1990: 16).

[15] Sims-Williams (1997: 11).

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to Thomas Jügel for a close reading of a previous version. My thanks also go to Andreas Waibel, Irina Nevskaya, Nicholas Sims-Williams, Murad Suleymanov, Gerardo Barbera and Georg Warning for comments.

Abbreviations

The glosses follow the "Leipzig glossing rules". 56 Additional glosses and abbreviations are:

Bal. Barbera (2006: 317). 54 [xxxiv] Cf. Parvin (2008) for names for seasons in Balochi connected to date farming. 55 [xxxv] See the example cited in Korn (2017: 84). 56 [21] https://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/resources/glossing-rules.php 57 [xxxvi] On the whole, Persian in its classical form seems more relevant for Bashkardi than the standard variety of Tehran today.


Van-Hoan Le

Marie-Camille Caumon
email: marie-camille.caumon@univ-lorraine.fr

Jacques Pironon

Philippe De Donato

Médéric Piedevache

Aurélien Randi

Catherine Lorgeoux

Odile Barres

Quantitative monitoring of dissolved gases in a flooded borehole: calibration of the analytical tools

Keywords: chemical monitoring, multi-sensors, CO2 injection, dissolved gas, calibration

Gas monitoring is a prerequisite to understand the exchange, diffusion, and migration processes of natural gases within underground environments, which is involved in several applications such as geological sequestration of CO2. In this study, three different techniques (micro-GC, infrared and Raman spectroscopies) were deployed on an experimental flooded borehole for a monitoring purpose after CO2 injection. The aim was to develop a real-time chemical monitoring device to follow gas concentrations in water by measurements in water inside the borehole but also at surface through a gas collection system in equilibrium with the borehole water. However, all three techniques must be calibrated to provide the most accurate quantitative data. For this, a first step of calibration in laboratory was carried out. New calibrations were required to determine partial pressure and/or concentrations of gases in water or in the gas collection system. For gas phase analysis, micro-GC, FTIR spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy were compared. New calibration of the micro-GC was done for CO2, CH4 and N2 with uncertainty from ± 100 ppm to 1.5 mol% depending on the bulk concentration and the type of gas. The FTIR and Raman spectrometers were previously calibrated for CO2, and CO2, N2, O2, CH4, H2O, respectively with an accuracy of 1%-6% depending on concentration scale, gas and spectrometer. Dissolved CO2 in water was measured using a Raman spectrometer equipped with an immersion probe. The uncertainty on the predicted dissolved CO2 concentration and partial pressure was of ± 0.003 mol.kg -1 and ± 0.05 bar, respectively.

Introduction

Since the last decades, the research projects relating to the monitoring of the underground gas content within a borehole are still a topical subject that is directly involved in several environmental preservation applications. For instance, face to global warming and climate change, numerous carbon capture, utilization and storage projects (CCUS) are performed around the world [START_REF] Bui | Carbon capture and storage (CCS): the way forward[END_REF][START_REF] Li | An analysis of research hotspots and modeling techniques on carbon capture and storage[END_REF] to reduce the anthropogenic greenhouse gas emission into the atmosphere such as the Century Plant CCUS project in the USA, the Sleipner CCUS project in Norway [START_REF] Solomon | Carbon Dioxide Storage: Geological Security and Environmental Issues-Case Study on the Sleipner Gas Field in Norway[END_REF], the Shenhua CCUS project in China [START_REF] Li | Application of a health, safety, and environmental screening and ranking framework to the Shenhua CCS project[END_REF], and the Lacq-Rousse CCS project in France [START_REF] Taquet | Monitoring Geochimique de la geosphère et de l'atmosphère : application au stockage geologique du CO22012[END_REF][START_REF] Monne | Lacq-Rousse Industrial CCS Reference Project: Description and Operational Feedback after two and Half Years of Operation[END_REF], etc. Within such application, the monitoring strategy of the soil gas content variation must be deployed before CO2 injection (to establish the baseline concentration variation and to define the alert limitation) and during and after CO2 injection (to detect as soon as possible any CO2 leakage and environmental impacts). The geological sequestration of the nuclear waste also received huge attention from the scientific community with many studies in which the confining properties of the host rock of the geological storage site were investigated to assess its long-term safety [START_REF] Rübel | Solute transport in formations of very low permeability: profiles of stable isotope and dissolved noble gas contents of pore water in the Opalinus Clay, Mont Terri, Switzerland[END_REF][START_REF] Vinsot | CO2 data on gas and pore water sampled in situ in the Opalinus Clay at the Mont Terri rock laboratory[END_REF][START_REF] Gaucher | A robust model for pore-water chemistry of clayrock[END_REF][START_REF] Bossart | Mont Terri rock laboratory, 20 years of research: introduction, site characteristics and overview of experiments[END_REF]. For that, the evolution of the concentration of dissolved gases (CO2, CO, CH4, C2H6, C3H8, N2, H2, O2, H2S, etc.) of the pore water is the key information to understand the fluid-rock interaction mechanisms and the transport properties of solutes within the host rock [START_REF] Vinsot | CO2 data on gas and pore water sampled in situ in the Opalinus Clay at the Mont Terri rock laboratory[END_REF][START_REF] Bossart | Mont Terri rock laboratory, 20 years of research: introduction, site characteristics and overview of experiments[END_REF].

Intense efforts have been made on the metrological development including the optimization of the experimental protocol and the data processing or the enhancement of the accuracy of the measurement [START_REF] Vinsot | CO2 data on gas and pore water sampled in situ in the Opalinus Clay at the Mont Terri rock laboratory[END_REF][START_REF] Laier | Environmental and safety monitoring of the natural gas underground storage at Stenlille, Denmark[END_REF][START_REF] Donato | SENTINELLE. Development of combined geochemical monitoring on Lacq pilot site from geosphere to atmosphere[END_REF][START_REF] Cailteau | FT-IR metrology aspects for on-line monitoring of CO 2 and CH 4 in underground laboratory conditions[END_REF][START_REF] Taquet | Efficiency of combined FTIR and Raman spectrometry for online quantification of soil gases: Application to the monitoring of carbon dioxide storage sites[END_REF]. Since the chemical composition of the (dissolved) gases within the underground medium is not fully known in prior, the combination of different techniques is envisaged in order to detect and quantify in-situ and continuously as much gas as possible. Nowadays, the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and the Raman vibrational spectroscopies are widely used for continuous measurement of natural gas analyses [START_REF] Dubessy | Advances in C-O-H-N-S fluid geochemistry based on micro-Raman spectrometric analysis of fluid inclusions[END_REF][START_REF] Cailteau | In situ gas monitoring in clay rocks: mathematical developments for CO2 and CH4 partial pressure determination under non-controlled pressure conditions using FT-IR spectrometry[END_REF][START_REF] Taquet | Efficiency of combined FTIR and Raman spectrometry for online quantification of soil gases: Application to the monitoring of carbon dioxide storage sites[END_REF][START_REF] Gal | Study of the environmental variability of gaseous emanations over a CO2 injection pilot-Application to the French Pyrenean foreland[END_REF][START_REF] Lacroix | In situ continuous monitoring of dissolved gases (N2, O2, CO2, H2) prior to H2 injection in an aquifer (Catenoy, France) by on-site Raman and infrared spectroscopies: instrumental assessment and geochemical baseline establishment[END_REF]. The quantitative measurement using vibrational spectroscopy is not straightforward analysis but requires first precise calibration of the signal of each gas with respect to the properties of interest (e.g., molar proportion, partial pressure). Since the signal from vibrational spectroscopy is particularly sensitive to different instrumental parameters (excitation wavelength, response function of the device) as well as the operational environmental conditions (pressure, temperature), the calibration is therefore device-specific and should be regularly re-calibrated to ensure the highest accuracy of measurement. It is to note that FTIR spectroscopy presents some intrinsic limitations. For instance, the spectra of the combination band of CO2 (centered at 3610 cm -1 ) are strongly affected by the H2O vapor contribution at some concentration ranges and required a specific additional processing [START_REF] Cailteau | In situ gas monitoring in clay rocks: mathematical developments for CO2 and CH4 partial pressure determination under non-controlled pressure conditions using FT-IR spectrometry[END_REF]. Also, the homonuclear diatomic gases (such as N2, O2) cannot be detected by FTIR spectroscopy whereas they are an important indicator about the biological activity of the soil (e.g., soil respiration processes) and the oxygenation conditions [START_REF] Lloyd | On the Temperature Dependence of Soil Respiration[END_REF][START_REF] Gal | Study of the environmental variability of gaseous emanations over a CO2 injection pilot-Application to the French Pyrenean foreland[END_REF][START_REF] Angert | Using O2 to study the relationships between soil CO2 efflux and soil respiration[END_REF][START_REF] Barba | Comparing ecosystem and soil respiration: Review and key challenges of tower-based and soil measurements[END_REF][START_REF] Adisaputro | Baseline Subsoil CO2 Gas Measurements and Micrometeorological Monitoring: Above Canopy Turbulence Effects on the Subsoil CO2 Dynamics in Temperate Deciduous Forest[END_REF]. On the other hand, the Raman technique can detect the most common natural gases (including CO2, CH4 as well as H2, O2 and N2…) but with lower sensitivity compared to that of FTIR spectroscopy. Combining these two techniques can thus bring interesting and complementary information to each other. Besides, the micro gas chromatograph (micro-GC), which is a molecular separative technique, is a powerful technique with very high sensitivity and reproducibility for natural gas analyses. Using at least two modules with two different column and carrier gas, all the pre-cited gases can be analyzed.

The in-situ and continuous measurement of the dissolved gas concentration within an aquifer or the aqueous phase of the borehole is still challenging due to the technical limitation of the instruments (e.g., low sensitivity of the Raman spectroscopy, the lack of accurate calibration data). Assuming that the partial pressures of the gases dissolved within the liquid and the gaseous phases above the liquid are in equilibrium [START_REF] Henry | III. Experiments on the quantity of gases absorbed by water, at different temperatures, and under different pressures[END_REF], the dissolved gas concentration with an aquifer or a flooded borehole can be thus indirectly measured by analyzing its gaseous form. For this purpose, the specific membrane-based completion SysMoG designed by Solexperts was developed which permitted the collection of dissolved gas but excluded water [START_REF] Taquet | Monitoring Geochimique de la geosphère et de l'atmosphère : application au stockage geologique du CO22012[END_REF]. The collected dissolved gases can thereby be transported from the aquifer or the flooded depth borehole via a gas circulation system to different analytical techniques to be analyzed. Besides, the dissolved concentration or the partial pressure of CO2 can also be derived from the pore water ex-situ analysis, e.g., calculated from the measured alkalinity or the total inorganic carbon content using PHREEQC software [START_REF] Vinsot | CO2 data on gas and pore water sampled in situ in the Opalinus Clay at the Mont Terri rock laboratory[END_REF][START_REF] Vinsot | Natural gas extraction and artificial gas injection experiments in Opalinus Clay, Mont Terri rock laboratory (Switzerland)[END_REF]. However, the pore water extraction requires a careful sampling procedure to avoid any sample chemical alteration (due to the contact with the atmosphere for example) which in turn may result in an error of the measured dissolved gas concentration. Indeed, there was a noticeable discrepancy between the partial pressure or the concentration of dissolved CO2 measured from the gaseous phase and from water composition which could not be fully interpreted [START_REF] Vinsot | CO2 data on gas and pore water sampled in situ in the Opalinus Clay at the Mont Terri rock laboratory[END_REF]. Thus, more experiments are still needed to investigate the gas membrane transfers to better interpret the evolution of the dissolved gas concentration. For this purpose, an experimental borehole of 51-meter depth drilled by Solexperts is devoted to develop and test the experimental protocol and new analytical instruments before deploying them in the field. The borehole is equipped with a specific membrane-based completion SysMoG and a closed gas circulation system which allows continuous gas analysis by different techniques. Several CO2 injections into water within the borehole were performed to simulate a CO2 leakage. The micro-GC, Raman and FTIR spectroscopies are connected all together to the gas circulation system to do the in-situ analysis.

The purpose of this study is to calibrate and compare the performance of the instruments in quantifying dissolved gases before using them on-line with the instrumented borehole. Here the calibration procedure and the new calibration data for the quantitative analysis of CO2, CH4 and N2 concentrations are detailed. The application of these calibrations to the measurement in the borehole during CO2 injection will be published in a dedicated paper [START_REF] Le | In-situ monitoring of dissolved gases within flooded borehole by multiples techniques (Raman, FTIR, micro-GC)[END_REF].

Material and methods

Description of the experimental borehole

The experimental site consists of a borehole of 51-meter depth and 10 cm diameter, drilled by Solexperts (Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France). The borehole is entirely isolated from its surrounding medium, i.e., there is no contact between the borehole and the adjacent soil or the groundwater. The piezometer level within the borehole is freely adjusted by adding or removing water. The hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the borehole is  3-5 bars and temperature  10 °C. For the in-situ continuous measurement of the gas concentration, a SysMoG completion specifically designed by Solexperts is installed into the borehole and connected to the analytical instruments placed at the ground via a gas circulation system.

The gases dissolved in the aqueous phase equilibrate across the hydrophobic membrane into a gas collection chamber (GCC). A gas circulation line connects the GCC of the completion to the analytical module placed at the ground in a closed system. The analytical instruments are set up at the ground including a FTIR spectrometer, a micro gas chromatograph (micro-GC), and two Raman spectrometers for continuous monitoring of the concentration of the different gases (e.g., CO2, CH4, N2, O2, H2O). One Raman spectrometer is equipped with an immersion probe to directly measure gas concentration dissolved in water inside the borehole. The other instruments, i.e. FTIR, micro-GC and the second Raman spectrometer, are used to analyze the gases from the gas collection chamber.

Laboratory experimental setup to determine dissolved CO2 concentration by Raman spectroscopy

The signal of the Raman RNX2 spectrometer (Kaiser Optical Systems) coupled with an immersion probe (WetHead TM ) is calibrated to determine the concentration of CO2 dissolved in water. It is done by acquiring the Raman spectra of a water solution equilibrated with a known pressure of CO2 at known temperature. Indeed, according to Henry's law [START_REF] Henry | III. Experiments on the quantity of gases absorbed by water, at different temperatures, and under different pressures[END_REF] the concentration of a gas dissolved in a solution at equilibrium is proportional to its partial pressure within the vapor phase, which is above the liquid phase, and can be calculated by equation [START_REF] Bui | Carbon capture and storage (CCS): the way forward[END_REF]:

𝐶 = 𝐾 °. 𝑝 (1)
where C is the concentration of the dissolved CO2 (molkg 1 ), p is the partial pressure of CO2 in a gaseous phase, K ° is Henry's law constant for the solubility of CO2 at 298.15K, (i.e., K ° = 0.034 molkg 1 bar 1 ) [START_REF] Mackay | A critical review of Henry's law constants for chemicals of environmental interest[END_REF]. The Henry's law constant at a given temperature T (K ) can be calculated from K ° using equation ( 2):

𝐾 = 𝐾 °. exp 2400. - . (2)
The Raman spectra of CO2 dissolved in water at different equilibrium states are recorded by using the experimental setup shown in Fig. 1. The calibration apparatus consists of a 1000-mL airtight stainless-steel cylinder (Swagelok, Fig. 1.1) in where water is equilibrated with CO2 at controlled pressures. One end of the cylinder is connected to a pump (Fig. 1.2), a pressure transducer (Fig. 1.3), and a bottle of CO2 via a union cross (Swagelok) (Fig. 1.4). Three valves are firstly closed and the cylinder is then inversed and fill with about 500 ml of water into the cylinder via its bottom end (Fig. 1.5). The immersion probe is then inserted into the cylinder in a way to ensure that the head of the immersion probe is still under the water level when the cylinder is closed and inversed again (Fig. 1.6). The cylinder is closed by a specific tor ensuring there is no gas or water leakage and then vertically fixed with a stand. The Raman probe is connected to a Raman RXN2 spectrometer (Fig. 1.7) by a 100-m long optical fiber. Before introducing CO2 into the cylinder, the entire system is evacuated under vacuum to remove the air inside the cylinder. Once the purge is done, CO2 is introduced into the cylinder at the desired pressure via the gas inlet (Fig. 1.4) by using a pressure regulator connected to the compressed CO2 bottle (99.99% purity, Air Liquid). The internal pressure is monitored by the pressure transducer (Fig. 1.3). Room temperature is also monitored. Thus CO2 gradually dissolves into water at controlled conditions (P and T). 1) 1000-mL stainless-steel cylinder. The upper end of the cylinder is connected to a pump (2), a pressure transducer (3) and a bottle of pure compressed CO2 (4). The Raman probe ( 6) is introduced via the other end of the cylinder which is then closed by a special tor to ensure there is no water leakage. The Raman probe is connected to a Raman RXN2 spectrometer ( 7) by a 100-m optical fiber.

CO2 and H2O Raman spectra are simultaneously recorded over the spectral range 1350-1850 cm 1 with the Raman RXN2 spectrometer. The wavelength and power of the excitation radiation are 532 nm and  100 mW, respectively. The acquisition time is 30 seconds per accumulation, and 3 accumulations for each measurement. An example of spectra of CO2 dissolved in water is shown in Fig. 2. The obtained spectra were then processed by LabSpec6 software (Horiba) to determine the peak area of CO2 and H2O after baseline subtraction. As the area of the lower band of CO2 at  1285 cm 1 is too small, only the area of the upper band of CO2 at  1381 cm 1 was considered. Besides, the Raman HOH bending mode of water is observed over a spectral range from 1450-1800 cm 1 which superimposes the signal of the sapphire windows of the immersion probe at  1522 cm 1 (Fig. 2). Thus, the total peak area of the H2O band was calculated after subtracting the signal of sapphire. The internal pressure of the tanker was firstly set at  2 bars. The time needed to reach the equilibrium is more than 3 days (Fig. 5). When pressure increases from 2 bars (at equilibrium) to 3 bars, the time needed to reach the new equilibrium state at 3 bars is less than one day. Afterward, the pressure is successively decreased to  2.5, 1.5, 1, 0.7, 0.5, 0.3, and 0.1 bar by adjusting the pressure regulator of the gas bottle and/or opening the valve v1. The equilibrium state at these lower pressures is reached after few hours. Shaking of the entire tanker can help to speed up the equilibrium process.

Determination of the concentrations in the gas phase

Micro-GC calibration

The micro-GC-490 (Agilent) was calibrated for the quantitative measurement of CO2, CH4 and N2. CH4 and N2 were quantified using a module with a Molsieve 5Ǻ column (10 m) with argon as carrier gas and CO2 using the module with a PoraplotU column (10 m) with helium as carrier gas. For the two modules, injection time is 50 ms, injector temperature is 90 °C, carrier gas pressure is 30 psi and detectors are micro catarometer (µTCD). The column temperature is 145 °C for the Molsieve module and 80°C for the PoraplotU module. Peak integration is done with Soprane Software (SRA). Calibrations were established using reference gases of known concentration (commercial standard gases with certified concentration, the uncertainty is less than 1%) or gas mixtures prepared in the laboratory from pure gases by using a gas mixer (GasMix TM -AlyTech). The uncertainty on the concentration of the prepared gas mixtures is less than 3%. To ensure the highest accuracy of the calibration data at a low concentration range, the concentration of some prepared gas mixtures whose the concentration is less than 4000 ppm is re-checked by G2201i analyzer (Picarro, Inc.).

Upon the calibration procedure, the entrance of the micro-GC is directly connected to the bottle of standard gas or the outlet of the AlyTech gas mixer (Fig. 3). To introduce the gases into the micro-GC, an external pump is used and turn on for about 20 seconds to remove any atmospheric air in the system. Once this is done, the reference gases are introduced at a pressure less than 1.5 bar. Thereby, the whole volume of the external pump and connecting tubes is filled only by the reference gas. The reference gas is then injected into the analysis modules to be analyzed thanks to the internal pump (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3: Simplified scheme describing the gas circulation within the micro-GC 490.

FTIR spectrometer calibration

The IR measurements are performed using a portable FTIR Bruker Alpha spectrometer (Bruker Optics GmbH, Germany) equipped with a 5 cm path-length stainless-steel gas cell. The latter is equipped with two ZnSe (Zinc Selenide) windows and directly connected to the gas circuit for continuous measurement of gas concentration. The IR spectra are scanned 16 times over the spectral range 600 -4000 cm 1 .

The calibration data of the FTIR apparatus used herein (including the spectrometer and the gas cell) for the quantification of CO2 concentration over a range from 100 to 60 000 ppm was established in a previous work [START_REF] Adisaputro | Baseline Subsoil CO2 Gas Measurements and Micrometeorological Monitoring: Above Canopy Turbulence Effects on the Subsoil CO2 Dynamics in Temperate Deciduous Forest[END_REF] (Fig. 4). As shown in Fig. 4, the calibration curve links the CO2 concentration (ppm) to the variation of the peak area of the fundamental band 3 of CO2 at  2350 cm 1 . According to the authors, the accuracy of the CO2 concentration measurement is less than 6% at < 2000 ppm, less than 4% at under 5000 ppm, less than 2% at under 30 000 ppm, and less than 1% at under 100 000 ppm.

Raman spectrometer calibration

The molar fraction (𝑋 , mol%) of gaseous species within a mixture can be determined from the Raman scattering cross-section ( ) of the vibrational mode of gases and the corresponding peak area (A ) by using equation (3) [START_REF] Pasteris | Practical aspects of quantitative laser Raman microprobe spectroscopy for the study of fluid inclusions[END_REF]:

𝑋 =   ∑   (3)
where i is the instrumental efficiency which depends on wavelength (peak position). As the spectrometer intensity response was calibrated using a reference emission lamp (HCA, Kaiser Optical System), all i was equal for all gases. Therefore, the i values from literature of N2, CO2, CH4, O2 and H2O for the excitation wavelength of 532 nm can be used [START_REF] Schrötter | Raman Scattering Cross Section in Gases and Liquids[END_REF][START_REF] Burke | Raman microspectrometry of fluid inclusions[END_REF] (Table 1). The Raman measurements of the gases flowing within the gas circulation lines are performed using a Raman RXN1 spectrometer equipped with a 532 nm Nd-YAG excitation laser, and coupled with a gas probe (AirHead TM , Kaiser Optical Systems, Inc.) via a 5-meter-long optical fiber. The air probe is embedded by a dedicatedly designed stainless steel gas cell equipped with a sapphire window and an array of mirrors to amplify the Raman scattering intensity that is connected to the gas circulation systems. The Raman analyses can be thereby continuously performed without changing the internal pressure and the composition of the collected gases. The peak area of the studied gases is measured by integrating their Raman spectrum over a predefined spectral interval, i.e., between 1380 cm 1 and 1397 cm 1 for the upper band of CO2 (at 1388 cm 1 ), between 2319 cm 1 and 2341 cm 1 for the N2 band, between 1545 cm 1 and 1566 cm 1 for O2, and from 3637 cm 1 to 3665 cm 1 for H2O.

Calibration data for quantitative measurements

Quantifying dissolved CO2 concentration by Raman spectroscopy

The evolution of the CO2-to-H2O peak area ratio (PAR) as a function of time is presented in Fig. 5. In general, the PAR increases gradually with time following the increase of the amount of dissolved CO2 then becomes unchanged once the equilibrium state is reached. The average value of PAR at each equilibrium state and its standard deviation are reported in Table 2 with the corresponding concentration of CO2. (a) Calculated from pressure and temperature using Henry's law constant. (b) The average peak area ratio is calculated from all experimental data point at equilibrium (Fig. 5). The calibration curve is fitted from all experimental data points, linking the variation of the PAR to the concentration of the dissolved CO2 (Fig. 6a) or the partial pressure of the CO2 (Fig. 6b). The uncertainty (1) of the predicted CO2 dissolved concentration and the partial pressure are ± 0.003 mol.kg 1 and ± 0.05 bar, respectively. The calibration curves are fitted from all experimental data points, linking the variation of the PAR to the concentration of the dissolved CO2 (Fig. 6a) and the partial pressure of the CO2 (Fig. 6b). The uncertainty (1) of the predicted dissolved CO2 concentration and the partial pressure is about ± 0.003 mol.kg 1 and ± 0.05 bar, respectively.

Gas concentration determined by Micro-GC

In general, the calibration curves of the micro-GC-490 are a linear correlation between the peak area and the concentration (ppm). The signal saturates when the CO2 concentration is above 60 mol%. Consequently, in the present study, only two calibration curves of CO2 are provided for low (from 500 to 9000 ppm) and intermediate concentration ranges (up to  60 %) (Fig. 7). The uncertainty of the predicted CO2 concentration (at 1, estimated from the prediction intervals of the regression equation) is less than ± 100 ppm for the concentration range under 9000 ppm, < ± 1000 ppm for the concentration range under 100 000 ppm, and < ± 0.5% for the concentration range under 60 mol%. In the same way calibration data was established over a concentration range from 0 to 5000 ppm for CH4, and from 1-100% for N2 (Fig. 8). The uncertainty of the predicted concentration of CH4 and N2 (1, estimated from the prediction intervals) is less than about ± 100 ppm and 1.5 mol%, respectively.

Gaseous CO2 concentration determined by FTIR

In the present study, the CO2 concentration within the gaseous phase of the borehole is expected to range from about 500 ppm (near the atmospheric concentration) to 60 mol%. Since the intensity of the IR fundamental band of CO2 at 2350 cm 1 is quickly saturated above 60 000 ppm, the peak area of the combination bands of CO2 at  3610 cm 1 (1+3 and 22+3) is therefore used. It is to note that there is an interference between the IR spectra of the combination bands of CO2 and that of H2O vapor around 3610 cm 1 . The subtraction of the signal of H2O vapor from that of CO2 is thus required to ensure the highest accuracy of the concentration measurement. More details about FTIR data processing can be found in Taquet et al. [START_REF] Taquet | Efficiency of combined FTIR and Raman spectrometry for online quantification of soil gases: Application to the monitoring of carbon dioxide storage sites[END_REF]. Moreover, it is also to note that the existing calibration data of the FTIR Alpha was usually established at atmospheric pressure, whereas the intensity and the area of the IR spectra vary as a function of pressure. In this study, the total pressure within the gas circulation system is however expected to vary from the atmospheric pressure to  up to 2-3 bars due to a large amount of CO2 dissolved in the aqueous phase, then penetrating across the membrane into the GCC. The calibration data for such a wide pressure and concentration range is not available yet. In the borehole, the FTIR spectra are simultaneously recorded with Raman and micro-GC whose intensity does not depend on the total pressure. Therefore, new calibration curves linking the IR peak area of the combination band of CO2 to the concentration measured by other techniques (Raman and micro-GC) are thereby established for the pressure and concentration range encountered in the borehole by comparison with Raman spectroscopy and GC [START_REF] Le | In-situ monitoring of dissolved gases within flooded borehole by multiples techniques (Raman, FTIR, micro-GC)[END_REF].

Gas concentration determined by Raman spectroscopy

Partial pressure and mol% in the gas mixture are determined by Raman spectroscopy using literature data (Table 1) and pressure measurement. Previous works using the same Raman spectrometer and the same probe reported uncertainties of about 0.5-1 mol% at atmospheric pressure [START_REF] Taquet | Efficiency of combined FTIR and Raman spectrometry for online quantification of soil gases: Application to the monitoring of carbon dioxide storage sites[END_REF][START_REF] Lacroix | In situ continuous monitoring of dissolved gases (N2, O2, CO2, H2) prior to H2 injection in an aquifer (Catenoy, France) by on-site Raman and infrared spectroscopies: instrumental assessment and geochemical baseline establishment[END_REF]. The detection limit depends on the cross section of each gas: the best detection limit is for CH4 and the lowest one for N2 (Table 1) at about 0.002 mbar and 0.01 mbar, respectively.

Conclusion

In preparation of on-site measurement of gas concentration in a flooded borehole, laboratory calibrations are carried out for micro-GC, FTIR spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy. Raman spectroscopy is the only of the three techniques able to quantitatively measure the concentration of CO2 dissolved in water, with an accuracy of 0.003 mol.kg -1 or 0.05 bar for the corresponding partial pressure in equilibrium with the solution. For the gas phase, Raman spectroscopy can detect all the studied gases (CO2, CH4, N2, O2, H2, H2O) with an accuracy better than 1 mol% and a detection limit lower than 0.01 mbar. The Micro-GC is calibrated to quantify CO2, CH4 and N2 with quite much lower detection limit (< 100 ppm) and higher accuracy (100 ppm -5% depending on the concentration range). Finally, FTIR can quantify CO2 concentration in the gas phase over the full concentration range (500 ppm -100%) with an accuracy depending on the concentration range (1% -6%). At concentration higher than 60 mol% and pressure higher than atmospheric pressure, the infrared spectrometer is not yet calibrated. Next acquisition in the flooded borehole will lead to a new calibration in this high-level range by comparison with micro-GC and Raman spectroscopy data [START_REF] Le | In-situ monitoring of dissolved gases within flooded borehole by multiples techniques (Raman, FTIR, micro-GC)[END_REF]. The performance and applicability of each technique and of the polymeric membrane responsivity and resistance over a wide concentration-pressure range will be evaluated and compared during the measurement run on the instrumented borehole.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Experimental setup to measure the Raman signal of dissolved CO2 as a function of pressure. (1) 1000-mL stainless-steel cylinder. The upper end of the cylinder is connected to a pump (2), a pressure transducer (3) and a bottle of pure compressed CO2 (4). The Raman probe (6) is introduced via the other end of the cylinder which is then closed by a special tor to ensure there is no water leakage. The Raman probe is connected to a Raman RXN2 spectrometer (7) by a 100-m optical fiber.

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig.2: Raman spectra of CO2 dissolved in water under a pressure of 0.75 bar after baseline subtraction. The upper band of the CO2 Fermi diad is observed at 1381 cm 1 . The HOH bending mode of H2O is observed in the range 1450-1800 cm 1 .

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: Calibration curve linking the CO2 concentration (from 200 to 60 000 ppm) to the area of the IR fundamental bands of CO2 2350 cm -1 ) [22].

Fig. 5 :

 5 Fig. 5: Evolution of carbon dioxide-to-water peak area ratio (A /A ) as a function of time (minutes) and pressure (bar).

Table 2 :

 2 PAR as a function of pressure and CO2 concentration Partial pressure

Fig. 6 :

 6 Fig. 6: Relationship between the peak area ratio ACO2/AH2O (PAR) and (a) the concentration of CO2 dissolved in water or (b) CO2 partial pressure.

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: Calibration of CO2 signal for (a) low and (b) intermediate concentration range, i.e., < 9000 ppm and < 60 mol%, respectively.

Fig. 8 :

 8 Fig. 8: Calibration data of (a) CH4 for a concentration range from 0 to 5000 ppm or (b) N2 for a concentration range from 0 to 100 mol%

Table 1 :

 1 Raman peak position and corresponding scattering cross-section () for an excitation wavelength of 532 nm

		Peak position (cm -1 )	
	CO2 (upper band)	1388	1.54
	CH4	2917	7.73
	N2	2331	1
	O2	1555	1.24
	H2	4153	2.3
	H2O vapor	3665	2.35

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the GEODERNERGIES (Scientific Interest Group), for its financial support through the OUROBOROS (2019-2021) research program.