teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers.

FRENCH MUSICAL BROADCASTING IN 1939 THROUGH A COMPARISON BETWEEN RADIO-PARIS AND RADIO-CITÉ

by Christophe BENNET THE year 1939 leads us to conclude the annual panorama of the French musical broadcasting of the thirties, a panorama organized through the prism of two big stations of the public and private networks. We have seen that in 1938, while the influence of the Government was weighing even more on the public stations (without any improvement of the programs), the commercial stations, strengthened by several years of experience, were adapting their program schedules in accordance with the success of their new formulas. By responding to the expectations of their audience, those stations continue their action in 1939. They are multiplying the entertainment programs, but they don't neglect the aspirations of the amateur listeners1 . We are going to show that various initiatives, here and there, widen the gap between the two stations. From September on, both stations face troubles in their programs and in their publications. While "Le Petit Radio", the official organ of the public stations, "apologizes for the inaccuracies which are necessarily about to appear in the columns, due to the current events 2 ", "Ici…Radio-Cité" is publishing the last number of its history, and lets a listener [take the opportunity of] this letter to thank you for the effort that was accomplished by Radio-Cité in order to give as much satisfaction as possible to the lovers of beautiful music. 3 " Historian Karine Le Bail has clearly shown that within those months of turmoil preceding the war, "Radiodiffusion française" deployed some strategies and concrete measures aiming at increasing the audience figures: "The radio calls up celebrities. The "Conseil supérieur" of Radio-Paris considers asking the famous pianist Alfred Cortot for a cycle of ten recitals for Radio-PTT and Radio-Paris, in order to increase the attractiveness of the Governmental stations. Alfred Cortot would even present his concerts himself. 4 " Her investigations have also shown that the "Conseils de gérance" take action even in the programs of the performers, when they estimate that the works are too elitist. "For instance, during the sitting of the "Conseil de gérance" of Paris-PTT on March 31 st , while a so-called Mr. Autry recognizes the musical interest of the program by Pierre Bernac scheduled for a concert broadcasted from 12.30 to 12.45 am on April 30 th , he proposes to add, at least 'some songs whose genre would be accessible to everyone' 5 ."

Beyond the resolutions taken at the highest level to increase the audience figures of the public stations, we can observe, for our two models of stations, what the dominant musical features are by associating three angles of a complementary analysis: the time schedules of the programs, the distribution of the composers announced in the programs by the specialized weeklies, and the one of the performers.

THE TIME SCHEDULES OF THE PROGRAMS REMAIN VERY CARACTERISTIC MUSICALLY SPEAKING A PROFUSION OF CONCERTS AND RECORDS

Compared to the whole decade, the year 1939 shows the largest corpus as far as the number of programs and volumes of hours are concerned 6 . For the month of June only, one can count no less than 1,209 slots dedicated to music. The 457 programs proposed by Radio-Paris show a slight decline if compared to June 1938 (481). But on Radio-Cité, the explosion of the number of programs is confirmed: the figure reaches the impressive level of 752 (against 332 in 1937 and 493 in 1938). A record of the durations can be matched to this record: the two stations are totalizing 483 hours of music broadcasting (against 184 hours in 1933, at a time when Radio-LL, the predecessor of Radio-Cité, was emitting from "La rue du Cirque"). By jumping from 188 monthly hours of music (in 1938) to 265 hours (in 1939), Radio-Cité takes such a leap that, for the first and last time of the decade, its figures overtake that of Radio-Paris (55% of the durations for the former; 45% for the latter). If the average figure of the daily slots is stable on the "Poste national" (15 slots with an average duration of 28 minutes), the figure is still progressing on Marcel Bleustein's station: 11 slots in 1937; 16 in 1938; 25 in 1939 (with an average duration of 20 minutes). Finally, in 1939, we measure an average daily figure of 7 hours and 15 minutes of musical programs on Radio-Paris (a steady decline since 1936) against 8 hours and 50 minutes on Radio-Cité (whereas the figure was only 4 hours in 1937).

The distribution of the musical genres (expressed through the titles of the programs) is similar to what we had observed in the previous years. Radio-Paris still prefers classical music, with almost 70% of its slots and its durations. The category of varied genres occupies the second position with 17% of the slots and 11% of the durations 7 . This is unusual but could be explained by an increase of the undetermined programs and those dedicated to military music, a phenomenon that we'll be monitoring soon. At a third stage, we can find what could be qualified as intermediate or middle music: for 8% of the slots and 12% of the durations. Eventually, entertaining music, with 7% of the slots and of the durations, remains a minority of the programs for this station. The contrary occurs on Radio-Cité, where this genre is at the top of the categories thanks to the high figures of 40% of the slots and 44% of the durations. The varied genres are also set at the second place, and they represent 27% of the slots and 24% of the durations. This is mainly due to the numerous programs which remain difficult to identify aesthetically speaking. In the papers, these are untitled: "records" or "new recordings". At a third place, classical music occupies a modest position with at least 20% of the slots and of the durations, while "intermediate music" concerns only 17% of the slots and 13% of the durations 8 .

In June 1939, the section of the varied genres on Radio-Paris reaches the high level of 17% of the slots and 11% of the durations. This is especially thanks to the appearance of military music, a genre which is usually absent on the "Poste national". It absorbs more than 3% of the slots and 2% of the durations. Considering the political context of the spring and summer 1939, one won't be astonished by the presence of these musical slots. Anyway, they are all associated with the regional songs that uphold the French identity with local accents. Among the 15 programs of recorded military music that we have noticed, we could mention the sequence of Friday June 16 th : "Military marches and songs from the Limousin", the one of Thursday June 22 nd : Military marches and patois songs from the Périgord" and the one of Wednesday June 28 th : "Military marches and Alsatian popular songs" 9 . In June 1939 on Radio-Paris, we also notice some musical programs which are indirectly patriotic, such as the "Concert by the ex-servicemen Authors and Composers, conducted by E. Bigot" broadcasted on Monday 12 th or the "Transmission of the concert given by the Inter-Allied Union, with J. Françaix, and P. Tortelier: works by Bach, Beethoven, Françaix, Falla, Tortelier and Liadow" released on Tuesday 13 th10 .

Finally, we can recall that for several years the programs makers of the private network have based themselves on the "taste surveys" of the listeners to reach a maximum audience figure. In this year 1939, the survey, which the specialized press echoes, comes from across the English Channel. This confirms the primacy of music and the expectations of British listeners. Carried out by the BBC, this survey proposes a scaled listing of the most desired genres. Entertaining music is coming first; dancing music comes 5 th ; light music the 7 th , operetta the 14 th ; recitals and great opera the 17 th . The bottom of the league is for chamber music, a genre that is not very accessible to the general public 11 .

RADIO-PARIS BETWEEN VARIETY CONCERTS AND RECITALS

For a long time, the brief performance of a soloist on Radio-Paris has regularly been inserted between the two parts of the midday orchestral concerts. The most significant element, which has been confirmed since 1936, is the proliferation of small recitals in the afternoons. Over the 997 programs live that we had picked up in the period 1936-1939, we had counted almost 478 recital sequences. In 1937, the programs with soloists remained detailed despite their short duration. But in 1939, the title of the works performed no longer appears, as is the case for the seven recitals of June 30 th which are only entitled: "Melodies by M. Patard"; "Melodies by Madeleine Lebergy"; "Melodies by Aimée Fontenay"; "Melodies by Colette Nancy"; "Violon by Miss Andrade"; "Piano by Mis Rollet"; "Melodies by Miss Charny 12 ". Over the last few years, the release of the content of the afternoon recitals has become more rare. For the sole Wednesday June 14 th 1939, when we counted eight, only one program was detailed. This was called "Scènes d'enfants for piano (Schumann), by Miss Wakmann-Field". There is another new element in 1939, which contributes to the reduction of the number of programs: the short sequences of recorded music in the mornings are usually limited to two slots. From 7 o'clock, depending on the days, dances, choirs and fanfares and military marches alternate 13 .

As far as the weekend programs are concerned, one cannot see a real difference with an ordinary day. On Saturdays, there is only a "filling" of the slots at the end of the mornings or the beginning of the afternoons, according to the existing patterns. In 1939 more precisely, the programs makers visibly content themselves with extending the morning sequences of record playing, and placing the parade of recitals earlier in the afternoons 14 . As for the musical broadcasting on Sundays, it was rare until then for Radio-Paris to broadcast entertaining music at an interval of only three hours. In 1939, however, the station expresses the wish of more openness and less austerity in its Sunday broadcasting. In fact, on the "menu" of Sunday June 18 th 1939, one can read at 3pm: "Transmission from the 'Théâtre National de l'Opéra-Comique': Carmen (Bizet), with Mme Renée Gilly and M. Georges Thill."; at 5.45 pm: "Works by Moskowski"; at 8.30 pm: "the sound riddles", a broadcasting competition (P. Colline), in collaboration with sound maker Robert and the A. Cadou orchestra"; at 9 pm: "Symphonic concert and choral, relayed from Warsaw"; at 10.25 pm: "French operettas" and at 11 pm: "Jo Bouillon and his orchestra15 ".

In June 1939, Radio-Paris is still broadcasting a plethora of "variety concerts16 ", programs entitled "light music17 ", sequences of "records of light and variety music18 ", that is mixed and heterogeneous spaces which almost constitute a "brand mark" of the station. Conducted by François Gras, the concert of Sunday June 4 th 1939 illustrates both the relative legitimacy of such miscellaniees and the protests that they spark. At the beginning of that Sunday afternoon, Le Petit Radio announces: "Concert, direction Fr. Gras : Old Nick (Tzipine); La pie voleuse, ouverture (Rossini); La Housarde (Ganne); Blanche Neige et les sept nains, sélection (Churchill); Yvonette (Jeanjean); En relisant vos lettres (Masson-Kick); Saltarelle (Gounod); The Donkey Serenade (Friml); Boublichka (Némo et Mills); Jubilee Stamp (Ellington)".

We can see here that the concert consists mainly of "light and symphonic" music. Four out of the ten composers cited here could be listed in our index 19 in this category of "light and symphonic" music: Georges Tzipine (1907-1987), Faustin Jeanjean (1900-1979) and Louis Ganne (whom we place on the border of operetta); without any further indication, we have also registered the authors: "Némo and Mills" in this category. The two romantic composers, Rossini and Gounod, find their place here thanks to the popularity of the works of the former (bordering on "musique de genre") and, probably the success of the lyrical production of the latter. Classical vocal art itself is not so far from the genre "operettas and the like" represented by Charles Rudolf Friml (1879-1972) and Frank Churchill (1901-1942), even if the productions of cartoons whose music he composed largely feed the repertoire of musichall singers20 . Finally, two authors slightly stand out: jazzman Duke Ellington (1899-1974) and composer L. Masson whose broadcasting production led us to qualify him as a composer of classical music of the 20 th Century21 . Through aesthetic proximity, every piece which does not specifically belong to a "genre" could be related, on the whole, to a form of light music, an "average" music. But if taken alone and considered under the angle of their style, some of those works are particularly distant. Nowadays, it would be very difficult to match Duke Ellington's swing with Gounod's "delightful romances", the fluidity of the tunes of The Thieving Magpie or the simple melodies of Snow-White and the seven Dwarfs that were conceived to be memorized and hummed. But this is what the programs makers of Radio-Cité are doing, with those miscellanies of "light and varied" music ". The idea of "fairly classical but still accessible aesthetics" favors the changes of sound landscapes, the sliding from one style to another.

A MYRIAD OF ENTERTAINMENT SEQUENCES ON RADIO-CITÉ

Concerning Radio-Cité, we must notice that the journal of the station (which was created in January 1938) evolves during the year 1939. Henceforth, instead of announcing only the programs of Radio-Cité, the weekly newspaper is also proposing a selection of the best programs of the competitor stations. This fresh editorial orientation shows a double advantage. Through the consideration devoted to the other stations, it sheds the narcissism that could be denounced and becomes a non specialized magazine. It can then replace any other weekly broadcasting paper and may attract the listeners used to putting together their programs from several stations22 .

Concerning the observed increase of the number of musical slots on Radio-Cité, we noticed a maximum of 35 programs per day. On Monday June 26 th 1939, when you kept your radio on without any interruption, you were able to hear five performances live: a short concert by a clarinet quartet; two sequences of live songs, including the daily "soft song" by Léo Marjane, accompanied by S. Grapelly"; two other performances, including "The American cinema organ: Max Lajarrige at the Hammond organ and Jean Patard". Beside the daily slot entitled: "Announce yourself the records you prefer", one could count 27 slots of records constituting the most important part of the programs. Two slots are devoted to songs, including one to Yvette Guilbert; three are jazz-oriented; one is devoted to lyrical music. That day, the slot entitled "morning music-hall" was devoted to Jeanne Aubert and to Georgius. One can also find two slots of "light and variety music"; two slots of symphonic music23 ; one sequence of "new publications"; three slots dedicated to the operetta24 . Six slots of recorded recital25 and one slot of commercial music are ending this long list of recorded music26 . Finally, two relays are completing the broadcasting of the station: the first is scheduled at 5.05 pm, live from "Taverne de l'Olympia", and the other, a "concert with the P. Florendas orchestra and Yvonne Galli", is broadcasted from the 'Normandie' movie theater 27 ."

That year, the dominating musical color of the station is entertainment. In 1939, the musical program starts even earlier than the previous years, at 6.37 am sharp. The "Paul Beuscher accordion quarter of hour" is followed at 6.55 am by "Morning music-hall" and is devoted to "Frehel and Fernandel", for example28 . After 9 am, the daily programs continue until noon. Day after day, in this slot with a lower audience level, the musical extracts embrace the most diverse styles and genres: from the "Sylvia Ballet (Delibes)" to "Recording of the Hot Club de France Quintet" and also visit the "Jean Alfaro Argentine Orchestra" or "Shirley Temple's hits, by the Henderson Twins29 ". From 11 am on, celebrities are sometimes passing by in the studio. This is the case on Monday June 12 th 1939, when "at the micro: Miss Gautier" [plays the cello] 30 .

Classical music lovers, however, are not excluded from the targeting. For about twenty minutes, the "musical moment" instituted in 1938 is renewed. This rendezvous for music lovers introduces the evening programs. We can for instance notice the program of the week starting on June 4 th 1939, published by the journal of the station in a frame entitled "Radio-Cité's 'musical moment'": "Sunday at 6.17 pm -Debussy: Sonata for the flute, alto and harp. Monday at 6.25 pm -J.S. Bach: Cantata, by the choir and orchestra of the Bach Society.

Tuesday at 6.25 pm -Vaughan Williams: Serenade to Music, soloists and orchestra conducted by Sir Henry Wood.

Wednesday at 6.45 pm -Liszt: The legend of Saint-François de Paule walking on the waters, The forgotten waltz, The Campanella.

Thursday at 6.22 pm -Berlioz: The Damnation of Faust (extracts) with Charles Panzéra, José de Trévi and M. Berthon.

Friday at 6.23 pm -Chausson: King Artus, with Endrèze and Poem for violin and orchestra, with Yehudi Menuhin. Saturday at 6.17 pm -Florent Schmitt: Suite en Rocaille, by 'Quintette instrumental de Paris'. 31 " Beside those "short concerts", some kinds of "musical causeries" remain. They are nonetheless toned down and include some bizarre themes, rather eye-catching and populist. In January 1939, for example, Pierre Templier produces a weekly program called "The great scandals of music". This series is launched on Wednesday January 11 th at 10.30 pm by a session devoted to Italian opera, from Lulli to Rameau 32 . The sessions of jazz vulgarization are a specificity of the station. Broadcasted from 1936 on, the series "An evening in Harlem" is still scheduled on Wednesdays on Radio-Cité. Although its announcer Henry Gedovius works full time on Radio-37 33 , this doesn't prevent him from recording programs that are broadcasted every week on Radio-Cité 34 . This makes us surmise that the people both keen on jazz and capable of speaking about it in the micro are not so numerous. As a connoisseur, amateur he can actually talk about the orchestras as well as the improvisers. The numerous pictures that we have found in his archives prove his regular frequentation of the American jazz-bands 35 . He is also close to the French performers, as indicated by his "war correspondence" with conductor Jacques Hélian, who was to become, after the war, the second record-selling millionaire behind Tino Rossi. After broadcasting 9 times in June on Radio-Cité, mobilized from August 27 th 1939, the one who is at that moment the only "radiocavalryman" Georges der Mikaelian, writes to him from the "headquarters of the brigade of sector 115": "My dear Gédo, I correctly received your letter, via my sister, which delighted me at a moment when we are far from any family and any friend […] As we have nothing to do, apart from some guard chores and some radio exercise (because while you have left the radio, I have joined it myself), I help some friends unearthing potatoes. […] Dear Gédo, I wish you the most luck possible. Don't forget to write to me, it will make me so happy to hear from you […]. Pay my tribute to your missus and to baby and allow me to tell you that I'm shaking your hand. 36 "

The strong proximity that exists between this man of the records and radio sectors and the world of jazz enables him to talk about it easily. Despite his life spent among records, he doesn't play the expert and remains sensitive to the demands of his listeners. According to the magazine Jazz-Hot which published an article on him in September 1952, this is "probably because he has bought records, [that] he pays attention to his listeners, exactly as if he were concerned about the satisfaction of this clients." His tone is always friendly and deproved of artifice 37 .

In the matter of musical programs, only two noticeable elements really distinguish Sunday broadcasting from the other days of the week. The first is the program entitled "The lunch concert of Radio-Cité, hosted by Maurice Yvain, with the Grand Orchestra of the Gaumont Palace, conducted by Georges Tzipine (broadcasted from the Gaumont Palace)."

31 Ici…Radio-Cité n°74 of June 2 nd 1939, p. 2. 32 Ici…Radio-Cité n°53 of January 6 th 1939, p. 2: "The great scandals of the music". 33 Fonds Gédovius of l'INA. Letter of the CEO G. Gemond of June 21 st 1937. 34 For instance on Wednesday June 10 th from 11 to 11.30 pm. 35 Like that of Freddie Taylor "and his Swing Men from Harlem" dedicated on March 14 th 1935. 36 Letter of Jacques Hélian of September 28 th 1939. Fonds Gédovius of INA, file n° 1. On the life conditions of musicians during the "phony war", one could read: "Letters" of ON (sheltered at Rennes) published under the leadership of Désiré-Emile Inghelbrecht. One can also read: Christophe Bennet (dir), "1925-1975. Fifty years of classical music on the radio", Les Cahiers d'Histoire de la Radiodiffusion, n° 95 Janvier-Mars 2008, p 30-32. 37 As we saw by reading the scripts of some of his programs.

Every Sunday from 1.15 to 1.45 pm from April 1939 on, the composer of Là-haut hosts " music that everyone understands, which speaks to the heart and dispels the worries of the hour. 38 " At the same time, and this is the second main point, the very young "Orchestre philharmonique de Paris" becomes a regular visitor of the studio of "Rue de Washington". This orchestra produces prestigious concerts exclusively for Radio-Cité, such as the "8 th Gala concert by the 'Orchestre Philharmonique de Paris" [released on June 4 th ] under the baton and with the performance of violinist Jacques Thibaud."

Even if the monitoring of the programs of 1939 brings an indisputable feeling of continuity, we must notice the regular tidying up of the programs. The short musical sequences that we had described appear all the less repetitive as they take place in program schedules that are incessantly reshaped. This is why the weekly Le petit Radio reckons in April 1939 that the restructuring of the evening programs heralds "the beginning of a new season. 39 " Jean Guignebert, the editor-in-chief of the journal, justifies the perpetual modifications of the programs through the wish to satisfy a maximum of listeners: "Once again, we have planned to reshape the noontime schedule. Frankly speaking, we didn't make any noticeable progress. The opinions are diverse, depending on the place where the listeners have dinner (at home or at a restaurant). As it is quite difficult to satisfy everyone, we're going to 'cut the apple into two': we'll be moving some lunchtime programs to the evening and we'll be maintaining others in their current slot.

Anyway, we are going to "rethink" the organization of the programs, since summer is arriving. This is the time when we are preparing our programs for the autumn and winter. Indeed, if we are "cicadas", we're also a little "ant-like". 40 "

We can see that the broadcasting of Radio-Cité is based on the managers' permanent reflection, stimulated by regular listeners' tribunes.

THE PRIMACY OF UNIVERSAL MASTERS

Beyond the astonishing mixtures, or the unusual associations that some programs show, the monitoring of the composers mentioned by the newspapers, and the distribution of their works (the number of references) gives a further idea of the aspect of musical programs.

TOWARDS A REDUCTION OF THE COMPOSERS' SUPREMACY

In 1939, the newspapers definitely keep indicating the name of the composers appearing in the programs of Radio-Paris. But this indication is fading away a little more every year: 1,736 references appeared in June 1936, 1,283 in June 1937, 655 in June 1938, and 598 only in June 1939, that is to say three times less than some years earlier 41 . Anyway, in June 1939, the references that we picked up on Radio-Paris represent 82% of those of the two stations. This I why the composers' aesthetics provide a more accurate idea of the musical color of this station than of its private competitor. We can also notice that more than 38 Ici…Radio-Cité n°67 of April 14 th 1939, p. 7: "Maurice Yvain presents the 'Grand Orchestre Symphonique du Gaumont Palace'" . 39 Le Petit Radio n°628 of April 21 st 1939, p. 2. 40 Ici…Radio-Cité n°74 of June 2 nd 1939, p. 1: "Our tribune". 41 We couldn't ascertain whether this progressive reduction of information was due to the station or to the newspapers themselves.

half of the 94 composers mentioned in the programs of Radio-Cité are also mentionned on Radio-Paris, representing 57 of the 280 composers broadcasted by this station. Corresponding to the "hit parade" of the ten most frequently mentioned composers (about whom we'll speak soon) these are "safe values" of the classical heritage.

SOME VERY CLASSICAL AUTHORS ON RADIO-PARIS

By scrutinizing the distribution of the authors in the programs, we can see that, like in the previous years, the mention of the authors often remains closely linked to the usual repertoire of the performer being broadcasted. On Tuesday June 20 th 1939, beside the "Chant élégiaque" by Florent Schmitt and the "Trois Histoires" by Jacques Ibert performed on the "Poste national", by cellist Maurice Maréchal and pianist Jean Doyen, one can see that their program includes the piece "Saudades do Brazil" by Darius Milhaud 42 . Only five days earlier, it had already been broadcasted among the pieces of "Chamber music by Mrs Lélia Gousseau, [Lise] Daniels and G. Gathelat. 43 " But there is a more surprising phenomenon, which is absolutely exceptional in the whole corpus of our data: this reference also appears on the program of the competitor station on the same day: "'The musical moment' by Darius Milhaud: Les amours de Ronsard; Saudades do Brazil (enr.) 44 " Even if such musical selections are incongruous nowadays or appear in more coherent programs, they quite show how the mentions of the authors match their time and are linked to the choice of performers.

We can also notice that the musical eclecticism of some great composers explain their omnipresence on the waves. One often finds them in the concerts of "light and variety music", a phrase in use on Radio-Paris over the whole decade. On Wednesday June 14 th 1939, the famous Espana by Gabriel Chabrier (recorded in the table of the ten most frequently mentioned composers on Radio-Paris in June 1939) are matched with "Le Roi s'amuse" by Delibes and "Le Petit Duc" by Lecoq 45 . Reynaldo Hahn, whom we recorded as a "chamber music and recital" composer for the significant broadcasting of his melodies, is also one of the greatest composers of the modern operetta. Beside the operetta Brummel, which released twice in our corpus (on Monday June 7 th 1937 and Monday June 19 th 1939 46 ), the tunes and duets of his operettas are often feeding the concerts of light music, or the programs of mixed music. Among the most frequent, we could mention, the extracts from Ciboulette (whose title appears six times on Radio-Paris in the programs of the decade) and the extracts from his Mozart (also mentioned six times), which born from his collaboration with Sacha Guitry.

Acting in the same way as for the year 1938, we have established a "hit parade" of the ten most frequently mentioned composers 47 . This still underlines the strong presence of the "great classics" on Radio-Paris. That year, succeeding Debussy, the "winner" is Mozart, with 17 references. Nevertheless, Debussy keeps being often mentionned, with a total of 11 references (on a par with Ravel). Robert Schumann also remains in the table, with a total of 10 references (against 8 in 1938). Johann-Sebastian Bach is still present with 10 references in 1939 (8 in 1938). 42 Source: Le Petit Radio. 43 Program of Thursday June 15 th 1939. Cf. the contents of all the programs of Radio-Paris for this day of June 15 th 1939. 44 Program of Thursday June 15 th 1939. Source: Ici…Radio-Cité. 45 According to Le Petit Radio. 46 Sources: Le Petit Radio. 47 Cf. the table "The 10 most mentioned composers in June 1939".

Curiously, in June 1939, Bach, Mozart, Debussy are, together with Beethoven (who enters the "hit parade") the four common denominators of Radio-Paris and Radio-Cité.

For this station, the ten most frequently mentioned composers are also the "safe values" of the great musical heritage.

RADIO-CITÉ DOESN'T BOYCOTT GERMAN COMPOSERS

Still, there are fewer references in this station. The weekly "Ici…Radio-Cité", which is the most accurate of the newspapers as for the contents of the station's programs, rarely cares to mention the name of the composers, except for the few prestigious concerts or the slots of the "musical moment" where it is systematically indicated. As a result, there are fewer references: from 2 to 4 references per composer in this table, instead of 9 to 17 for the ten composers of the Radio-Paris "hit parade". They are inevitably the "top figures", liable to draw an important audience.

One should point out the fact that there is no boycott of German authors, since with Beethoven, Richard Strauss, Bach (the three most frequently mentioned composers), Mozart and Johann Strauss, the 'hit parade" is German at 50% (40% on Radio-Paris).

Concerning the composers that are only mentioned on Radio-Cité, they have sometimes had a classical musical education and finally evolved as performers in the sector of entertainment. This is notably the case of Michel Emer48 . In the same vein as Ray Ventura, this composer and conductor recruited by Radio-Cité keeps acting everyday for the radio. On January 27 th 1939, Le Petit Radio devotes its section "The radio celebrities" to him: "Let's remember that the Michel Emer orchestra, a Radio-Cité exclusivity, is composed of twelve excellent musicians who are far from remaining confined to a genre and pass from the pleasant to the severe, from jazz to the melody, and then satisfy the various tastes of the numerous listeners […] Still, the activity of this congenial musician goes further. He's known to Northern America, South America, Africa… As a composer, he wrote two operettas […] He's currently, worings in collaboration with Maurice Yvain on lyrics by Willemetz and Mouézy-Eon for an operetta which is to be performed at the Mogador.

Michel Emer is the composer of songs that met with great success. […] To complete Michel's artistic physiognomy, we could add that the composition of his songs for the revue "La Lune rousse" didn't prevent him from composing a "Symphonic poem", which was performed by the Concerts Pasdeloup. Moving with equal command from classical music to jazz, from the sophisticated orchestral harmony to the popular melody, Michel Emer is one of the best representatives of modern music, in its complexity and lively diversity. 50 " Coming from a classical background, these "cultural passers" adapt their art to the circumstances of their performances as artists. A composer and conductor, the musician is completing the list of the other artists: the instrument players, the singers who operate as intermediates between several musical aesthetics.

The ten most mentioned authors in June 1939

THE PERFORMERS ARE AT THE CORE OF THE PROGRAMS A MULTIPICATION OF THE MENTIONS OF THE PERFORMERS

Between the year 1938, when the two stations are mentioning their performers in equal terms (312 and 314 references 51 ) and 1939, the gap is widening. Our last list shows a common tendency: that of an increase of the number of references. But with 422 references on the "Poste National" against 562 on Radio-Cité 52 , the latter resembles more a "performers" than a composers' station". This tends to indicate that, as a whole (but even more on the commercial station), the element that will draw the audience (and also generate the mention of such or such composer), is the performer. In June 1939, 57% of the references to performers mentioned on the two stations are cited on Radio-Cité.

Another observation could be made: the performers, who have by then become accustomed to the medium (which has become more a friend than a competitor), are sailing from one station to another. While observing the evolution of the number of performers shared by the two stations, the progression is significant: there was no performer common to the two in June 1935 (when the idea of an "artist of the station" was dominating); 3 in June 1936; 5 in June 1937; 10 in June 1938 and 24 in June 1939. The number of celebrities is certainly only 4% of the whole of artists mentioned that month, but the figure reveals the circulation of the musicians between the stations and shows their involvement in the radio programs whatever the station.

As we did for the authors, we considered a corpus of 10 performers, who were the most present for each of the two models of station.

RADIO-PARIS INTRODUCES PERFORMERS IN ENTERTAINMENT MUSIC

One shouldn't be astonished by the fact that the table of the ten most mentioned performers on Radio-Paris is similar to that of the composers 53 ; apart from the Jo Bouillon Orchestra (which performs on Saturdays and Sundays in entertainment programs), there are only groups or performers of classical music or lyrical performers. If we compare this with the year 1938, three performers remain present: the "Orchestre Jo Bouillon" (which remains in the top position), and two little multipurpose orchestras, which are capable of performing the much vaunted programs of "light and variety music": those of Georges Bailly and William 50 Le Petit Radio n°614 of January 27 th 1939, p. 1 : "Michel Emer", by Jacques Tem. 51 For 234 performers mentioned on Radio-Paris and 244 on Radio-Cité. 52 For 285 and 347 distinct performers. 53 Cf. the table "The ten most cited performers in June 1939". (they already held the same rank in the previous year). Two other comparable orchestras complete the table: those of Albert Locatelli and Georges Dervaux (at a lower level in the matter of references). In the third rank, one can find pianist Jean Doyen, who performs as much in the chamber music sector as within the frame of symphonic concerts. Jean Doyen had been broadcasted for a long time. In our ten-year computation of the programs, he appears 44 times and every year (except in 1933). Though he had already been presented in 1930 as a "soloist of the concerts "du Conservatoire", of Colonne, Lamoureux and Pasdeloup", he seems to specialize in broadcasted performances 55 . His qualities had indeed been greeted by the broadcasting press of the State network in 1937, on the occasion of the Prize that he had been given by the Society of the friends of Gabriel Fauré:

"Following this last test, the jury, chaired by M. Gabriel Pierné and M. Henri Rabaud, from the Institute, rewarded the young pianist Jean Doyen. Le Petit Radio is happy, on this occasion, to congratulate [this] young pianist, whose beautiful talent the listeners of "La Radiodiffusion" know and appreciate. 56 " Yet, the "Poste national" also recruits some famous singers or celebrities of choral singing. The "Petits chanteurs à la croix de bois" are thus invited to perform on the radio, even if they are not mentioned in the programs of Radio-Paris in June 1939. Their popularity even enables them to participate in a regular show on Radio-Cité on Thursday evenings in 1939 57 . As far as the "Poste national" is concerned, it broadcasts a report on one of their rehearsals at the "Manécanterie" on March 26 th . In this recording, which has miraculously been preserved, we can hear the demanding voice of abbé Maillet, who manages them, in the distance. One of the children explains to the interviewer that he doesn't particularly enjoy religious music. Unaware of what his words imply, he innocently sings some lyrics of a Spanish fox-trot which had been in the air for two years: " -[Child] "Take my mandarins, 'cause they have a thin skin, and pretty pips for you; Take my mandarins, and tell me where you are seated; Except if it saddens you, I'll come and peel them for you 58 "… -[Interviewer] "This is not very moral! But at this age, everything is permitted!" 59 "

Another archive of Radio-Paris of March 1939 is also interesting because it is very rare. It concerns a program with female singer Marie Dubas. The performance of this star of the song has been caught during one of her galas. The one who created the "Doux caboulot" notably performs "C'est un Monsieur" by Pierre Dunan and "Arbi-Arba", "a little Arabian fantasy". If she is not clearly audible when she moves away from the micro, one perfectly perceives the mood of a café-concert, and the piano, as "honkytonk" as one may wish. The ambiance is easy-going and the audience is welcoming: 55 If we consider the sixty records or so that we found at the BnF, we could more particularly mention the "piece in the shape of a habanera", by Ravel, which he recorded with his associate in the studio, Lucienne Radisse: one record 78 t. "Marie Dubas: -"Er… Because there is the "T.S.F."? But on the T.S.F. they won't hear anything this evening, (…) well! No, because when I'm wriggling about (laughter in the public). Well, I'm annoyed, I don't like that [speaking in the micro]; anyway! They won't hear me. First of all, I'm going to sing 'Ah maman!'. This is a little marching song, anyway they already heard it on the TSF yesterday." […] [At the second encore:] -"If I propose 'La Femme durRoulier' to you. Will you sing it with me? ("Yes", the audience say); if you chicken out, I leave! (laughter). […] Personally, I'll sing it in my way, while you will sing it in your way, as you like! 60 "

CELEBRITIES ARE EVERYWHERE ON RADIO-CITÉ

Contrary to the table of composers, that of the most broadcasted performers perfectly reflects the musical tendency of Radio-Cité. In fact, one can count four singers (Léo Marjane; a singer called Julien; Charles Trenet and Jean Sablon), three performers or bands in the sector of entertainment music (the Michel Emer orchestra; Jacques Hélian and organist Max Lajarrige), a jazz performer (Stéphane Grapelli) and two classical orchestras (the London Philharmonic Orchestra and the Marek Weber Orchestra). With Stéphane Grapelli, Charles Trenet is the only artist who was already mentioned in the 1938 'hit parade' (5 mentions for each of them). This is because they both had a regular program the previous year. The violinist's weekly program became a daily one in 1939. With 22 references, he is almost as famous as the Michel Elmer Orchestra (25 references) and as Léo Marjane (25 references). The latter is indeed scheduled every evening at 9.45 pm under the appropriate title of "a soft song". Thus, after magnificently interpreting "La Chapelle au clair de lune 61 " (The Chapel in the moonlight), and "starred" in Parisian revues [START_REF] Félix Mayol | 63 Phonothèque de l'INA : "Léo Marjane chante 'Partir sans laisser d'adresse[END_REF] , Léo Marjane records a daily vesperal "soft song". In the sound archives of Radio-Cité, we could trace one of them: "Partir sans laisser d'adresse" (Leaving without any address) shows a musical introduction by a violin (probably that of Stéphane Grapelli) followed by a guitar, a piano, a bass on the chorus and the warm and expressive voice of the singer 63 . Despite her artistic activity, she will remain faithful to this rendezvous until 1940 [START_REF]The "programme sonore[END_REF] . The recording of the programs on flexible records enhances the "gift of ubiquity" of the artists who are leading both broadcasting activities and live performances on theater stages in parallel 65 .

The classical music sector also offers a pageant of celebrities. They are usually the guests of the new studio of the "Rue Washington". It had been inaugurated by "Jacques Thibaud, at the violin, accompanied by the 'Orchestre Philharmonique de Paris' 66 ".We could also, among many others mention Darius Milhaud and Arthur Honegger, conducting the same "Orchestre Philharmonique de Paris" one Sunday evening on Radio-Cité, in a concert devoted to the "Groupe des Six 67 "; the pianist Alfred Cortot, who is said by a listener to "have understood what laypeople had to be made to hear and whose selection must be praised without any reserve 68 "; or also the conductor Félix Weingartner 69 .

The celebrities, who are midway between the classical and entertainment genres are also the guests of the studios, and particularly that of Radio-Cité. But contrary to the operetta singer André Baugé who is present on all the stations owing to his numerous recordings [START_REF]On Radio-Paris, he performs as much "Rêve de printemps[END_REF] , some "cultural passers" appear to be confined to commercial radios. For example, guitarist and composer Gino Bordin is never mentioned in the programs of Radio-Cité. After hosting "the charming half an hour" on Radio-Cité 71 in 1938, the artist, who is nicknamed "the man of the magic guitar", attends a program on the station Radio-37 in 1939. This program is entitled "Accordion and song 72 ". Devoting its front page to this "conductor and discoverer of celebrities" (including Guy Berry and Carlo Cotti), the occasional partner of Frédo Gardoni and the official accompanist of Tino Rossi 73 , "Le Petit Radio" of January 13 th writes: "Gino Bordin's repertoire is extremely wide and includes works ranging from Chopin, Schumann and other classics to the most modern fox-trots and tangos. 74 " In April 1939, the "Clément Doucet and Jean Wiener" tandem are the guests of the studios of the "Rue de Washington", which enables the station's magazine to praise the two talented performers: "The creators of 'jazz for two pianos", two magicians whose musical responses get tangled and merge like the multiple tones of an orchestra under the lead of a conductor will be on Radio-Cité tonight. […] Wiener can interpret any composer on request: Bach as well as Gershwin, Handel as well as Irving, Chopin as well as Christiné 75 ."

These two pianists not only bridge the gap between classical music and jazz, but also between symphonic music and the productions of the movie industry, a cultural sector which maintains a close relation with the composers. While Georges Delerue particularly stands out in this domain, we can notice here that Jean Wiener, who had already composed 50 scores for movies in 1936, was the then artistic manager of the company "Film Éclair", and Georges Tzipine, Maurice Yvain's partner of the Sunday program on Radio-Cité, conducts the music that accompanies the newsreel section of 'films Gaumont' 76 ." By focusing on our two emblematic stations in 1939, we can see the shape of a breakaway from some invariants of the previous years: the steady but clear disappearance of the mention of the composers' names, and the explosion of musical slots. This is more oriented by the performances of the artists than by the musical works themselves. Radio-Paris and Radio-Cité are strengthening their respective identities. While the latter favors entertainment music but still allows a non negligible space to the classical genre, the "Poste national" remains a big cultural station. Its quest of audience figures leads it to open its broadcasting to aesthetics and shows which are musically lighter. The war is going to upset this balance. The State monopoly will favor the survival of classical music and musical creation. In its proportions, however, classical music will continuously be eroding in favor of more federative aesthetics, whose outlying radios will be delighted. The "private radios" will be surfing on this question and make it the core of their activity. But this is another story.

Many thanks to Gérard Hocmard for his help with the language issues. 76 Ici…Radio-Cité n°67 of April 14 th 1939, p. 7.

  56 Le Petit Radio n°518 of March 12 th 1937, p.3, article titled "Musical success of Jean Doyen". 57 They are scheduled every Thursday from 8.55 pm to 9.15 pm. 58 Mandarins, Lyne Clevers, song, acc. by an orchestra, conductor Bruno Coquatrix. Sacem: November 19 th 1928 and May 29 th 1936 ; Created by Lyne Clevers in November 1936, "Chez Ray Ventura", accompanied by him and his collegians. 59 Phonothèque of INA : « Répétition des Petits Chanteurs à la croix de bois », Radio-Paris, recording of March 26 th 1939, band referenced KO00084B ; X00235 at 3'40''.

Musical programs on Radio-Paris on Thursday June 15 th 1939

	date	content	start	end duration
	June 15th 39	Mélodies, par M. Verroust.	12:15 12:25 0:10
		Concert par l'orchestre Victor Pascal : Valse
		des fleurs (Tchaïkovsky) ; Canzonetta
		(Mendelssohn) ; Ronde (Haydn) ; Psyché
		(Paladilhe) ; Colombine (Delahayes) ;
	June 15th 39	D'une prison (Hahn) ; Danse hongroise n°2 (Brahms) ; Les soldats en miniature (Yves)	13:05 14:00 0:55
		; Ingeborg (Noack) ; Marika-Czardas
		(Derschatta) ; Battement d'ailes (Flégier) ;
		Flamenquerias (Rolland) ; Valse du
		souvenir (Larcher) ; Radetzki (Strauss).
	June 15th 39	Violon, par Hortense de Sampigny.	14:15 14:30 0:15
	June 15th 39	Mélodies, par Robert Faury.	14:30 14:45 0:15
	June 15th 39	Disques pour les enfants.	14:45 14:55 0:10
	June 15th 39	Mélodies, par Germaine Féraldy.	16:15 16:30 0:15
	June 15th 39	Piano, par Hélène Pignari.	16:30 16:45 0:15
		Musique de chambre par Mmes Lélia
	June 15th 39	Gousseau, Andrade, Daniels et G. Gathelat Saudades do Brazil [en disque le même jour : Sonate (Veracini) ; Duos (Schumann) ;	17:05 17:45 0:40
		sur RC] (D. Milhaud).
		Concert varié, direction R. Ellis : Cigale et
		Magali, ouverture (Casadesus) ; Mélodies
	June 15th 39	élégiaques (Grieg) ; Bunny (Porret) ; braconniers, sélection (Offenbach) ; Noël Aquarelles boréales (Amadei) ; Les	19:00 20:00 1:00
		pastoral (Aubert) ; Au bon vieux temps
		(Mouton).
		Transmission du Théâtre National de
	June 15th 39	l'Opéra-Comique : Le Rêve (Alf. Bruneau), MM. L. Arnoult, Endrèze, Guenot, orch. avec Mmes Jane Rolland et Lecouvreur,	20:30 23:00 2:30
		Direction Eugène Bigot.

Statistics of the Radio-Paris programs in June 1939 number In % durations In % Total programs 457 100,0% 217:10:00 100,0% Information oo the programs

		184	40,3%	60:10:00	27,7%
	i (performers cited)	28	6,1%	9:40:00	4,5%
	a (author cited)	117	25,6%	100:00:00	46,0%
	& (authors and performers)	77	16,8%	33:05:00	15,2%
	t (theme only)	51	11,2%	14:15:00	6,6%
	Categories (4) and under-categories (29) of the programs	457	100,0%	217:10:00	100,0%
	Classical	312	68,3%	151:10:00	69,6%
	Chamber	27	5,9%	19:40:00	9,1%
	Symphonic concert	56	12,3%	50:40:00	23,3%
	Classical didacticism	13	2,8%	5:20:00	2,5%
	Symphonic music	10	2,2%	3:15:00	1,5%
	Lyrical and operat	10	2,2%	14:00:00	6,4%
	Recital	187	40,9%	52:50:00	24,3%
	Symphonic and lyrical	3	0,7%	2:30:00	1,2%
	Symphonic and recital	6	1,3%	2:55:00	1,3%
	Intermediate music	37	8,1%	26:25:00	12,2%
	Jazz didacticism		0,0%		0,0%
	Jazz		0,0%		0,0%
	Mixed music	2	0,4%	1:20:00	0,6%
	Music "light and varied"	30	6,6%	21:40:00	10,0%
	Operettas	5	1,1%	3:25:00	1,6%
	Entertainment	31	6,8%	16:10:00	7,4%
	Café-concert		0,0%		0,0%
	Song	8	1,8%	2:00:00	0,9%
	Song-writters		0,0%		0,0%
	Musical		0,0%		0,0%
	Dancing	17	3,7%	10:50:00	5,0%
	Entertainment didacticism		0,0%		0,0%
	Music-hall		0,0%		0,0%
	Film music		0,0%		0,0%
	Commercial music	6	1,3%	3:20:00	1,5%

Diverse 77 16,8% 23:25:00 10,8%

	Ethnological didacticism		0,0%		0,0%
	Children	3	0,7%	1:10:00	0,5%
	Undetermined	54	11,8%	16:10:00	7,4%
	Military music	15	3,3%	4:45:00	2,2%
	Traditional music	2	0,4%	0:30:00	0,2%
	New International productions		0,0%		0,0%
	Religion	3	0,7%	0:50:00	0,4%
	Formats of the programs	457	100,0%	217:10:00	100,0%
	Live	313	68,5%	151:10:00	69,6%
	Live with records		0,0%		0,0%
	Records	132	28,9%	44:50:00	20,6%
	Undetermined		0,0%		0,0%
	Relay	12	2,6%	21:10:00	9,7%

Musical programs on Radio-Cité on Saturday June 26 th 1939

	date	contents	start end duration
	June th 39	Musette. [à 7h : ] Music-hall.	6:45 7:30	0:45
		Concert des auditeurs. [Mode. Inf.
	June th 39	Ephéméride. Menu] Votre chanteur
		préféré : G. Thill.

Statistics of

the programs of Radio-Cité in June 1939

		number	In %	durations	In %
	Total programs	752		265:53:00
	Information of the programs	752	100,0%	265:53:00	100,0%
	i (performers cited)	356	47,3%	108:04:00	40,6%
	a (author cited)	36	4,8%	10:23:00	3,9%
	& (authors and performers)	78	10,4%	30:04:00	11,3%
	t (theme only)	267	35,5%	111:33:00	42,0%
	? (unknown content)	15	2,0%	5:49:00	2,2%
	Categories (4) and under-categories (29) of the programs	752	100,0%	265:53:00	100,0%
	Classical	143	19,0%	52:45:00	19,8%
	Chamber	7	0,9%	2:53:00	1,1%
	Symphonic concert	4	0,5%	6:38:00	2,5%
	Classical didacticism	5	0,7%	1:43:00	0,6%
	Symphonic music	63	8,4%	22:19:00	8,4%
	Lyrical and opera	4	0,5%	0:53:00	0,3%
	Recital	56	7,4%	16:24:00	6,2%
	Symphonic and lyrical	1	0,1%	0:35:00	0,2%
	Symphonic and recital	3	0,4%	1:20:00	0,5%
	Intermediate music	126	16,8%	34:35:00	13,0%
	Jazz didacticism		0,0%		0,0%
	Jazz	33	4,4%	10:57:00	4,1%
	Mixed music	10	1,3%	4:15:00	1,6%
	Music "light and various"	56	7,4%	11:55:00	4,5%
	Operettas	27	3,6%	7:28:00	2,8%
	Entertainment	298	39,6%	116:08:00	43,7%
	Café-concert		0,0%		0,0%
	Songs	106	14,1%	25:01:00	9,4%
	Song-writers	4	0,5%	1:00:00	0,4%
	Musical		0,0%		0,0%
	Dancing	88	11,7%	46:54:00	17,6%
	Entertainment didacticism		0,0%		0,0%
	Music-hall	29	3,9%	15:25:00	5,8%
	Film music	2	0,3%	0:25:00	0,2%
	Commercial music	69	9,2%	27:23:00	10,3%
	Diverse	185	24,6%	62:25:00	23,5%
	Ethnological didacticism		0,0%		0,0%
	Children	1	0,1%	0:08:00	0,1%
	Undetermined	134	17,8%	49:58:00	18,8%
	Military music	7	0,9%	1:44:00	0,7%
	Traditional music	13	1,7%	3:00:00	1,1%
	New International productions	30	4,0%	7:35:00	2,9%
	Religion		0,0%		0,0%
	Formats of the programs	752	100,0%	265:53:00	100,0%
	Live	124	16,5%	45:51:00	17,2%
	Live with records	37	4,9%	9:57:00	3,7%
	Records	525	69,8%	163:04:00	61,3%
	Undetermined	11	1,5%	4:01:00	1,5%
	Retransmission	55	7,3%	43:00:00	16,2%

The 10 most mentioned performers in June 1939

	Rank Performer	nb ref.	Musical category	nb ref. decade 54	Performer	nb ref.	Musical category	nb ref. decade
			On Radio-Paris		On Radio-Cité
			(422 references)		(562 references)
		Orchestre
	1	Jo Bouillon (1936-	9	Entertainment band	32	Léo (1918-….) Marjane	25 Song	26
		1947)
	2	Orchestre Georges Dervaux (?-?)	8	Classical band	14	Orchestre Michel Emer (1906-1984)	25	Entertainment band	25
	3	Jean Doyen (1907-1982)	8	Classical performer	44	Stéphane Grapelli (1908-1997)	22	Jazz performer	22
		Orchestre
	4	Georges Bailly (?-	7	Classical band	16	Jacques Hélian (1912-1986)	9	Entertainment performer	9
		?)
		Orchestre				Orchestre
	5	William Cantrelle	7	Classical band	14	Philharmonique de Londres	8	Classical band	11
		(?-?)				(1932-….)
	6	Germaine Cernay (?)	6	Lyric-art performer	21	Max Lajarrige (?)	8	Entertainment performer	8
		Chorale
		(ou
	7	choeurs) Félix Raugel	6	Classical band	15	Orchestre Marek Weber (1884-1964)	6	Classical band	9
		(193.-
		1963)
	8	Maria Branèze (?-?)	5	Lyric-art performer	8	Julien (?-?)	5	Song	6
		Choeur
	9	Joseph Noyon	5	Classical band	10	Charles Trenet (1913-2001)	5	Song	13
		(?-?)
		Orchestre
	10	Albert Locatelli	5	Classical band	20	Jean (1906-1994) Sablon,	5	Song	10
		(?-?)

Beside the articles concerning musical broadcasting in the years 1935, 1936, 1937 and 1938 (in Site du groupe PLM, Publications des membres de l'équipe), one could read on this topic: Christophe Bennet, Musique et radio dans la France des années trente. La création d'un genre radiophonique, PhD thesis in History of music and musicology held in June

at Paris-Sorbonne, under the direction of Michèle Alten. 2 Le Petit Radio, n° 647 of September 1 st 1939, p. 3: "A nos lecteurs". 3 Ici…Radio-Cité, n°86 of August 25 th 1939, p. 5: " The mail box". 4 Karine Le Bail, Musique, pouvoir, responsabilité, 1939-1953, PhD thesis in History from Institut d'Études Politiques de Paris (cycle supérieur d'histoire du XX e siècle), under the direction of Jean-Pierre Azéma, Paris, septembre 2005, p. 49. 5 Ibid: intervention of Emmanuel Bondeville at the sitting of the "Conseil de gérance" of Paris-PTT, on June 16 th 1939.

We recall here that we have monitored all the months of June for the decade, because this month constituted an average between the "high season" months and the summer months.

As shown on the recapitulative table of the programs of Radio-Paris, where the four big musical categories and their musical types are detailed.

As for instance on the morning of Tuesday June 20 th when the "Concerto in E flat major" by Liszt is following a slot of "Military music and popular Scottish dances". One can notice that the dances are neither Tyrolean nor Bavarian but taken from the folklore of an allied country…

As for the programs of Saturday June 3 rd 1939. Source: Le Petit Radio.

Source: Le Petit Radio.

On the 6 th by William Cantrelle ; on the 7 th under somebody called Giordino; on the 15 th by the Roger Ellis orchestra; on the 21 st by Giordino; on the 24 th by Eddie Foy (on Sunday June 19 th 1938, this station presents "Eddie Foy's jazz"; on the 26 th by Georges Dervaux. Many other programs have similar contents and are simply entitled "concert".

Like the Wednesday concerts at 10 pm conducted by Jean Clergue: on the 7 th ; the 14 th ; the 21 st ; the 28 th .

On Saturday June 3 rd from 1pm to 2 pm; on June 5 th in the same slot; on Friday 30 th still at the very beginning o the afternoon.

Over the decade 30, we counted 2,185 distinct composers for 10,656 cumulated references.

We could quote some of the performers who adapted the famous "Who's afraid of the big bad wolf?" (copyrighted in 1934): Gardoni et Puig; Jean Sablon; Ferrari; Arèse; Perchicot; Georges Milton; Juyn & Martine; Jo Bouillon; Les Minstrels; Léon Raiter; Jean Vaissade.

Conducting on Radio-Paris in 1935, L. Masson wrote a "Romance without lyrics", performed on Wednesday June 28 th 1933, among some works by Mendelssohn and Saint-Saëns and a "Suite for Ballet" preceding a "Romance" by Debussy on June 3 rd 1935. The piece that he entitled "On reading your letters again" had already been performed by an orchestra, conducted by Victor Pascal, on Sunday June 9 th 1935. That day, according to the newspapers, the other author wasn't Kiegt but Kick!

Cf. the big page of the number 73 of May 26 th 1939: "Elsewhere: Some selected programs". This opening to the programs of the competitors may have enabled to justify the rise of the weekly price from 0,75 F to 1 F in 1939.

This is "Lakmé, ballet (Delibes)" and the "5 th Symphony in E minor (Tchaikovsky), by the Philadelphia orchestra, conducted by Leopold Stokowski".

Including: "Overture of the 'Merry Wives of Windsor' (Nicolaï)" ; Selections of operettas by Christiné" and "The Two Pigeons (Messager)".

Including one with "baritone Endrèze" and a daily slot, "The musical moment", devoted that day to Chopin and Louis Aubert.

There are also four slots simply entitled: "recorded music", whose contents were undetermined.

Cf. the detailed reproduction of the day.

Cf. among many others, Monday 5 th and Wednesday June 28 th 1939 [Source: "Ici…Radio-Cité"].

Respectively on Friday 2 nd , Friday 16 th , Wednesday 21 st and Thursday June 22 nd 1939 [Source: "Ici…Radio-Cité"].

A biographic notice on Michel Emer (1906-1984) can be found in "Phonoscopies n° 41", 10 th year, January 2003.

Based on a sampling of the ten months of the decade concerning Radio-Paris and Radio LL/Radio-Cité


come

FRENCH MUSICAL BROADCASTING IN THE TURMOIL OF WORLD WAR TWO by Christophe BENNET

The escalation of the perils at the end of the thirties throws French broadcasting into a new era. Over the lapse of a few years, this institutional medium is going to face profound upheavals, linked to the military and political events that shake France and Europe. From the summer of 1939, when the general mobilization perturbs the workforce and programs, the radio becomes a genuine echo chamber of the successive events in the country1 .

The sharing of transmitters between the Germans and the Vichy government almost matches the geography of the demarcation line. In the occupied zone, the transmitters are under the control of the occupation authorities. In the free zone, "Radiodiffusion nationale" starts again on July 5 th 1940. The power of its transmitters is weak and its services are scattered between Vichy, Toulouse and Marseille. The new regime uses it as nothing but one of the essential supports of its propaganda. The program of Radio Vichy is based on the motto of the regime: morals, work, family patriotic values, and highlights Maréchal Pétain's selfrighteous sententious allocutions. From 1941 on, however, one can see a disaffection of the audience, who for the most part prefer the style and more inventive tone of Radio-Paris, Radio Sottens, and above all the BBC 2 . From September 1940 on, Radio-Paris develops its main themes: "collaboration with Germany for the establishment of a new Europe, and attacks against the British, the French based in London, the Jews and the Freemasons 3 ". The station, where music is dominating, skillfully mixes propaganda and entertainment, like in the program "Au rythme du temps" (following time's rhythm), which combines music and satirical songs with talks and oriented comedies.

Then came the time of the liberation of the territory by the Allies, when new operators appeared once again. For each of the three main periods, recent historiography has brought into light some of the aspects of broadcasting that had remained unknown until then. It enables us to better understand the repercussion of politics on musical broadcasting 4 .

THE PHONY WAR: A VASTLY ENLARGED STAFF, SYMBOLIC REPERTOIRES

Between September 25 th 1939 and September 12 th 1940, the city of Rennes is going to be the scene of an experiment in "cultural decentralization" which will be duplicated in Marseille after the armistice. For one year, the capital of Brittany becomes the "capital of the phony war. 5 "

RENNES HOSTS MUSICIANS AND ORCHESTRAS

What is known in English as "the phony war" with operations at a standstill between September 3 rd 1939 was called the "drôle de guerre" by Roland Dorgelès, one of the reporters of the journal Gringoire, in October 1939, which literally mean "the funny war", to be understood as "the strange war". But funny situations also arise from the general mobilization. While a large number of male artists are mobilized in the front, the others take refuge in the provinces. The transfer of the musical sections of the broadcasting services is expensive and fastidious. Whereas "entertainment music" is channeled away toward Nice, and the "Drama sections" toward Montpellier and Bordeaux, Rennes is designated to house the musical sections6 . In a specially chartered train, many of the soloists of the radio are massively transferred there, particularly the musicians who belonged to orchestras A, B, C, D, E, together with the two choirs linked to the radio and some provincial stations. In addition, the activity of all the other government stations had been limited to a single Parisian program broadcasted by Radio-Paris and Radio-PTT. On this occasion, other provincial musicians are quite simply dismissed.

The orchestras are quickly rebuilt: the "Orchestre National" is strengthened by female and non mobilized performers. The "Radiodiffusion nationale" can also rely on a reserve of highly qualified soloists who are like magnetized by the attractive force of the radio. Although the installation is laborious, this artistic convergence permits to recreate five orchestras: the "Orchestre National" (80 performers), the "Orchestre Symphonique" (60), the Messager orchestra (50), the Raugel (40) and Gouverné (38) choirs. The rhythm of the programs is intense. The "Orchestre National" gives about three weekly concerts: on Sundays (12.45 -1.30 pm on Paris-PTT); on Tuesdays at 8.45 on Radio-Paris; on Fridays (7.45 to 9.45 pm on Radio-Paris and Paris-PTT), under the baton of Inghelbrecht. The "radio-symphoniquelyrique" orchestra performs on Wednesday and Friday evenings at the end of the programs, still conducted by Rhené-Bâton, in the form of a "midnight concert" which he had instituted in the year 1935. As for the Messager orchestra, it gives daily "dinnerconcerts" of "light and variety music", live from the Lecoq-Gadby restaurant, from 12.45 am to 2.20 pm. Eventually, the orchestras in Rennes have to feed the programs of the Paris-Mondial station, with conductors Eugène Bigot, Jean Clergue or Inghelbrecht.

The latter, whom Karine Le Bail calls a genuine "pater familias" has the bright idea of founding a collective war journal, aiming at maintaining a symbolic contact between the front and the rest of the country. Called "Courrier de l'ON", this publication of a few pages proves a very consistent source. During the month of expectation, then the weeks of walloping, musicians have noted their feelings, their hopes, and their disarray. Actually, it records the patriotic fervor and soon the boredom in a "not so funny" war, the feeling of a lack of preparation, of inferiority. It already underlines, the historian says, "a non-political character shared by the musical world, whose repercussions [will be found again] under the Occupation7 ".

A VERY FRENCH MUSIC OPENED TO THE SPIRIT OF FRIENDLY COUNTRIES

Between the war declaration and the armistice, the presence of French composers on the waves of public radio is important. French music anyway constitutes the argument of Rhené-Bâton's late evening concerts. Between September 29 th 1939 and June 16 th 1940, 114 concerts by the "Orchestre National" are broadcasted. In the hit parade of the great French composers, one can notice the strong presence of Chabrier, Bizet, César Franck, Florent Schmitt, Chausson, Gounod, Lalo, Saint-Saëns, Massenet and Fauré8 . Since one of the missions of this orchestral jewel is the defense of contemporary music, the "War ON" also boasts: Milhaud, Honegger, Poulenc, Ibert, Tomasi, Gaubert, Hahn and Manuel Rosenthal, for the most famous in its programs. But Inghelbrecht's favorite composer dominates the broadcasting of this period. This is Claude Debussy, an emblem of the national genius, who used to sign "Claude de France".

Beside this dominant Frenchness, no less symbolic tributes are usually paid to the composers from allied countries. Poland and Czechoslovakia, two martyr countries of the 3 rd Reich, are honored, respectively on January 22 nd (Smetana's "La fiancée vendue" by the "Orchestre National") and April 5 th 1940 (with notably the great Polish composers Frederic Chopin and Ignace Paderewski). The military context also seems to orientate the program of March 18 th , broadcasted on Radio-Paris and Paris-Mondial, since Swedish composers Hugo Alfén and Kurt Atterberg appear for the first time in the repertoire of the "Orchestre National", a choice which is interpreted by Karine Le Bail as a "genuine signal" to this neutral country9 . Loyal to its unifying reputation, music witnesses the links between France and the neutral, but also the allied countries like Belgium, Romania or The Netherlands.

But the French radio program makers never renounce the great masters of the rival nation. In fact, only the works that are considered partial are banned from the stations of the broadcasting network. This is particularly the case of the relay of the original version of Lenore by Beethoven, released by Radio Zurich within the frame of the International Broadcasting Union (UIR) in February 1940. The musical section of the "Conseil supérieur de la radio française" refused to broadcast this performance. Although Wagner's music remains "unrecommended 10 ", numerous masterpieces of German music appear to have transcended politics. While the German repertoire could have been boycotted for the ideology it sometimes carries, this repertoire is taken into account by Inghelbrecht without any kind of ostracism. The conductor of ON (for "Orchestre National") anyway seems to join the conception of novelist and academician Georges Duhamel. The latter, who is Deputy Manager in chief of the listening department of "fort de Bicêtre" for cultural programs11 , assures in December 1939: "Bach, Wagner, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and some others are, like the great Louis Pasteur, like Descartes or Rodin, conquered the world through the world's love.12 "

The surrender of June 1940, which was to plunge France into four years of military occupation, sparked an unpublished screenplay: Radio-Paris, a "German radio" on French soil, and Radio-Vichy, the "national radio13 " in the hands of a government known as "l'État français".

RADIO-PARIS, A VERY MUSICAL AND ENTERTAINING GERMAN STATION

Although the German station begins emitting as early as July 7 th 1940, the programs in German are not cancelled before October 13 th . The Germans give their station the name of the "Poste national Radio-Paris" and install themselves in the buildings of the "Poste parisien" at 116bis, avenue des Champs-Élysées14 . Its operating costs are paid for by the French Government, as stipulated in the Armistice Convention.

BETWEEN PROPAGANDA, POLICY AND CULTURE, AND ENTERTAINMENT

Created on July 18 th 1940, the Propaganda-Abteilung, the official organ of the Nazi propaganda in France, is animated by a will of intervention in cultural matters. It clearly aims at implementing an "ideological repression tool 15 " in every field of culture, the "beaux-arts", but also the radio. To sum up the broadcasting of Radio-Paris, Cécile Méadel describes a "kind of quasi schizophrenic dualism 16 ": a large majority of cultural or entertainment programs carefully avoid any reference to the political situation of the country, although the news bulletin and a few programs of propaganda full of hatred are serving the collaboration and the Nazi ideology. Spreading the idea that music has no homeland, the Propaganda-Abteilung places a "mask of normality17 " on the face of Radio-Paris and doesn't involve itself so much in the station's musical choices. Renewing the tradition of the prewar-year stations from the summer of 1940 on, Radio-Paris presents itself as an entertainment radio and multiplies popular programs, such as the "concerts à la carte" (personalized concerts). Its aesthetical choices are hardly different from those of the musical broadcasting of the thirties by catering to mainstream tastes, even if it inaugurates an unprecedented didacticism in the commented concerts. Besides, the audience figures are very strong, as is shown by numerous letters from listeners18 .

The manager of the Propaganda-Abteilung, Oberleutnant Bofinger, the former manager and initiator of the German jewel Radio-Stuttgart, recruits a strong conservative workforce: Claude Jeantet, from "Le Petit Parisien", Georges Suarez, the manager of "Aujourd'hui", Lucien Rebatet and Jean Lousteau, reporters of "Je suis partout". A rather well known pianist, Sonderführer Otto Sonnen, also linked to the Stuttgart station, rules the musical section of Radio-Paris. Through threats and gratifications, cynical manipulation and unexpected praise, the Propaganda-Abteilung manages to draw new French contributors. The wages of the artists, like those of the reporters, the announcers and the staff, are indeed largely higher than those before the war, but also than those of the other stations. Pierre Hiégel, a strong link of the artistic programs, is, from the summer of 1940 to the Liberation, the MC of music on Radio-Paris. He seems to be passionately in love with music, any music, and he finds a remarkable groundbase to express and spread his passion. A famous announcer of the station and a usual columnist of the Radio-Paris journal, "Les ondes", this former record collector on Radio-Cité declares: "always trying to put [himself] in the seat of the listener19 ". Since he was the only Frenchman to attend to the musical broadcasting section of the station, he was able to impose a maximum of French music, "by a patient and repeated action": Ravel, Fauré, Duparc, Roussel, Messager, and Debussy. He actually calls his last son after the latter's first name, "in the hope of placing him under the protection of Debussy.20 "

PRESTIGIOUS PERFORMERS AND AN ORCHESTRA OF UNEQUAL QUALITY

By proposing exorbitant fees21 , the station draws the most popular celebrities of the moment without any problem: Yvonne Printemps, Tino Rossi or Maurice Chevalier for operetta and song; cellist Maurice Maréchal, pianist Ginette Doyen or female singer Germaine Cernay for chamber music22 .

As early as July 1940, a middle level orchestra is constituted. Conducted by Godefroy Andolfi until April 20 th 1941, it gives "lunchtime concerts". The orchestras led by Victor Pascal and Raymond Legrand succeed it. They are then followed by symphonic Paris orchestras, such as the "Orchestre Lamoureux", the "Orchestre de la Société du Conservatoire", or the "Concerts Pasdeloup". Wednesday October 15 th 1941 will remain as one of the top dates of the hit parade of the highest musical performances of the radio. That day the "Grand orchestra de Radio-Paris" actually gives its first concert. A little earlier, musicians had been recruited in a very exclusive way, for fabulous wages, which constituted an opportunity in those times of dearth. Whereas most of the strings come from the "Orchestre Pasdeloup", the artistic quality of the orchestra is strengthened by the presence of some prestigious section leaders, like cellist Paul Tortelier23 . We can also mention the names of Maurice Gendron, second cellist, Pierre Nérini, first violinist, and Pierre Dervaux, percussionist and future orchestra conductor. The "Grand Orchestre de Radio-Paris" rehearses in the mornings and gives two to three daily concerts. Within a few months, it overtakes almost any French orchestra. Given at the "Théâtre des Champs-Élysées", the public concerts of this "home orchestra" are proposed to the Parisian audience for free, initially on Sundays at 3 pm, then in the evenings, as soon as May 20 th 1943. The fact that non public programs are also recorded in this place makes the station's journal say that: "the listeners can imagine seeing the proceeding of the concert.24 " The "Grand Orchestre" tries every genre, ancient music, romantic or modern, but also "light music", operetta or "café-concert. 25 " As far as the classical repertoire is concerned, the monitoring of the programs permits to enlighten the artistic policy of the station26 . One won't be astonished by the preeminence of German music. On an average over the four years, French music however occupied 27% of the broadcasting, against 17% for foreign music27 . The huge presence of Beethoven should be underlined. Two cycles are devoted to him, including the ones of May 20 th to June 10 th 194328 . The monitoring of the contents however shows another reality and another fetish composer: Maurice Ravel is scheduled 24 times, over a total of 98 works, amounting almost to a quarter of the orchestra's repertory.

Jean Fournet, a young unknown 28-year-old conductor, became the main conductor of the orchestra as of October 1941, after a probation period of a few months29 . He, however, was to have to move aside in favour of famous German guest conductors. Their presence is confirmed in 1943, since Jean Fournet only conducts 9 public concerts of the orchestra, out of a total of 34 performances. Still in 1944, 36 of the 43 concerts of the Radio-Paris orchestra are conducted by German conductors or conductors from German allied countries30 . Twice again, Herbert von Karajan comes and conducts the "Grand Orchestre de Radio-Paris" at the "Théâtre des Champs-Élysées": on April 20 th and May 4 th 194431 .

Les Ondes, # 17 of August 17 th 1941

ECLECTICISM OF THE GENRES AND OMNIPRESENCE OF "CLASSICAL COMPOSERS"

A sampling of Radio-Paris' program schedule shows that, even more than on the other stations, music is very present, since it fills more than two thirds of the programs. The very strong diversity of the interpreters, the orchestras, the composers, the musical genres also appears. The monitoring of nine weeks of broadcasting programs between January 1940 and May 1944 shows that more than eighty bands are broadcasted, relevant to "any musical genre (symphonic societies, chamber orchestras, harmonies, jazz-bands, tango and Napolitano orchestras, and Cuban trios). 32 " The will to diversify the musicians and the titles is also visible in the programs. Over a period of nine weeks for instance, more than three hundred soloists and almost one hundred bands are performing 915 works (including 14 live performances every day, plus records). Concerning the performers, the pianists are omnipresent: Marthe Pellas-Lenom, Marguerite André-Chastel, Eugène Wagner or Tasso Janopoulos 33 .

In order to assess the musical output of the German station, Karine Le Bail used another source: the weekly reports that were sent to Berlin by the Propaganda-Abteilung. In the one dealing with the week starting October 7 th 1943, we learn that 43 musical programs were scheduled, including 22 live ones 34 . The survey of these weekly reports shows that music was the preferred genre. As early as November 1940, one can count more than 65 daily musical programs, including 32 live ones. The report established by Otto Sonnen, the chief of the musical section of the Propaganda-Abteilung, on May 23 rd 1941 shows the proportions of French and German music: one can clearly read that as early as the summer of 1940, there is 35% of German music and 65% of French and foreign music, which proves, according to the historian, the will to containing German music to a reasonable share, acceptable by the occupied people 35 .

Beside the "Grands concerts symphoniques" and the sequences of recital and chamber music, other programs bridge the gap with classical music: the didactic programs and the slots of variety music which mix masterpieces of the grand repertoire and trendy little songs. Concerning the didactic programs, we could mention for example the one that was broadcasted in Tuesday November 3 rd 1942 from 11.30 am to 11.45, entitled: "Françoise discovers music"; hosted by Pierre Hiégel with a little girl, Simone Metgen. As far as the songs are concerned, they are broadcasted daily under various titles: "morning concert"; "a bit of orchestra"; "Mr. so-and so and his orchestra", etc. As a comparison, we could observe the programs of December 29 th 1943. For the noontime concert, the journal "Les Ondes" mentions the "orchestra of Gaston Lapeyronnie" on Radio-Paris, while Radio Nationale broadcasts a concert called "varied music"; conducted by William Cantrelle, with Marcel Moyse 36 , a flute player, performing works by Granados and Chabrier. It is followed by a concert by the Marseille Orchestra conducted by Henri Tomasi, at 1.45 pm. At that time, Radio-Paris broadcasts the "Orchestre du Normandie" conducted by Jacques Météhen 37 .

32 "Pauses musicales ou les éclatants silences de Radio-Paris". Cécile Méadel targeted these weeks: 1 st week of January 1940, 3 rd week of May 1941, January 1941, and September 1942, 1 st week of January 1943, May 1943, September 1943, January 1944and May 1944. 33 M. Guy Bernède told us he was the uncle of singer Georges Guétary. 34 "Musique, pouvoir, responsabilité ", p. 125. 35 Ibid. 36 The latter anyway frequently interprets chamber music on Radio Nationale (such as on Wednesday November 4 th 1942, from 8.05 to 8.37 am). 37 The author of this article here thanks M. René Renot fo his researches in the weekly newspaper of the time.

Although the cancelling of the free zone is going to favour complementarities between the two stations, they are more in competition than in a complementary pattern .

RADIO-VICHY, THE NATIONAL RADIO SEEKING LISTENERS

As early as August 1940, Vichy's radio had thus to put up with a station (Radio-Paris) which, like every fall, massively drew artists to the capital. After much trouble to find its feet in Toulouse, Montpellier and Nice, the departments of the "Radiodiffusion Nationale" settled down in the fall of 1940, and then contributed to the creation of important cultural poles.

1941-1942: FROM A DECENTRALIZED PRODUCTION TO A PARISIAN TEMPLATE

Marseille became a high-profile artistic center. Taking advantage of the unexpected gathering of artists that had taken refuge in the free zone, "Radiodiffusion Nationale" rapidly stood out as a patron of the artistic life. Very fond of creation, it attracted all sorts of talents, and particularly those who belonged to the musical sections, such as Tony Aubin, Pierre Capdevielle, Emmanuel Bondeville, Henri Tomasi, Henri Dutilleux or also Ivan Devriès. The musical works which ordered from the composers maintained Vichy's ideology and supported hero-worship 38 , or values such as rurality 39 . At the end of September 1941, however, the priority was to reconquer the broadcasting waves. As early as September 10 th 1941, Emmanuel Bondeville, who was in charge of the musical programs of the State radio, thought of taking back the Paris programs, in order to broadcast the great celebrities, widely appreciated by the listeners, again. Inspired by a more recreational touch of Radio-Paris (which it got closer to in the summer of 1941 40 ), the Radio Nationale intensified its policy of entertainment in 1942 and operated a genuine "reduction of the programs". Thus, as far as the so-called "serious music" is concerned, musical sections imagine federative concerts such as concerts with a theme (like the one given by the "Orchestre National" and the Félix Raugel choir, on February 1 st 1942 at 5 pm. Conducted by Henri Tomasi, with baritone Lucien Lovano as soloist, the concert is entitled "Musician sailors". Relatively depoliticized, radio then places the audience figures and the prestige of the musical performances at the core of its broadcasting policy. After reshaping its orchestras in a more rational way with difficulty, it sticks to a policy of excellence and prestige. As early as the summer of 1941, "Radiodiffusion Nationale" plans to rebuild a new Parisian orchestra, whose members are auditioned and hired in the first days of September. Called "Orchestre radiosymponique de Radio-Paris", this new Parisian orchestra will soon be known as "Orchestre Lyrique". Beside "Radiodiffusion Nationale" can use in Paris the Yvonne Gouverné choir and 38 e.g. many concerts are given in the honour of Joan of Arc or veterans. 39 Classical composers are called on to arrange pieces from the folkloric repertoire. The "seal" of Vichy's government however remains perceptible in the musical programs, like the "Concert by the music of the personal guard of the Chief of the State, conducted by Major Pierre Dupont", which the listeners of "Radiodiffusion Nationale" could listen to on Friday 7 th at 1.45 pm. That concert was interrupted, as used to be the case in the radio of the thirties, by a short vocal recital41 .

Still, the monitoring of the works broadcasted that week mainly reveals that the national radio shows an eclecticism that could easily be compared to Radio-Paris'. The latter anyway sets the specificity of a policy of musical broadcasting. The several great rendezvous with chamber music (with cellist Maurice Maréchal as a celebrity on November 1 st ) or recital (including the one given by organist Olivier Messiaen on November 23 rd ) are accompanied by frequent concerts of varied music (by the orchestras of Toulouse, Lyon and Vichy) which always mix "serious" and "light" music. The two performances of the "Orchestre National" are in the highest tradition of the "symphonic concert", and they incidentally do celebrate the national values (Festival Saint-Saëns on November 5 th ). As for lyrical broadcasting, it stretches from "Mon Oncle Benjamin" by Francis Bousquet (a relay from the Opéra-Comique on November 1 st ) to "Tosca" by Puccini (on the 3 rd ), and "Isoline" by André Messager (on the 7 th ). The panorama of a somewhat classical music will be complete only if we add to those few strong moments the many record playing slots (4 on November 7 th only) which match the two programs, whose contents are not mentioned by Radio Nationale.

1943-1944: RADIO-VICHY HUNTS ON THE SAME LANDS AS RADIO-PARIS'

In 1943, "Radiodiffusion Nationale" nevertheless has to recognize that it is being distanced by Radio-Paris, which is attracting the artists through higher fees. Besides, a report of September 28 th underlines the fact that "the 'Orchestre National42 ', though 'very good', could however be improved, as well as the 'radio-symphonique'. On the other hand, the 'Orchestre Lyrique' is just so so, like the Lyon orchestra. As for Toulouse's, it's a poor orchestra. 43 "In order to restore its image and face the competition of Radio-Paris, the "Radiodiffusion Nationale" is going to fight on even ground, by proposing its own public concerts. On March 22 nd and April 5 th and 22 nd 1943, the "Orchestre National" makes an incursion to the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées. The number of charity concerts, which were very federative and free of charge and used to irritate the Radio-Paris crowd, increase in 1944. The purpose of producing attractive "Grande musique" (classical music) appears in the content of the "Orchestre National" programs themselves. First, festivals and anniversaries are following each other, sparking genuine "announcing effects". Besides, the gala-concerts of the "Orchestre National", which include a classical and an entertainment part, look like the public "grands galas" Radio-Paris' at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées. At last, "the collusion between the two radios is obvious44 " through the exchanges of conductors, as when Jean Fournet, the Radio-Paris' conductor, comes and conducts the "Berlioz Festival" at the head of the "Orchestre National", on September 13 th 1943.

In 1944, Radio-Vichy's broadcasting is very French-oriented. By monitoring the broadcasting of the "Orchestre National" in 1943 and 1944, Karine Le Bail noticed an exceptional increase of French music, which reached the level of 60%, against 26% of German music and only 14% of foreign music. 45 From March 12 th to 16 th , the "Days of Music for 1944", organized in favour of the social and musical charities of the "National Committee for the Propaganda of Music" are also relayed by the "Radiodiffusion nationale". On that occasion, conductor André Cluytens comes and conducts the "ON" in a Berlioz program (the overture of Benvenuto Cellini), Lalo (The Spanish Symphony), Rabaud (Procession nocturne), Georges Hüe (Fantasy for violin and orchestra), and Ravel (Boléro). As early as July 1944, although the Allied forces are on French soil, festivals of "French music" are coming through one after the other at a high speed: an "Eduard Lalo Festival" at salle Pleyel on July 16 th , an "Emmanuel Chabrier Festival" on July 23 rd , a "French music Festival" on July 29 th , and a "Saint-Saëns Festival" on July 30 th , replayed on August 5 th follow each other. Besides, the dismissal of Jean Fournet from the "Grand Orchestre de Radio-Paris", which had occurred in mid-November 1943, in favor of German conductors, enables the "Orchestre National" to get a French Music repertoire. Anyway, the presence of conductor and composer Henri Büsser at the department of musical broadcasting of the "Radiodiffusion Nationale" may explain the strong presence of French contemporary music, which he used to defend.

Through an assessment of those four years of the Occupation and the interesting comparison of the two concurrent stations, we can particularly notice that the broadcasting split matches the political situation. At the time when the demarcation line is set up, the procedures and the broadcasts are particularly distinct. With the cancellation of the free zone, which favours the artistic refocusing of Radio-Vichy on Paris, the two stations tend on the contrary to get mixed up. Radio-Paris, more attractive and entertaining, immediately plays the card of seduction, with a music that does not really merge with the spoken programs. Everything seems as if Radio-Paris' broadcasting, by skillfully mixing entertainment and sophisticated music, aimed at duplicating that of the major pre-war stations. By paying well strongly established artists, Radio-Paris appears as the "French broadcasting radio of Paris. 46 " Less calculating and less generous with its artists, "Radiodiffusion Nationale" seems to fight with the same contradictions that faced the State network in prewar years: backing and promoting superior programs and performances while preferring music to entertainment, but without letting the listeners escape towards the German station or the BBC. On the whole, we could say that classical music, in the traditional sense of the word, remains as present as it was during the thirties. Apart from a few punctual situations, music is not a political or military stake in favor of one cause or another. The similarities that could be noticed from 1943 on show it: on Radio-Paris, as well as for Radio-Vichy, the musical programs are relatively independent from propaganda.

After a hot summer in hertz fighting, Radio-Paris stops emitting on August 18 th 1944. On Sunday August 20 th , at 10.30 pm, the listeners from Paris can hear the broadcasting of "La Marseillaise 47 ", followed by the announcement "This is the Broadcasting of the French nation". Radio Vichy stops emitting on August 26 th . The hour of rebuilding time has come 48 .

CLEANSING AND REHABILITATION AT "RADIODIFFUSION FRANÇAISE"

At the time of the Liberation, the radio's cleansing committee condemns compromisation with the occupant (such as the eviction of the Jews from the permanent orchestras) and excludes Désiré-Émile Inghelbrecht from the Orchestre National 49 . It also punishes the musicians of the "Orchestre radio-symphonique" by preventing them from performing for five years, and also the numerous choristers who had joined the Radio-Paris orchestra. The rule implemented by the public radio is severe indeed. On the whole, the ministry tempers the cleansing fervor of the committee, which eventually only proposes 350 sanctions (although 600 files had been collected in January 1945). By comparison with other sectors, however, the cleansing operation of the radio is severe, as regards the number of the people sanctioned (about 6%) and the nature of the sanctions (more than 50% final prohibitions or banishments). Beside the public workers, the composers, actors, performers who had been employed by Radio-Paris and the German television are removed. Split by its wish to punish this form of collaboration (assimilated to a spiritual betrayal) and the necessity of hiring those performers for its programs, the radio builds a compromise by applying the following scale: fifteen days of ban for those merely attending (and a final exclusion for anyone politically involved). As a matter of fact, it would have led, for the sector we are studying, to so many vacant positions in the French orchestras, and particularly in the Paris ones, that the rule was not totally implemented. For instance, the star-singer of Radio-Pairis, André Claveau, and Pierre Hiégel were authorized to work for the national radio (as of 1948 and 1950 respectively). The latter was suspended from any professional occupation for only nine months. Meanwhile, he found a job on Radio-Luxembourg 50 .

The programs that are published by the weekly newspaper Radio 44 very well show the modifications, but also the continuities in the new musical broadcasting landscape. On Sunday December 17 th 1944 at 11 am, in a weekly program "The Pleasure of music", composer and musicologist Alexis Roland-Manuel announces artists that were well-known in prewar years and during the occupation periods: harpist Lily Laskine (already regularly broadcasted from 1935 on on Radio-Paris) and horn player Louis Courtinat 51 ; and the "Orchestre symphonique de la Radiodiffusion Française", conducted by Tony Aubin, who was Emmanuel Bondeville's colleague at the direction of the "Radiodiffusion Nationale". 47 We should add that the hymn written by Rouget de Lisle was played daily at the end of the programs on the "Radiodiffusion Nationale",. 48 Indeed, apart from the Limoges transmitter in middle waves, every transmitter capable of functioning had been destroyed. 49 Karine Le Bail, "Les musiciens de radio" in Jean-Noël Jeanneney, op. cit., p. 332 50 According to Cécile Méadel in "Pauses musicales, ou les éclatants silences de Radio-Paris". 51 In July 1940, while expecting the Orchestre National to be reshaped, he used to give concerts of chamber music on Radiodiffusion Nationale.

Since Inghelbrecht was removed from his responsibilities, we can notice the return of Manuel Rosenthal at the head of the Orchestre National. On Monday December 18 th 1944, he conducts the Concerto for cello and orchestra by Boccherini, with André Lévy as a soloist 52 . The people who are responsible for the radio seem to make a point of honor in employing musicians that were banned from programs during the Occupation. Two days later, in his performing of the "Malheurs d'Orphée" by Darius Milhaud, it is in fact Élie Cohen who conducts the "Orchestre lyrique de la Radiodiffusion française". On Friday 22 nd , William Cantrelle gives an umpteenth concert of "varied music", in which Adam, Haydn, Tchaikovsky and Massenet rub shoulders, whereas one hour later, flutist Marcel Moyse still hosts the 2.30 pm program of chamber music. The "uninterrupted musical quarter of an hour" precedes the concert by Jo Bouillon (also present in the programs of Radiodiffusion Nationale and Radio-Paris), where composer Raymond Gallois-Montbrun plays the violin, is a perfect look-alike of the quarter of an hour entitled "The musical moment" that could be heard on Radio-Cité from 1938 on.

All in all, and apart from some "forbidden" people both during the Occupation and the cleansing that followed, the composers, artists, and the works that were broadcasted by the "war stations" are not so different from those of the TSF' of the prewar period.

Many thanks to Gérard Hocmard for his help with the language issues. 52 Radio 44, #13 of December 17 th 1944.

  40 Karine Le Bail sees in this getting closer the "mark of political moves in the summer of 1941"["Musique, pouvoir, responsabilité". 268] a great number of soloists, instrument players, female singers and actors. By monitoring the first week of November 1942, one can see that Radio-Vichy's artistic broadcasting easily bears comparison with the German station:" Transmission of the 'Orchestre Pasdeloup' (Sunday 1 st ; […] Concert by the 'Orchestre National' conducted by Inghelbrecht (Monday 2 nd ) ; The Félix Raugel Choir (Tuesday 3 rd ) ; the 'Orchestre National' conducted by Henri Rabaud (Thursday 5 th ) ; Concert of the 'Société des Instruments à vent' conducted by Fernand Oubradous, with the participation of pianist Marguerite Long (on the 7 th )".

The French version of this article could be read in : ChristopheBennet, 1925Bennet, -1975 : : Cinquante ans de musique classique à la radio (direction), Les Cahiers d'Histoire de la Radiodiffusion, Cahier thématique n°95, janvier-

mars 2008, 250 p.: http://cohira.fr/cahier_n_95_de_1925_a_1975_janvier_a_mars/ 2 But we must indicate that powerful Nazis transmitters were scrambling the reception of this station, which remained, anyway, banned by the occupant. 3 Anne Bouchez-Trifunovic, Karine Le Bail and Aurélie Luneau, "La Guerre des Ondes", in Jean-Noël Jeanneney, "L'écho du siècle", 1999, Paris, Hachette Littératures, p. 38. 4 This article owes much to the thesis of Karine Le Bail, "Music, power and responsibility 1939-1953", Phd thesis of the "Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris", September 2005 and to Cécile Méadel's survey of Radio-Paris during the Occupation: "Musical pauses or the brilliant silences of Radio-Paris", in Myriam Chimènes (dir.), "Musical life under the Vichy regime", Paris, Complexe, 2000.

Karine le Bail, op. cit. p. 56. The elements mentioned here come from her chapter titled "Music at the gun end".

Agathe Mella, "Les services musicaux de Rennes à Marseille", " Cahiers d'Histoire de la Radiodiffusion", # 29 of December 1990, p. 66. Agathe Mella was then secretary of the musical sections of the French Broadcasting Services under the direction of Emmanuel Bondeville.

Karine Le Bail, op. cit., p. 59.

Ibid, p. 62.

Ibid., p. 63.

Jacques Parrot, "La Guerre des Ondes : de Goebbels à Kadhafi",Paris, Plon, 1987, p. 77, mentioned by Karine Le Bail, op. cit., p. 63.

A great opponent to the radio at the beginning of the thirties, Georges Duhamel had totally changed his mind since being appointed member of the Superior Board for the Radio and Manager of the programs of the national radio in 1939. He left this post at the armistice.

Georges Duhamel, "Wagner, mage de ma jeunesse", in "Conférencia. Journal des Annales", mentioned by Karine LeBail, op. cit., p. 65.

It controls the private stations of Toulouse, Lyon, Montpellier, Agen, Nîmes and Nice.

Its audience is henceforth extended thanks to the use of its five transmitters in occupied area but audible in almost all the country: Rennes-Alma, Allouis O.C.I., Radio Normandie (public stations) and le Poste parisien, Bordeaux Sud-ouest (private stations).

Gérard Loiseaux, "La Littérature de la défaite et de la collaboration d'après "Phonix oder Asche ?" de Bernhard Payr", Paris, 1995.

Cécile Méadel, "Pauses musicales ou les éclatants silences de Radio-Paris ", in Myriam Chimènes (dir.), op. cit.

Laurence Bertrand Dorléac, "L'Art de ladéfaite. 1940-1944", Paris, Seuil, 1993, p. 48.

Backing on German archives, Karine Le Bail says that : "Every program carries 300 to 600 listeners points of view." Even more, the program "This record is for you" brings between 2,200 and 2,500 daily letters.["Musique, pouvoir, responsabilité", p. 123].

« Les Ondes », #33 of October 7 th 1941: "Vous êtes chez vous", by Pierre Hiégel

« Les Ondes », #136 of December 5 th 1943.

The "Commission Consultative des Dommages et des Réparations " will be evaluating about 30 million of francs after the war the amount that covered the fees and wages of the artists, reporters, and announcers of this station["Musique, pouvoir, responsabilité", p. 123].

Which doesn't prevent these two artists from giving a recital on Tuesday December 28 th at 11.35 on "Radio Nationale"!

« Les Ondes » #39 of January 25 th 1942.

Ibid: "Le Grand orchestre de Radio-Paris".

According to M. René Renot, consulted about the eclecticism of the programs, the programs called "caféconcerts" were performed by the "Orchestre de Casino" and not by the "Grand Orchestre". Furthermore, the latter made room for R. Legrand for the "entertainment" section; "The 'Orchestre National' did so with, for instance, Richard Blareau who was also much heard on Radio-Paris." [Report of

December 26 th 2007]. 26 Karine Le Bail analyzed the contents of the concerts from November 9 th 1941 to July

nd 1944.27 Karine Le

Bail, op. cit.28 We could notice here the Dutch Willem Mengelberg, a great Beethoven specialist, whose coming to Paris was considered a great event. At the liberation of the Netherlands, he was arrested for collaboration, judged and condemned to a six-year banishment; he then settled in Switzerland where he died without ever seeing

his country again.29 In number 101 of "Les Ondes", of April 4 th 1943, he explains his education and

experience to Jacques Tilly.30

Karine Le Bail, op. cit., p. 300. 31 On that occasion, he is interviewed in #157 of the journal "Les Ondes".

"Radio-National", November 1942.

The "Orchestre National" settles back in Paris on March 1 st 1943, the day when it gives "one too many concert" on Radio-Paris, in the honour of the "Legion des Volontaires français."

Karine Le Bail op. cit. p. 373.

Ibid., p. 374. The information mentioned in this paragraph is coming from the same source.