Pierre Clément
email: pierre.clement@univ-lyon1.fr

Farida Khammar

Frances Quinn

Graziela Lopez

Paloma Silva

Kai Pata

Tago Sarapuu

Anna-Liisa Rauma-Kosonen

Atila Varga

Silvia Caravita

Italy Adriana Valente

Lebanon), Sabah Selmaoui (Morocco Iman Khalil

Portugal Graça Carvalho

Adrienne Kozan-Naumescu

Mame Seyni Thiaw

Niklas Gericke

CHANCE AND DETERMINISM IN EVOLUTION: TEACHERS' CONCEPTIONS IN 21 COUNTRIES

Keywords: Chance, Evolution, Creationism, Teachers' Conceptions, International survey

While stochastic processes are central in biology, they have only recently begun to be introduced at school, where biology is often associated with deterministic processes. To analyze teachers' conceptions of the role of determinism and chance in evolution, we conducted a large survey in 21 countries: 8 078 in-service and pre-service teachers (in Primary Schools and in Secondary Schools teaching biology or language) filled out the BIOHEAD-Citizen questionnaire, including 14 questions on Evolution and 17 on personal opinions. We found important differences among the countries. While the importance of natural selection in species evolution is widely accepted, it is not the case for chance. When chance is not associated with evolution (When a couple has already had two girls, the chances that their third child be a boy are higher), more teachers recognize the role of chance. On the contrary, a significant number of teachers think that God is very important or important in species evolution. Nevertheless, several of them (particularly biologist teachers) are simultaneously evolutionist and creationist. In half of the countries, we found significant differences between biologist teachers and their colleagues, biologist teachers being more convinced of the importance of chance, natural selection and evolution.

-Biological topic

Since Descartes (17 th Century), living organisms have been compared to machines. Creationist publications reproduce this way of thinking, comparing any organism with a machine such as a watch and claiming that they know the watchmaker (God). Darwinism (and subsequently neo-Darwinism) contradicts this determinist point of view. Stochastic processes are involved in the differentiation of new structures, which are then selected by natural selection, or conserved as neutral.

Furthermore, new trends in biology promote the idea of a cellular Darwinism (Kupiec 2008[START_REF] Kupiec | Le hasard au coeur de la Cellule. Probabilité, déterminisme, génétique[END_REF]: during embryonic development, each cell fluctuates randomly between different states and stabilizes according to its interactions with neighbouring cells, by natural selection. From the growing number of new data in biological research showing the key role of stochastic processes, several authors suggest "the end of determinism in biology" (Paldi & Coisne 2009), and philosophers are distinguishing several kinds of determinism [START_REF] Gayon | Déterminisme génétique, déterminisme bernardien, déterminisme laplacien[END_REF].

The philosopher of biology [START_REF] Gayon | Hasard et évolution[END_REF] defined three categories of meanings for the concept "hasard" (in French), more or less corresponding to the concept of "chance" in English: (1) An unpurposed and unpredictable event, without design but which can be a posteriori useful. (2) A chancy event, by random, but which can be predictable by the laws of probability. If you toss a coin, it will fall by chance on its "head" or on its "tail". If you toss it 10 000 times, it will fall on its head 50% of the time and 50% on its tail: this result is predictable and reproducible. (3) Fortuitous events, by chance because they are not predictable inside a theory, they are too complex: chance is here contingent to a theoretical system. Concerning the five levels of biological evolution, mutations and macro-evolution are related to the meaning (1), the genetic drift with the meaning (2) and the levels of genome as well as of ecosystems with the meaning (3)

Consequently, linked to the meaning (2), chance does not mean lack of reproducibility: random events at the molecular level may lead to cellular structures that are ordered and reproducible. Early in 20 th Century, quantum physics, with the principle of Heisenberg, showed that stochastic processes produce apparent order in physical and chemical phenomena. At the same time, taught biology became more determinist, taught genetics being mainly been centred on the determinism of the phenotype by the genotype [START_REF] Forissier | Teaching "biological identity" as genome / environmental interactions[END_REF][START_REF] Castéra | Genetic determinism is school textbooks: a comparative study conducted among sixteen countries[END_REF][START_REF] Clément | Multiple representations of human genetics in biology textbooks[END_REF]. This reductionist view has decreased since the end of 20 th Century with "the end of everything is genetic" [START_REF] Atlan | La fin du "tout génétique[END_REF], the notions of cerebral epigenesis (also called Neuronal Darwinism: [START_REF] Changeux | L'homme neuronal (The neuronal man)[END_REF][START_REF] Edelman | The relationship between science and religion in the education of protestant biology preservice teachers in a Brazilian university[END_REF]) and of epigenetics (interaction between genes and their environment to explain the emergence of phenotypes: [START_REF] Lewontin | The triple helix[END_REF][START_REF] Jacquard | L'avenir n'est pas écrit. Paris: Bayard. Jehovah's Witnesses[END_REF][START_REF] Wu | Genes, genetics, and epigenetics: A correspondence[END_REF][START_REF] Morange | L'épigénétique: un domaine aux multiples facettes[END_REF]. The present revival of creationist views, including the intelligent design, is a return to the past, promoting deterministic explanations that are out-dated in biology. To day, the neo-Darwinian explanation of evolution is not only accepted but also considered as central in biology [START_REF] Dobzhansky | Nothing in biology makes sense except in light of evolution[END_REF].

Our goal is to analyse if these new paradigms in biological research are now being introduced in biology teaching. Biological knowledge is universal, but the way it is taught is often different, depending of the social context and the teachers' values. We will analyse this interaction between taught science and society, using a comparative approach among several contrasting countries.

-Theoretical background

We analyze here teachers' conceptions, because teachers are a key step in the didactic transposition of new knowledge at school [START_REF] Chevallard | La transposition didactique: du savoir savant au savoir enseigné[END_REF][START_REF] Clément | Didactic transposition and the KVP model : conceptions as interactions between scientific knowledge, values and social practices[END_REF]. We are particularly interested in the DTD (Delay of Didactic Transposition: Quessada & Clément 2007), i.e. the delay between the emergence of new concepts in research (Darwinian processes, importance of chance, decrease of determinist views, …) and their introduction into the taught science. We can define four types of DTD, if we analyze: (1) the syllabuses, (2) the textbooks, (3) the teachers' conceptions and (4) the sequences of teaching. The syllabus and textbooks have already been analyzed in several countries for the topic Evolution (e.g. [START_REF] Quessada | Human evolution in science textbooks from twelve different countries[END_REF][START_REF] Quessada | L'enseignement des origines d'Homo sapiens, hier et aujourd'hui, en France et ailleurs : programmes, manuels scolaires, conceptions des enseignants[END_REF]): they are still to be analyzed concerning a clearer presence of stochastic processes. Sequencing by teachers is analyzed in some countries, such as Tunisia where teaching evolution is problematic [START_REF] Aroua | Enseignement de l'évolution et contexte socioculturel, le cas de la Tunisie[END_REF]. The present paper analyzes only the teachers' conceptions in several countries. We used four levels of conceptions [START_REF] Clément | Conceptions, représentations sociales et modèle KVP[END_REF], Table 1):

• Situated conception, expressed by somebody in a precise situation (here each question of the used questionnaire). • Conception, as the convergence of several situated conceptions (here the convergence from a set of questions dealing with the same topic). • Social representation [START_REF] Moscovici | Psychologie sociale[END_REF] when the same conception is held among the members of a social group (also called collective representation by Durkheim 1889). • System of conceptions when there is a significant correlation between several social representations.

Table 1 -Different types of conceptions, explained for the analysis of answers to a questionnaire (translated from Clément 2010, and modified)

Individual level Collective level

Situated Conceptions

When somebody answers to a precise question in a precise situation (as a question of a questionnaire)

When several persons, placed in a precise situation, answer in the same way (e.g. answer identically to a precise question of a questionnaire)

Conceptions related to a topic

When somebody answers with coherence to several questions (= different situations) related to the same topic When the individual conceptions related to a topic are shared inside a social group: "social representations" [START_REF] Moscovici | Psychologie sociale[END_REF], "Collective representations" (Durkheim 1898)

System of conceptions

When several conceptions (social representations) are correlated, or are correlated with political, social or religious opinions (e.g. the Principal

Component in a PCA, or in a Co-Inertia Analysis)

We also use the KVP model [START_REF] Clément | Science et idéologie : exemples en didactique et épistémologie de la biologie[END_REF][START_REF] Clément | Didactic transposition and the KVP model : conceptions as interactions between scientific knowledge, values and social practices[END_REF][START_REF] Clément | Conceptions, représentations sociales et modèle KVP[END_REF], to analyze these conceptions as possible interaction between scientific knowledge (K), Values (V) and social practices (P). For instance deterministic conceptions can be supported by out-dated scientific knowledge (K) but also by values (V) as fatalism, and social practices (P) as housekeeping by women and not by men.

-Key objectives

We focus the present work on teachers' conceptions related to the role of chance and determinism in the evolutionary processes. The degree of acceptation or reject of creationism (as a deterministic process of evolution) is compared to the degree of considering the importance of some processes of evolution as chance and natural selection.

The possible interaction between the teachers' conceptions and their national socio-cultural context is analyzed by a comparison among different countries.

Related to the KVP model, we mainly identify if the teachers' scientific knowledge is up-todate or out-dated, trying to understand the resistance of some out-dated knowledge if rooted in values and practices. In each country, we compare the conceptions of teachers trained in biology at University, with conceptions of their colleagues, to identify the possible effect of teachers' training in biology.

-Research design and methodology

We used a long questionnaire, built by the BIOHEAD-Citizen project (European Research Project: Specific Targeted Research n° CIT2-CT2004-506015, FP6, Priority 7), tested and validated over two years [START_REF] Clément | Biology, Health and Environmental Education for better Citizenship: teachers' conceptions and textbook analysis in 19 countries[END_REF]. Here, we use the answers to two sets of questions: on Evolution (14 questions), and on personal political or religious opinions (17 questions: for instance the question P12b, illustrated below in the figure 7). The 14 questions related to Evolution have several goals:

• To identify if the teachers' conceptions are more or less creationist (evolution being determined by God) or evolutionist (only natural processes): 5 questions (including B48 and B28 illustrated by the figures 6 and 7), with the possibility, e.g. in the question B28 (figure 7) to tick the item 3 which is at the same time evolutionist and creationist. In this last question, the items 1 and 2 are evolutionist, the first one being more dogmatic while the item 2 is mentioning God ("…without considering the hypothesis that God created humankind"). • To identify if, for the teachers, evolution is or not goal-ended, determined or not by a project (the first meaning of chance defined above, in the introduction): 2 questions. • To identify the degree of teachers' knowledge related to the biological processes of evolution (origin of new species: macro-evolution): 6 questions, including B42 (importance of chance: Figure 3) and B43 (importance of natural selection: figure 4).

• To identify the teachers' knowledge related to elementary stochastic processes which are not directly related to evolution: "When a couple has already had two girls, the chances that their third child be a boy are higher" (question A31: Figure 5). These questions are not related to all the possible meanings of "chance", as exposed above, but are focused on the degree of acceptance or reject of evolution and of chance in the evolutionary processes. The questionnaire is submitted in several contrasting countries to identify the link between these degrees of acceptance or reject and the socio-cultural context of each country.

Countries were chosen from their diversity: 13 were involved in the BIOHEAD-Citizen project, and 8 others are new (data obtained in 2009-2012): Australia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Denmark, Georgia, Serbia, Sweden (figure 2) After the end of the Biohead-Citizen project, the choice of new countries was done for specific reasons. For instance, concerning the countries outside Europe, we initially had only Muslim countries (North Africa, Senegal and Lebanon, including 1/3 of Lebanese teachers who were Christian). Subsequently, we decided to extend our sampling outside Europe to countries with a high proportion of Christian teachers (Burkina Faso and Cameroon in Africa; Australia and Brazil to start an expansion to other continents). In Europe, we chose two mainly Orthodox countries (Serbia and Georgia) and two new Scandinavian countries (with mainly Protestant or Atheist / Agnostic teachers: Denmark and Sweden).

Three categories of teachers answered the questionnaire in each country: 1/3 in Primary school, 1/3 in Secondary schools teaching Biology and 1/3 in Secondary schools teaching the national Language. For each category, half are in-service teachers and the other half are pre-service teachers (the last year of training before teaching). The total number by country is indicated in Figure 1 (total = 8 078).

The data are analyzed by classical statistical tests (such as Chi 2 ), but also by multivariate analyses using the "R" software [START_REF] Munoz | Des analyses statistiques multivariées pour traiter les données issues de questionnaires : Conceptions d'enseignants et futurs enseignants de douze pays sur l'Evolution[END_REF][START_REF] Munoz | Teachers' conceptions of nature and environment in 16 countries[END_REF]), but we will not include all the detailed results in the present work.

-Findings

Figure 3 shows the responses of teachers to the question B42 related to the importance of chance in species evolution. For the following figures, we separated biology teachers (teaching biology in secondary school, but also some of the teachers in primary schools, when they were trained in biology at University) and other teachers (with no training in biology at University). The difference between biology teachers and non-biology teachers (Figure 3) is significant in 12 countries (Brazil, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France, Georgia, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Serbia, Sweden, Tunisia), showing an effect of studying biology at University. Nevertheless, the percentage of biology teachers thinking that chance is not important in species evolution, remains high: between 61% and 40% in 8 countries (Georgia, Burkina Faso, Tunisia, Cameroon, Lebanon, Morocco, Senegal and Algeria), and >20% in 5 other countries (Cyprus, Brazil, Portugal, Romania and Serbia). Are these high proportions linked to the topic evolution? We investigated this by looking at the responses related to the main Darwinian process: natural selection. Biologists are particularly convinced of this importance: only in the 5 African countries of our sample, as well as in Lebanon and in Georgia, between 10% (Burkina Faso) and 37% (Morocco) of biology teachers chose little or no importance of natural selection. In 13 countries, less than 5% ticked little or no importance, including 9 countries with 0%. In contrast, for the importance of chance, only in one country (Finland) less than 5% of biology teachers ticked no or little importance, and in 13 countries from 11% (Cyprus) to 61% (Algeria).

Non-biologist teachers are just a little less convinced of the importance of natural selection than their biologist colleagues: the difference between biologist and non-biologist teachers is significant (p<0.01; except Lebanon, p=0.02) in most of the countries, except in Cameroon, Senegal and Algeria (where evolution is not taught or of very few: [START_REF] Quessada | Human evolution in science textbooks from twelve different countries[END_REF][START_REF] Quessada | L'enseignement des origines d'Homo sapiens, hier et aujourd'hui, en France et ailleurs : programmes, manuels scolaires, conceptions des enseignants[END_REF], and also in Estonia and Serbia where almost all the teachers know the importance of natural selection. Nevertheless, even for the non-biologist teachers, the percentages selecting no or little importance of natural selection are less than for chance: from 0% to 46% for natural selection (with 14 countries < 20%) while from 11% to 80% for chance (with only 3 countries < 20%).

These results show that (1) when trained in biology, as was the case for chance, more teachers know the importance of natural selection, even when having creationist conceptions (for comparison related to some of these countries, see our published results in Clément & Quessada 2008[START_REF] Gayon | Déterminisme génétique, déterminisme bernardien, déterminisme laplacien[END_REF], 2012 and below: Figures 6 &7); and (2) teachers are more reluctant to accept the important role of chance than the important role of natural selection. Is this last reluctance linked to the topic of evolution, or is it more general? We began to answer this question by analyzing our data related to a question where stochastic processes are not directly linked to evolution: A31 (figure 5).

Figure 5 -Biologist (B) and Non-Biologists (NB) Teachers' answers (grouped by country, N = 8078) to the question A31: When a couple has already had two girls, the chances that their third child be a boy are higher.: (red) "I do not agree"; (yellow) "I rather do not agree"; (grey) "I rather agree"; (black) "I agree".

Figure 5 shows that most of the teachers, happily, disagree or rather disagree with the proposition "When a couple has already had two girls, the chances that their third child be a boy are higher": from 79% (Georgia) to 97.2% (France) of biology teachers, and from 64.2% (Tunisia) to 94.4% (France) for their non-biologist colleagues. The difference between biology and non-biology teachers is significant in 13 countries, showing a better knowledge of stochastic processes after training in biology at University. More importantly, these data show that the reluctance to accept the importance of chance is much more important when dealing with evolution B42, Figure 3) than when dealing with another process as in the proposition A31 (Figure 5):

• For biology teachers, in all the 21 countries, less than 21% did not agree with the role of chance for the question A31, while in 13 countries, 21% to 61.4% did not agree with the importance of chance in the evolution of species (question B42, Figure 3). • For the non-biology teachers, the disagreement with the importance of chance is between 5.6% (France) to 35.9% (Tunisia) when answering the question A31 (Figure 5), but from 10% (Denmark) to 80% (Tunisia) when answering the question B42 (importance of chance in species evolution: Figure 3).

In consequence, the difficulty teachers have in accepting the importance of chance in biological processes is more important when dealing with evolution. We can go further by analyzing the teachers' answers related to deterministic processes of evolution (Figure 6). The teachers' answers to the question of the importance of God in species evolution (Figure 6) show more distinct differences among countries than the previous questions: for biology teachers: from 2.7% (Denmark) to 100% (Algeria) of great or some importance of God; as well as for their non-biologist colleagues: from 10.2% (Sweden) to 98% (Algeria). The difference between biology and non-biology teachers is significant in 8 countries (Burkina Faso, Brazil, Denmark, Finland, France, Italy, Portugal and Serbia). Multivariate analyses show that there is a significant correlation between the answers to the question B48, Figure 6) and the level of practicing religion in each country (question P12b, Figure 7), whatever the religion is (Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox or Muslim), and with several questions related to evolution, as B28 (Figure 7).  It is certain that the origin of the humankind results from evolutionary processes.  Human origin can be explained by evolutionary processes without considering the hypothesis that God created humankind.  Human origin can be explained by evolutionary processes that are governed by God.  It is certain that God created humankind P12b: Five boxes between "I practice religion" to "I do not practice religion"

The comparison between figures 6 and 7 shows that the teachers who practice a religion the most (P12b, Figure 7) also tick great or some importance for the importance of God in species evolution (B48, Figure 6) but select the item 3 or the item 4 to answer the question B28 on the origin of humankind (Figure 7). While the item 4 is radically creationist "It is certain that God created humankind", the item 3 is at the same time creationist and evolutionist ("Human origin can be explained by evolutionary processes that are governed by God"). The well-known evolutionary biologist Dobzhansky expressed this kind of position in his famous paper (1973: Nothing in Biology makes sense except in the light of Evolution): "I am a creationist and an evolutionist. Evolution is God's, or Nature's method of creation" (p.127). This position is interesting in biology education, because it is not antievolutionist. More biology teachers than their non-biologist colleagues ticked this item, being believers and practising religion, but also evolutionist. In some countries, as in France and in Scandinavian countries, several teachers are simultaneously believers in God, practising religion and ticking the items 1 or 2 of the question B28, items that are clearly evolutionist.

-Discussion and conclusions

Few studies have analyzed the perception of evolution at an international level. The largest and most known inquiry was published by [START_REF] Miller | Public acceptance of Evolution[END_REF] and compared the public acceptance of evolution in 34 countries, showing the minimum of acceptance in Turkey (25% of adults agreed with the proposition "Human beings, as we know them, developed from earlier species of animals") and in US (40%). From a sociological study [START_REF] Hassan | On being religious: patterns of religious commitment in Muslim societies[END_REF] including only one question related to evolution ("Do you agree or disagree with Darwin's theory of evolution?") [START_REF] Hameed | Bracing for Islamic Creationism[END_REF] published that 22% of Turks, 16% of Indonesians, 14% of Pakistanis, 11% of Malaysians and 8% of Egyptians agree, while 40% in Kazakhstan. Working with teachers to analyze their problems and to suggest propositions to improve their training, the Biohead-Citizen research is also innovative for three other reasons:

• The quality of the questionnaire, with 14 questions related to Evolution, certain questions allowing the responder to say he / she is at the same time evolutionist and creationist, and also with several questions related to the four other topics of this project of research (genetic determinism, environmental, health and sex education), allowing correlations of responses to identify the teachers' systems of conceptions. • The identity of samples in each country: the same categories and numbers of teachers; each teacher's personal information including his / her socio-political and religious opinions. In consequence, this allows rigorous comparisons and the identification of possible correlation between the teachers' conceptions of evolution and some of their personal characteristics. • The diversity of countries: diversity of economical development, of geographical location, as well as of religion (depending the country, mainly Catholic, or Protestant, Orthodox, Muslim or also Agnostic / Atheist). Several of them were included for the first time in this kind of international comparison.

The large volume of the Biohead-Citizen data needs successive complementary analyses and publications. Some analyses related to evolution are further developed from a limited number of countries (12 to 19 countries: Quessada et al 2007[START_REF] Quessada | L'enseignement des origines d'Homo sapiens, hier et aujourd'hui, en France et ailleurs : programmes, manuels scolaires, conceptions des enseignants[END_REF][START_REF] Quessada | The origin of humankind: a survey of school textbooks and teachers' conceptions in 14 countries[END_REF], Clément & Quessada 2008[START_REF] Gayon | Déterminisme génétique, déterminisme bernardien, déterminisme laplacien[END_REF], 2012) and we will publish soon a more complete presentation from 28 countries. The present work is the first to be focused in 21 countries on the analysis of teachers' conceptions on chance and determinism in evolution.

The correlation between the acceptance of creationism and the high degree of belief in God and practice of religion, illustrated here by the Figure 7, was already known from our first comparisons of 12 to 19 countries. It is not a surprise to find it again from 21 countries. This influence of religion on the revival of creationism is presented and discussed in several articles and books: among others, Jones & Reiss (2007), Coquidé & Tirard (2008), or [START_REF] Portier | Théorie de l'évolution et religions[END_REF]. Less work paid attention to the teachers' difficulty: for instance in U.K. [START_REF] Reiss | Should science educators deal with the science/religion issue?[END_REF]), in Brazil (El-Hani & Sepulveda, 2010) or in Lebanon (BouJaoude et al. 2009). Some authors, as [START_REF] Mahner | Is religious education compatible with science education[END_REF], or [START_REF] Dawkins | The God Delusion[END_REF], argue that a person has to opt between a religious or a scientific perspective. Several others, as [START_REF] Cobern | Worldview theory and conceptual change in science education[END_REF] consider possible that a religious person develops a scientifically compatible worldview. [START_REF] Dobzhansky | Nothing in biology makes sense except in light of evolution[END_REF] already claimed the same (see above). El-Hani & Sepulveda (2010) investigated the degree of compatibility between the worldview of Protestant biology preservice teachers and scientific ideas related to evolution. The results presented here confirm that an important amount of teachers believing in God, practicing religion (Figure 7-P12b) and believing in the importance of God in species evolution (Figure 6) are also evolutionist (figure 7-B28). A large majority of them, moreover, agree with the importance of natural selection for species evolution (Figure 4): even in Algeria, half of teachers answered "great importance" of natural selection in species evolution (Figure 4) while nearly all believe in God, practice religion (Figure 7b), answered "great importance" for God in species evolution (Figure 6), and more than 90% ticked the most radical creationist item for the origin of life and for the origin of humankind (Figure 7a), Nevertheless, only 10% of these Algerian teachers answered "great importance" for chance in species evolution.

In each country, comparing the Figures 3 and4, less teachers ticked importance of chance than of natural selection in species evolution. Even in France, where almost teachers are evolutionist, 10% of biology teachers and 20% of non-biology teachers ticked no or few importance of chance.

The reluctance to accept the importance of chance is more important when dealing with evolution (Figure 3) than when dealing with the acceptance of a stochastic process as the sex of a child (Figure 5). There is indeed approximately the same ranking of countries in these two figures, but the amount of scientific error for the sex of a child is largely lower than for the role of chance in evolution, in each country.

Here is an illustration of the KVP model (Figure 1), the knowledge (K) of some teachers interacting with the values (V) and practices (P) of their religion. They accept a process by random, by chance, when it is related to the sex of their child, and not in contradiction with their religious beliefs. In contrast, several of them do not accept the importance of chance in evolution, because their religion claims that the fine adaptations of life cannot emerge from a "blind chance", and consequently would necessarily be the result of God's design. The trap of this alternative is analyzed by [START_REF] Clément | Methods to analyse argumentation in (more or less) scientific texts. An example: analysis of a text promoting Creationism[END_REF] in some Christian (Jehovah's Witnesses, 1985) as well as Muslim discourses [START_REF] Keskas | Le hasard impossible : la théorie de l'évolution des êtres vivants analysée par un croyant[END_REF]: the eventual role of chance in evolution is the main target of attacks, ignoring that the scientists never reduced evolution to chance, the emergence of new species becoming from the articulation between chance (stochastic processes of differentiation by mutations, genetic drift, …) and natural selection. In these texts, there is no attack against the notion of natural selection, that can explain its widely acceptance by teachers practicing religion.

Finally, to take into account the different meanings of conceptions presented in the Table 1, we can say that in a first time our work presents situated conceptions of teachers, related to each single question. In a second time, we analyze the convergence between these answers, showing that teachers' conceptions are more or less evolutionist or creationist. We illustrated this convergence by some figures related to some questions, but all the answers to the five questions related to this topic are convergent, and also correlated with the answers to the questions related to a possible goal-ended evolution. In other words, there are two poles inside the teachers' conceptions, the most evolutionist one disagreeing with a goal-ended evolution, and agreeing with the importance of chance in species evolution, and the most creationist one having the inverse positions. In a third time, we correlated these types of conceptions with the nationality, or with the degree of belief in God and of religious practice, showing that evolutionist as well as creationist conceptions can be defined as social representations. In a fourth time, not presented here but starting to be analyzed in another publication (Clément et al., 2012), we can correlate these social representations related to evolution with those related with another topic, as the genetic determinism of some sociocultural human features (e.g. housekeeping by women), putting in evidence "systems of conceptions". The most creationist conceptions are correlated with a strong belief in a biological determinism of these human features.

Last point, the comparison between biology teachers and their colleagues shows that, in half of the analyzed countries, training in biology increases the percentage of evolutionist conceptions and of acceptance of the importance of chance in evolution. We can conclude with the necessity of training more and better teachers. Nevertheless, it will be difficult to change the teachers' conceptions, because they are not rooted only in out-dated or up-to-date knowledge, but also in their values and social practices.

Figure 1 -

 1 Figure 1 -The KVP model (translated from Clément 2004)

Figure 2 -

 2 Figure 2 -Sampling in the 21 countries: in blue are the countries involved in the Biohead-Citizen project (data collected in 2006-2008); the other countries are shown in red (data collected in 2009-2012)

Figure 3 -

 3 Figure 3 -Biologist (B) and Non-Biologists (NB) Teachers' answers (grouped by country, N = 8078) to the question B42: Importance of Chance in species Evolution: (red) "Great importance"; (yellow) "Some importance"; (grey) "Little importance"; (black) "No importance at all".

Figure 4 -

 4 Figure 4 -Biologist (B) and Non Biologists (NB) Teachers' answers (grouped by country, N = 8078) to the question B43: Importance of Natural Selection in species Evolution: (red) "Great importance"; (yellow) "Some importance"; (grey) "Little importance"; (black) "No importance at".

Figure 4

 4 Figure 4 clearly shows that most of the teachers, in the 21 countries, ticked the boxes "great importance" of natural selection (red in the Figure) or "some importance" (yellow in the Figure): much more, in each country, than for the importance of chance.

Figure 6 -

 6 Figure 6 -Biologist (B) and Non Biologists (NB) Teachers' answers (grouped by country, N = 8078) to the question B48: Importance of God in species Evolution: (black) "Great importance"; (grey) "Some importance"; (yellow) "Little importance"; (red) "Not important".

Figure 7 -

 7 Figure 7 -Teachers' answers to two questions of the questionnaire Biohead-Citizen. N = 8078 teachers, grouped by countries (21 countries): B28. Which of the following four statements do you agree with most? Select one sentence: It is certain that the origin of the humankind results from evolutionary processes.  Human origin can be explained by evolutionary processes without considering the hypothesis that God created humankind.  Human origin can be explained by evolutionary processes that are governed by God.  It is certain that God created humankind P12b: Five boxes between "I practice religion" to "I do not practice religion"

Priority 7), Thanks to Charline Laurent (France) for the statistical analyses, and to Peter Fensham (Australia) and Edith Dempster (South Africa) for improving the English of this text.

Acknowledgements: Part of data used here was collected during the BIOHEAD-Citizen project (European Community, Specific Targeted Research n° CIT2-CT2004-506015, FP6,


Pierre Clément

Jérémy Castéra

Anna Liisa Kosonen

Adriana Valente

Keywords: Genetic determinism, Epigenetics, Teachers' conceptions, International comparisons, Gender

The interaction between the genome and its environment (epigenetics) is a new paradigm in biology. Nevertheless, the notion of genetic determinism is still present in syllabuses and textbooks. What about teachers' conceptions?

We analyzed the teachers' conceptions related to the genetic determinism of human performances in five European countries, using 24 questions of the Biohead-Citizen questionnaire.

The conceptions of the 2038 teachers, when grouped by country, show clear and significant differences, being more deterministic in the three countries of North Europe (Finland, Estonia, Denmark) than in Italy and France, and more sexist for only some of the related questions.

When grouped by religion, the differences are significant but disappear after suppression of the country effect, while this last one does not disappear after suppression of the religion effect: there is no specific religion effect. There is a gender effect (female teachers being more feminist), an effect of the level of instruction at University (the most instructed teachers having more knowledge but also some more tolerant attitudes), and an effect of age (the oldest believing more in genetic determinism).

A Co-Inertia analysis shows significant correlations between teachers' answers on genetic determinism with their political opinions: genetic determinism (as belief of heredity of intelligence) and intolerant attitudes (as sexism and racism) are correlated with the most conservative political opinions.

Finally, we found a specific and paradoxical effect of biology training of teachers: biologist teachers have, without surprise, more knowledge than their colleagues, but are also more convinced of the importance of genetic determinism: their training in biology still needs to be improved by introducing the most recent concepts of genetics, as epigenetics.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The debate between nature and nurture is outdated, both being necessarily in constant interaction [START_REF] Jacquard | Eloge de la Différence[END_REF][START_REF] Atlan | La fin du tout-génétique[END_REF][START_REF] Lewontin | The triple helix: Gene, organism, environment[END_REF]etc.). The interaction between the genome and its environment (called "Epigenetics": [START_REF] Wu | [END_REF] is a new paradigm in biology. Nevertheless the syllabuses and school textbooks are just starting to change [START_REF] Castéra | Genetic determinism is school textbooks: a comparative study conducted among sixteen countries[END_REF][START_REF] Clément | Race'' sex and social class differences in cognitive ability: Towards a contextual rather than genetic explanation[END_REF][START_REF] Gericke | Conceptual variation or incoherence? Textbook discourse on genes in six countries[END_REF]. What about the teachers' conceptions?

Outdated knowledge can be used to justify a pre-determinism of individual performances (intelligence, music, …) or of social intolerant attitudes as sexism or racism [START_REF] Keller | In genes we trust[END_REF].

A previous communication (Castéra & Clément, 2009a) showed that more Finnish than French teachers were convinced of a genetic determinism. In consequence, we decided to extend this comparison to more countries in North and South of Europe. Our general theoretical background is the KVP model [START_REF] Clément | Didactic transposition and the KVP model : conceptions as interactions between scientific knowledge, values and social practices[END_REF][START_REF] Clément | Conceptions, représentations sociales et modèle KVP[END_REF], analyzing the conceptions as possible interaction between scientific knowledge (K), values (V) and social practices (P). A comparison between countries differing by their socio-cultural contexts can help to identify the difficulties of some teachers to change their conceptions after a renewal of the scientific knowledge, as it is the case by the emergence of epigenetics in biology. This new paradigm is concerning all the teachers, not only biology teachers, because the way of teaching is not the same when you consider students' performances as genetically determined (innatism) or when you know that the genetic characteristics of any person is strongly interacting with their environment along their singular history (epigenetics).

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

We wish to compare teachers' conceptions of biological determinism of human performances in five European countries. Do they differ among countries, or among groups of countries? Three of them are in Northern Europe, the two others in Southern Europe. Moreover, the results of PISA before our research (2006) showed that Finland obtained the best score on the scale of the "scientific literacy" while France and Denmark obtained a score just under the OECD average, and Italy a lower score.

When teachers were trained in biology (teaching biology, or teaching in primary schools after a training in biology: we call them "biologist teachers"), do their conceptions differ from those of their non-biologist colleagues? Teachers' religions differ among these countries (Table 1): is there a religion effect independent to the country effect? Do the teachers' conceptions vary with other controlled parameters, independently to their nationality, as gender, age, level of instruction, political opinions?

METHODOLOGY

Our sampling (Table 1) comes from five countries, three in Northern Europe, two in Southern Europe. In each country, the questionnaire was completed by a balance of in-service teachers (i.e. currently active) and pre-service teachers (i.e. adults in their last year of teacher training). Six categories of samples were defined: in-service primary school teachers (inP), in-service secondary school biology teachers (inB), in-service secondary school language teachers (inL), pre-service primary school teachers (preP), pre-service secondary school biology teachers (preB) and pre-service secondary school language teachers (preL). Each sample was about 50 teachers but only 30 in a small country as Estonia, and more in France and Italy where complementary hypotheses were tested. A total of 2038 teachers completed the questionnaire. The research design and the questionnaire were defined and validated during the BIOHEAD-Citizen project [START_REF] Clément | Biology, Health and Environmental Education for better Citizenship: teachers' conceptions and textbook analysis in 19 countries[END_REF][START_REF] Munoz | Teachers' conceptions of nature and environment in 16 countries[END_REF][START_REF] Castéra | Teachers' conceptions about genetic determinism of human behaviour: a survey in 23 Countries[END_REF].

Teachers anonymously answered to a large questionnaire (144 questions) translated in their language (parallel independent translations followed by a retro-translation into English).

Pre-service teachers filled out the questionnaire at the end of a course concerning all a promotion, and the questionnaire was immediately collected to have no bias of sampling. Some in-service teachers also filled out the questionnaire after a course or a meeting, but some others did that inside their school, after being gathered in a group. In each case, the researcher was present, explaining in the beginning that the process is totally anonymous and free, but also that the teachers had to answer to all the questions, because the questionnaires with more than 5% of not filled questions are then withdrawn.

We analyze here the teachers' answers to 24 questions related to genetic determinism. All these questions are reproduced in [START_REF] Castéra | Teachers' conceptions about genetic determinism of human behaviour: a survey in 23 Countries[END_REF], and the main important of them (those differentiating the most the teachers' conceptions) are reproduced below inside the results. These questions can be grouped into five different categories:

(1) Genetic determinism of personal or individual features: questions about clones and twins (A3, A6, A19, A24, A43 and A53).

(2) Genetic predisposition of children' performances (B8, B10, B11, B14, B20)

(3) Genetic/biological differences related to gender (A2, A9, A14, A21, A25, A30, A36, A38 and A46).

(4) Genetic differences among ethnic groups (A35) or among social behaviour (B4).

(5) A more general knowledge of genetics (A27, A31), although recognizing that question A27 can also be influenced by innatism.

We also use here teachers' answers to 17 questions related to their personal characteristics, and to their political or religious opinions.

All the questions are closed, generally with a Likert scale of four boxes.

The data were then analysed with appropriate multivariate analyses [START_REF] Munoz | Teachers' conceptions of nature and environment in 16 countries[END_REF][START_REF] Castéra | Teachers' conceptions about genetic determinism of human behaviour: a survey in 23 Countries[END_REF], using the software "R". We also used t-tests with Bonferroni's correction.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The country effect

A between-class analysis (Fig. 1) clearly opposes Northern to Southern European countries. These differences are very significant (p<0.001: test of randomization).

The questions differentiating the most the five countries are (Fig. 1c):

 The seven questions related to genetic pre-determinism of individual performances: "There are genetic factors in parents that predispose their children to become: good in school" (B10, Figure 2), "very good violinists" (B20), "aggressive" (B14), "alcoholics" (B8), "homosexual" (B11), and two questions related to similarity of human clones of "Einstein" (A3) and "Mozart" (A24).

 "Human social behaviour is partly directed by genes" (B4).

 Two questions related to a biological justification of gender differences: "to take care of housekeeping" (A38, Figure 3); "to think logically because men might have different brain bilateral symmetry." (A36), and two questions related to the gender equality of rights (A30, A2).  And, with a less weight, the question related to racism: "Ethnic groups are genetically different and that is why some are superior to others" (A35) and a question related to knowledge (role of chance for the child's sex: A31).

For most of these questions, the t-tests with Bonferroni's correction show significant differences between each pair of countries, with only some exceptions (as between some pairs of Northern countries).

There is no significant difference between countries for five other questions related to a biological justification of sexist gender differences. Globally, in the three Northern countries, the teachers' conceptions are more in favour of a genetic determinism of human features, behaviours or performances, including to justify some (but not all) sexist or racist propositions. It is for biological reasons that women more often than men take care of housekeeping.

I agree I don't agree

Absence of a specific religion effect

After grouping the 2038 teachers into four groups depending their religion (Table 1), a between-class analysis shows significant difference between the four groups, but this difference disappears after suppression of the country effect, while this country effect does not disappear after suppression of the religion effect.

That means there is no specific religion effect.

A paradoxical effect of training in Biology

A between-class analysis shows a very significant difference between biologist teachers (Table 1) and other teachers, persisting after suppression of the country effect. This difference is paradoxical: biologist teachers have more knowledge than their colleagues, but are also more convinced of a genetic determinism. The figure 4 illustrates this effect for two countries (France and Finland): the great difference between the two countries is the "country effect", described above. Nevertheless, inside each country, there is a significant difference between teachers trained in biology at University (B) and other teachers (NB). That suggests the way biology is taught at University induces more conviction in a genetic determinism, while it is now outdated with the emergence of epigenetics.

Other effects

There is a fine gender effect, still significant after suppression of the country effect: female teachers are less sexist (more feminist) than their male colleagues. That is not a surprise: this effect was previously analysed in some of our precedent works (Castéra & Clément, 2009b).

There is also a significant effect of the teachers' level of training at University. The most instructed teachers have more knowledge and often more tolerant attitudes. This effect is very interesting to encourage a longest initial training of teachers at University.

The effect of teachers' age is also significant; it is partly similar to the precedent effect but oldest teachers believe more in genetic determinism. That is probably a consequence of the great prevalence of innatist ideas during the second half of the 20 th Century [START_REF] Atlan | La fin du tout-génétique[END_REF], and a difficulty of oldest teachers to change then their conceptions. It is also interesting to see that the youngest teachers are less influenced by the conceptions related to a dominant influence of the genetic determinism (innatism).

Figure 5. A Co-Inertia analysis shows significant correlations between a PCA from answers related to biological determinism (24 questionsred circles around the questions which more differentiate the teachers) and a PCA from teachers' socio-political opinions (17 questionsblue circles around the questions which more differentiate the teachers).

The graph "Eigenvalues" shows that the main oppositions inside teachers' conceptions are related to the component 1 (the horizontal axis).

The graph "Histogram of sim", coming from the randomization test (Monte Carlo), shows that the observed distribution (the trait on the right) is entirely outside the histogram built from 1000 essays by chance (on the left): the correlation between the two PCA is very significant (p<0.001).

A Co-Inertia analysis (Figure 5) shows significant correlations between two PCA, from answers related to biological determinism (24 questions: B10, B20, B14, A38, A35, ...) and from teachers' socio-political opinions (17 questions): the belief in genetic determinism is correlated with the most conservative political opinions (e.g. less access to health care for poor people, too many foreigners in my country, for private health services, for private pensions, against the separation between science and religion, and also between religion and politics, …).

CONCLUSION

Our results show two opposite trends:

(1) A global link between belief in genetic determinism, intolerant attitudes as sexism or racism and conservative socio-political opinions. And reciprocally, a link between belief / knowledge related to less genetic determinism, and more tolerant attitudes.

That is a confirmation of works in social psychology (Dambrun & Taylor 2005[START_REF] Keller | In genes we trust[END_REF]. That is also an illustration of interaction between knowledge, values and social practices (the KVP model).

(2) Nevertheless, in the three Northern Europe countries, teachers mainly believe into a genetic determinism of human performances, but express sexist views only for some questions. Five of the nine questions related to gender differences show a very little amount of sexism, without any difference between Northern and Southern European countries, showing the same feminist conceptions of the interviewed teachers.

Concerning our initial questions of research, the most important differences among the teachers' conceptions oppose the countries, mainly North to South of Europe. Why these differences is not so easy to explain. The differences are mainly dealing with the questions related to genetic predisposition of children' performances (as illustrated for instance in the figures 2 and 4). A possible interpretation could be that the meaning of "predisposition" is not the same in the Northern languages than in the Latine languages of Italy and France, where it is synonymous to "predestination". Nevertheless, when working in Denmark (three months in Copenhagen for Pierre Clément) or in Estonia (three years in Tartu for Jérémy Castéra), we discussed several times with biology teachers who are really convinced that the human intelligence and other performances are strongly linked to a genetic determinism. While it is not the case in France or Italy, probably as a consequence of historical features of these countries, with more social influence (through medias, conferences, …) of philosophers or scientists strongly opposed the ideologies as innatism. It would be interesting to document more this hypothesis of socio-cultural difference between Northern and Southern European countries.

These conceptions also vary with other teachers' characteristics: their gender, age, level of training in University. We proposed inside these results some possible explanations. In the perspective of improving science education, important is the paradoxical difference between biologist and other teachers: their biology training seems to be still structured by the notion of genetic determinism, and poorly related to the most recent genetic knowledge. That is possibly easier to change in each of the five countries of our sample, than the deep sociocultural context of these countries.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Between-class Analysis differentiating the five countries. a -The first component expresses more than 80% of the total variance. b -Each point represents a teacher's conceptions, and is linked to the centre of gravity of his / her country (FI= Finland; DK=Denmark; EE=Estonia; IT = Italia; FR= France). c -The answers expalining this difference among countries: see the text for explanations.

Figure 2 .Figure 3 .

 23 Figure 2. Teachers' answers (grouped by country) to the question B10: There are genetic factors in parents that predispose their children to be good in school. I agree I don't agree

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Answering to the question B10 (There are genetic factors in parents that predispose their children to be good in school), the difference between B and NB is significant in France as well as in Finland: Biologist Teachers (B) are more innatist than their Colleagues (NB). The shades of grey correspond with the answers on the Likert scale: Light grey (agree) to dark grey (do not agree)

Table 1

 1 Our sampling (Others = no answer + minority religions)

		Country	Total Including Biologists % Agnostic % Catholic % Protestant	% Others
	DK	Denmark	259	111	44,8	1,9	34,4	18.9
	EE	Estonia	182	108	43,4	7,7	14,8	34.1
	FI	Finland	306	121	15,0	1,0	66,3	17.6
	FR	France	732	319	50,5	38,1	1,9	9.4
	IT	Italy	559	150	12,3	78,7	0,5	8.4
		Total	2038	809


Keywords:

components of ESD (e.g.

cluding values and practices that can sometimes strongly differ from those of teachers. Recent inquiries show significant differences among the teachers' conceptions on ESD, linked to their disciplines, with difficulty to consider the three dimensions of ESD (economical, social and environmental). Other more qualitative research approaches identified several teachers' postures, as more or less neutral, interventionist or critical. ESD includes human rights as equality of all the human beings independently to their gender, ethnic group, religion or sexual orientation. To analyse teachers' conceptions on environment and on human rights, a large survey has been done in 24 countries, showing strong differences among these countries. In the less developed ones, the teachers' conceptions are more anthropocentric, reveal less awareness of the problematic limit of resources in our planet, and less reticence to use GMO (genetically modified organisms). These teachers are more fervent believers in God, deeply practising religion. They also agree more than others with propositions as: "It is for biological reasons that women more often than men take care of housekeeping", or with statements justifying racism or homophobia. These points illustrate that some socio-cultural traditions may hinder values

IMPLEMENTATION OF ESD AROUND THE WORLD

Education for a Sustainable Development (ESD) is more and more implemented around the world since the Brundtland report (1987), the Rio Summit and the Agenda 21 (1992). ESD is promoted in most of the national politics of education and curricula (UNESCO, 2009a(UNESCO, , 2009b)), even if some countries still avoid to use the word "development" arguing, as in Brazil" (Governo federal Brazil, 2008) a possible confusion with "growth", and still use the appellation "Environmental Education" already dedicated, in these countries, to the three classical perspectives of ESD (social, economical and environmental). In fact, "Development" is not necessarily "Growth"; it can be a transformation, a metamorphosis of our societies and environments to keep living in the future. The resources of our Planet are limited and cannot sustain the today level of consumption of US for all the countries; in the most developed countries, the sustainable development probably implies a "sustainable decrease" [START_REF] Latouche | Le pari de la décroissance[END_REF]. The notion of sustainability is central in ESD. In Australia, ESD is called "Environmental Education for Sustainability" 1 . Nevertheless even when the national policy clearly claims a priority for ESD, the implementation in the school practice is not so clear [START_REF] Clément | Education pour le Développement Durable (EDD) et compé tences des élèves dans l'enseignement secondaire[END_REF]. In several countries, the first step is to include more and better ESD in the curricula, for all the school levels (students from 6 to 18 years old) and all the matters of secondary schools. In some countries, including ESD objectives in syllabuses is just in course [START_REF] Clément | Education pour le Développement Durable (EDD) et compé tences des élèves dans l'enseignement secondaire[END_REF]Caravita & Valente, in press). The values underlying ESD can be highlighted by making reference to the existing literature in educational and social studies (synthesis in [START_REF] Caravita | Construction and validation of textbook analysis grids for ecology and environmental education[END_REF]. Several of these values are also underlying Education for All, Education to Citizenship and Human Rights : e.g. for the equality of all the human beings independently to their gender, ethnic group, religion or sexual orientation (UNESCO, 2009a, page 9). Other values, more focused on Environment and Sustainability, are specific to ESD. ESD is facing a challenging problem: taking into account the local socio-cultural specificities, but also the universal values, mainly related to science and citizen-ship. To face this question, it is important to develop international projects aimed at making surveys in different socio-cultural contexts.

COMPETENCES IN ESD

The initial tendency in cognitive sciences was to discriminate among ways of defining competences which focused on cognition or performance or on knowledge domain (specific or general) [START_REF] Weinert | Concept of competence : a conceptual clarification[END_REF]. The DeSeCo project (OECD, 2002) aimed at achieving a consensus on an operational definition of competence in the educational field. « The conceptualization adopted in DeSeCo is holistic in the sense that it integrated and related external demands, individual attributes (including ethics and values) and context as essential elements of competent performance". ESD is focused on students' acquisition of the capacities to react successfully to the demands of complex problem, therefore attitudes and values are altogether important than knowledge. Each competence is structured by a request, situated in a precise context, and has an internal structure characterised by different attributes: knowledge, cognitive capacities, practical skills, attitudes, emotions, values and ethics, motivations [START_REF] Jonnaert | Compétences et socioconstructivisme[END_REF][START_REF] Jonnaert | Revisiting the Concept of Competence as an Organizing Principle for Programs of Study: From Competence to Competent Action[END_REF]. Competences are dealing with the five pillars of Education: learning (1) to know, (2) to do, (3) to live together, to live with others, (4) to be and (5) to transform (myself, the society, and environment). The fourth one are coming from the Delors' Report (1996), and the fifth from ulterior works (Black, 1999). Developing students' competences requires an adequate pedagogy, characterized by active and responsible involvement of students in projects, debates, concrete realisations or actions.

Nevertheless, teachers are generally not well prepared to bring real life back into the classroom for consequently changing the teaching/learning of subject matters. Challenging features are implicit in ESD: knowledge contents that are not always well stabilized, awareness of the different facets of an environmental problem (mostly outside their mono-disciplinary training), importance of teaching critical choosing rather than choices, relevance of being aware of values implied in each choice, development of projects that deal with problems having no a priori known solutions, openness to facilitate discussions with respect of diverging opinions, willingness to open their classrooms and even their school to interactions with external partners in their territory, etc. Sometimes, the values and practices underlying ESD can strongly differ from the teachers' values and practices. Therefore, when looking more closely to actual experiences, ESD objectives are not so well implemented correspondingly to the Ministry's official declarations. That is why we focus this paper on conceptions and postures of teachers when they are facing ESD, on one side, and the envisaged competences to develop, on the other side, having the perspective to improve their training.

TEACHERS' POSTURES

An important problem of teachers when confronted with ESD is the necessity of a multidisciplinary approach to take into account the ecological, social and economical dimensions of ESD; on the other hand, their professional training usually deals with only one of these dimensions in most of the countries. In a large inquiry recently done in Sweden (Borg & Gericke, 2012), 3229 upper secondary teachers from 223 schools (teaching science, or language, or social science, or vocational and esthetical practices or other disciplines) answered an online questionnaire with mostly Likert-scale questions and some multiple choice questions. The results show that differences in the way ESD is understood are linked to the subject taught. E.g. natural science and social science teachers think to a lesser extent that economic growth is important, compared to language, vocational and esthetical-practical teachers. The ecological perspective is the perspective singled out by most teachers as integral to the concept of SD. This study points to the need for teacher education to provide a holistic understanding of SD including all perspectives.

A similar trend concerning the conceptions of ESD was also shown in France by [START_REF] Lange | L'éducation au développement durable au regard des spécialités enseignantes[END_REF] from an inquiry of 165 pre-service teachers (of biology-geology, or physics-chemistry, or history-geography), the answers to a questionnaire being completed by 8 interviews and some focus groups. The results show significant differences among the disciplines, and also different postures of teachers to introduce ESD.

Qualitative approaches can bring a deeper understanding of teachers' postures related to their neutrality of engagement for a SD. Case studies of ESD are often descriptive. Some of them are analyzing the teachers' competences (UNECE 2010) and only few are focused on the teachers' more or less impartial postures (e.g. Kelly, 1996;[START_REF] Gayford | Controversial environmental issues: a case study for the professional development of science teachers[END_REF][START_REF] Cotton | Teaching controversial environmental issues: neutrality and balance in the reality of the classroom[END_REF][START_REF] Sadler | Socioscience and ethics in science classrooms: Teacher perspectives and strategies[END_REF]. [START_REF] Kelly | Discussing controversial issues: four perspectives on the teacher's role[END_REF] defined three different postures that teachers assume when they are implied in ESD: (1) a neutral impartiality focused on only scientific contents in order to avoid to promote their own opinions; (2) an interventionist educational aim to make students aware of the environmental emergencies; (3) a critical educational model which does not avoid controversies about problems and promote students' responsible decision-making. Analyzing interviews of eight high school biology teachers involved in teaching global climate change in France, [START_REF] Urgelli | global warming: a case study of eight French teachers' inin education for sustainable development[END_REF] found the same three types of teachers' postures, the third one being more frequently adopted by teachers when several of them (of different scholar disciplines) are co-present in debates with students or when they collaborate in a project.

TEACHERS' CONCEPTIONS OF ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN RIGHTS

Most of the research of Science Education dealing with Environmental Education is focused on the analysis of students' conceptions and conceptual changes and, more recently, on analysis of sequence of teaching, mainly as socio-scientific issues (SSI).

Few research was done at an international level, with nevertheless some exceptions as Schultz & Zeleny (1999) who compared students' conceptions (values and attitudes) in 14 countries (2160 college students), mainly in North and South America. [START_REF] Schultz | A Multinational Perspective on the Relation between Judeo-Christian Religious Beliefs and Attitudes of Environmental Concern[END_REF] analyzed on the same sampling a relation between Judeo-Christian religious belief and attitudes of environmental concern. They showed a consistent pattern across countries, students who expressed more literal beliefs in the Bible scoring lower on ecocentric environmental concerns, and higher on anthropocentric environmental concerns.

An international survey of teachers' conceptions was undertaken by the Biohead-Citizen project of research ("Biology, Health and Environmental Education for better Citizenship", coordinated by Carvalho, Clément & Bogner 2 ). This project was focused on six topics: evolution, human genetics, human brain, sex education, health education, ecology and environmental education. We were coordinating this last topic. For each topic, syllabuses and school textbooks were also analyzed [START_REF] Caravita | Construction and validation of textbook analysis grids for ecology and environmental education[END_REF][START_REF] Caravita | Environmental complexity and pollution in the Life sciences manuals of six Mediterranean countries[END_REF]Caravita & Valente, 2012;[START_REF] Clément | Héréditarisme, béhaviorisme, constructivisme: le système nerveux dans les manuels scolaires français et tunisiens [Hereditarianim, behaviorism, constructivism: Nervous system in French and Tunisian school textbooks[END_REF][START_REF] Clément | Do the images of neuronal pathways in the human central nervous system show feed-back? A comparative study in fifteen countries[END_REF][START_REF] Carvalho | Trends in Environmental Education Images of Textbooks from Western and Eastern European Countries and Non-European Countries[END_REF][START_REF] Quessada | Human evolution in science textbooks from twelve different countries[END_REF]. The research project aimed at identifying the eventual interactions between scientific knowledge and values in teachers' conceptions (as suggested by the KVP model: Clément 2006, analysing conceptions as possible interactions between scientific knowledge, K, values, V and social practices, P). What are the teachers' conceptions, and mainly their values implied in competencies for ESD, in a variety of different countries? More precisely, is there some correlation between their values related to environment (as ecolocentric or anthropocentric ethics) and their values related to some human rights as equality among all the human beings, independently to their gender, ethnic group, sexual orientation, or religion?

The teachers' conceptions were analysed from their anonymous answers to a long questionnaire, elaborated and validated collectively during two years, using previous interviews, pilot test, etc [START_REF] Clément | Biology, Health and Environmental Education for better Citizenship: teachers' conceptions and textbook analysis in 19 countries[END_REF]. 27 questions are related to nature, environment and environmental education, other questions dealt with the eventual biological justification of differences related to the gender, to ethnic groups or to sexual orientation; other questions concerned personal information, including political and religious opinions.

In each country, the sampling was well balanced: 1/3 primary schools teachers; 1/3 secondary schools teachers of biology; and 1/3 secondary schools teachers of language. In each sample, there were half of in-service teachers, and half of preservice teachers (end of their training). The countries were chosen from their diversity: 18 for the Biohead-Citizen project (13 in all Europe, 4 in Arabic countries and 1 in sub-Saharan Africa).

Since 2008, the inquiry was extended to other countries, and we briefly present here some of our results coming from 24 countries. New data have been collected in other 7 countries: 2 European countries (Denmark and Serbia), 2 countries belonging to sub-Saharan Africa (Burkina-Faso and Cameroun), Brazil and Australia. The number of the interviewed teachers in each of the 24 countries is reported below in the figure 1 (total = 8 749).

The analyses done inside each of the countries participating in this research showed three trends in the teachers' conceptions, that we called: ecolocentric, anthropocentric and sentimentocentric, which had already emerged from inquiries carried out by using a different questionnaire in France, Portugal and Germany [START_REF] Forissier | Les valeurs implicites dans l'Education à l'Environnement[END_REF][START_REF] Forissier | Les systèmes de valeurs d'enseignants du Secondaire sur la Nature et l'Environnement. Une analyse comparative en France[END_REF]. Some of our results have been published, concerning Lebanon [START_REF] Khalil | Anthropocentrées, écolocentrées ou sentimentocentrées : Les conceptions d'enseignants et futurs enseignants libanais sur la nature et l'environnement[END_REF], Algeria [START_REF] Khammar | Les conceptions d'enseignants algériens sur la nature et l'éducation à l'environnement[END_REF], Morocco [START_REF] Khzami | Les systèmes de valeurs d'enseignants et de futurs enseignants marocains des sciences de la vie et d'arabe sur l'environnement[END_REF] as well as Poland (Clément et al., 2011) or when comparing two countries as France and Australia [START_REF] Quinn | Primary schools teachers' conceptions of environment. A comparison between Australia and France[END_REF]. [START_REF] Munoz | Teachers' conceptions of nature and environment in 16 countries[END_REF] took into account only two sets of questions related to environment included in the Biohead-Citizen questionnaire and compared the data from 16 countries. They observed two trends (ecolocentric and anthropocentric) that are corresponding to the 2-MEV model of [START_REF] Wiseman | A higher-order model of ecological values and its relationship to personality[END_REF]: utilization and preservation of environment. We shortly present below new results produced by the application of the Biohead-Citizen questionnaire in 24 countries, and we will consider all the questions related to environment together with the questions included in the topic "human genetics" related to human rights (equality of all the human beings independently to their gender, ethnic groups of sexual preferences). The distribution of answers inside each of the 24 countries can be illustrated by histograms as in figure 1. The data were analysed with different multivariate analyses (presented in other works as in [START_REF] Munoz | Teachers' conceptions of nature and environment in 16 countries[END_REF]. A between analysis was used to identify the answers which discriminate the countries most, and a test of randomisation (Monte Carlo type) shows that the difference among the countries is very significant (p < 0.0001).

The following questions mostly discriminate teachers' conceptions and countries, in terms of anthropocentrism: A16 (figure 1: "Our planet has unlimited natural resources"), A17 ("Society will continue to solve even the biggest environmental problems"), A18 ("Human beings are more important than other living beings"), A39 ("Genetically modified plants are good for the environment because their cultivation will reduce the use of chemical pesticides (e.g. insecticides, herbicides)").

As illustrated by the figure 1, teachers of the less developed countries display more anthropocentric conceptions, minor awareness of the problem of the limit of resources in our planet, and they are less reticent to use GMO (genetically modified organisms). These conceptions probably can be related with the importance of poverty in these countries, and the urgent necessity of a better economical development. The implementation of ESD in these countries has to take into account this specificity, and should not propose the same situations in the didactical projects as in developed countries where inverse problems are a priority (to avoid wasting and excessive consumption). A significant correlation between anthropocentric values and some religious and socio-political parameters was revealed by a Co-Inertia analysis The teachers showing the most anthropocentric conceptions declare to share strong belief in God and to practice their religion, independently from the kind of religion (e.g. in figure 1, A16 : most of the teachers in Cameroon are Christian, while >90% of them are Muslim in Senegal).

These results are convergent with those of Schults & Zeleny (1999) for Christian students in 14 other countries, though they did not observe differences among countries that are very significant in our results. Our analyses also show relationships with political positions: the most anthropocentric teachers are inclined to support "a strong central power", are "against the separation between science and religion", and in favour of "laws to help firms". All these parameters are probably linked to the lower level of democratic development of their countries, correlated with stronger religious practices.

A second Co-Inertia Analysis shows another set of correlations. The teachers displaying the most anthropocentric conceptions express their high agreement with propositions such as: A38 ("It is for biological reasons that women more often than men take care of housekeeping": Figure 2) and A35 ("Ethnic groups are genetically different and that is why some are superior to others"), and high disagreement with A41 ("Homosexual couples should have the same rights as heterosexual couples"). The figure 2 illustrates the great differences among the 24 countries, with a ranking of countries more or less similar in figures 1 and 2.

The biological justification of superiority of men or of some ethnic groups is today considered as an ideological and not scientific argument; as an interaction KV (knowledge and values) justifying some still actual social practices (P). The interpretation of these positions emerging from a large part of Christian or Muslim teachers in Arabic countries, in sub-Saharan Africa, but also in some countries of North and East Europe, deserves deeper investigation and reflection. These points, as other comments of the figures 1 & 2, and of all our results, will be presented and discussed in further publications. They will analyze more precisely how some socio-cultural traditions are correlated with some values of ESD, related to anthropocentrism as well as with some universal human rights.

The attainment of a higher consistency between knowledge, values, and practice is probably only an elusive goal which nevertheless help us to reflect upon our own conceptions.

An increased awareness of these factors and of their dynamics can enable educated citizens to be better prepared for the public arena. It should become part of teacher's education to enable them to consider the influence of conceptions on didactic method and in school manuals rather than letting them unconsciously impact their teaching and student discussions. Openness to discuss alternative conceptions is also connected with higher consciousness of their nature and of the arguments that sustain them.

Figure 1 -Figure 2 -

 12 Figure 1 -Answers of the 8 749 teachers (grouped by country) to the question A16 -"Our planet has unlimited natural resources

http://www.environment.gov.au/education/publications/sustainable-future.html

Biohead-Citizen (2004[START_REF] Lange | L'éducation au développement durable au regard des spécialités enseignantes[END_REF]. Biology, Health and Environmental Education for better Citizenship, STREP CIT2-CT-2004-506015, E. C., Brussels, FP6, Priority 7

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks to all our colleagues of the 24 countries, who gathered data in their respective country. For 18 of the 24, it was with the help of the Biohead-Citizen project (Biology, Health and Environmental Education for better Citizenship, STREP CIT2-CT-2004-506015, E. C., Brussels, FP6, Priority 7).

Thanks also to the other the participants to the ESERA Symposium that we coordinated in Lyon (Sept. 2011): C.Borg & N.Gericke (Sweden), F.Quinn (Australia), B.Urgelli & L.Simonneaux (France).

Environment -