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Settlement, transnational communities and citizenship

Riva Kastoryano

International migration has given rise to emerging communities which may be described as 'transnational'. This term refers to communities made up of individuals or groups, settled in different national societies, sharing common interests and references -territorial, religious, linguistic -and using transnational networks to consolidate solidarity beyond national boundaries [START_REF] Faist | Transnational social spaces out of international migration: evolution, significance and future prospects[END_REF].

The emergence of transnational communities is a 'global phenomenon', principally concerning post-colonial immigration. Immigrants are involved in networks based on economic interests, cultural exchanges, social relations and political affiliations. Their action is de-territorialised. Transnational communities may thus be considered as a new kind of migrant community. Clearly, migrants have always lived in more than one setting, at least for one or two generations, maintaining ties with a real or imagined community in the state of origin [START_REF] Anderson | Imagined Communities[END_REF]. But in the recent years they have also taken into account "the context of globalisation and economic uncertainty that facilitates the construction of social relations that transcend national borders" [START_REF] Rivera-Salgado | Mixtec Activism in Oaxacalifornia: Transborder Grassroats Political Strategies[END_REF]. Increasing mobility and the development of communication have contributed to such relations, and create a transnational space of economic, cultural and political participation.

The emergence of transnational communities is also a post-national phenomenon. That is, emigration took place after the age of nationalism, and the immigrants involved in constructing transnational communities do not refer to a 'mythical' (quote and quote rather to mythical territorial state, but come from and refer to a territorialised nation-state. In some cases, such as Turkey, the state of origin is centralised with unified national and political culture. In other cases, such as India or China, it has a federal structure maintaining cultural and political heterogeneity. In all cases, it is the chosen identity -linguistic, religious, regional -that constitutes a basis for transnational organisation.

Transnational organisation allows the immigrant populations to escape national policies, and generates a new space of socialisation for immigrants involved in building networks beyond national borders [START_REF] Appadurai | Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization[END_REF]Gupta andFerguson, 1997, Hannertz, 1996). The cultural and political specificities of national societies (host and home) are combined with emerging multilevel and multinational activities in a new space beyond territorially delimited nationstates, inevitably questioning the link between territory and nation-state. Moreover, transnational networks linking the country of origin to the country of residence and promoting participation in both spaces, challenge the single allegiance required by membership in a political community, and lead to a redefinition of the balance between community structures and the state. Multiple membership and multiple loyalties lead to a confusion between rights and identity, culture and politics, states and nations -in short question the very concept of citizenship. It may be asked whether transnational communities can be considered as the institutional expression of multiple belonging.

In Europe, an important number of transnational networks of immigrant workers have arisen in order to claim recognition of a collective identity. Their members may have the status of permanent residents or legal citizens of the host country, according to its legislation on citizenship. The networks are formal or informal, based on identity or interest or both. They transcend national borders, linking the home country to the country of residence and to a broader European space.

Such networks, like those of professional bodies, form a spider's web covering the European space -a space without internal frontiers in which, according to the Single European Act of 1986, the free movement of goods, of property and capital is safeguarded. With the construction of a political Europe, transnational organisations also seek representation at the European level, leading to recognition beyond the nation-states. This evolution underlines the multiple interactions between national societies (home and host) and the wider European space, between national and supranational institutions, and among nation-states members of the European Union. It leads to a new concept of citizenship shared by the countries of origin and of residence and Europe.

Transnational solidarity and identity

Transnationality is not really a new phenomenon. Economic migrants, who usually perceived immigration as temporary, have spontaneously maintained ties with their country of origin.

What is new about transnationality is its organisational aspect: constructed networks and structured communities. Its institutionalisation requires a co-ordination of activities based most of the time on common references -objective or subjective -and common interests among members [START_REF] Held | Global Transformations[END_REF].

Many factors influence the nature and structure of transnational communities. They include geographical proximity and historical ties between the sending and receiving countries, economic and political opportunity structures of the host country, as well as the size and degree of local concentration or dispersion of immigrant groups.

Geographical proximity gives rise rather to a transborder community linking the country of origin to the country of settlement. Case studies in American social sciences focused on Mexicans in California, Porto-Ricans and Dominicans in New York, Cubans in Florida and their familial, economical, social, cultural and political networks linking their two countries, establishing this way a transborder social space. They argue that such flows affect the economic development as well as political structures and values of the home countries, even giving rise to new kinds of practices and symbols resulting from transnational practices [START_REF] Basch | Nations Unbound: Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments and Deterritorialized Nation-States[END_REF]Levitt, 1998, forthcoming;[START_REF] Portes | Transnational Communities: Their Emergence and Significance in the Contemporary World-System[END_REF].

Geographical proximity and transnationality are often combined with historical ties, sometimes going back to a colonial past, affecting the size of the community and the density of relationships with the home country. That is why in Europe, immigrants from some areas are more involved in building transnational networks than are others. For example, Algerians are among the less involved: their main references remain France and Algeria, and, to some extent, all of North Africa. Some more dispersed immigrant groups, for example the Turks, seem to be better armed to build a transnational network with a common identity, despite internal diversity, crossing the boundaries of many States. This example appears to follow the path of the Chinese diaspora characterized by its cultural, regional, ethnic diversity within the same national reference (Chan Kwok Bun, 1999).

On the other hand, economic and political contexts favour institutional structures and their transnational extension. Economic liberalism has encouraged 'ethnic business'. Its extension beyond a local setting is the result of the dispersion of immigrants with similar regional and/or national backgrounds throughout a continent or even across the world. Indian and Chinese immigrant communities, despite their cultural, linguistic heterogeneity of the population, provide the best examples. The flux of capital and goods is linked to economic norms and a culture of consumption carried from one country to another by transnational actors.

Political liberalism privileging ethnic pluralism encourages cultural activities through migrants' associations, where identities are organised and redefined. Multiculturalism and 'identity politics', applied in Western democracies since the 1980s, sustain the emergence of transnational communities. On the national level, community organisations claim cultural recognition and political representation within state institutions. The home country provides the emotional factor, and the country of settlement the legal and political support for their action which, by definition, leads to political participation in both spaces, carrying political norms and values from one culture to another. Such transnational communities aim at acting as pressure groups for political recognition in both political spaces. Often this action structures the community. For example, the Haitians of New York and Montreal organised a transnational community on the basis of a political struggle against the regime of Duvalier in Haiti on the one hand, and against discrimination and unemployment of second generation youth in Canada or the United States, on the other (Labelle and Midy, 1999). In Europe the Kurdish movement, which finds a legitimacy within the framework of European supranational institutions such as European Court of Human Rights, seeks recognition in receiving countries as well as in Turkey.

Thus transnational communities produce 'social remittances', with ideas, behaviours, identities and social capital flowing from one country to another [START_REF] Levitt | Local-level Global Religion: The Case of the U.S.-Dominican Migration[END_REF]. in order to be influential in both countries, their construction requires the settlement and integration of actors into the host society, and a knowledge of the 'rules of the game'.

Emerging transnational structures in Europe

In the European Union, transnational communities may transcend the boundaries of the member states, relating a vast European space to the country of origin. Some of the transnational networks are based on local initiatives, some come from the country of origin, some are encouraged by supranational institutions. In this way, the supranational institutions function as transnational lobbies or interest groups, acting among many other such groups at the European level (Smith et al 1997). They play an important role in the diffusion of social, cultural, political and even juridical norms in different European countries as well as in the country of origin.

All European countries have accepted the permanent settlement of immigrants as a reality.

Each country has developed a specific position regarding immigration and the presence of immigrant populations, based on its founding principles as a nation states. National particularities that emerge in official rhetoric are echoed in the political claims of the immigrants themselves, influencing their own collective identities (Kastoryano, 1996).

But at the same time on the European level, policies on the integration of immigrants tend to converge. The passage from economic and temporary immigration to immigration with permanent residence has given rise to the emergence of new actors among immigrants, with new economic and political force. Similar situations give rise to similar political reactions, and the leaders of migrants' associations tend to converge in their political strategies. Whether states define themselves as republican and integrationist like France, or exclusivist in terms of citizenship like Germany (up to January 2000), or as promoting the formation of ethnic communities in the public sphere, like the United Kingdom, immigrants develop strategies that look towards Europe as a new political arena for political participation and representation [START_REF] Kastoryano R | Participation transnationale et citoyenneté. Les immigrés dans l'Union européenne[END_REF].

One ground for emergent ethnicity in Europe is Islam, which provides a basis for transnational organisation based on a common identity generated by the experience of being Muslim in Europe. The Muslim presence goes back to the migration of the 1960s, and the statistics estimate their present number at approximately eight million. They are settled in almost all European countries, in both members of the Union and other countries, such as Switzerland. Muslims in Europe are as diverse as Christians in their origin, language, nationality, ethnicity and even denomination (Sunnites, Shiites, or Alawites). Loyalties to the state of origin, therefore to national identities of home countries, characterise social and ethnic relations among Muslim populations in Europe and limit their identity boundaries.

Within the national groups, sects, brotherhood and regional allegiances and political ideologies provide identity repertoires for community organisations dedicated to language teaching, folklore, or religion. Such organisations, subject to immigration policies and to legislation concerning social activities of migrants in host countries, have proliferated in all European countries since the 1980s. Even if Islam also appears fragmented from within by national identities, it represents a unifying force among Muslim immigrants.

The absence of religion from the political projects of the European Union, on the one hand, and the abundance of resources that European institutions allocate to non-religious social activities on the other, have led Muslim organisations to extend their network from the local to the national and transnational levels. This situation brings the countries of origin and, in some cases, international Muslim organisations, into the system (Hoeber and Piscatory, 1997). While cultural networks are supported by European institutions for democratic purposes, Muslim organisations have recourse to the countries of origin (via official or unofficial institutions), or to international Islamic organisations or both. They finance activities that transcend national, ethnic, linguistic cleavages and religious divergences with the goal of promoting a common identity: to be Muslim in Europe. The elaboration of transnational structures thus reveals multiple references, and multiple allegiance: to the host country, to the home country and to a constructed transnational (or diasporic) identity [START_REF] Laguerre | Diasporic Citizenship: Haitian Americans in Transnational America[END_REF].

Transnational civil society and citizenship

Transnational networks have introduced a new mode of participation on national and European levels. In this perspective, citizenship derives principally from political participation in public life. It is expressed by the engagement of individuals in polities and their direct or indirect participation in the "public good" [START_REF] Leca | Individualisme et citoyenneté in[END_REF]). In Germany for example, the lack of legal citizenship does not prevent foreigners from taking part in political life. They develop strategies of indirect participation by way of influencing the public opinion. The expression of their engagement implies a 'civil citizenship', as opposed to a 'civic citizenship' as in the case of the young generations of North African origin, born and socialised in France, who participate directly in community life by voting as citizens (Kastoryano, 1996).

The increasing political participation of immigrants through various migrants' associations has provoked an identification with the political community through collective action on a national level. A new supranational political identification is now being created on the European level in a similar manner. (Kastoryano 1998).

Transnationalism is inevitably bound up with dual or multiple citizenship, insofar as it relies on more than one national reference as well as on at least two arenas of social participation.

But dual citizenship concerns different conceptions of a community's moral and political values, as well as the civic duties demanded of those residing within it [START_REF] Pickus | Immigration and Citizenship in the 21 st Century[END_REF]. Some see in dual citizenship a source for 'democratic influence', that is, the application of Western democratic values in the country of origin [START_REF] Spiro | Dual Nationality and the Meaning of Citizenship Emory Law Journal[END_REF]. But dual citizenship does not necessarily imply a simultaneous direct participation in two political arenas. Citizens are only citizens of the state in which they fully exercise their rights and obligations.

Transnationalism leads, in any case, to an institutional expression of multiple belonging, where the country of origin becomes a source of identity, the country of residence a source of rights, and the emerging transnational space, a space of political action combining the two or more countries.


Jiang Zemin

Li Peng

Zhu Rongji

Li Ruihuan

Hu Jintao

Wei Jianxing

Li Lanqing

IN BETWEEN TWO PARTY CONGRESSES

Hu Jintao, designated by Deng as the "core" of the fourth generation (after Jiang Zemin, the third one) is said to have been the only Politburo member to be present when Deng Xiaoping's ashes were scattered into the Bohai sea.

For the occasion, top Chinese intellectuals have asked for significant political changes in China such as Xing Bensi (member of law committee of the NPC) or Dong Fureng (member of the Chinese people political consultative conference, CPPCC). Xing Bensi was quoted as saying : « reform would charge ahead like the flow of a turbulent river in the springtime ».

(interview to Xinhua, March 17) Li Peng has been nominated to chair the NPC after Qiao Shi.

CHINA DEMOCRACY PARTY (CDP) -

Zhongguo minzhu dang

As Jiang Zemin has consolidated his power after Deng Xiaoping death and since the 15 th Congress, it was believed among intellectuals that the new leader would be likely to initiate a new wave of political reforms to fulfil what Deng Xiaoping has not done. Encouraged by a certain openness, Chinese political activists, especially democratic dissents enforced their activities.

-March 1998, veteran dissident Xu Wenli applied in Beijing to register a human rights organization, China Human Rights Watch (Zhongguo renquan guancha). Mao Guoliang and Wang Donghai, two dissidents based in the eastern province of Anhui, sent an application to the Ministry of Justice for permission to register a newsletter called China Human Rights News (Zhongguo renquan). In the city of Wuhan (Hubei), Qin Yongmin, a worker and former political prisoner, set up a human rights fax-letter called Human Rights Watch (Renquan guancha). It issued eighty-six reports before authorities stopped it in May as part of the yearly tightening of control before the June 4 anniversary of the 1989 massacre in Beijing.

Based on the principles of "openess" (gongkai), "peace" (heping), "reason" (lixing), and "legality" (an falu), the party goal is to establish direct elections and the formation of a multiparty system. On June 25, 1998, therefore, they signed the "Open Declaration of the Establishment of the CDP Zhejiang Preparatory Committee" and circulated it over the Internet.

On September 16, five well-known dissidents in Beijing -Ren Wanding, Ma Shaohua, Zhao Xin, Yang Qing, and Wang Linhai -all veterans of the pro-democracy movement, established the CDP Beijing Preparatory Committee. At the end of September, police in Changchun (Jilin province), issued a warning to the CDP Northeast Preparatory Committee, saying the committee was "an illegal organization (feifa zuzhi)."

-October 15, the CDP's Sichuan Preparatory Committee attempted to register at the Sichuan Provincial Civil Affairs Bureau's Office for Registration of Social Groups.

-On October 21, Zeng Ning and Wei Dengzhong submitted an application to the Guizhou Civil Affairs Bureau's Office for Registration of Social Groups. On October 24, activists mailed the registration of the CDP Henan provincial preparatory committee to the authorities.

-By December the movement was able to form some twenty-four provincial preparatory -December 5, Launching by the official press of Jiang Zemin's "Three stresses (san jiang)" campaign. The program targets "leading officials above the country level through criticism, self-criticism and education, with stresses on studying theory, increasing political consciousness and cultivating healthy trends".

-December 18, Conference in Beijing commemorating the 20 th anniversary of the Third Plenum of the 11 th Congress of the CCP which initiated Deng Xiaoping's "open-door policy" reform (gaige kaifang). Jiang Zemin delivered a speech letting observers consider that political reforms would be central to his political agenda.

-December 31, elections of the township committee was held in Buyun (small town of 16 000 residents under the jurisdiction of the Central city district in Suining municipality, Sichuan province). It is not yet known whether the idea was suggested or approved by higher level outsiders within the Party. District Party leaders declared to have follow Jiang Zemin call during the 15 th National Congress in 1997 for improving electoral methods at grassroots governments. The decision of the central authorities was "to criticise but not to overturn". It was nonetheless mentioned that "any secret experiment of this nature should be prohibited strictly in the future" (information and quotations from Liu Yawei "Elections of township magistrates in Buyun", The Carter Center)

1999

-March 4, second session of the Ninth NPC deal with constitutional amendments including 6 major changes and three of them in the Preface. One of the most important was to put "Deng Xiaoping theory" and "developing a socialist market economy" into the Preface. In addition, the current sentence "China is currently in the primary stage of socialism" has been revised as follows : "China will be for along period of time in the primary stage of socialism". Article 5, a new sentence is added : "The PRC should implement the principle of ruling the country by law, governing the country according to law and making it a socialist country by law". Article 11 recognises the "non public sector of self-employed and private businesses" . The wording "counter-revolutionary activities" has been changed by "crimes jeopardizing state security".

-March 10, Fortieth anniversary of the Tibetan revolt against communist power. Renmin Ribao (People's Daily) carries an editorial condemning the Dalai lama and his followers for "trying to divide the country". It reads as follows : "This year is the 40 th anniversary of the democratic reform and abolition of the feudal system under the despotic theocratic rule in Tibet" (...) Zeng Qinghong, Jiang Zemin's protégé, becomes head of the powerful Organization Department of the CCP.

A new Contract Law is promulgated.

Administrative Litigation Law (ALL) is promulgated.

Huge corruption scandals and smuggling cases in the southern coastal city of Xiamen are discovered by CPP and state investigators. One of Xiamen's deputy mayors has fled the country, and several security officers have been held for interrogation. Lai Changxing, head of the clique, has fled to Canada.

Bao Tong, the highest official sentenced to prison for his role in the events of 1989 and a former aid to Zhao Ziyang issued a letter to Jiang Zemin and the Politburo standing committee to reverse the assessment that the demonstrations of 1989 were a "counterrevolutionary rebellion".

-April 15, Tenth anniversary of Hu Yaobang's death.

-April 25, Ten thousands members of the Falun gong spiritual group appeared suddenly outside of Zhongnanhai, the Beijing leadership compound. Members of what will be called "evil cult group" according to Beijing were deputed to talk to Premier Zhu Rongji. Among them were high-ranking military officials. This event sounds like a huge shock for Chinese leadership.

-May 4, Eightieth anniversary of the May fourth movement of 1919.

-May 8, Five laser-guided US bombs mistakenly bombed the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade.

Nomination of Hu Jintao, considered by Deng Xiaoping as the "core" of the fourth generation of Chinese leaders, as vice-chairman of the Central military commission.

Stéphanie Balme -Chronology -September 2002 http://www.ceri-sciences-po.org 6

COX REPORT

Democratic fund-raiser Johnny Chung testifies before US Congress that the head of China's military intelligence had given a $300 000 support of B. Clinton's presidential campaign.

-Cox report. Christopher Cox heads a committee which accuses the Chinese government to have stolen the US' most advanced weapons designs.

-June 4 -10 th anniversary of Tiananmen repression.

-July 7 1999 -China outlaws the Falun Gong spiritual sect.

Important Party leaders retreats for their annual conclave at the seaside resort of Beidaihe.

-October 1 1999, Fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the PRC by Mao Zedong. June 20 -EU says it has resolved outstanding bilateral issues with China over its accession.

CHINA INTRO INTO THE WTO, THE FINAL STAGE

July 3 -China's chief trade negotiator, Long Yongtu, says "all major issues" have been resolved in talks with WTO members.

- -Announcement of the creation of "Shanghai Cooperation Organization" (SCO) -China, Russian Federation, Republic of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan after the establishment of the "Shanghai Five" created in 1996. The SCO "attaches special importance to make every effort to ensure regional security (...) To fight against terrorism, separatism and extremism, including "to establish the SCO anti-terrorism Center in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, as official media report. Meanwhile, China has intensified its pursuit of Uighur separatists.

POLITICAL BATTLES BEFORE THE 16th PARTY CONGRESS

-July 1 2001, 80th Birthday of the CCP. Jiang Zemin delivers an important speech about his thinking : "the three represents" (san ge daibiao) that he wants to integrate into Party charter during the 16 th Congress. The "Three represents" theory holds that the CPC represents advanced productive forces, advanced culture, and the "overwhelming majority of the Chinese people" (quanmin dang).This means clearly broadening the base of the party by recruiting members from among the founders and technocrats of privately-owned information technology enterprises, management and technical employees of foreign-invested enterprises, freelance people, in a word : "capitalists".

-July 13 -Beijing is awarded the right to host the 2008 Olympic Games. -Rumours among overseas news papers that the CCP may wish to re-establish the Party chairmanship to allow Jiang Zemin to stay in power. This position used to centralise power during the Mao Zedong era. The CCP chairman will be responsible for making important decisions while the Party General secretary will be responsible for daily operations. This will mean that Jiang could stay in power after retirement. Li Peng could be made vice-president of the Party. Such a position have been abolished in 1982 during the CCP's 12 th Congress.

-September 18, Hu Jintao delivered a speech at the Central Party School defending Jiang's decision to allow private businessmen to join the Communist Party.

-Zhang Xuezhong, minister of personnel, declared at a national conference held in Beijing the 23rd September that a new law on personnel management system was in the pipeline. At -January 14, The Wall St. Journal reported that the United States was investigating the Bank of China's U.S. activities.

-January 21, State Council issued article denouncing "East Turkestan terrorist forces" in a bid to increase international support for its "own war on terrorism".

-February 21, President Bush visited China, Japan, and South Korea.

-February 27, Chen Liangyu, acting mayor of Shanghai, was elected Mayor of this east China metropolis at the fifth session of the 11th Shanghai Municipal People's Congress. -March 30-31, Organisation of the first judicial examination for professional judges.

-March, First "grant justices" and "grand procurators" have been nominated in China.

According to the revised Law on judges, the President of the Supreme People's Court becomes chief grand justice, and vice-presidents and members of the Judicial Committee as well as presidents of provincial-level higher people's courts become grand justices.

-April 30 -Chinese Vice-Premier Hu Jintao began his first official visit to the United States.

May 2002, Xinhua reports that the Communist Party of Guangdong province has selected "capitalists" among its delegates to the 16 th Congress.

-May 28, Li Jianguo was elected as CPC Shaanxi chief. Huang Ju was reelected as CPC Shanghai Chief. Shanghai mayor Chen Liangyu was elected as deputy secretary. Jia Qinglin has been elected secretary of Beijing municipal committee.

- -June 4, China soccer team plays its first World Cup game against Costa-Rica.

-June 13, People's daily publishes a commentary urging the implementation of ideas contented in the "Three represents" as outlined in Jiang's speech of May 31.

- July 16, Beijing authorities through national newspapers and Xinhua agency try to assert that the CCP would "always uphold the fundamental goal of relying on the working class with all its heart and mind". This is carried out directly by Wei Jianxing who is in charge of labor unions.

Stéphanie Balme -Chronology -September 2002 http://www.ceri-sciences-po.org 18 -July 22, at a nationwide televised meeting, vice-president Hu Jintao asked that CPC committees across the country must improve the method of selecting officials. Zeng

Qinghong presided the meeting.

-July 24-(Li Peng's arrival at Beidaihe is reported by Xinhua agency)

Beidaihe meeting, Party ideology and personnel matters top the agenda of this "secret" or "informal" conference. This year, media report the "talks" to have been wound-up in mid-August, i.e. this Beidaihe meeting lasts three weeks (until August 14).

-August 1, On Army day, the PLA professes allegiance to Jiang Zemin. Defense Minister General Chi Haotian declared in his speech that the PLA "would resolutely obey the instructions of the central party authorities".

-August 25, Official Chinese media announce that the 16 th National Party Congress will take place from November 8. "The happy news, like a spring breeze gently caressing the great territory of the motherland, has given the greatest encouragement to the entire party and people" wrote the People's daily in its front page editorial. -October 25, Jiang is due to visit President Bush at his ranch in Texas.

-November 8, Starting of the XVIth Congress of the CPC.

Sources

  Li Peng, chairman of the NPC declared the government would fight against any attempt to challenge the leading position of the Communist Party (German Daily Handelsbatt) -December 9, Xu Wenli, Wang Youcai and other China Democracy Party activists are sentenced to long jail terms.. (quotations and information from Human rights watch's report "Nipped in the bud : the suppression of the China Democracy Party") -July 13, Jiang announces military divestiture from business activities and orders the PLA to follow his request. Stéphanie Balme -Chronology -September 2002 http://www.ceri-sciences-po.org 4 -October, China signs the United Nations Covenant on Political and Civil Rights. -November 4, Promulgation by the Standing Committee of the NPC of the Organic Law on Villager Committees.

March 4 1999 -

 1999 US trade representative Charlene Barshefsky holds talks with Chinese officials and leaves Beijing saying "significant gaps" remain on farm trade and services. April 8 -President Bill Clinton and Premier Zhu Rongji sign a joint statement in Washington welcoming substantial progress and committing them to completion of a WTO deal by the end of the year. The gap is closed on about 90 per cent of WTO issues. May 7 -Nato bombs Chinese embassy in Belgrade. China freezes WTO negotiations. September 11 -Mr Clinton and President Jiang Zemin agree on sidelines of Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation forum to resume WTO negotiations. Ms Barshefsky holds talks with her Chinese counterpart, but no progress is reported. November 8 -Mr Clinton sends Ms Barshefsky to China to try and hammer out an agreement. November 11 -US says no progress is made. "We are discouraged that progress has not been made at this point. The clock has nearly run out," Ms Barshefsky says. November 13 -Mr Zhu holds surprise meeting with Ms Barshefsky. November 15 -US, China announce WTO pact. China agrees to open wide range of markets, from agriculture to telecommunications. Mr Clinton must persuade the US Congress to grant China permanent normal trade relations (PNTR). May 19 2000-EU signs WTO accession pact with China. October 10 -Mr Clinton signs PNTR bill into law after approval by House of Representatives and Senate. 2001 January -Further multilateral talks end in acrimony as China and some WTO members disagree on farm subsidies. -In the preparation of China entry into the WTO, a new campaign "to make leaders aware of law" is launched as announced by Xiao Yishun, director of the department of Legal Publicity in the Ministry of Justice. Tianjin municipal People's Congress enacts regulations on the "making of local laws". This is the first law since China requires starting in March 2000 local texts to be compatible with the national ones in order to avoid protectionism tendencies and be prepared for WTO. June 9-China and the US announce consensus on issues holding up China's entry, including farm subsidies.

  holding a rival meeting close to Beidaihe resort. Since late July, Deng Liqun and its fellows have converged on the Qinhuangdao resort in order to put pressure on Jiang for not letting him revise the communist Party chapter that would make then possible to admit private businessmen. (see texts enclosed) -Leftist theoretical journals or publications which have recently attacked Jiang's ideological and political reforms especially his "three represents" new theory, have either been suspended (Zhenli de zhuiqiu/ Search of Truth) or severely restricted (Contemporary thoughts, Zhongliu : Meanstream even if affiliated with the Beijing based official Guangming Daily). It is not the first attempt in recent years for closing both journals. Yu Quanyou, the editor of Search of Truth was among 17 other leftists who wrote an open letter to Jiang in July 2001 saying he had violated article 16 of Party chapter by personally deciding to impose his new theory to party members. The letter which was widely circulated abroad and in China, accused Jiang of building a personality cult. Yu Quanyou is also suspected to have joined other leftists at Beidaihe resort. -September 1, The State Council has appointed a group of officials to new posts and removed some others from their previous positions. Qiao Zonghuai has been appointed as vice-minister of Foreign Affairs, Li Xueju at the same position inside the Ministry of Civil Affairs and Han Changbin at the Ministry of Agriculture. -September 18, Hu Jintao has delivered a speech at the Central Party School defending Jiang's decision to allow private businessmen to join the Communist Party. -New York dissent review, Beijing Spring (Beijing zhichun), September 2001 reports that Li Peng is not willing to leave the power SEPTEMBER 11 2001 -Terrorists hijacked four U.S. commercial airliners and crashed them into the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and in rural Pennsylvania. Senior PRC officials expressed their sympathy, condolences, and qualified support.

  the same time, Guangzhou provincial government announced open recruitment of officials for posts at the government department level.-September 24-26, Sixth Plenum of the Central Committee's meeting organised to shape leadership reshuffle of the XVIth Congress.Zeng Qinghong, the main adviser and right hand man to Jiang Zemin failed to be appointed to the Communist Party Central committee's select 21 member politburo. The "three represents" has been endorsed by the Sixth Plenum of the Central Committee -October 25, Beijing has launched a new "Strike hard campaign, severe suppression" campaign against Uighur "separatists" in Xinjiang.-October 28, Europe tour for Hu Jintao. His foreign travels began in earnest when he became President in 1998.-November 2-6, During an inspection tour of Hebei, Jiang Zemin has asked officials to contribute "unifying thinking in the course of emancipating the mind" (People's Daily, November 22). At least two cadres in their early 40's : Party secretary of the communist youth league Zhou Qiang and vice-governor of Jiangsu, Zhang Taolin, 40, have been named to senior posts. that the "Three represents" replace the four Deng Xiaoping's (constitutional) principles into the Constitution and was much criticised for that. Moreover Jiang has signed his approval of the re-publication of leftists journals "In search for truth" and "Mainstream" ( Willy Wo lap-Lam CNN, November 26) Former Shenyang mayor Mu Suixin and his deputy Ma Xiangdong were received a death sentence for bribery and corruption. A dozen senior officials were involved, forcing the central government to replace almost the entire city government leadership in 2000. Chen Zhenggao, former vice-governor of Liaoning and Bo Xilai was nominated as the new governor. -December 12-15. The popular mayor of Shanghai, Xu Kuangdi, has been transferred to a "pre-retirement job" as party chief of the Academy of Engineering in Beijing. He has been replaced, surprisingly for most of observers, by his deputy, Executive Vice-Mayor Chen Liangyu. The Vice-Party secretary of Guangdong Province, Huang Liman (Huang Qiwei's daughter-a first generation cadre who used to be close to Mao and his wife), has become Party Secretary of the Shenzhen special economic zone (SEZ). And the Minister of Construction, Yu Zhengsheng, has been named party boss of Hubei. Both of them used to work with Jiang Zemin in the Ministry of Electronic Industry. A new party leader in Shenzhen has also been nominated as well as in the provinces of Shandong, Hubei and Inner Mongolia. -December 29, (Amended) Lawyers law of the PRC has been promulgated. Article 3 says "a lawyer must abide by the Constitution and law". Article 6 (...) To pass national uniform judicial examination is compulsory. "Lawyers may establish partership law firms (art.18) Arrangements with foreign lawyers are now made possible (art.40) Stéphanie Balme -Chronology -September 2002 http://www.ceri-sciences-po.org 2002 -January 1, China received permanent normal trade relations from the United States. Vice head of the Party School, Zheng Bijian, travelled to Britain to meet with leaders of the Labour Party.

  Chen, 56, is a native of Ningbo, Zhejiang Province. He studied in the Chinese People's Liberation Army's Logistic Engineering Institute from 1963 to 1968. He also took positions in factories and government bodies. The newly elected mayor acted as deputy secretary of Shanghai Municipal Committee of the Communist Party of China and vice mayor of Shanghai before he was appointed acting mayor of Shanghai on December 2001. -March 3 , The U.S. State Department issued its annual report on human rights violations, saying that China's human rights record "remained poor." As an answer, the information office of the State Council publishes its "Human Rights record of the United States in 2001". -March 8, Falun Gong practitioners cut into the cable TV network in the Northeast city of Changchun, enabling them to broadcast pro-Falun Gong programs. -March 5-15, Fifth session of the Ninth national People's Congress. A total of 2866 deputies to the NPC attended the meeting. More of the 2000 members of the Ninth national committee of the Chinese people's political consultative conference were present as observers together with a number of central and local officials. At the opening, Zhu Rongji delivered the report of the work of the government. "Run the country by virtue as well by law" has been his motto. He also stressed to transform government functions into economic regulation (Xinhua). Stéphanie Balme -Chronology -September 2002 http://www.ceri-sciences-po.org 16Announce of 17,6% around in defense spending bringing the publicly acknowledged defense budget to 20 $ billion.

  May 31, General Secretary of the Communist Party of China Jiang Zemin's May 31 speech (san wu jiang) at the Party School of the Communist Party of China (CPC) for the graduation ceremony has had repercussions among Party members and cadres in provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities throughout the country. CPS speech usually shapes future political report. In the speech, Jiang further elaborated on his "three represents" theory. -June 4, 13 th anniversary of the military crackdown on protests in Tiananmen Square. June : Adoption of the Charter of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). -Li Peng, chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress has urged the people's congress at all levels to support the leadership of the Communist Party of China. Xinhua News Agency June 18, 2002). At the same time, Party committees at all levels should strengthen the leadership of the people's congress and bring them role into full play, said Li during a recent inspection tour to east China's Shandong Province.

  June 29 , Standing Committee of NPC approved the Law of Government Procurement to help fighting against corruption. Four other laws have been approved : for promoting little medium-size enterprises, work security conditions, science and technology education and working sanitary conditions. -July 1, CPC's 81 st anniversary. People's daily editorial titled "Greeting 16 th Party Congress with new achievements in implementing the 'three represents'. -Fifth anniversary of Hong Kong handover -Hong Kong Democratic Party chairman, Martin Lee Chu-ming, published a seven-point open letter to Jiang Zemin asking free entrance to China for political activists and to reverse the "counter-revolutionary" verdict of the June 4 massacre (South China Morning Post, July 2) -Special editorial of the People's Daily hailing the CPC's 81 st anniversary calling (untitled "Greeting 16 th Party Congress with new achievements in implementing the three represents") on 64 million Party members to study assiduously Party General Secretary Jiang Zemin's instructions on Party-building. Party members were called to plunge themselves into community matters. -July 8, Meeting of All-China Lawyers Association in Shanghai which organised a lawweekend conference. A project to overhaul Chinese courts to produce more professional and independent judiciary has been presented (Xinhua) -July 10, Li Peng pronounced a speech in front of CPC delegates from Party organisations in the NPC standing committee. The leader declared that "the National People's Congress must continue to keep to the leadership of the Communist Party of China".

A

  book on Jiang Zemin's theory on socialism with Chinese characteristics has been published by the Party Literature Research Center of the Communist Party of China Central Committee.

  December 11, China became a full member of the WTO but implementations in terms of tariff cuts and market opening will be delayed until 2002 or even 2003. The decision to ratify entry into the WTO appeared to be unconstitutional as it should be made by the standing committee of the National People's Congress, the national legislature, not China's President himself (Jiang Zemin), as what happened. For the first time, the law provides much better defined roles and legislative process for the NPC and its standing committee. It also seeks to establish the legal hierarchy amongst the Constitution, laws, various administrative orders, rules, The Administration made public an unclassified version of an annual report mandated by P.L. 105-107, on Chinese espionage in the United States. Finance Minister Xiang Huaicheng has announced in the NPC budget report the increase of China Defense budget by 17,7% for 2001. -April 1 -A PRC F8 fighter collided with a U.S. Navy EP-3 reconnaissance plane over the South China Sea. The EP-3 made an emergency landing on Hainan island. April 12 -China released 24 American EP-3 crew members held since April 1, 2001. April 18 -The U.N. Commission on Human Rights voted 23-17 for a PRC "no action" motion on a U.S. resolution condemning China's human rights practices. May 8-15-CCP Delegates head by Zheng Bijian -one of Central Party School's vicepresidents -have left Beijing for a visit tour in France (invited by the French Communist Party), Germany, Austria (both to meet social democrats leaders) and Greece. May -Li Ruihuan, the Chairman of the Chinese People's political consultative conference is said to have refused to leave politics if Jiang Zemin stays in power after 16 th Congress. Li is supposed to have made his demand at an internal party meeting earlier this year. Li Ruihuan is the most popular among the general public. Party elder Wan Li and NPC vice-chairman Tian Jiyun are among his supporters at the top but his main power base is in Tianjin where leaders such as Party chief Zheng Lichang, have backed his bid to remain in power if Jiang stays (FEER, Bruce Gilley, May 31 2001) May, A book edited by the Central Organization Department, entitled China Investigation Report, a study of contradictions among the people under new historical conditions (2000-2001) had a grate influence on elite and intellectual circles. Yu Yunyao, a vice director of the party's Organization Department, and one of the undertaker of the study, was nominated member of the standing committee of the NPC and viceprincipal at the Central Party school. -June 20, Authorities have drawn up a preliminary list of 200-odd members of the new Central Committee that should be endorsed at the coming 16 th Party Congress. Lists of proposed candidates to join the CCP secretariat and the Politburo at the 16 th Congress have also been proposed earlier in Beijing. The preliminary Central Committee list has been drawn up by Vice Pdt Hu Jintao, head of the CCP organization department Zeng Qinghong and Wen Jiabao, vice premier.

	-September 2000. At the Fifth Plenum of Central Committee, Zeng Qinghong (Jiang's crony)
	did not succeed to be promoted to full membership in the Politburo
	Autumn 2000, The book "Tiananmen Papers" is delivered.
	December 2000-Defection of a Chinese army colonel in the US.
	regulations at the national level and local legislations. -March 8, Fourth plenary of the NPC, presenting a progress report on law drafting and
	promulgation, Li Peng announced that "China will have a complete legal system by the year A new program calls for rallying society to "Open Up the West" (kaifa xibu), i.e, the western poor provinces or autonomous regions of Qinghai, Xinjiang, Tibet, Gansu, etc. 2010".

November 12, The PRC formally joined the World Trade Organisation, thus gaining permanent normal trade relations (PNTR) status from the United States. Yet, the content of the agreement admitting China had not been officially translated in Chinese, letting private publishers publicising it. Only the MOFTEC (Ministry of foreign trade and economic cooperation) published on its web site the English version of commercial transactions. Stéphanie Balme -Chronology -September 2002 http://www.ceri-sciences-po.org 8 -November 26, New regulations designed by the State Council to streamline administrative legislation procedures stipulate that government departments will be required to hold hearings before hammering out administrative regulations and codes. Administrative regulations should now, according to WTO agreement, be published in national newspapers. -December 16 1999 -U.S. and PRC negotiators reached agreement on compensation for damages in the NATO bombing of the PRC Embassy in Belgrade. Macao returns to China. 2000 -January. Government reshuffle. -March 2000, Announcement of a 12,7% increase in military spending for 2000 Promulgation of the Law-making Law of the People's Republic of China (or Legislative Procedure Law, lifa fa). -Summer 2000, Politburo standing committee member Wei Jianxing visits Germany and pay a long visit (among others) to the headquarters of the German Democratic Party (SPD) Stéphanie Balme -Chronology -September 2002 http://www.ceri-sciences-po.org 03/08/00 -2001 -January 29 2001 -The U.S. Trade and Development Agency (TDA) announced it was reopening its grant assistance program in China, suspended since 1989. -February 27, China issues its first Human Rights Report on the United States denouncing human rights abuses in the country. February 28, China ratifies, with qualifications, the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, a U.N. agreement it signed on October 27, 1997 (see below). -February, In Shenyang, China's fifth-largest city, the municipal people's congress has rejected the work report of the Intermediate People's court. It is one of the very first time that a work report has been voted down by a congress at such a level. In such a case, Chinese law says nothing about who should take responsibility in such a case. A huge corruption scandal has added to angers about unemployment raising due to massive lay-offs. Such instance of protest is a sign of a shifting balance power at the local level at a time when local institutions are being asked to be more "accountable". -March, Liaoning's new governor, Bo Xilai (Bo Yibo's son) promised a clean sweep of China's corruption-riddled Northeast during a press conference in Beijing. Stéphanie Balme -Chronology -September 2002 http://www.ceri-sciences-po.org 10 March 6, The New China news agency reported that the Chinese communist party central committee organisation department start efforts to reorganise the cadre group for preparing next Congress scheduled for fall 2002. It has dispatched 6 inspection groups to inspect the procedure of cadre selection and appointment in 12 central government organisations implement the "provisional regulations on party and government leading cadre selection and appointment". -According to Zhu Rongji, the 10 th Five Year Plan (2001-2005) will focus on the "open the West policy" to western regions of China. -May 5-18. Cong Fukui, deputy governor of Hebei has been dismissed from office for taking huge amount of bribes. Lin Lishen, former vice-mayor of Wanning city (Hainan) has been sued for taking bribes. -Stéphanie Balme -Chronology -September 2002 http://www.ceri-sciences-po.org -

  Beidaihe annual "secret" meeting tentatively lists the 4 th generation leadership. The Hong Kong Sun is reporting the results of the meetings as following. Politburo standing committee will consist of : Hu Jintao, Li Ruihuan, Wen Jiabao, Zeng Qinghong, Li Lanqing, Luo gan and Wu Bangguo. President should be Hu Jintao and vice-president Zeng

	Qinghong.
	A forum is held in Beijing with experts of Defense science and technology and social science
	with contacts having strong relations with Central Organisation Department. Jiang calls
	"intellectuals" to bring "innovative theoretical concepts". (Xinhua, August 7).
	-August 8, China's leftists (close to Maoist conservatives) openly challenge Jiang Zemin by

Stéphanie Balme -Chronology -September 2002 http://www.ceri-sciences-po.org 12 -August,

  -South China Morning Post -SCMP (http://scmp.com) -Far Eastern Economic Review-FEER (http://feer.com) -China Brief (http://china.jamestown.org ) -Willy wo-lap Lam's analysis on CNN-Asia (http://cnn.com) -Le Monde (http://lemonde.fr) -Libération (www.liberation.com ) -Wall Street Journal -WSJ-http://online.wsj.com -Isinolaw (http://www.isinolaw.com/index.jsp ) -International Herald Tribune (www.iht.com) -People's daily internet (version in Chinese-Renmin Ribao) (http://people.com.cn) -Musi.com Internet (version in Chinese) (http: home.muzi.com/index2.shtml ) -Xinhua News Agency (Internet version in Chinese) ( http://www.xinhua.org ) /www.carcenter.org/CHINA/dox/reorts/dapenglinyi.html -Human rights watch's report "Nipped in the bud : the suppression of the China Democracy Party (http://hrw.org/reports/2000/china)

	-The	Carter	Center	Village	Elections	Project	:
	http:/

-Minzhu yu fazhi (Democracy and Legal System) (Information: dannangxirou@371.net) -CASS (Chinese Academy of Social Sciences) Faxue Yanjiu. (Information : Zhgx@law.cass.net.cn ) -Zhongguo shibao (China Times) ( http://www.chinatimes.com.tw ) -Xin Shiji wang, New Century Net (in Chinese),(http://www.ncn.org )