Delphine Croizet

Francois Renard

Delphine Croiz

Fran Cois Renard

Jean-Pierre Gratier

Compaction and porosity reduction in carbonates: A review of observations, theory, and experiments

Keywords:

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grontes re mjor sedimentry mterils found in mny upper lyers of the irth9s rustF nderstnding their omption ehviour is importnt for porosity predition in sedimentry sins nd to improve the knowledge out seling of tive fults t shllow depthsD where the fults rossEut limestone formtionsF sn rontesD s opE posed to siliilsti sedimentsD digenesis strts t shllow depths @<I kmA nd n ontriute to the formtion of mehnilly stle solid frmeworkF ertil stressD grin size nd ly ontent re the min prmeters inuening mehnil omptionF wehnil omption of unonsolidted ronte snds in lortory ours mostly t low stress nd is minly ontrolled y minerlogy nd initil pking of grinsF st n explin porosity redution down to out QH7F gonverselyD very little porosity loss @< I7A is otined y mehnil omption of emented roks under lortory ondiE tionsF sn sedimentry sinsD howeverD muh lower porosity vlues re usully enounE teredD down to zeroF qiven tht mehnil omption does not explin stisftorily porosity{depth trends oserved in sedimentry sinsD the eet of hemil omption on porosity must e onsideredF emong hemil mehnismsD pressure solution reep involves lol mss trnsfer y dissolutionD diusion nd preipittion proesses t the grin sleF uritil rk growth is lso uid ssisted proess ontriuting to grin frgmenttion nd omption y rerrngement of prtilesF ressure solution reep strin rte depends on grin sizeD porosityD pplied stressD uid hemistryD nd tempertureF ghemil omption y pressure solution reep eomes n eetive proess of porosity redution from less thn one kilometer of depthD s soon s uids re presentF he min prmeters ontrolling porosity loss then eome vertil stressD tempertureD diusive ow nd pore uid hemistryF foth mehnil nd hemil I omption n led to either pervsive omption or lolized deformtionF he efE fet of the dierent prmeters nnot esily e dierentited in oservtions of nturl smplesD s vrious deformtion proesses our nd intert simultneouslyF roweverD ontrol prmeters my e seprted in speilly designed theoretil studies nd lortory experimentsF o frD few experimentl studies hve een performed on pressure solution reep nd suritil rk growth in rontesF greep experiments on lite powder nd indenE ters experiments hve shown tht timeEdependent omption requires the presene of wterF iven though the dierent ontrolling prmeters were testedD no ler onsensus exists on the rte limiting step of deformtion ndD onsequentlyD on the reep lwF sndividul proesses leding to porosity loss in rontes re rther well identiedF roweverD their respetive importne during uril is still detedF iven t shllow uril @<I kmA hemil omption is needed to explin the gp etween porosity loss otined during experimentl mehnil omption nd porosityEdepth urves from sedimentry sinsF he present study reviews vrious proesses t work durE ing ronte omption nd synthesizes the urrent understnding on the respetive importne of thermodynmi nd petrophysil prmeters t dierent stges of rE onte omptionF 1 Introduction edimentry mterils re onsolidtedD or omptedD during their uril historyF sn sedimentry sinsD the prinipl omponent of the stress eld is usully the vertil stressF roweverD in syntetoni sinsD horizontl stresses ontriute to the omption s seen y the oservtion of pitted grins nd peles tht dissolve ginst eh other t some meters depths under the eet of horizontl stress @SorbyD IVTSAF orosity loss in sedimentry sins hs een widely studied espeilly due to the interest of the oil nd gs industry in understnding umultion of hydroronsF iven though TH7 of the world9s oil nd RH7 of the world9s gs reserves re held in rontes @hlumE erger mrket nlysisD PHHUAD their uril omption trendsD i.e. porosity versus depth urvesD re less well understood thn for siliilsti sedimentsF his sitution is most likely due to the high vriility of the rontes deposition environments @BathurstD P IWUIA s well s their gret hemil retivity @MooreD PHHIAF nderstnding proesses driving porosity loss in sedimentry sins is neessryD for instneD to enle predition of porosity in geologil reservoirsF yther pplitions onern the geologil storge of ron dioxide nd other wste mterilsD in whih the ronte rok n t either s reservoir @Le Guen et al.D PHHUA or s p rokD whose integrity represents key tehnologil hllenge @Rimmel et al.D PHIHY Bachaud et al.D PHIIAF wonitoring CO 2 storge sites from the surfe y seismi imgE ing of susurfe is ruilD in prtiulr to detet lekge erly enough @Wang et al.D IWWVAF sn tive fultsD omption proesses re lso t work during the seismi yE leX erthqukes produe dmgeD nd this dmge is onstntly heled nd reovered during the interseismi periodF he frgmenttion proess itself produes prtile size distriutions tht follow power lws @Storti et al.D PHHQY Billi and StortiD PHHRA nd this prtile size distriution is modied during the interseismi period due to heling nd seling proessesF rt of the reovery of the strength of fult n e due to omE ption nd heling of the fult gougeF hue to their high retivityD ronte minerls re often oserved to tke prt in the fult strengthening proesses @Labaume et al.D PHHRY Boullier et al.D PHHRAF he urte predition of seismi veloities in rontes depends on the onstrined knowledge of the rok petrophysil properties nd on the eet of hemil retions on those propertiesF por exmpleD prediting the derese of ulk density with CO 2 injetion is very importnt to CO 2 storge sites monitored vi time lpse surveysF o hieve thisD oupling mehnilD geohemil nd seismi modelling is neessry @Kumar et al.D PHHVA s well s etter link etween uid hemistry nd the proesses t the grin{to{grin onttF rinipl deformtion mehnisms responsile for omE ption reD mehnil on the one hndD i.e. grins sliding nd frturing or pore ollpseD nd hemil on the other hndD i.e. intergrnulr pressure solution reep in ssoitionD or notD with suritil rk growthF rious hemil proesses induing porosity loss hve to e tken into ount in ronte omption studiesF hese proesses inlude dissolution @ndD t shllow depthD krstitionAD onversion of rgE onite to liteD ementtion nd dolomitiztionF gomption studies sed on outrops nd ore mterils led to the onlusion tht pressure solution reep is n importnt proess of porosity redution in ronte sedE imentry roks @WeylD IWSWY Schmoker and HalleyD IWVPY RutterD IWVQY Meyers and HillD IWVQY Scholle and HalleyD IWVSAF roweverD from nturl oservtionD it is rther diult to seprte the inuene of dierent prmeters suh s stressD temperture or Q pore uid ompositionF husD theoretil nd experimentl studies re onduted to quntify the inuene of these dierent prmetersF his review ims to outline the stte of knowledge on ronte omption sed on nturl oservtionsD lortory experiments nd theoretil modellingF huring diE genesis of ronte sedimentsD hnges in porosity re indued y omintion of deformtion proessesD dissolution nd ementtionF iven though this is not the fous of the present reviewD dissolution nd ementtion t shllow depth will e overed in the extent tht it ets omption proessesF sn the rst prt of this reviewD n overview of nturl dt of ronte omption is givenF st is shown tht y using nturl oservtionsD oreD log nd seismi dtD it is possile to qulittively seprte the min deformtion proessesF gomption of siliilsti sediments is not the fous of this review ut the topi will e ddressed suintly sine omprison my help to the understnding of ronte omptionF sn seond prtD theoretil models for mehnil nd hemil omption of rontes re reviewedF hese models re usuE lly lirted sed on lortory experiments tht led to etter quntition of the ontrol prmeters involved in nturl proessesF yur gol is to provide the reder with the key prmeters responsile for the oserved omption trendsF e rely on reent experimentl studies performed in the rok physis ommunity on limestone deE formtion nd synthesize the oservtions nd mesurements otined in these studiesF e nlly note tht very few studies of ronte omption were pulished in the demi litertureD most of the studies eing kept ondentil in internl reports in industril ompniesF 2 Carbonate compaction in sedimentary basins gomption is phenomenon tking ple in ll sedimentry sinsF st involves severl proesses whose rtes dier from one lithology to notherF por instneD omprison of limestones omption trends within the rst hundred meters of uril with siliilsE ti sediments shows tht porosity loss is fr more importnt in lreous sediments @HamiltonD IWUTAF imilrlyD Ehrenberg and Nadeau @PHHSA study of ronte nd sndstone petroleum reservoirs shows thtD for given depthD ronte reservoirs hve lower vlues of medin nd mximum porosity thn sndstone reservoirsF woreoverD this omption n e pervsiveD where porosity redution is quite homogeneous within the rok @GinsburgD IWSUAD or highly lolizedD i.e. in omption nds @Tondi et al.D R PHHTY Rath et al.D PHIIY Rustichelli et al.D PHIPA nd stylolites @Ehrenberg et al.D PHHQAF ithin rontesD three min lithology groups my e dierentited { dolomiteD limeE stone nd hlkD with wide rnge of mirostruturl textures @Adams et al.D IWVRAF holomite nd hlk n e seen s two end memers s fr s porosity loss with depth is onernedF orosity loss is fster in limestones thn in dolomites @Schmoker and HalleyD IWVPY EhrenbergD PHHTAD while porosity loss in hlk ours fster thn in shlE low wter rontes @Scholle and HalleyD IWVSAF holomites re hemilly @BathurstD IWUIA nd mehnilly @Hugman and FriedmanD IWUWA more stle thn limestonesF hus dolomiti roks lose less volume y omption thn limestones @GloverD IWTVAF sn ontrstD the ne grined nture of hlk enhnes mehnil reorgniztionF rene high porosities nd low permeilities hrteristi of hlk mke them very suseptiE le to deform y pore ollpse nd hydroEfrturing @BlantonD IWVIAF hese dierent omption trends etween vrious lithologies point out to the neessity to nlyze them seprtelyF sn the followingD the fous will e primrily on limestone ndD to some extentD dolomite nd hlk omption will e ddressedF orosity of ronte sediments rnges from SHEUH7 t shllow depths @eFgF few hunE dreds of metersA @HamiltonD IWUTY Schmoker and HalleyD IWVPY FabriciusD PHHQA to nerly zero t depths greter thn six kilometers @Friedman et al.D IWVIY HeydariD PHHHAF st isD howeverD worth mentioning tht some ronte reservoirs preserve high porosity even though eing deeply uriedD reent disovery eing the deep wter rE onte reservoir in the ntos sinD oEshore frzil @Caminatti et al.D PHHWAF pigure I displys some typil trends of porosity loss with depth in ronte sediE mentsF hose urves illustrte the lrge vriility of ronte omptionD espeilly t shllow depthD whih might prtly e explined y the wide vriility of initil porositiesD in the rnge IH to UH7 @pigure IAF hese dt represent rontes from vrious environmentsD deepEse lreous sediments from hh leg PU nd yh leg IQI @HamiltonD IWUTAD nd nerEsurfe sediments from the outh plorid sin @Schmoker and HalleyD IWVPAF foth dtEsets indite fst omption in the top THH m nd show tht sediments with high initil porosity ompt more redilyF hile within the rst two kilometres porosity versus depth urves hve vrious trendsD elow this depth omption urves re more or less prllel @pigure IAF elthough omption trends re quite similr mong the dierent environments represented in gure ID t ve kilometres depth wide porosity rnge is still oservleD i.e. from S to IS7F roesses responsile for omption involve oth mehnilD i.e. stress dependentD nd hemilD i.e. involving oth stress nd timeEdependent uidErok intertionsD S mehnismsF e detiled review of their eets on porosity loss is undertken in the following prt of this setionF orosity{depth trends @pigure IA re regulrD inditing tht porosity redution in rontes is ontinuous proess @Scholle and HalleyD IWVSAF wehnil nd hemil omption reD thereforeD expeted to lwys t toE getherD the rst one eing dominnt t fst omption rteD minly shllow depthD while hemil omption slowly eomes the min porosity redution mehnism t slower omption rte nd greter depthF 2.1 Mechanical compaction in nature pield oservtionsD ore nd log dt nlysis @HamiltonD IWUTY Enos and SawatskyD IWVIY Scholle and HalleyD IWVSY Bassinot et al.D IWWQY Wallace et al.D PHHPA tend to onlude tht mehnil omption is the prinipl mehnism of porosity loss during the rst hundreds meters of urilF impiril mehnil omption lw often desrie porosity loss with depth s n exponentil dey @AthyD IWQHY Sclater and ChristieD IWVHAD ¨a ¨0e bz ; @IA with ¨the porosityD whih is funtion of the initil porosityD ¨0D the uril depthD zD nd onstntD bF hese empiril lws hve een used to t porosityEdepth trends of grin supported rontes from the genozoi pltform of estEgentrl plorid @BuddD PHHIAD ooze limestones in the shllow wters of the yntong tv lteu @HamiltonD IWUTY Bassinot et al.D IWWQAD nd old wter rontes of the qippslnd sinD eusE trli @Wallace et al.D PHHPAD see lso pigure IF prom these studies it seems thtD even though erly digenesis nd hemil omption due to replement of rgonite y lite oursD mehnil omption is the predominnt mehnism of porosity loss t shllow depth in vrious environmentsF prom mirostruturl studiesD t lest four dierent mehnisms involved in mehniE l omption n e disrimintedD tht is grin slidingD grin rushingD miroErk propgtionD nd pore ollpseF ore ollpse is inuened y the porosity distriution nd initites t lrger pores @Zhu et al.D PHIHY Vajdova et al.D PHIHAF yther mehnil omption mehnisms in rontes re eted minly y stressD grin size nd sortE ingD nd ly ontentF qrin size in rontes is relted to the iologil nd physil origin of the ronte @Coogan and ManusD IWUSA nd wide vriety of grin sizes nd ement ptterns n e oserved in rontes @Adams et al.D IWVRAF hue to the inrese in fritionD dhesion nd ridging with deresing grin sizeD omption of T ne sediments is less eetive thn for orse grins @Coogan and ManusD IWUSAF retE erogeneity in grin size distriution enhnes mehnil omption s well @Chuhan et al.D PHHQAF sn ronte sediments mixed with lysD mehnil omption is more importnt in lyers ontining lys @RickenD IWVUAF his n e explined y two mehnismsF yn the one hndD ly prtiles inrese the heterogeneity of the grin size distriutionF yn the other hndD ly trpped long ronte grin ontts my prevent heling of these ontts nd redue the frition oeientD llowing grin slidE ing @Renard et al.D PHHIAF hen lolizedD mehnil omption n led to the formtion of the soElled omE ption nds where individul grins rotte nd rush long n interfe where no sher ould e identiedD s oserved in some poorly emented ronte grinstone @Rath et al.D PHIIAF he porosity is muh smller in the millimeter thik nds @for exmple lose to I7 or even elow @Tondi et al.D PHHTY Rath et al.D PHIIAAD ompred to the surE rounding rok mtrixF uh loliztion n indue lrge permeility derese in the diretion perpendiulr to the omption nds nd my ontrol uid ow in reservoir roksF he omption nds n form ner fults nd re sometimes ssoited with hemil omption @Tondi et al.D PHHTY Rustichelli et al.D PHIPAF he rte of sedimenttionD or sediments lodingD is lso very importnt ontrol of omE ptionF gronte sediments whih hve undergone fst uril show more mehnil omption ptterns thn those sujeted to lower sedimenttion rte @Scholle and HalleyD IWVSAF ithin sediments ompting slowly enough time is ville for hemE il omption proesses to e opertiveF his my therefore redue the eet of meE hnil omptionF por instne the pper turssi mkover pormtion @elmA is onstituted of ooliti nd pelletl grinstonesD whih were strongly eted y erly ementtionF sn these reservoirs stle frmework ws uilt @Kopaska-Merkel et al.D IWWRAD therefore very little mehnil omption ourred nd n verge porosity of IU 7 ws preserved t out QTHH m depthF sn low permeility ronte mudstonesD little mount of ementtion only is neessry to redue drstilly the permeility @BuddD PHHIA when the peroltion threshold is rehedF sn nturl environmentsD mehnil omption is eetive to redue porosity down to QHERH 7F o redue further the porosityD either lrge dierentil stressesD produing pore ollpse or frturingD re neededD or hemil omption hs to ply role @Scholle and HalleyD IWVSAF U 2.2 Evidence of chemical compaction ghemil omption involves erly meteori nd mrine digenesisD s well s rk propgtion in presene of retive uid nd dissolution E preipittion resulting from pressure solution reepF hile erly digenesis due to preipittion of ement in open pores is not funtion of stressD pressure solution reep nd rk propgtion re strongly dependent on stressF ell these mehnisms re lso strongly dependent on pore uid hemistryF ressure solution reep produes hrteristi mirostrutures suh s stylolites @pigE ure PeD fA or grin{to{grin indenttions @pigure PhAF grks propgting in grins n eome seled y lite preipitting in the veins @pigure PgAF etrogrphi studies lE low some quntition of the respetive role of mehnil nd hemil omption in nturl rontes through mirostruturl oservtions @MeyersD IWVHY Gratier et al.D IWWWY BuddD PHHPAF hen lolizedD pressure solution reep n led to the formtion of stylolites @BathurstD IWUIY DunningtonD IWSRY Carrio-Schahauser et al.D IWWHY Renard et al.D PHHRAD where the dissolution ours long well dened interfeF ynly the ronte disE solvesD leving thin lyer of insolule mterilD suh s lysF he destiliztion of the interfe gives the stylolites their peulir morphologyD due to the presene of hemil nd mehnil heterogeneities in the rok tht my pin the interfe during dissolution @Koehn et al.D PHHUAF woreoverD the shpe of stylolites n e nlyzed nd it ws found tht their frtl morphology hs reorded the stress t whih the stylolites hve formed @Ebner et al.D PHHWAF righ permeility fvours wterErok intertionF righ permeility re found in orse snds or grin supported rontes @Enos and SawatskyD IWVIY BuddD PHHIAF sn the se of orse snds not yet eted y ementtionD dissolution leds to omption of snd nd thus to porosity lossF sf some ementtion lredy ourred nd stle frmework is on pleD dissolution of shllow wter rontes my led to porosity ginD howeverF gonverselyD ronte muds re highly porous ut hve very low perE meilityD thus ronte muds re less eted y erly ementtion thn ronte snds @Enos and SawatskyD IWVIY GoldhammerD IWWUAF xevertheless when retive ow onditions required for erly ementtion re metD preipittion of mtter in the pore spe ontriutes to the formtion of mehnilly stle frmework whih preE vents further mehnil omptionF furil depthD or eetive vertil stress pplied on sedimentsD plys n importnt role V in porosity redution of ronte sedimentsF everl other prmeters suh s temperE tureD initil porosityD grin sizeD pore uid hemistry nd ly ontt n signintly et the rte of porosity redutionF ime is of ourse n importnt prmeter for hemil omption sine it involves the hemil retion kinetis nd diusion of mterilF roweverD onsidering the fst kinetis of ronte retions reltive to geE ologil timeD this is proly not limiting ftor nd therefore it is not tken into ount hereF sn the following prgrphsD the roles of stressD tempertureD wter ow nd pore uid hemistry re disussed seprtelyF e speil emphsis is mde on their reltive importne in ronte omption y pressure solution reepF 2.2.1 Evidence of the effect of stress prom eld oservtionsD derese of porosity in rontes hve een interpreted to e primrily funtion of depth rther thn time @Royden and KeenD IWVHY Schmoker and HalleyD IWVPAF sn other wordsD stress ppers to e the min driving fore for omption in ronte sedimentry sequenesF roweverD we know tht when stress is pplied during long timeD in se for instne of horizontl stress in some syntetoni sinsD dissolution my develop t some meters depth only @SorbyD IVTSAF st remins tht the vertil eetive stress ting t the grinEtoEgrin ontt is the min driving fore for pressure solution reepF sn their study of yligoeneEroloene old wter rontesD Wallace et al. @PHHPA noE tied tht the mount of lite ement inresed with depthF sn this sme studyD few signs of pressure solution were oserved t depths less thn one kilometerF gonverselyD t greter depthsD intergrnulr pressure solution fetures were well developed nd ws the most ovious deformtion mehnism in skeletl pkstones @Wallace et al.D PHHPAF gronte roks from endrko sin @southEwest yklhomAD nd ooid grinstones of the pper turssi mkover pormtion @elmA @Friedman et al.D IWVIY HeydariD PHHHA experiened high vertil stressesD i.e. uril depth of T nd W km respetivelyD ut lso to high tempertures exeeding PHH gF sn these formtionsD omintion of mehnil nd hemil omption ted to redue porosityF wroE nd mirosopi oservtions of these sediments show extensive twin development on lrge lite rysE tlsD tlsti texturesD pressure solution feturesD ementtion nd grin deformtion @Friedman et al.D IWVIY HeydariD PHHHAD mking it diult to seprte the eets of ll these mehnismsF he omintion of mehnil nd hemil omption redued porosity to lmost zero in these formtionsF W e ommon feture of the dierent studies is thtD while very little signs of pressure soE lution re oserved t shllow depth in sins where no horizontl tetoni ompressive stress ws ppliedD the numer of pressure solution fetures inrese signintly with depthF his is n indition tht pressure solution is oth stress nd timeEdependentF ime eing no limiting ftor t geologil time sleD pressure solution strts to e n eient proess of porosity redution mostly when signint level of stressF 2.2.2 Effect of temperature gomprison of siliilsti nd ronte sediments show tht ronte omption is more sensitive to stress nd to lesser extent to temperture @GilesD IWWUAF hissolution nd preipittion proesses in lite re eted y the temperture in two mnnersF yn the one hndD soluility of lite dereses with n inrese in tempertureD on the other hnd kinetis of lite dissolution inreses with temperture inreseF hese two eets ompete with eh otherD nd lmost nel for pressure solution reep @Renard et al.D PHHHA @s it is onsidered tht the ux of dissolution or preipittion is desried s kinetis rte times hemil grdientD see etion QFPFIAF everl eld oservtionsD howeverD indite tht porosity loss with inresing depth n lso e ssoited with therml exposureF his point out tht temperture lso inuenes hemil omption in severl ronte reservoirs @Friedman et al.D IWVIY HeydariD PHHHY Ehrenberg and NadeauD PHHSY Bol as et al.D PHHVAF 2.2.3 Effect of advective and diffusive fluid transfer edvetive ow in sedimentry sin is in generl rther slow @BjrlykkeD IWWQAF rowE everD shllow wter irultion plysD in some sesD n importnt role for erly emenE ttion @Enos and SawatskyD IWVIY BuddD PHHIA nd the development of krstition ptternsF prom the oservtion tht low porosity reservoirs re more often found in rontes thn in sndstones nd the ft tht hydrorons n e produed from these reservoirsD it is inferred tht frtures our more often in rontes @Ehrenberg and NadeauD PHHSAF his oservtion is signint sine frture networks nD in some sesD ontrol uid ow in sedimentry sinF prtures n e either seled y preE ipittion or opened y dissolutionD depending oth on the uid ow nd on the pore wter omposition @Polak et al.D PHHRY Yasuhara et al.D PHHTAF uh evolution ontrols the evolution of trnsfer properties y diusion or dvetion in the surrounding re @GratierD PHIIAF IH hiusion of solute is n importnt proess sine it keeps pore wter underEsturted with respet to liteD llowing further dissolution nd therefore omptionF he two min strutures enling fst diusion rte re frtures nd stylolitesF vol dissolution long stylolites indues diusion of mtter in the surrounding medi nd prtiiptes to porosity olusion @Finkel and WilkinsonD IWWHAD leding to the oservtion tht porosity loss y ementtion is tully positively orrelted to the presene of stylolites @Ehrenberg et al.D PHHTY BjrlykkeD PHHTAF pield oservtions lso suggest tht styloliti dissolution is enhned y the presene of ly minerls or phyllosilites @WeylD IWSWY EhrenbergD PHHRY Ehrenberg et al.D PHHTY Aharonov and KatsmanD PHHWAF 2.2.4 Effect of pore water composition sn formtion wtersD onentrtion of dissolved elements is funtion of initil pore wter hemistry whih tends to equilirte with minerls present @BjrlykkeD IWWQAF he degree of sturtion with respet to minerls in the shllow depth pore wters my e of importneD sine it n promote or inhiit retionsF por instne the low degree of sturtion of wississippin skeletl limestones pleoEgroundwter with respet to lE ite is proposed to fvour porosity loss y intergrnulr pressure solution rther thn mehnil grin repking nd plsti deformtion @Meyers and HillD IWVQAF uh eet is however still deted when onsidering the eet of uid sturtion on the rte of pressure solution reep Yasuhara et al. @PHHTAF sn pigure QD evolution of the Mg 2+ to Ca 2+ rtio nd of the Ca 2+ to Sr 2+ rtio s funE tion of depth re displyed for some shllow nd deep ronte formtionsF he Mg 2+ to Ca 2+ rtio dereses t shllow depthD whih n e interpreted y the progressive sturtion of pore wters with respet to lite y the dissolution of ronteF he inrese of the Ca 2+ to Sr 2+ rtio is relted to inorportion of strontium into rgonite strutureF wgnesium ontent is lso of prime importneD sine it9s presene is known to inhiit dissolution of lite @Arvidson et al.D PHHTAF por instne in shllowEwter rontes roks of outh ploridD porosity is inversely relted to mgnesium ontent of pore wter @Schmoker and HalleyD IWVPAF et greter depthsD i.e. elow IHH metersD pore wter omposition might e less imE portnt sine it is lredy in equilirium with the minerls presentF vow vriility of the Mg 2+ to Ca 2+ rtios t greter depths @pigure QA demonstrtes tht wter eme sturted with respet to liteF he lowest vlues of this rtio n e explined y the inrese of the lium ronte soluility with onning pressureF he Ca 2+ to Sr 2+ II rtios re slightly lower in susurfe thn t shllow depthD inditing thtD one the sustitution of Sr 2+ into the minerl hs ourredD the strontium E ronte retion vnishesF et these depthsD the dierent rtios only evolve due to lol dissolution y pressure solution reepF 2.3 Questions raised by the natural observations prom nturl oservtionsD severl questions remin unnswered relted to the dynmis of mehnil nd hemil omptionF he mount of overurden neessry for presE sure solution to eome the dominnt proess of porosity loss is diult to determine from eld oservtionsF he role of temperture on hemil proesses in rontes is rther miguousX inresing temperture inreses the kinetis of ronteEwter intertions on the one hndD ut dereses the soluility of lite on the other hndF he rte{limiting step of pressure solution nnot e determined from eld oservE tionsF enswering these questions is not esyD espeilly sine one hemil omption is opertiveD it is diult to isolte its eets from mehnil omption proesses in the porosityEdepth dt sets or in mirostruturl oservtionsF sn order to understnd the inuene of the vrious omption mehnismsD nd their intertionsD severl lE ortory experiments nd theoretil developments were pursuedF hese theoretil nd experimentl developments re the topi of the following setionF 3 Compaction of carbonate: theory and experiments 3.1 Mechanical compaction 3.1.1 Theoretical background es sediments get uriedD the vertil stress inresesD whih in turn leds to redution of sediments thiknessD porosity loss nd in inrese of ulk densityF sn sedimentry sins tht re not ssoited with high ompressive horizontl stress @iFeF exluding tive mountin eltsAD the prinipl omponent of the stress eld is usully the verE til stressF he redution in sediments thikness ours minly without lterl strin euse surrounding sediments exert lterl stresses tht prevent it @GilesD IWWUAF kE ing this into onsidertion while desriing mehnil omption in this setionD the ssumption is mde tht deformtion in sedimentry sins is unixilF et shllow depthD without erly ementtion proessesD ronte sediments omption IP n e modelled using soil mehnis pprohesF et erly stge of sediment depositionD when ementtion hs not ourred yetD the min proess ontriuting to volumetri strin is grin rerrngement nd expulsion of wterF gonsolidtion theoryD rst exE pressed y Terzaghi @IWPSAD sttes tht n inrese in eetive stress leds to the expulsion of wter nd therefore to onsolidtion of soilF he eetive stressD H D is dened yD H a P p ; @PA where is the pplied stress nd P p the pore pressureF pollowing erzghi9s onsoliE dtion theory @Terzaghi and PeckD IWTUAD logrithmi reltion is found etween the void rtioD eD nd the eetive stressD H @see dshed lines on pigure RdAD e 0 e f a C c ¡ log@ H f H 0 A; @QA the indies H nd f indite the initil nd nl sttes of the sediment omption respetivelyF he void rtio n e relted to porosity through ¨a e=@I C eAF he ompression indexD C c D is phenomenologil oeient used to hrterize the dierE ent soils omptionF sf ementtion ours erlyD then soil strength overomes uril stressesD nd mehnil omption proesses re slowed downF yne sediments re onsolidted nd ementedD then their deformtion my e desried y rok mehnis pprohF ilsti deforE mtion is then the min deformtion proess up to muh higher stresses thn for soilsF ok mehnis divide deformtion indued y mehnil omption into three min regionsD i.e. linerEelstiD dutileD nd rittle @pigure SAF por geologil mterilsD the dutile phse is restrited to situtions of very high tempertures nd onning stresses @Jaeger et al.D PHHUY Baud et al.D PHHWA or for some spei low ohesion sediments @iFeF shlesAF woreoverD in tetonilly lm sedimentry sinsD most of the deformE tion ours in the elsti domin nd the strin is usully proportionl to the pplied stress nd funtion of the sediments intrinsi elsti properties @pigure SAF gonsidering sediments to e liner{elstiD unixil deformtion n e desried y liner stress{strin reltionship funtion of the oung9s modulusD ED nd the oisson9s rtioD D of the sediment @Turcotte and SchubertD IWVPAD 1 a 1 ¡ @I C A ¡ @I PA E ¡ @I A ; @RA where 1 is the pplied vertil stress nd 1 the vertil strinF oroelstiity is n extension of liner elstiity tht tkes into ount the presene of IQ diusive uid @BiotD IWRIY Rice and ClearyD IWUTAF his theory is ommonly used to nlyze omption of uid sturted roks @Fjr et al.D IWWPY Gu eguen et al.D PHHRAF he strin my then e expressed s followsD a I K ¡ @ p b ¡ P p AY @SA where K is the rok ulk modulusD p the isotropi stress nd b the fiot oeient given yD b a I K K s Y @TA with K s the ulk modulus of the solid phseF he unixil ulk ompressiilityD 1 D ndD thereforeD the porosity loss re then desried s funtion of the eetive stress nd the fiot prmeter @GilesD IWWUY Wong et al.D PHHRAD 1 a b ¡ @I C A Q ¡ K ¡ @I A : @UA ypil vlues of the fiot prmeter nd ulk ompressiility in limestones re given in le IF pilure ours when pek stress is rehed @pigure SEAF nonsolidted sediments rst need to reh loked stte thenD when the vertil stress rehes ritil vlueD rushing strtsF rtile rekge ours when the stress long the grin ontt overE omes the yield stress of the mterilF es fore distriution is strongly dependent on the pking struture @Chan and NganD PHHSA nd the geometry of the ontt fore network @Mair and HazzardD PHHUAD the loking stte of the grins determines the loE liztion of rekge onsetF he stress vlue t whih rittle filure strts in limestone is inuened y temperture nd onning pressureF snrese in temperture promotes dutility nd inreses the strin rte sensitivity of rittle filure @Paterson and WongD PHHRAF edditionllyD up to frtureD limestone strength is reltively independent of strin rte @Paterson @VA with f the sher strength t filureD c H the eetive ohesionD nd H f the eetive stress t filureF efter yieldingD ronte snds eome very ompressile resulting in lrge volumetri strinsF gronte snd ompressiility n e relted to the reltively high initil porosity usully enountered in these soils nd to their yield stress @CoopD IWWHY AireyD IWWQAF ests onduted t more thn PH w eetive stress showed tht most of the omE ption ourred in the erly stges of loding @eetive stresses `SEIH wA @Fruth et al.D IWTTY EbhardtD IWTVY Shinn and RobbinD IWVQY Chuhan et al.D PHHQAF et low stress levelsD S{IH w D where most of the omption ourredD the stress{strin reltionship strongly depends on the grin size nd stinessF por instneD the ve fies of the gret fhms nkD i.e. ooliteD oolitiD grpestoneD skeletl nd mud IS fiesD tested y Fruth et al. @IWTTA showed dierent omption ehviour up to PS wF hey ompted more or less redily depending on their omposition nd initil porosityF rmeters ontrolling mehnil omption t these stresses re the omE position of the snd nd its initil stiness @Fruth et al.D IWTTAD the initil pking nd therefore porosity @Fruth et al.D IWTTY Shinn and RobbinD IWVQAD nd the grin sizeF piner sediments re less ompressile @EbhardtD IWTVY Chuhan et al.D PHHQAD whih is due to the ft tht stress is distriuted over more grin{to{grin onttsD so thtD on vergeD grin ontt stresses re lower in snds with smller grin sizeF Ebhardt @IWTVA reported tht temperture hd some eet on omption s wellD more intense omption ws oserved in experiments onduted t WH g thn on those onduted t room tempertureF rowever no further investigtion hs een done on the eet of temperture on mehnil omption of ronte sndsF sn Croiz e et al. @PHIHAD mehnil omption of iolsti ronte snd ws found not to e eted y tempertures in the rnge PH to UH gF et stresses higher thn PS wD stress{strin urves for dierent ronte snds re muh more similr thn t lower stressesD mening tht porosity loss in ronte sediE ments is inuened minly y initil sorting nd initil omption @Fruth et al.D IWTTAF wehnil omption of unonsolidted ronte sediments is very eetive proE ess of porosity loss t low eetive stressD ut one loking stte is rehed the strin rte dereses sustntillyFF he mount of mehnil strin hieved in ronte snds n e rther signintF Shinn and Robbin @IWVQA showed tht lreous sediments n ompt y s muh s SH7 of their initil thikness within the rst hundreds metersF rowever due to very lrge initil porositiesD residul porosities higher thn QH7 re reported in ronte snds nd mud fter mehnil omption under eetive stresses higher thn QH w @Fruth et al.D IWTTY Shinn and RobbinD IWVQAF hese results show thtD if mehnil omption is the only proess responsile for porosity lossD one ould expet porosities up to QH7 in limestones uried t Q kmF rowever omption urves of nturl limeE stones show muh lower porosities t this depth @pigure IAF efter mehnil omptionD mirostrutures oserved in tested smples were very similr to those oserved in nturlly ompted rontesF qrin frturing ws very ommonD s well s grin penetrtion nd ukling of splled mrgins @Fruth et al.D IWTTAY rottion of shells towrds the horizontlD reorgniztion of orgni mterilD onversion of prt of the ore from wkestone to pkstoneD olitertion of irdseyes nd fenestrl voidsD ttening of fossils @Shinn and RobbinD IWVQA were lso oservedF IT gomprison of fetures produed experimentlly nd nturlly my enle etter unE derstnding of when does ementtion our in nturl environmentF roweverD fetures produed y mehnil omption re ertinly sites of enhned hemil omption in ntureF end sine ementtion n our very erly in rontesD eet of ement on snd mehnil ehviour hs to e tken into ountF irly ementtion inreses the sher modulus of the soil s well s its yield strength @AireyD IWWQAF

Experimental compaction of carbonate rock

et smll stressesD experimentl mehnil deformtion of ronte rok is usully hrterized y non{liner stress{strin reltionshipD interpreted to e relted to the losure of rksD pores nd other defets @Vajdova et al.D PHHRAF his erly phse n e relted to in situ stresses to whih the rok ws sujeted @Couvreur et al.D PHHIAF ltrsoni E nd Ewves veloity nd qulity ftor lultionsD iFeF the estimtion of how dissiptive the mteril isD enles the monitoring of the end of the rk loE sure phse @Couvreur et al.D PHHIAF por rineElled porosityD the eletril ondutivity dereses t the eginning of the testD whih n e relted to the losure of pores nd suEhorizontl rks @Jouniaux et al.D PHHTAF sing lsh9s model @Walsh and BraceD IWTTAD the non{liner stress{strin reltionship n e relted to the mount of rks nd vrious type of pores @Baud et al.D PHHHAF efter this erly phseD deformtion is hrterized y liner elsti stress{strin reltionshipF his liner elsti phse n our t dierent stress stges depending on the initil porosity of the rokD the degree of ementtion nd the geometry of the pore speF Vajdova et al. @PHHRA rried out hydrostti trixil tests on three dierent limestonesD the min struturl dierene etween them eing their initil porosityF olnhofen limeE stone hs porosity of Q 7D porosity of vel limestone is IHFR 7D porosity vlues of sndin limestones re ITD IV or PH 7F he ompressiility of these limestones inreses with porosityF olnhofen limestone hs ompressiility of HFHIT q 1 @Baud et al.D PHHHY Vajdova et al.D PHHRAD vel limestone ompressiility of HFHQQ q 1 nd snE din limestone ompressiility of HFHUS q 1 @Vajdova et al.D PHHRAF por pltform limestones with n verge initil porosity of PH7D unixil tests show tht the omE pressiility lies in the rnge HFHI to HFP q 1 @Croiz e et al.D PHIHA nd tht erly digenesis ws responsile for n overEonsolidtion of the rok nd good preservtion of the porosityF e mjor domin of investigtion of experimentl studies on ronte rok omption IU is the onset of filure ourrene nd the kind of filure mode @pigure SAF prture propgtion in roks is n importnt mehnism tht n indue omptionD ut is lso of importne for uid owF e filure plne retes pth for dissolution nd trnsport of mtter or n e ple of enhned ementtion nd eome uid ow rrierF his leds to sequentil permeility ehviors in timeD from high to low permeility ow pthsF hierent mehnil prmeters ontrol filure in rontesF hese poroEelsti pE rmeters re usully inferred from mehnil trixil tests @Renner and RummelD PHHIA were performed on limestones nd dolomitesD some experimentl dt eing displyed in pigure SEdF grontes tested hd grin size rnging from S to RHH mD vrious hemistryD i.e. liteD rgoniteD dolomiteD nd vrious pore spe rrngementF hue to dierenes in the experimentl proedures nd mirostruturl properties of the tested smplesD the dierent tests re diult to ompre @Renner and RummelD IWWTAF he ritil stress @iFeF pek stressA t whih permnent strin is oserved vries from S to more thn SHH w in these dierent studiesF orosity seems to e the min ontrolling ftor on the onset of filureD even though the stE tering of the ritil stress s funtion of the porosity is rther high @pigure TAF he omplexity of the pore system in rontes @LuciaD IWWSA might e one of the reson of this stterF sn velD sndinD wjellD olnhofen vimestones the inuene of the porosity type on the development of mehnil filure ws studiedF ore ollpse ws found to initite t lrger pores @Zhu et al.D PHIHAF por roks ontining oth mroE nd miroporosityD mropores determine the loliztion of frtures @Vajdova et al.D PHIHAF hese studies point out the importne of the porosity type desription when studying mehnil omption of rontesF hen smples re sturtedD wter is squeezed into rks nd enhnes formtion of su{vertil frtures @Jouniaux et al.D PHHTAF hereforeD ritil stress is lower in wter sturted smples @pigure TAF hierent filure modes were identied s funtion of onning pressure @Renner and IV RummelD IWWTY Baud et al.D PHHHAF por onning pressures lower thn SH wD i.e. equivlent to less thn QER km urilD diltny strted nd ted s preursor of ritE tle fultingF por intermedite onning pressureD n initil stge of strin hrdening ould e mesuredF end for onning pressures higher thn QSH wD smples filed y tlsti ow ssoited with sher enhned omption nd strin hrdening @Baud et al.D PHHHAF gomptive tlsti ow ws ommonly oserved to e trnE sient phenomenon whih evolved with inresing strin to diltnt tlsti ow nd ultimtely sher loliztion @Baud et al.D PHHHAF sn very porous limestones ritil pressure eyond whih stressEstrin ehviour eomes nonEliner ws oservedD whih orresponds to pore ollpse nd grin rushing @Vajdova et al.D PHHRAF ilstiD inelsti nd filure properties of ronte roks n e relted to their porosE ityD nd ronte ompressiility inreses with porosityF gritil stresses for the onset of pore ollpse under hydrostti nd nonEhydrostti loding derese with inresing porosity @Vajdova et al.D PHHRAF wehnil twinning domintes in the most porous limestoneD while dislotion slip is tivted in the most ompt limestone @Vajdova et al.D PHHRAF ilsti stiness nd porosity re the min prmeters inuening the onset of dilttion @Palchik and HatzorD PHHPAF

Conclusions on mechanical compaction

sn ll these experimentsD smll strins were otined for rok elsti omptionF sn oth ronte snds nd rok omptionD the initil porosity is ruil prmeterD s the mximum ompressiility ws otined for smples with the highest initil porosityF ell these experiments demonstrteD tht mehnil omption plysD to some extentD role in the loss of porosity in sin limestonesF roweverD mehnil omption is minly opertive for snds or high porosity limestonesF por roks with low porosities or in whih mehnilly stle frmework ws uilt during erly digenesis @Croiz e et al.D PHIHAD the stresses needed to hieve grin rushing nd sher frturing re usully higher thn eetive stresses usully enountered in sedimentry sins @pigures S nd TAF pinllyD mehnil omption n explin the derese of porosity down to PH{QH7 t stresses equivlent to uril depths of P to R kmF roweverD in sedimentry sinsD porosity vlues re typilly lower t these depths @pigure IAD therefore hemil omption must ply key role in ronte omptionF IW of mirostrutures re ssoited with pressure solutionD e.g. sutured grin onttsD grin truntionsD indenttionsD ly sems nd stylolites @WanlessD IWUWY Buxton and SibleyD IWVIAF he nture of mirostrutures ssoited with pressure solution is funtion of the rok lithology nd struturl resistne @WanlessD IWUWY Buxton and SibleyD IWVIAF ressure solution reep is wter ssisted physio{hemil proess ourring s reE sult of stress grdients long grin ontts nd pore wllsF yriginllyD n inrese in soluility of minerls with pressure ws mesured in the lortoryD nd the term pressure solution ws reted to desrie the dissolution nd diusion proesses inE volved @SorbyD IVTQAF he term pressure solution ws lter ssoited with three seril proessesX iA dissolution t grin onttsD iiA diusion of solute mtters towrds the pore spe nd iiiA preipittion on the stress{free fes of grins @iFeF in the pore speA ndGor trnsport y diusion or dvetion @WeylD IWSWY Raj D IWVPY RutterD IWVQY Tada and SieverD IWVWY LehnerD IWWHD IWWSY Gundersen et al.D PHHPAF he rte of pressure solution is ontrolled y the slowest of the three seril stepsD i.e. dissolutionD diusion or preipittion @RajD IWVPY RutterD IWVQAF he driving fore for pressure solution is the hemil potentil grdient etween the highly stressed grin oundry nd the stress{free pore spe @pigure UeAF xumerous rte lws for ggregtes ompting y pressure solution hve een derivedF heoretil equtions for reep due to intergrnulr pressure solution were rst derived using n equilirium pproh @PatersonD IWUQY DurneyD IWUTY RutterD IWVQAF sn order to deE srie the proesses in physilly more relisti wyD nonEequilirium pproh ws lter used to develop models for reep y grin oundry diusionl pressure solutionD tking lso into ount the role of preipittion on the overll strin rte @Lehner and BatailleD IWVRY LehnerD IWWHY Spiers and SchutjensD IWWHAF he grin oundry struture must e dynmilly stle @Lehner and BatailleD IWVRAD i.e. while ontinuous dissolution or preipittion ours within representtive elemenE try volume in the grinEtoEgrin onttD the verge grin oundry struture remins PH onstntF he equilirium etween the solid phse under stress nd the solution of the omponent forming the solid phse t the grinEtoEgrin ontt is given y @PatersonD IWUQAD 1 a f s C n = s Y @WA where f s is the mss spei relmholtz free energy of the solid phseD s the density of the solid phseD 1 the hemil potentil of the dissolved solidD n is the stress norml to the grin to grin onttD whih is onsidered to e equl to the uid pressure within the grin oundry @LehnerD IWWHY Spiers and SchutjensD IWWHAF he hemil potentil of the solute in the pore spe is given y eq 1 a f s Cp f = s with p f the pressure of the uid in the pore speF he grdient in hemil potentil etween the grin ontt nd the pore spe is then given yD @ n p f A= s a 1 eq 1 : @IHA gonsidering the ove equtions @eqF W nd IHA in the se of equiliriumD sturtion in the pore spe is ttinedF his then would led to immedite preipittion of mteril s soon s it leves the stressed grin ontt nd might then hel the grin oundry nd thus stop pressure solution whih will not e le to restrt one the grin oundry is heled @Hickman and EvansD IWWIAF ine in nture grin oundry remins permele to uidD therefore equilirium nnot exist t the grin oundry nd eqution W nd IH must e onsidered for wet grin oundry pprohing stte of equilirium ut not rehing it @LehnerD IWWHAF yne dissolution ourred the hemil potentil grdientD r 1 D etween the grin oundry nd the pore phse will drive diusionF hiusion ours following pik9s lw whih reltes the diusive mss ux vetorD J 1 D to the hemil potentil grdient @LehnerD IWWHAD J 1 a l I c 1 r 1 ; @IIA with c 1 a 1 = the mss frtion nd l > H phenomenologil oeient tking into ount the geometry of the grinEtoEgrin onttF por diusion to ourD the wter lm onned t the grin{to{grin ontt needs to support sher stress nd enle diusion of solutes @WeylD IWSWAF he trnsport properties of the trpped thin lm re proly dierent from those of the pore uidF he diusion ux is proportionl to the men thikness of the uid phse trpped t the grin{to{grin ontt @DurneyD IWUTAD whih is funtion of the eetive stress @Renard and OrtolevaD IWWUAD nd the diusion oeient of the thin lm is typilly ssumed to e lower thn the one of ulk PI wter @RutterD IWVQAF he tul diusion oeient is diult to mesureD ording to the literture it is P to IH times lower thn tht for ulk wter @de Meer and SpiersD IWWWAF qrin oundry struture is ritil prmeter llowing diusion of dissolved mteril outside of the ontt reF everl types of grin oundry strutures re deted in the literture @Tada and SieverD IWVTY Gratz D IWWIY de Meer and SpiersD IWWWY Dysthe et al.D PHHPY van Noort et al.D PHHVAF ressure solution might our s omintion of plsti deformtion t the grinEtoEgrin ontt nd free fe dissoluE tion t the edge of the ontt @Tada and SieverD IWVTY Karcz et al.D PHHTAF e numer of studies hve ssumed tht wter is present t the grin oundry nd hve disussed severl geometries @pigure UfAF he rst one is n dsored thin lm whih n support sher stress @WeylD IWSWY RutterD IWVQAF he seond proposed struture nd the one mostly used in reent modelsD is the islnd{nd{hnnel struture @RajD IWVPY LehnerD IWWHAF hereD stresses re trnsmitted through solidEsolid onttsF sn this strutureD the uid is t hydrostti pressure nd hs pore uid trnsport propertiesF e third type of struture is ly lled grin oundryD whih is very similr to the rst type of struture if the lm of lys is ontinuousF sn this strutureD the presene of lys in the grin oundry support thiker uid lm whih filittes diusion @de Meer and SpiersD IWWWY Renard et al.D PHHIAF he lst strutureD mentioned hereD is thinElm shortEiruited y rks rrys @GratzD IWWIY van Noort et al.D PHHVAF hue to removl of mtter y diusionD the trnsport pth eomes longer s the onE tt surfe re inresesF his hnge in the diusion pth length my then indue hnge in the rte limiting step of pressure solution @Yasuhara et al.D PHHQAD from interfe retion limited to diusion trnsport limitedF he presene of stylolites is lso importnt due to their role in diusive mss trnsferF he diusive trnsfer tivity of stylolites inreses with the inresing presene of neEgrined nonEdiusile deris whih inrese the width of the stylolite @Hickman and EvansD IWWSY Renard et al.D PHHIAF he solutes trnsported out of the ontt to the pore spe my e trnsported gin out of the pore spe y diusion or dvetion @LehnerD IWWSY Gundersen et al.D PHHPAF hen the system is open t the grin size sleD with uid owD pressure solution my e ssoited with mss loss nd omptionF hen the system is losed t the grin sleD the pore uid eomes supersturted with respet to the solid in solution nd then preipittion ours on the stressEfree fe of the grins in the poreF sn some ses preipittion my e inhiitedY for instne the presene of lrge mount of ly minerls in the sediments my retrd preipittion @Tada and SieverD IWVWAF sf the PP pore uid eomes lrgely supersturtedD the diusion is no longer proportionl to the norml stress nd pressure solution eomes preipittion ontrolled @LehnerD IWWHAF prom fundmentls thermodynmis reltionships hrterizing the solidD queous nd oundry phseD tking into ount the three seril proesses ove desriedD mroE sopi qis equtions were derived for grnulr ggregtes deforming y pressure soE lution @LehnerD IWWHY Spiers and SchutjensD IWWHY de Meer and SpiersD IWWWAF iven though some dierenes exist etween the dierent rte lwsD espeilly in the denition of the prmeters hrterizing the grin oundry geometryD they more or less ll tke the following form @Spiers and SchutjensD IWWHY van Noort and SpiersD PHHWAD G GC@T AC eq d m e s RT f@A; @IPA where is the volumetri strin rte of the ggregteD G is geometri onstnt funtion of the grin pkingD s is the molr volume of the solidD C eq is the onentrtion of the solid into the uid t equiliriumD R the gs onstnt nd T the tempertureF f@A is dimensionless funtion of porosityD D tking into ount the porosity dependent hnges in grin ontt nd pore wll reF he eetive stress e is equl to the dierene etween norml stress t grin ontt nd pore uid pressure nd d is the grin dimeterF C@T A is the thermlly tivted rte oeient of the rte ontrolE ling proessF C@T A tkes dierent forms depending on whih of dissolutionD diusion or preipittion rte is the ontrolling rte mehnismF m is the grin size oeient whih vries depending on the rte limiting proessF essuming tht dissolution nd preipittion follow liner retion rte equtionsD in the se of diusion ontrolled omption rte m a QD while for n interfeEretion ontrolled rte m a IF es pointed out y Rutter @IWUTAD the liner reltionship etween stress nd strin rte is only vlid for low vlue of the eetive stress @elow QH wAF eove this vlue the exponentil reltion etween stress nd hemil potentil nnot e negleted nd leds to n exponentil dependene of strin rte on stress @Dewers and OrtolevaD IWWHAD whih hs een veried experimentlly on qurtz @Dewers and HajashD IWWSY Niemeijer et al.D PHHPY Gratier et al.D PHHWAF ressure solution n lso e produed y oupled mehnisms @de Meer and SpiersD IWWWAD tht is plstiD elstiD rittle deformtion of the grin ontts oupled with grin sle dissolution of the grin onttD diusion nd preipittionF lstiity ouE pled pressure solution reep is plsti deformtion oupled with removl of mteril from the ontt y solution trnsferF sn this seD the driving fore is the dierene in the solid9s hemil potentilX ¡ % ¡f s D where f s is the relmholtz free energyF PQ sn this se the omption rte is governed y the solution trnsfer9s kinetis nd the onstitutive plsti ehviour of the solidF rious prmeters suh s grin sizeD presene of lyD stressD timeD ementtionD porosE ity nd solution hemistry inuene the rte of pressure solution @Tada and SieverD IWVWAF sntergrnulr pressure solution theory @eqF IPA sttes tht the omption strin rte inreses with deresing grin size @WeylD IWSWY RutterD IWVQY Tada and SieverD IWVWY LehnerD IWWHAF sn sediments with wide rnge of grin sizeD dissolution ours preferentilly within the smll grin size nd solute re then trnsported towrds rE es of the sediments with orser grin size where preipittion is esier @WeylD IWSWY Tada and SieverD IWVWAF roweverD theory does not ount very well for wide grin size distriutionD indeed the reep eqution given ove is derived ssuming pk of monodisperse spheril grinsD whih is not very relisti for nturl nd experimentl ggregtes@Niemeijer et al.D PHHWAF gly minerls re not neessry for pressure solution to tke ple ut n ertinly promote it @Tada and SieverD IWVWAF trin rte inrese due to ly minerl my e relted to the inrese of the wter lm thikness whih filittes diusion @WeylD IWSWA or to the ft tht ly minerls prevent grin oundry heling y mintinE ing the ontts open @Renard et al.D PHHIAF por stylolitesD howeverD if the ly lyer within the stylolite eomes thik ompred to the grin sizeD then the rte of pressure solution dereses @WeylD IWSWAF sn dditionD the presene of ly minerls in the pore re ould potentilly slow down preipittion ndD if preipittion is rteEontrollingD pressure solutionF pinllyD the presene of ly minerls might et the pore uid hemistry y the relese of tionsD whih ould in turn speed the dissolution proess nd thus pressure solutionD if dissolution is the rteEontrolling mehnism he volumetri strin rte due to pressure solution is proportionl to the eetive stress @eqF IPAF ome theoretil works lso stte tht ritil stress is needed to initite pressure solution nd whenD due to dissolutionD the grinEtoEgrin ontt eomes lrge enough nd grin ontt stress eomes smller thn the ritil stressD then pressure solution will stop nd grin oundry heling will strt @Tada and SieverD IWVWY Yasuhara et al.D PHHQY van Noort et al.D PHHVAF his ritil stress is funtion of the minerlogy of the ompting mterilF sn sedimentry sinsD thereforeD the mount of overurden pressure @iFeF uril depthA is n importnt ftor ontrolling omption y pressure solutionF o predit porosity loss y pressure solutionD the uril history of the sediments needs to e tken into ount sine dissolutionD diusion nd preE ipittion re time dependent phenomenF he solution hemistry lso plys mjor PR role in ontrolling the rte of pressure solutionF sn the se of n underEsturted pore uidD freeEfe dissolution might our @EngelderD IWVPY Tada and SieverD IWVWAF sn the se of supersturtion uilding up in the pore spe then the rte of dissolution will slow down nd e funtion of the preipittion kinetis @LehnerD IWWHAF enother possiility tht ould drstilly prevent pressure solution nd so mintin high porosE ity t depth is the invsion of the pores y uid with low minerl soluility @i.e. gsD oilAD sine the omption rte is linerly proportionl to the soluility of the solid in solution @see eqution IPAF o summrizeD ritil prmeters to e onsidered when estimting the rte of pressure solution reep re grin oundry strutures @Croiz e et al.D PHIHA nd their diusivE ityD s well s dissolution nd preipittion kinetis of the studied minerl in dierent solution9s ompositionF he experimentl reltionship etween omption strin rte nd pplied stressD grin size or strins would lso give informtion out the proessF Subcritical crack propagation: grk propgtion is desried using frture meE hnis theory nd would therefore hve its ple in the mehnil omption setionF roweverD s it will e presented hereD slow rk propgtion in roks is eted y the environment nd the uid hemistry nd n e seen s mehnil phenomenon filE itted y hemil eetsF grk propgtion my our t low stress nd is usully hrterized y slow propgtionD so it is often referred to s suritil rk propE gtion or stress orrosionF e short review of the fundmentls of rk propgtion in liner elsti mteril is givenD followed y disussion on the eets of environmentl onditions on propgtion veloityF o study frture mehnisD three importnt vriles hve to e tken into ountX the pplied stressD the size of the initilly present w nd the frture toughness @AndersonD IWWSAF prture ours when the pplied stress is suient to rek the tomi onds of the solid @AndersonD IWWSY Scholz D PHHPAF grk propgtion my e desried using the energy riterion theory @GrithD IWPHA whih is sed on thermoE dynmi nd energy lneF he theory predits tht rk will propgte in order to lower the totl energy of the systemD y dissipting the elsti strin energy due to loding into the retion of new surfeF prom the energy riterion theoryD the rk will propgte when the energy needed for rk to propgte is suient to overome the resistne of the mterilF he energy relese rteD GD is the hnge in potentil energy with rk surfe re for liner PS elsti mterilD G a 2 a E ;

@IQA with the tensile stressD E the oung9s modulus of the onsidered mterilD nd the rk9s length is equl to PaF por mteril with liner elsti propertiesD the frture toughness is independent on the size nd geometry of the rked odyD the theory is therefore pplile t dierent slesF G is the mehnil driving fore for rk propgtion t equilirium nd is equl to RD the mteril resistne @Olagnon et al.D PHHTAF he stress intensity ftor K I a p a hrterizes the rk tip stresses in liner elsti mterilF K I is lso size independent mteril propertyF he reltion etween the energy relese rte nd the stress intensity ftor isD G a K 2 I E :

@IRA he veloity of rk propgtion n e relted to G or K I leding to the soElled v K I or v G urves @pig VAF por rks to propgteD the energy relese rte needs to overome the mteril resistne to rkingD RF sn generl R my e set equl to the surfe energyD D nd therefore R a P under vuumF hus t equilirium in given environmentD G a R e a P e ; @ISA with e < @Olagnon et al.D PHHTAF he ove reltionships @eqF IQD ISA show tht rk propgtion depends on the lol stress s well s on the environmentF hue to preEexistene of rks in roksD rk propgtion my our t stresses lower thn required for slip or twinning @AtkinsonD IWVPY Olagnon et al.D PHHTAF he veloity of rk propgtion my lso e limited y the retion rte etween the orrosive speies nd the mteril oundsF ropgtion of rks ourring t stresses lower thn the ritil stress required for frture is n importnt frture mehnism in the upper PH km of the irth9s rust @AtkinsonD IWVPAF he presene of wter t the rk tip promotes wekening retions or lolly modies the interfil energy of the solidD mking rk propgtion esierF uritil growth ours t theoretil stress intensity ftor K i D whih is etween K 0 nd K c @see pigure VAF K 0 is the stress intensity ftor elow whihD theoretillyD no rk growth n ourD while t K c the rks strts to propgte dynmilly @AtkinsonD IWVPY Scholz D PHHPAF por suritil rk growthD the rk propgtion PT veloity is usully desried y power lw dened y Charles @IWSVAX v a v 0 ¡ exp ¡H RT ¡ K n I ;

@ITA with v 0 eing preEexponentil ftorD ¡H the tivtion enthlpy nd n is the stress orrosion indexD whih is mteril property onstntF ine rk propgtion is funtion of the retion rte t the rk tipD it might e eted y pr @Lawn and WilshawD IWUSA nd the hemil tivity of wter @Ryne et al.D PHIIAF stselfD suritil growth indues degrdtion of the rok elsti propertiesD nd my explin the hydroliti wekening of hlk @Ryne et al.D PHIIAF 3.2.2 Experimental studies on carbonate chemical compaction ixperimentl studies on hemil omption y pressure solution typilly im to estlish reep equtionD whih n e determined y the rte limiting step of the proessD i.e. dissolutionD diusionD or preipittionF his is done in order to determine reep lws suitle for the mteril studied nd esily pplile to nturl systemsD s it ws for instne proposed for qurtz @RutterD IWVQY Gratier et al.D PHHWAF sf pressure solution is the dominnt deformtion mehnismD the strin rte is inuened y the mnipultion of dissolutionD diusion or preipittion rtesF pollowing the theory of grin oundry diusionl pressure solutionD the inuene of prmeters suh s grin sizeD stressD porosityD tempertureD grin pking or the presene of lysD should e studied to disriminte whih of the three steps is the rte limiting oneF ixperimentl work ws onduted on ronte roks @Baker et al.D IWVHY Le Guen et al.D PHHUAD nd reent studies were rried out on the one hnd on ne grined @Q to VHmA superE pure lite powders ompted using miro'dometer @Zhang he priniple of the experiment is to leve loded rigid indenter over single lite rystl nd let pressure solution dissolve the re under stress elow the indenter @pigure WAF he depth of the hole is monitored s funtion of time using either optil or high resolution displement sensorsD llowing to reh resolutions of displement rte down to one nnometer per hourF hese studies hve shown tht ompetition etween pressure solution reep nd suritil rk growth ws operting nd tht rdil rks my develop elow the indenterF hen stress perturtion ws imposed to the indenterD new rks were reted nd the rte of pressure solution reep ws signintly enhned @see pigure WAF Zubtsov et al. @PHHSA rried out indenttion experiments t eetive stresses rnging from SH to PHH w nd t tempertures of PU g nd RH gF sn some experiments the pplied stress ws onstnt nd the deformtion ws mesured ex situF sn experiments onduted with wek id solutionD orreltion ws found etween the depth of the hole nd the pplied stressF Zubtsov et al. @PHHSA lso rried out highEresolution pressure solution reep experiments with ontinuous reording of the deformtionF sn tht seD indenters were glss spheresD therefore the ontt re etween the indenter nd the rystl inreses with strin while the eetive pplied stress deresesF sn presene of uid in equilirium with liteD diret reltion etween the pplied stress nd the deformtion rte is foundF hissolution of lite formed holes eneth indenters nd dissolved lite preipitted then round these holes @pigure WEdAF he development of mirorks eneth the indenters shortened the diusion trnsport pth t the indenterGlite interfe nd inresed the strin rteD pleding in fvor of diusion limited proess @Zubtsov et al.D PHHSAF Croiz e et al. @PHIHA lso used glss spheres s indentersD ut only one glss indenter ws used per experimentF sn those experiments the initil rte of lite deformtion ws found to e linked to the presene or sene of rks propgting from the stressed re towrd less stressed prts of the rystlF sn ddition it ws notied tht dissolution of lite elow the indenter ws omplexD with the formtion of n empty void elow the indenter @pigure WeAF hissolution elow the indenter strted due to the PV high norml lod ppliedD ut rk propgtion ourred so tht the dissolved solid ws esily trnsported outside of the ontt reF hen dissolution ontinued elow the indenter s omintion of plsti deformtion nd free surfe dissolution driven y strin energyF he development of mirorks eneth the indenter ws found to e linked to the presene of initil ws in the rystlD nd ontrolled whether deformtion ourred y pressure solutionD i.e. dissolution driven y norml lodD or y pressure solution nd rk propgtionD i.e. dissolution minly driven y strin energyF

Pressure solution experiments on aggregates and rocks: ixperiments on lE reous oozes were onduted t eetive stresses in the rnge R to IHH w nd temE perture etween PP nd IVH g @Baker et al.D IWVHAF ixperiments on neEgrined lite were rried out under eetive stresses rnging from I to R w t room temE perture @Zhang et al.D PHHPY Zhang and SpiersD PHHSDAF sn these studiesD dry ontrol experiments were onduted to ensure tht pressure solution ws the min deformtion proess in wet experimentsF hree min spets were studiedD tht is the inuene of eetive stressD grin size nd pore uid hemistry on ronte omption y pressure solutionF e wider grin size distriution enhnes the omption rte for smples with the sme medin grins size @Zhang and SpiersD PHHSDA nd deresing the verge grin size inreses the strin nd the strin rte t xed strins @Zhang et al.D PHHPY Zhang and SpiersD PHHSAF sn Zhang and Spiers @PHHSA the strin rte is linked to the grin size y n inverse power lw with n exponent equl to threeD inditing tht diusion is most likely the rte limiting step of the proessF gomption of ronte roks led to the onlusion tht dissolution ontrols the rte of pressure solution @Baker et al.D IWVHAF roweverD the sensitivity to grin size in other experiments does not llow ny onlusion on whih of the preipittionD diusion or dissolution is the rte limiting step @Zhang and SpiersD PHHSAF sn lite ggregtesD the strin rte is deresed y the ddition of Mg 2+ into the pore uid t onentrtions rnging from HFHI to I molGl @Zhang et al.D PHHPY Zhang and SpiersD PHHSAF eddition of y 3 4 t HFHHHI to HFHHI molGl @Zhang and SpiersD PHHSAD nd xry 4 with onentrtions rnging from IH 6 to IH 3 molGl @Zhang and SpiersD PHHSA lso dereses the strin rteF gonverselyD omption reep rte inreses with xgl onentrtions of HFI to HFS molGl @Zhang and SpiersD PHHSAF ome of these results fvour preipittion s rte limiting step for pressure solutionD however the diusion ontrolled hypothesis n never e ompletely ruled outF PW sn ronte environmentsD where pore uids re onstituted of meteori or orgniE poor wterD lite pressure solution should e relly tive digeneti proessF his proess is ertinly muh slower in environments where pore uids re derived from sewter or re phosphteErih due to orgni retions or iologil tivity @Zhang and SpiersD PHHSAF hese lortory experiments of deformtion of roks or ggregtes lso show tht strin is not liner in time @pigure IHEdAD ut follows powerElw dependene with smll time exponent etween HFP nd HFQ @Croiz e et al.D PHIHA or more omplex shpe whenD for exmpleD ron dioxideD retive omponentD is dded to the pore uid @Le Guen et al.D PHHUY Liteanu and SpiersD PHHWAF en intriguing oservtion ws lso mde y Le Guen et al. @PHHUA who oserved intermittent reep during omption of limestone nd interpreted it s ompetitionD t the grin sleD of plsti nd pressure solution proesses @pigure IHEAF en lterntive explntion would e tht suritil rk propgtion ours nd triggers dissolution @reepA rte when rehing ritil size nd density nd tht dissolution filittes the progressive seling of the frture nnihilting the eet of their developmentF Subcritical crack growth: greep experiments on olnhofen limestones showed tht wter enhnes strength wekening of the smples more thn wht should expeted just through mehnil tion @RutterD IWUPAF st ws then suggested tht the introdution of wter in the smples redued the interfil tension leding to dislotion t the rystls surfesF his llowed rittle reep of the smples nd filure t stresses elow the rok short term filure strengthF sn the sme study Rutter @IWUPA showed tht temperture hd little inuene on the strength until QHH gF Henry et al. @IWUUA lso oserved suritil rk growth in miriti limestone t PH gF sf it ssumed tht dissolution t the rk tip is n importnt prt of the suritil rk growth mehnismD then it should e expeted tht rontes rittle reep is less eted y temperture thn sndstones sine lite soluility inreses with deresing tempertureF he rte of suritil rk growth in lite ws found to e dependent on wter tivity @Ryne et al.D PHIIAF imilrly Heap et al. @PHHWA suggested tht in sndstones the rte t whih speies n diuse through the smplesD rther thn the mount of retive speiesD is the limiting ontrol on stress orrosionF QH

Conclusions on chemical compaction

sn oth methodsD indenter experimentsD nd omption of roks or ggregtesD pressure solution reep ws estlished s the dominnt deformtion mehnismF sn indenter experimentsD diusion ws found to e the rte limiting step for lite pressure solutionF gonverselyD vrious limiting steps were reported for wet ggregte omptionF he deformtion rte of lite is more importnt when the solution ontins xr 4 gl whih enhnes the soluility of liteF yverllD no onsensus on the rte limiting step of pressure solution in rontes ws otinedF his is to some extent relted to the sene of good greement etween mrosopi strin rte lws nd experimentl resultsF por exmpleD mrosopi reep lws propose liner time dependeneD wheres lortory experiments show more omplex rheologil ehviorsF e possile explntion is tht present models do not tke grin{size distriution or pking of ggregtes urtely into ountF sn dditionD the grin{to{grin geometry employed in the mrosopi models might not e suitle for rontesF pinllyD in some experimentl work the omintion of pressure solution nd suritil rk growth ws oserved oth t the grin sle nd t the ggregte sle @den BrokD IWWVY den Brok et al.D PHHPY Liteanu and SpiersD PHHWAF he eet of this omintion on lite grin ontt geometry ws investigted in Croiz e et al. @PHIHA nd on the overll omption ehviour of ronte ggregtes in Croiz e et al. @PHIHA nd it ws onluded tht the presene of initil ws ontrols the overll strinF hese omined eets ould lso e n explntion of omplex rheologil ehviorsF sn these studies lterl strin ws not llowedD suritil rk growth ted s tlyst of pressure solution leding to porosity redution y omptionF prom unixil stress{yling tests on ooliti limestone Eslami et al. @PHIHA onluded tht while pressure solution ws ertinly n tive proess during omption of the smplesD suritil rk growth ws ertinly not dominnt sine no diltnt deformtion of the smples ws oservedF rowever to onlude tht pressure solution domintes over suritil rk growth in the porosity loss of rontesD more experiments re needed in whih the long term eets of the ompetition of these two proesses in rontes re studiedF QI

Applications for porosity prediction

Effect of early cementation: sn rontesD the initil porosity vlues show very lrge vriility whih then dereses with inresing uril depth @pigure IAF gonE sequentlyD erly ementtion is n importnt prtiulrity of ronte roksF st onE triutes to n erly loss of porosity ut lso plys n importnt role in the stiliztion nd strengthening of the frmework @see setion PAF his proess nD to some extentD inhiit or retrd mehnil omption t shllow depth @Kopaska-Merkel et al.D IWWRY BuddD PHHIAF snitil minerlogyD i.e. lite or rgoniteD nd sturtion index of pore wters with respet to those minerlsD represent ruil ontrol prmeters for erly ementtion t shllow depth @Meyers and HillD IWVQY BjrlykkeD IWWQAF Mechanical modeling: sf erly ementtion does not et ronte sedimentsD then soil mehnis theory n e used to model omption within the rst PHH meters of uril @AudetD IWWSY GoldhammerD IWWUAF orosity loss s funtion of the pplied eetive stress n e expressed y either the onsolidtion theory @TerzaghiD IWPSA or the poroelstiity theory @BiotD IWRIY Rice and ClearyD IWUTA if unonsolidted sediments or roksD respetivelyD re to e onsideredF hese theories involve elsti moduli tht n e determined experimentlly for the dierent sediments @see setion QFIAF he determintion of the elsti prmeters of roks is ruil to understnd their omption during inresing uril nd therefore for porosity preditionF wehnil omption is lso eted y the pore nd grin size distriutionsD the ly ontent nd the presene of dierent lithologies leding to dierentil omption @fF setion PAF sn ronte sndsD most of the mehnil omption ours t low stressD i.e. less thn S wF hen loked stte is rehedD omption proeeds y grin rushing with lower strin rtesF gomption of ronte snds depends on the initil pkE ingD the snd omposition nd the grin sizeD with ner grin{sized smples eing less ompressileF he sher modulus nd the yield strength oth inrese with ementE tionF oks tested in the lortory show non{liner stress{strin reltionship whih n e relted to the mount of pre{existing rks nd vrious types of pores present @Baud et al.D PHHHAF orosity seem to e the min ontrolling ftor on rok ompressE iilityF yverllD ronte roks re less ompressile thn sndstones @Wong et al.D QP PHHRAF nderstnding mehnil omption nd the determintion of roks elsti moduli is importntF roweverD these prmeters re eted y hemil omption proesses tht lter the grin to grin ontts nd modify the grin or rok frmeE work stinessF woreoverD experimentl mehnil omption shows tht mehnil omption lone usully nnot explin porosity vlues oserved in ntureF Chemical modeling: ressure solution s the min mehnism of hemil omE ption is dependent on oth stress nd timeF ressure solution intensity is relted to the mount of pplied stress or overurden @Royden and KeenD IWVHY Schmoker and HalleyD IWVPY Spiers and SchutjensD IWWHA nd to the durtion of its pplitionF he min ftors inuening ronte pressure solution re stressD tempertureD grin size nd porosityD dvetive nd diusive trnsfer nd the pore uid omposition @fF setion PAF et depths greter thn SHH{VHH metersD hemil omption eomes the min mehnism of porosity redution in rontesF yne pressure solution is inititedD vrious ftors ontrol its kinetisF righ soluilE ity of the minerl in the uid inreses the omption rtes wheres invding uids with impurities tht lower the soluility ould prevent suh omptionF ore uid hemistry ts s reord of the evolution of lite dissolutionD nd might explin the slowdown of lite preipittion when inhiitorsD for instne mgnesium ionsD re presentF en inrese in temperture enhnes dissolution nd preipittion kinetis of liteD ut diminishes its soluilityF he diusion prt of pressure solution n e enhned y the presene of ly minerls whih provide oth high diusivity pths nd prevent heling etween grinsF hese lys n e rndomly distriuted in the sedimentD or onentrted long dissolution sems or stylolites @WeylD IWSWY Ehren-bergD PHHRY Ehrenberg et al.D PHHTAF hiusion is lso filitted y the presene of open frtures nd miroErksF roweverD seling of these frtures nnihiltes this eetD leding to non{stedy stte ehviorF edvetive ow hs some importne sine it n remove dissolved speies keeping the pore uid understurted nd llowing onE going omptionF he sturtion of the uidD underE or overEsturtedD my tivte or nnihilteD respetivelyD the pressure solution reep proessF qrin size nd sorting is lso importnt euse the stress onentrtion t grin ontts depends on these prmeters nd ontrols the onset of pressure solution reep @HeydariD PHHHAF here is no onsensus yetD neither from experiment nor from nturl oservtionsD for the rte{limiting step in pressure solution of rontes tht ould onstrin omption modelingF roweverD generl rule is tht when diusion ours long trpped uid QQ phseD diusion n e used s limiting proess nd this would give mximum vlues for the omption rte whih my e dedued if the retion rtes @dissolution or preipittionA re slowed down y inhiitors of dissolution or preipittionD ut only if those retions re slowed down to elow the rte of diusionF wodels for pressure solution my tke into ount dierent grin oundry strutures suh s thin lms or islnds nd hnnels modelsF roweverD some importnt eets re not tken well enough into ount in those theoriesD for instne the eet of grin size distriution @Niemeijer et al.D PHHWAF uritil rk propgtion my promote pressure solution y shortening diusion pths @Croiz e et al.D PHIHAF he veloity of rk propgtion is found to depend on the uid in preseneD sine rk propgtion t low stresses is ontrolled y the rte of hemil retions t the rk tip ndGor y the diusion of orrosive speies to the rk tipF wost of the experimentl work on ronte hs foused on trying to identify the rte limiting step of pressure solutionF roweverD ompring experimentl dt with theoryD no onsensus hs een found so frF yne explntion might e tht the grin ontt geometry is not desried well enough to e le to pply theory to experimentl workF elso the eet of grin size distriution nd rk propgtion t the grin ontt need to e ounted forF 4.2 Implications for seismic response rious prmeters required for omption modeling my e dedued from geophysE il investigtionsD s the veloity of seismi wves mesured from the ground surfe ontins informtions on the porosityD the nture of the uidD nd the mirostruture of underground ronte roksF Use of rock petrophysical models to estimate seismic velocity: ok properties inlude petrophysil properties @porosityD permeilityA s well s texture nd fri of the rokF eismi wve propgtion is strongly eted y porosity @Rafavich et al.D IWVRA nd the types of pores present whih n e highly vrile in rontes @Anselmetti and EberliD IWWQAF eismi properties of roks lso depend on mirostrutures @WangD IWWUAD frtures nd rks espeilly eting Ewve propgtion @D urrast and SiegesmundD IWWWY Couvreur et al.D PHHIAD nd pore uids @Assefa et al.D PHHQAF qrin sizeD shpe nd sorting re s well importnt ftors ontrolling seismi properties of roks @Eberli et al.D PHHQAF etrophysil properties of rontes hve een proven diult to preditD thisD thereforeD leds to gret diulty in understnding rontes QR seismi veloitiesF o pply rok{physis models to rontesD the omplex nture of the pore system nd mirostrutures hrterizing ronte sediments needs to e tken into ountF eent rok{physis models tke etter into ount the omplexity of the rontes pore system @Agersborg et al.D PHHVAD the possiility of intrgrnulr porosity @Ruiz and DvorkinD PHHWA or the eet of nonEuniform grin ontt @Bachrach and AvsethD PHHVAF epplied to vrious experimentl dt where the dierent prmeters re well ontrolledD these models my enle more urte pprisl of the rok properties in the susurfeF he eet of hemil omption on wve propgtion in ronte is still dly onstrinedD howeverF Effect of chemical compaction on seismic velocity: ghemil omption leds to hnges in the ulk density of sediments with n inrese of the density t ples of ementtion nd derese t ples of dissolutionF pluid hemistry inuenes rE onte omption nd therefore wve propgtion in ronte @Croiz e et al.D PHIHAF qssmnn theory of uid sustitution @GassmannD IWSIA is widely used to predit hnge in seismi veloities s funtion of uid ontent of the pore speF his theory ssumes tht the pore uid does not hemilly et the solid frme nd thereforeD tht the sher modulus remins onstntF his ssumption is in most of ses not pplile in rontesF gonverselyD hemil retions lower the grin{to{grin ontt stiness @Assefa et al Effect of heterogeneous grain contacts on seismic velocity: ok physis models of grnulr medi re sed on elsti properties of this mediD whih is funtion of norml nd tngentil ontt stinessF hierent models hve een developedF por instne the rertz model onsiders norml ompression of elsti spheres @JohnsonD IWVSAD while in the rertzEwindlin model or the lton model olique ompression is tken into ount @Mavko et al.D PHHWAF ettempts hve een mde to etter tke into ount the omplexity of the grinEtoEgrin ontt into rok physi modelsF Dvorkin et al. @IWWIA inluded the inrese of the elsti modulus due to ementtion t the grin{to{grin onttF he nonEuniformity of grin ontts is tken into ount in rok physis templtes developed for snd @Bachrach and AvsethD PHHVAF roweverD in rontes the interfe etween grins my hve omplex geometry onstntly QS evolving due to the intertion of pressure solution nd rk propgtion @Croiz e et al.D PHIHAF he wekening of the grin{to{grin ontt stiness due to hemil omption needs to e etter desried y rok physis model in order to etter predit veloity hnges during prodution of hydrorons reservoirsD nd more speilly during uid injetion in reservoirs to enhne hydroron reovery or to geologilly store CO 2 F sn dditionD pore olusion y preipittion would redue porosity nd likely inrese stiness nd seismi veloityD espeilly in frturesF 5 Conclusion wehnil omption in rontes does not ply mjor role on porosity lossF elE redy t uril depths shllower thn I kilometer mehnoEhemil proesses might ontrol the rte of sediments omptionF hereforeD unlike silieous sedimentsD rE onte omption nnot e modelled only y mehnil omption t depths orE responding to potentil hydroron reservoirs or to potentil storge sites of CO 2 F roweverD understnding mehnil omption in rontes is importntF et shllow depthD non{emented sediments rst lose porosity y mehnil omption nd reh loked{stteF he ongurtion rehed y sediments fter initil mehnil omE ption determines the mount of grin{to{grin ontts nd their size nd therefore further porosity loss y susequent hemil omptionF xturl nd experimentl oservtions gree to sy tht pressure solution reep nd uidErok intertions re the min proesses of porosity loss in rontesF heory nd experiments show tht pressure solution depends on eetive stressD porosityD grin size nd pore uid hemistryF elthough most experimentl studies infer tht the rte limiting step for lite pressure solution is diusionD no rm onlusion n e forE multedF he rte limiting step might e of dierent nture depending on omption onditionsD ut this still needs to e explored more thoroughlyF nder whih onditions of pressureD tempertureD uid hemistry nd porosity this proess strts nd stops in limestones nd interts with frture heling nd the progressive hnge in rok omE position due to mss trnsferD is lso not fully understoodF Acknowledgments: he uthors would like to thnk unut fj(rlykke nd tephen xF ihrenerg for helpful omments on n erly version of this mnusriptF wo nonyE mous referees @f nd hiA nd eF xiemeijer re thnked for their onstrutive reviewsF QT he iditorD ent hmowskD is thnked for her ontinuous help nd enthousismF References edmD vFD wF ftzleD nd sF frevik @PHHTAD qssmnn9s uid sustitution nd sher modulus vriility in rontes t lortory seismi nd ultrsoni frequeniesD GeophysicsD 71 @TrAD pIUQ{pIVQF edmsD eF iFD F F wuenzieD nd gF quilford @IWVRAD Atlas of sedimentary rocks under the microscopeD vongmn ienti nd ehnilD vondonD inglndF egersorgD FD F eF tohnsenD wF tkosenD tF othottD nd eF fest @PHHVAD iets of uids nd dulEpore systems on pressureEdependent veloities nd ttenutions in rontesD GeophysicsD 73 @SAD xQS{xRUF ehronovD iFD nd F utsmn @PHHWAD 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omption of sedimentry roksD AAPG BulletinD 14 @IAD I{PRF QU etkinsonD fF uF @IWVPAD uritil rk propgtion in roksX theoryD experimenE tl results nd pplitionsD Journal of Structural GeologyD 4 @IAD RI{STD doiX IHFIHITGHIWIEVIRI@VPAWHHHSEHF eudetD hF wF @IWWSAD wodelling of porosity evolution nd mehnil omption of lreous sedimentsD SedimentologyD 42 @PAD QSS{QUQF fhudD FD F ferneD pF enrdD wF rdinD nd tF veler @PHIIAD se of trers to hrterize the eets of CO 2 Esturted rine on the petrophysil properties of low permeility ronte prokD Chemical Engineering Research and DesignD 89D IVIU{IVPTD doiXIHFIHITGjFherdFPHIHFIIFHHRF fhrhD FD nd F evseth @PHHVAD ok physis modeling of unonsolidted sndsX eounting for nonuniform ontts nd heterogeneous stress elds in the eetive medi pproximtion with pplitions to hydroron explortionD GeophysicsD 73 @TAD iIWU{iPHWF fkerD F eFD wF ustnerD tF hF fyerleeD nd hF eF vokner @IWVHAD ressure solution nd hydrotherml rerystlliztion of ronte sedimentsY n experimentl studyD 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Results, 194D edited y F enselmetti plvioD F ssE ern elexndrD F flumD xF endresenD uF firke esfyeD vF fro qrtner quidoD tF furns tephenD eF F gones qillesD rF heliusD fF hugnD F ierli qregorD xF ihrenerg tephenD hF puller wihelD rF wuller melD gF rine elertD F rowE ell wihelD wF tohn gedriD hF urner qrryD pF uindler slD iF ylson frookeD uF skiD hF tewrtD F eiD F hite imothyD vF ood tsonD nd F mdD ppF I{PIUD exs e8w niversityD yen hrilling rogrmF gollege ttionD D nited ttesD doiXIHFPWUQGodpFproFsrFIWRFHHUFPHHRF ihrenergD F xFD tF wF werthurD nd wF pF hirlwll @PHHTAD qrowthD demiseD nd dolomitiztion of mioene ronte pltforms on the wrion lteuD oshore xi eustrliD Journal of Sedimentary ResearchD 76 @IAD WI{IITF ingelderD F @IWVPAD e nturl exmple of the simultneous opertion of freeEfe disE solution nd pressure solutionD Geochimica et Cosmochimica ActaD 46 @IAD TW{URF inosD FD nd vF rF wtsky @IWVIAD ore networks in roloene ronte sedimentsD Journal of Sedimentary PetrologyD 51 @QAD WTI{WVSF islmiD tFD hF qrgiD nd hF roxh @PHIHAD istimtion of the dmge of porous limeE stone from ontinuous @E nd EA wve veloity mesurements under unixil loding nd dierent hydrous onditionsD Geophysical Journal InternationalD 183 @QAD IQTP{ IQUSF ivnsD fFD F ferneD nd F hu @IWWUAD ivolution of pore struture nd permeility of roks in lortory experimentsD in Growth, dissolution and pattern formation in geosystems.D edited y fF tmtveit nd F wekinD ppF QPU{QRRD uluwer edemi ulishersD hordrehtD xetherlndsF preD hFD nd tF qustkiewiz @IWWUAD oroelsti properties of limestones nd sndE stones under hydrostti onditionsD International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining SciencesD 34 @IAD IPU{IQRF priiusD sF vF @PHHQAD row uril digenesis of hlk sediments ontrol soni veloity nd porosityD AAPG BulletinD 87 @IIAD IUSS{IUUVF pinkelD iF eFD nd fF rF ilkinson @IWWHAD tylolitiztion s soure of ement in wisE sissippin lem limestoneD estEgentrl sndinD AAPG BulletinD 74 @PAD IUR{IVTF RQ pj&rD iFD F wF roltD F rorsrudD eF wF enD nd F isnes @IWWPAD Petroleum related rock mechanicsD ilsevierD emsterdmF priedmnD qF wFD F eF eekmnnD nd fF fork @IWVIAD gronte deformtion mehE nisms in the world9s deepest wells @nerly equl W kmAD TectonophysicsD 74 @QERAD IS{IWF pruthD tFD v D qF F yrmeD nd pF eF honth @IWTTAD ixperimentl omption eets in ronte sedimentsD Journal of Sedimentary PetrologyD 36 @QAD URU{USRF qssmnnD pF @IWSIAD ilstiity of highEporosity sndstoneX er die elstizitt poroser medienD Vierteljahrsschr. Nat. Ges. ZurichD 96D I { PQF qilesD wF F @IWWUAD Diagenesis: a quantitative perspective { Implications for basin modelling and rock property predictionD uluwer edemi ulishersD hordrehtD he xetherlndsF qinsurgD F xF @IWSUAD irly digenesis nd lithition of shllowEwter ronte sediments in outh ploridD in Regional Aspects of Carbonate DepositionD volF SD edited y F tF vefln nd tF qF freedingD ppF VH{WWD oiety of ionomi leonE tologists nd winerlogistsD peil pulitionF qloverD tF iF @IWTVAD ignine of stylolites in dolomiti limestonesD NatureD 217 @SIQIAD VQS{VQTD doiX IHFIHQVGPIUVQSHF qoldhmmerD F uF @IWWUAD gomption nd deomption lgorithms for sedimentry rontesD Journal of Sedimentary ResearchD 67 @IAD PT{QSF qrtierD tFEF @PHIIAD pult permeility nd strength evolution relted to frturE ing nd heling episodi proesses @yers to millenniAX the role of pressure soluE tionD Oil Gas Sci. Technol. Rev. IFP Energies nouvellesD 66 @QAD RWI{SHTD doiX IHFPSITGogstGPHIHHIRF qrtierD tF FD pF enrdD nd F vume @IWWWAD row pressure solution reep nd frturing proesses intert in the upper rust to mke it ehve in oth rittle nd visous mnnerD Journal of Structural GeologyD 21 @VEWAD IIVW{IIWUF qrtierD tF FD F quiguetD pF enrdD vF tenttonD nd hF fernrd @PHHWAD e pressure solution reep lw for qurtz from indenttion experimentsD Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid EarthD 114D fHQDRHQD doiXIHFIHPWGPHHVjHHSTSPF RR qrtzD eF tF @IWWIAD olutionEtrnsfer omption of qurtzites E progress towrd rte lwD GeologyD 19 @WAD WHI{WHRF qrgiD hF @PHIIAD snuene of CO 2 on the longEterm hemomehnil ehvior of n ooliti limestoneD J. Geophys. Res.D 116 @fUAD fHUDPHID doiXIHFIHPWGPHIHtfHHVIUTF qrithD eF eF @IWPHAD he phenomen of rupture nd ow in solidsD Philosophical

Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical or Physical CharacterD 221D ITQ{IWVF qu eguenD FD vF hormieuxD nd wF fout e @PHHRAD pundmentls of poromehnisD in Mechanics of Fluid{Saturated RocksD edited y F qu eguen nd wF fout eD snterntionl geophysis seriesD pF RSHD ilsevier edemi ressD emsterdmF qundersenD iFD pF enrdD hF uF hystheD uF fj(rlykkeD nd fF tmtveit @PHHPAD gouE pling etween pressure solution reep nd diusive mss trnsport in porous roksD Journal of Geophysical Research, B, Solid Earth and PlanetsD 107 @IIAF rmiltonD iF vF @IWUTAD ritions of density nd porosity with depth in deepEse sediE mentsD Journal of Sedimentary PetrologyD 46 @PAD PVH{QHHF repD wFD F fudD F weredithD F iniguerrD eF fellD nd sF win @PHIIAD frittle reep in slt nd its pplition to timeEdependent volno deformtionD Earth and Planetary Science LettersD 307 @IPAD UI{VPF repD wF tFD F fudD F qF weredithD eF pF fellD nd sF qF win @PHHWAD imeEdependent rittle reep in hrley hle sndstoneD J. Geophys. Res.D 114 @fUAD fHUDPHQ{F renryD tF FD tF quetD nd tF F nrez @IWUUAD ixperimentl study of rk propE gtion in lite roksD International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences & Geomechanics AbstractsD 14 @SETAD eUU{eUUD HIRVEWHTP doiX hysX IHFIHITGHIRVEWHTP@UUAWHUTPEVF reydriD iF @PHHHAD orosity lossD uid owD nd mss trnsfer in limestone reservoirsY pplition to the upper jurssi mkover formtionD wississippiD AAPG BulletinD 84 @IAD IHH{IIVF rikmnD F rFD nd fF ivns @IWWIAD ixperimentl pressure solution in hlite E the eet of grin interphse oundry strutureD Journal of the Geological SocietyD 148D SRW{STHF RS rikmnD F rFD nd fF ivns @IWWSAD uinetis of pressure solution t hliteEsili interE fes nd intergrnulr ly lmsD Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid EarthD 100 @fUAD IQDIIQ{IQDIQPF rugmnD F rF rFD nd wF priedmn @IWUWAD iets of texture nd omposition on mehnil ehvior of experimentlly deformed ronte roksD AAPG BulletinD 63 @WAD IRUV { IRVWF tegerD tF gFD xF qF F gookD nd F F immermn @PHHUAD Fundamentals of rock mechanicsD Rth edFD flkwell pulishingF tohnsonD uF vF @IWVSAD Contact mechanicsD gmridge niversity ressD gmridgeF touniuxD vFD wF morD nd F eushle @PHHTAD iletril ondutivity evolution of nonEsturted ronte roks during deformtion up to filureD Geophysical Journal InternationalD 167 @PAD IHIU{IHPTF urzD FD iF ehronovD hF irtsD F olizzottiD nd gF rF holz @PHHTAD tility of sodium hloride indenter ontt undergoing pressure solutionD GeologyD 34 @IAD TI{TQD doiXIHFIIQHGqPIUPPFIF uoehnD hFD pF enrdD F oussintD nd gF F sshier @PHHUAD qrowth of stylolite teeth ptterns depending on norml stress nd nite omptionD Earth and Planetary Science LettersD 257 @QRAD SVP{SWSF uopskEwerkelD hF gFD F hF wnnD nd tF F hmoker @IWWRAD gontrols on reservoir development in shelf ronteY upper turssi mkover formtion of elmD AAPG BulletinD 78 @TAD WQV{WSWF uumrD eFD eF httEquptD F hekhrD nd F vF qison @PHHVAD wodeling time lpse seismi monitoring of co 2 sequestrtion in hydroron reservoirs inluding ompositionl nd geohemil eetsD Petroleum Science and TechnologyD 26D VVU{ WIID doiXIHFIHVHGIHWITRTHUHIVPSHSF vumeD FD iF grrioEhuserD tF pF qmondD nd pFenrd @PHHRAD heformtion mehnisms nd uidEdriven mss trnsfers in the reent fult zones of the gorinth rift @greeeAD Comptes Rendus de l'Acad emie des SciencesD 336D QUS{QVQF vwnD fFD nd F ilshw @IWUSAD sndenttion frture E priniples nd pplitionsD Journal of Materials ScienceD 10 @TAD IHRW{IHVIF RT ve quenD FD pF enrdD F rellmnnD iF frosseD wF gollometD hF isserndD nd tF F qrtier @PHHUAD inhned deformtion of limestone nd sndstone in the presene of high pEgy 2 uidsD Journal of Geophysical Research -Solid EarthD 112 @fSAD fHSDRPID doiXIHFIHPWGPHHTtfHHRTQUF vehnerD pF uF @IWWHAD hermodynmis of rok deformtion y pressure solutionD in LettersD 284 @QERAD QVT{QWID doiX IHFIHITGjFepslFPHHWFHRFHRIF ylgnonD gFD tF ghevlierD nd F uhrd @PHHTAD qlol desription of rk propE gtion in ermisD Journal of the European Ceramic SocietyD 26 @ISAD QHSI{QHSWD doiX IHFIHITGjFjeurermsoFPHHSFIIFHHRF lhikD FD nd F rF rtzor @PHHPAD grk dmge stress s omposite funtion of porosity nd elsti mtrix stiness in dolomites nd limestonesD Engineering GeologyD 63 @QERAD PQQ{PRSF tersonD wF F @IWUQAD xonhydrostti thermodynmis nd its geologi pplitionsD Reviews of GeophysicsD 11 @PAD QSS{QVWF tersonD wF FD nd F fF ong @PHHRAD Experimental rock deformation; the brittle eldD Pnd edFD pringerEerlgF ferlinD pederl epuli of qermnyF olkD eFD hF ilsworthD tF viuD nd eF olk @PHHQAD pontneous swithing of permeE ility hnges in limestone frture under net dissolutionD Water. Resour. Res.D 40D HQSHPF fvihD pFD gF rF F gF uendllD nd F F odd @IWVRAD he reltionship etween ousti properties nd the petrogrphi hrter of ronte roksD GeophysicsD 49 @IHAD ITPP{ITQTF RV jD F @IWVPAD greep in polyrystlline ggregtes y mtter trnsport through liquidE phseD Journal of Geophysical ResearchD 87 @xfTAD RUQI{RUQWF thD eFD F ixnerD gF sheggD fF qrsemnnD F vnerD nd iF hrgnits @PHIIAD higeneti ontrol of deformtion mehnisms in deformtion nds in ronte grinstoneD AAPG BulletinD 95 @VAD IQTW{IQVIF enrdD pFD nd F tF yrtolev @IWWUAD ter lms t grinEgrin onttsY deyeE huekelD osmoti model of stressD slinityD nd minerlogy dependeneD Geochimica et Cosmochimica ActaD 61 @IHAD IWTQ{IWUHF enrdD pFD tF F qrtierD nd fF tmtveit @PHHHAD uinetis of rkEselingD intergrnE ulr pressure solutionD nd omption round tive fultsD Journal of Structural GeologyD 22D IQWS{IRHUF enrdD pFD hF hystheD tF pederD uF fj(rlykkeD nd fF tmtveit @PHHIAD inhned pressure solution reep rtes indued y ly prtilesY experimentl evidene in slt ggregtesD Geophysical Research LettersD 28 @UAD IPWS{IPWVF enrdD pFD tF hmittuhlD tFEF qrtierD F wekinD nd iF werino @PHHRAD hreeE dimensionl roughness of stylolites in limestonesD J. Geophys. Res.D 109 @fQAD fHQDPHW{F ennerD tFD nd pF ummel @IWWTAD he eet of experimentl nd mirostruturl prmeters on the trnsition from rittle filure to tlsti ow of ronte roksD TectonophysicsD 258 @IERAD ISI{ITWD doiXIHFIHITGHHRHEIWSI@WSAHHIWPEIF ieD tF FD nd wF F glery @IWUTAD ome si stress diusion solutions for uidE sturted elsti porousEmedi with ompressile onstituentsD Reviews of Geo-physicsD 14 @PAD PPU{PRIF ikenD F @IWVUAD he ronte omption lwX new toolD SedimentologyD 34 @RAD SUI{SVRD doiXIHFIIIIGjFIQTSEQHWIFIWVUFtHHUVUFxF immelD qFD F frletEqoudrdD nd pF enrd @PHIHAD ivolution of the petrophysil nd minerlogil properties of two reservoir roks under thermodynmi onditions relevnt for CO 2 geologil storge t Q km depthD Oil Gas Sci. Technol. Rev. IFPD 65 @RAD STS{SVHF RW oydenD vFD nd gF iF ueen @IWVHAD ifting proess nd therml evolution of the onE tinentl mrgin of istern gnd determined from susidene urvesD Earth and Planetary Science LettersD 51 @PAD QRQ{QTIF (yneD eFD tF fisshopD nd hF uF hysthe @PHIIAD ixperimentl investigtion of surfe energy nd suritil rk growth in liteD J. Geophys. Res.D 116 @fRAD fHRDPHRD doiXIHFIHPWGPHIHtfHHVHQQF ozhkoD eFD F odldhikovD nd pF enrd @PHHUAD pilure ptterns used y lolized rise in poreEuid overpressure nd eetive strength of roksD Geophysical Research LettersD 34D vPPDQHRD doiXIHFIHPWGPHHUqvHQIDTWTF uizD pFD nd tF hvorkin @PHHWAD ediment with porous grinsX okEphysis model nd pplition to mrine ronte nd oplD GeophysicsD 74 @IAD iI{iISF ustihelliD eFD iF ondiD pF egostD eF gilonD nd wF qiorgioni @PHIPAD hevelopment nd distriution of edEprllel omption nds nd pressure solution sems in rontes @olognno formtionD mjell mountinD itlyAD Journal of Structural GeologyD 37 @HAD IVI{IWWF utterD iF rF @IWUPAD he inuene of interstitil wter on the rheologil ehviour of lite roksD TectonophysicsD 14 @IAD IQ{QQF utterD iF rF @IWUTAD he kinetis of rok deformtion y pressure solutionD Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series A: Mathematical and Physical SciencesD 283 @IQIPAD PHQ{PIWF utterD iF rF @IWVQAD ressure solution in ntureD theory nd experimentD Journal of the Geological Society of LondonD 140 @SAD UPS{URHF hmokerD tF FD nd F fF rlley @IWVPAD gronte porosity versus depthY preE ditle reltion for outh ploridD AAPG BulletinD 66 @IPAD PSTI{PSUHF holleD F eFD nd F fF rlley @IWVSAD furil digenesisY out of sightD out of mind3D in pigure IX orosity loss with depth in rontes from dierent environments @tting urves for hh leg PU from Hamilton @IWUTAD nd for yh veg IQH from Bassinot et al. @IWWQAF sullyD suh dt re ttedD to rst pproximtionD using eqution IF SS pigure PX eA wirostylolite @white rrowAD forminifers re trunted y enhned dissoE lution djent to thin ly sem @piture from yh veg IWPD ite IIVQAF fA tylolite @white rrowA in plmorough hlkD orkshireD uF gA vimestone pele frtures lled with lite @white rrowAD re of qrenoleD prne @piture from Gratier et al. @IWWWAAF hA vimestone from wonsD felgium where single lite grins @riniod fossilsA show grin interpenetrtion @lrge rrowAF ST pigure SX wehnil omption of ronte rokF A tress{strin reltionship for rok deformtionF prom e to f is the elsti nd reversile prtD f is the onset of yield nd permnent deformtionD g is the pek stress efore the smple ollpse in h due to formtion of frtureF A rixil onditions deformtion of the wjel grinstone showing the trnsition from deformtion with pek stress @SD IHD IT w onning stressA to more dutile deformtion @pore ollpseD tlsti owA ove PHw onE ning stressF ht from Baud et al. @PHHWAF EdAX ixmple of stress{strin reltionship from unixil ompression tests in dry limestones @solid linesA nd dolostones @dshed linesAD the porosity of the smples is indited in the ptionF ht from c a refF 7 gGm 3 q q q 1 w vimestonesX olenhofen s -1 diffusion-controlled pressure solution creep at low strains; fo high strains, the strain rate decreases (interface-controlled process)

le PX eleted experimentl studies of reep in ronte roksF TT

  IWWTY Baud et al.D PHHHY Palchik and HatzorD PHHPY Vajdova et al.D PHHRAD ompresE sionl nd sher wves propgtion mesurements @Couvreur et al.D PHHIY Eberli et al.D PHHQY Vanorio et al.D PHHVA or eletril ondutivity mesurements in uid sturted smples @Jouniaux et al.D PHHTAF hese dierent methods llow to etter onstrin the mehnisms responsile for ronte mehnil omptionF rydrostti trixil tests @Baud et al.D PHHHY Couvreur et al.D PHHIY Vajdova et al.D PHHRAD unixil ompresE sion tests @Palchik and HatzorD PHHPY Jouniaux et al.D PHHTY Croiz e et al.D PHIHA nd trixil ompression tests with vrious onning pressure @Renner and RummelD IWWTY Couvreur et al.D

3. 2

 2 Chemical compaction 3.2.1 Theoretical background Pressure solution creep: ressure solution reep is n importnt proess of porosE ity elimintion in sedimentry sins @SorbyD IVTQY RutterD IWVQY Tada and SieverD IWVWA or omption nd heling of tive fults @Angevine et al.D IWVPY Hickman and EvansD IWWSY Renard et al.D PHHHY Yasuhara et al.D PHHQD PHHSAF rious types

  et al.D PHHPY Zhang and SpiersD PHHSDY Liteanu and SpiersD PHHWA or on ne to medium grined snd using stndrd 'dometerD @Croiz e et al.D PHIHAD nd on the other hnd on lite rystls indented y glss or ermi indenters @Zubtsov et al.D PHHSY Croiz e et al.D PHIHAF sn set of experimentsD the eet of the presene of ron dioxide dissolved into the pore uid ws lso studied @Le Guen et al.D PHHUY Liteanu and SpiersD PHHWY GrgicD PHIIY Liteanu et al.D PHIPAF ome experimentl results of hemil omption of ronte roksD s well s indenter experiments re given in le PF sf suritil rk growth is the min deformtion mehnismD roks fil t stresses lower thn their short term filure strengthF he eet of temperture nd wter on filure due to suritil rk growth ws studied in sndstones @Chester et al.D PHHUY Heap et al.D PHHWA or slt @Heap et al.D PHIIAF eltively few dt re ville on suritil PU rk growth proesses in rontesF he eet of pore wter nd temperture on filure of limestones ws studied y Rutter @IWUPA nd Ryne et al. @PHIIA investigted suritil rk growth on lite rystlsF Pressure solution, indentation experiments: sing miroEindenter to pressure dissolve lite ws done in few studies @Zubtsov et al.D PHHSY Croiz e et al.D PHIHAF

  .D PHHQY Vanorio et al.D PHIHY Croiz e et al.D PHIHA or promote rk propgtion @Adam et al.D PHHTY Croiz e et al.D PHIHA oth leding to lower ultrsoni or seismi wve propgtion veloity thn the ones predited y qsmnn theoryF

  of porosityEdepth trends with formtion wter hemistryF pE per grphsX shllow depth rontesF vower grphsX deep rontesF @mkover dtX Schmoker and Halley @IWVPAY Moldovanyi and Walter @IWWPAY ikosk dtX Lubanzadio et al. @PHHPAY Warren and Smalley @omption of ronte sndF EA gomption of iolsti ronte snd with dierent grin sizesD in presene of wter or dry @Croiz e et al.D PHIHAF EdA orosity redution of ronte snd during unixil omptionD repreE sented on liner plot @A or semilogrithmi representtion @dA for dierent grin sizes @Chuhan et al.D PHHQAF he dshed line serves s guide for the eye to indite where the strin{stress dependene n e pproximted y logrithmi trendF SV

  xil stress in vrious rontes s funtion of porosityF he grph on the right side is zoom of the lower stress prt of the left side grph @ll the tests were onduted under dry onditionsD exept for the dt from Jouniaux et al. hemti view of the three steps of pressure solution reep proessF fA hree dierent grin oundry geometries onsidered in the litertureF TI pigure VX ivolution of the rk propgtion veloity t stress intensity ftor lower thn the ritil stress intensity ftorF TP le IX ome elsti moduli vlues for prtiulr limestone nd hlk roks referened in

  experiments on liteF A riniple of the experiment @Zubtsov et al.D PHHSAF A ime evolution of the displement of the indenter into lite rystlF et timeaIIRh stress perturtion ws imposedD leding to enhned deformtionF A yptil imging of hole otined y indenttion of lite monorystlF dA hite light interferometry imging of the topogrphy of hole under the indenter nd presene of rdil rks in the liteF eA hite light interferometry of hole into lite rystl elow spheril glss indenterF he two rossEsetions nd show tht hole hs developed elow the indenter represented s red urvesF edpted from Zubtsov et al. @PHHSA nd Croiz e et al. @PHIHAF TR pigure IHX xonEliner time dependene of hemil omption in ronte roks nd ggregtes during lortory experimentsF A ime evolution of unixil deformtion of limestone ore in the presene of CO 2 dissolved into the pore uidF A he vertil shortening of the ore smple ours y suessive inrements of fst deformtion nd more quiet periods of slow reepF his oservtion illustrtes the possiility of interE mittent reep in ronte roksF his n e explined y ompetition of pressure solution nd plsti deformtion t grin ontts @Le Guen et al.D PHHUAF A gomE ption s funtion of time of ronte sndD showing power lw dependene in time @Croiz e et al.D PHIHAF dA gomption reep of rushed grrr wrle showing lso nonEliner dependene in time @Liteanu and SpiersD PHHWAF TS pressure solution, salinity (up to 0.5 M) increases the rate of pressure solution creep for calcite. The presence of some inhibiting ions or oil reduces the strain rate [Zubtsov et al.to 50 nm/h diffusion-controlled pressure solution, microcracks increase the strain rate for one order of magnitude at least [Le Guen et al.nm/h nanometer resolution roughness measurements indicate that the rate of pressure solution creep in calcite is controlled by interface roughness and formation of cracks [Zhang et al.

  Deformation Processes in Minerals, Ceramics and RocksD edited y hF tF frer nd F qF weredithD pF RPQD nwin rymn vtdD vondonD nited uingdomF vehnerD pF uF @IWWSAD e model for intergrnulr pressure solution in open systemsDTectonophysicsD 245 @QERAD ISQ{IUHF vehnerD pF uFD nd tF ftille @IWVRAD xonequilirium thermodynmis of pressure solutionD Pure and Applied GeophysicsD 122 @IAD SQ{VSF vitenuD iFD nd gF tF piers @PHHWAD snuene of pore uid slt ontent on omption reep of lite ggregtes in the presene of superritil gy 2 D Chemical GeologyD 265 @IEPAD IQR{IRUD doiXIHFIHITGjFhemgeoFPHHVFIPFHIHF vitenuD iFD eF xiemeijerD gF tF piersD gF tF ehD nd tF rF F de fresser @PHIPAD he eet of CO 2 on reep of wet lite ggregtesD J. Geophys. nd fF iF rill @IWVQAD untittive studies of omption in wississippin skeletl limestonesD xew wexioD Journal of Sedimentary PetrologyD 53 @IAD PQI{ PRPF woldovnyiD iF FD nd vF wF lter @IWWPAD egionl trends in wter hemistryD mkE over formtionD southwest erknssY geohemil nd physil ontrolsD AAPG Bul-letinD 76 @TAD VTR{VWRF wooreD gF rF @PHHIAD Carbonate reservoirs; porosity evolution and diagenesis in a sequence stratigraphic frameworkD Developments in SedimentologyD volF SSD ilseE vierF emsterdmEyxfordExew orkD xetherlndsF xiemeijerD eFD gF piersD nd fF fos @PHHPAD gomption reep of qurtz snd t RHHTHH gX experimentl evidene for dissolutionEontrolled pressure solutionD Earth and Planetary Science LettersD 195 @QRAD PTI{PUSF xiemeijerD eFD hF ilsworthD nd gF wrone @PHHWAD ignint eet of grin size disE triution on omption rtes in grnulr ggregtesD Earth and Planetary Science

	weyersD F tFD
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	eetive stress in hlkY null result from xorth e well dtD Marine and Petroleum
	GeologyD 19 @VAD WPI{WPUF
	vuiD pF tF @IWWSAD ok E fri G petrophysil lssition of ronte pore spe
	for reservoir hrteriztionD AAPG BulletinD 79 @WAD IPUS { IQHHF
	wirD uFD nd tF pF rzzrd @PHHUAD xture of stress ommodtion in shered grnE
	ulr mterilX snsights from Qh numeril modelingD Earth and Planetary Science
	LettersD 259 @QERAD RTW{RVSF
	wvkoD qFD F wukerjiD nd tF hvorkin @PHHWAD The Rock Physics Handbook: Tools
	for Seismic Analysis of Porous MediaD Pnd edFD gmridge niversity ressD gmE
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	weyersD F tF @IWVHAD gomption in wississippin skeletl limestonesD southwestern
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  nd F eF pF ghristie @IWVHAD gontinentl strethingY n explntion of the postEmidEreteous susidene of the entrl xorth e sinD Journal of Geophysical ResearchD 85 @fUAD QUII{QUQWF hinnD iF eFD nd hF wF oin @IWVQAD wehnil nd hemil omption in neE grined shllowEwter limestonesD Journal of Sedimentary PetrologyD 53 @PAD SWS{ TIVF oryD rF @IVTSAD yn impressed limestone peleD Proceedings West Yorkshire Geological SocietyD 4D RSV{RTIF oryD rF gF @IVTQAD he kerin letureX yn the diret orreltion of mehnil nd hemil foresD Proceedings of the Royal Society of LondonD 12D SQV{SSHF piersD gF tFD nd F wF F wF hutjens @IWWHAD hensition of rystlline ggregtes y uid E phse diusionl reepD in Deformation Processes in Minerals, Ceramics and RocksD edited y hF tF frer nd F qF weredithD pF RPQD nwin rymn vtdD vondonD nited uingdomF pruntD iF FD nd eF xur @IWUUAD ixperimentl study of the eets of stress on solution rteD Journal of Geophysical ResearchD 82 @PHAD QHIQ{QHPPF tortiD pFD eF filliD nd pF lvini @PHHQAD rtile size distriutions in nturl ronte fult roksX insights for nonEselfEsimilr tlsisD Earth and Planetary Science LettersD 206 @IPAD IUQ{IVTF dD FD nd F iever @IWVTAD ixperimentl knifeEedge pressure solution of hliteD Geochimica et Cosmochimica ActaD 50 @IAD PW{QTD doiXIHFIHITGHHITEUHQU@VTAWHHRSE IF dD FD nd F iever @IWVWAD ressure solution during digenesisD Annual Review of Earth and Planetary SciencesD 17D VW{IIVF erzghiD uF @IWPSAD Erdbaumechanik auf bodenphysikalischer GrundlageD heutikeD pD veipzigGiennF erzghiD uFD nd F fF ek @IWTUAD Soil mechanics in engineering practiceD ileyD xew orkD Pnd edF ondiD iFD wF entonelliniD eF eydinD vF wrheginiD nd qF gello @PHHTAD he role of deformtion ndsD stylolites nd shered stylolites in fult development in ronte SI grinstones of wjell wountinD stlyD Journal of Structural GeologyD 28 @QAD QUT{ QWIF urotteD hF vFD nd qF huert @IWVPAD Geodynamics; applications of continuum physics to geological problemsD tohn iley 8 onsD xew orkD xD nited ttesF jdovD FD F fudD nd F fF ong @PHHRAD gomptionD diltnyD nd filure in porous ronte roksD Journal of Geophysical Research, B, Solid Earth and PlanetsD 109D fHSDPHRD doiXIHFIHPWGPHHQtfHHPSHVF jdovD FD F huD FEwF xtlie ghenD nd FEpF ong @PHIHAD wiromehnis of rittle fulting nd tlsti ow in tvel limestoneD Journal of Structural GeologyD 32 @VAD IISV{IITWF vn xoortD FD nd gF tF piers @PHHWAD uineti eets of mirosle plstiity t grin oundries during pressure solutionD Journal of Geophysical ResearchD 114D doiX IHFIHPWGPHHVtfHHSTQRF vn xoortD FD rF tF wF isserD nd gF tF piers @PHHVAD snuene of grin oundry struture on dissolution ontrolled pressure solution nd retrding eets of grin oundry helingD J. Geophys. Res.D 113D doiX IHFIHPWGPHHUtfHHSPPQF norioD FD gF otellroD nd qF wvko @PHHVAD he eet of hemil nd physil proesses on the ousti properties of ronte roksD The Leading EdgeD 27 @VAD IHRH{IHRVF norioD FD qF wvkoD F illeD nd uF prtt @PHIHAD he rok physis sis for Rh seismi monitoring of CO 2 fteX ere we there yetcD The Leading EdgeD 29 @PAD IST{ITPF lleD wF FD qF F roldgteD tF hnielsD F tF qllgherD nd eF mith @PHHPAD oni veloityD sumrine nyonsD nd uril digenesis in oligoeneEholoene oolE wter rontesD qippslnd sinD outhest eustrliD AAPG BulletinD 86 @WAD ISWQ{ITHUF lshD tF fFD nd F pF fre @IWTTAD ilstiity of rokX review of some reent theoretil studiesD Rock Mechanics and Engineering GeologyD 4D PVQ{PWUF ngD F @IWWUAD eismi properties of ronte roksD in Carbonate seismologyD volF TD edited y sF lz nd uF tF wrfurtD ppF PW{SPD iqF SP ngD F tFD wF iF gtesD nd F F vngn @IWWVAD eismi monitoring of CO 2 ood in ronte reservoirX e rok physis studyD GeophysicsD 63 @SAD ITHR{ITIUF nlessD rF F @IWUWAD vimestone response to stressY pressure solution nd dolomitizE tionD Journal of Sedimentary PetrologyD 49 @PAD RQU{RTPF rrenD iF eFD nd F gF mlley @IWWRAD he ikosk eldD in North Sea formation waters atlasD Memoir -Geological Society of LondonD volF ISD edited y iF eF rren nd F gF mlleyD pF PWD flkwell for the qeologil oiety of vondonD vondonD nited uingdomF eylD F uF @IWSWAD ressure solution nd the fore of rystlliztion { phenomenoE logil theoryD Journal of Geophysical ResearchD 64 @IIAD PHHI{PHPSF ongD FEfFD gF hvidD nd fF wen edez @PHHRAD wehnil omptionD in Mechanics of Fluid -Saturated RocksD edited y F qu eguen nd wF fout eD snterntionl geophysis seriesD pF RSHD ilsevier edemi ressD emsterdmF srD iFD nd F irdogn @PHHRAD gorrelting sound veloity with the densityD omE pressive strength nd oung9s modulus of ronte roksD International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences (1997)D 41 @SAD VUI{VUSF suhrD rFD hF ilsworthD nd eF olk @PHHQAD e mehnisti model for omption of grnulr ggregtes moderted y pressure solutionD Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid EarthD 108 @fIIAF suhrD rFD gF wroneD nd hF ilsworth @PHHSAD pult zone restrengthening nd fritionl helingX the role of pressure solutionD Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid EarthD 110D fHTQIHF suhrD rFD hF ilsworthD eF olkD tF viuD eF qrder nd F rllek @PHHTAD pontE neous permeility swithing in frtures in ronteX lumped prmeter represenE ttion of mehnillyE nd hemillyEmedited dissolutionD Transport in Porous MediaD 65D QVS{RHWF hngD FD tF lemnsD gF tF ehD nd gF tF piers @PHHPAD gomption experiments on wet lite powder t room tempertureY evidene for opertion of intergrnulr pressure solutionD in Deformation mechanisms, rheology and tectonics; current status and future perspectivesD Geological Society Special PublicationsD volF PHHD SQ edited y F de weerD F hrury wrtynD tF rF F de fresserD nd wF ennok qillD ppF PW{QWD qeologil oiety of vondonD vondonD nited uingdomF hngD FD nd gF tF piers @PHHSAD gomption of grnulr lite y pressure solution t room temperture nd eets of pore uid hemistryD International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining SciencesD 42D WSH{WTHF hngD FD nd gF tF piers @PHHSAD iets of phosphte ions on intergrnulr pressure solution in liteX en experimentl studyD Geochimica et Cosmochimica ActaD 69 @PRAD STVI{STWIF hngD FD gF tF piersD nd gF tF eh @PHIHAD gomption reep of wet grnulr lite y pressure solution t PV g to ISH D Journal of Geophysical ResearchD 115D fHWPIUF huD FD F fudD nd FEfF ong @PHIHAD wiromehnis of tlsti pore ollpse in limestoneD J. Geophys. Res.D 115 @fRAD fHRDRHSF utsovD FD pF enrdD tF F qrtierD hF uF hystheD nd F rskine @PHHSAD ingleE ontt pressure solution reep on lite monorystlsD in Deformation mecha-

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