Elisabeth Dorier

Hilary S Handin

© Dorier

Marseille as Privatopia Th e Collapsing City, the Gated City

Marseille as Privatopia The Collapsing City, the Gated City

Since 2018, a major crisis has highlighted the striking deterioration of housing in the working-class city center. Th e collapse of two buildings near the Vieux Port caused eight deaths and necessitated the urgent, preventative evacuation of more than six hundred old buildings labeled "at risk" (see fi g. 11. 1). Th e harsh methods of the fi rst residential evacuations generated fears of potential opportunist strategies for evicting the lowest-income populations out of the city center, which would situate Marseille within the classic evolution of gentrifi cation. 5 Th e tragedy led to strong mobilization around the issue of unfi t housing, provoking the creation of activist groups that criticized municipal management (see Berroir's chapter in this volume). Th e state interfered directly, as much to manage the humanitarian emergency as to organize the old city center's renewal over the following fi fteen years. How did we arrive at such a situation and at the state's emergency interventionism in the second-largest French metropolitan center? Offi cial discourse evokes the inevitable industrial and socioeconomic decline of the past fi fty years. 6 But our research shows instead the eff ects of a local political system of "passive government" instituted several decades ago. It simultaneously stimulated private owners' income-both from rental units (rente locative) in the underprivileged, central neighborhoods and from land (rente foncière) in the well-to-do peripheral areas-and the enclosure of private residences in wealthy suburbs. Th is crisis contributed to the defeat of the incumbent mayor Jean-Claude Gaudin and his team, in power for twenty-fi ve years. Since June 2020, Marseille has been led by an alliance of elected offi cials from left-wing and environmentalist parties, which has the challenge of developing a consensual urban renewal program for Marseille's central neighborhoods that respects their working-class character. Faced with the signifi cant stakes of real estate and property pressures, can the options now at hand change the course of the evolution in progress?

Social Inequalities and Housing

Marseille is one of the largest municipalities in France (it has twice the surface area of Paris). It encompasses 863,310 residents within its city limits (46 percent of residents of the wider metropolitan area, hereafter referred to as the Métropole). [START_REF] Th E | Aix-Marseille-Provence" Métropole includes ninety-two municipalities with 1[END_REF] Inequalities are particularly strong, with a median diff erence in income from one to fi fteen between the wealthiest 10 percent and the most underprivileged. [START_REF]Calculations and cartography based on declared median income by unit of consumption in 2015. Analysis from the Localized Social and Fiscal File (Fichier Localisé Social et Fiscal, FiLoSoFi)[END_REF] A diff erence in scale of this magnitude is unusual in a city that is not a major international metropolis. [START_REF]Th e lowest declared incomes include allocations such as the RSA or Active Solidarity Income (575[END_REF] With a dense working-class sector from the center to the north and wealthier sectors to the south and on the outskirts, social segregation exists even within city limits. Th e center has remained predominantly working class despite the beginnings of gentrifi cation encouraged by successive municipal administrations. [START_REF] Jourdan | Le centre-ville. " 11. Roncayalo, Les grammaires; and Zalio, Grandes familles[END_REF]

Th e Spread of Wealthy Residential Spaces

Th e middle-and upper-class bastions stretch south the length of the coastline toward the Parc national des Calanques and to the east and its hilly natural spaces. Beginning in the nineteenth century, the bourgeoisie abandoned its buildings in the old city center and set to establish itself toward the south. 11 In the twentieth century, its heirs subdivided their leisure estates and agricultural lands (bastides) into condominiums settled by the middle classes. A veritable "white fl ight" permanently transformed the old city center into a space welcoming migrants and Marseille, larger and more unequal than Paris intra-muros working-class tenants. With both apartment buildings surrounded by gardens and widespread individual housing, the residential arrondissements on the outskirts are not densely populated. [START_REF]Marseille is divided into sixteen arrondissements[END_REF] Owner-occupants comprise the majority of residents. Today, this area attracts new middleclass arrivals drawn by the sun, sea, rocky inlets, and quality housing off ers. [START_REF] Arrighi | À Marseille[END_REF] Marseille's average poverty rate (26 percent, or 210,000 people) 14 is the highest of large French cities. But in contrast to wealthy suburban sprawl, this poverty is concentrated around the city center and toward the north (between the Vieux Port and the train station, more than 40 percent and as many as three-fourths of the residents are poor) (see fi g. 11.3). 15

Social Housing and Poverty in the Northern Neighborhoods

Marseille's public-sector housing strategies partially explain the concentration of poverty in the quartiers nord, but not in the center. For the past fi fty years, large, low-income HLM housing projects (mass subsidized, rent-controlled residential housing) were especially constructed in the north, extending away from the port and its now-shuttered industries, as Figure 11.4 demonstrates (see also Naylor's chapter in this volume).

Th e 21-percent ratio of housing units built in response to the Urban Solidarity and Renewal Law (Loi Solidarité et renouvellement urbain) mapped here is the offi cial French fi gure. [START_REF]In France, the Urban Solidarity and Renewal Law[END_REF] But it also includes subsidized housing for students or units requiring a middle-class income. Our Figure 11.5, showing "very social" family housing, [START_REF]Th is calculation of "familial" housing excludes emergency shelters and student housing. Map created through an analysis of raw data from the 2018 Social Rental Housing Stock Register[END_REF] was created according to rent criteria (fewer than six euros per square meter) and reveals seri- ous inadequacies. [START_REF]Th e least expensive social housing ([END_REF] Th is is the only social housing accessible by right to the 26 percent of households that public aid criteria defi ne as "poor. " But it only represents 11.5 percent of all housing, which causes interminable delays. Concentrated in the working-class outskirts, where it consigns the poorest populations, social housing does not exceed 6 percent in the central, old neighborhoods.

Th e Poorest Populations Live in Old, Private Rental Housing in the City Center

Th e working-class character of Marseille's old city center is an exception among French metropolitan centers, whose restored historical neighborhoods have been gentrifi ed. [START_REF]Les taux de pauvreté. " 20. Th e ANRU is a public agency piloting the National Urban Renewal Plan (PNRU) in coordination with local governments and social housing lessors[END_REF] Th e poorest neighborhoods of France are located between the Vieux Port and the north of the train station.

Social Family Residences

Criterion used: rent less than 6 euros /m2 * 11.15% of family social housing residences at a monthly rent of less than 6€/m² (44,274 Th is center-north area is the subject of a program of the Agence nationale pour la rénovation urbaine (National Agency for Urban Renewal), 20 which ordinarily intervenes in poor suburbs. Th e old housing there is private and predominantly rented (owner-occupants represent fewer than 20 percent of residents). [START_REF]Source: the "Logement" infra-municipal database[END_REF] Poor tenant households' settlement in the city center despite the near-absence of social housing results from economic and community-based mechanisms. Th e residents are particularly poor, with the lowest incomes in the city: isolated chibani retirees, [START_REF]Chibani: name given to retirees of North African origin who live in precarious circumstances after having worked for many years in France[END_REF] single-parent families, and "informal" workers (in construction and the food service industry) who need to live close to the city center to get by on a daily basis. Th ese neighborhoods also have a concentration of recent migrants, primarily of African origin. [START_REF] Ascarides | La ville précaire; Baby-Collin and Bouillon[END_REF] Th ough it remains predominantly working-class, the Noailles neighborhood near the Vieux Port is becoming one of the city's tourist at- tractions, and this is thanks precisely to its colorful "ethnic" businesses, especially African ones. [START_REF] D'hombres | Les territoires[END_REF] It also charms the "pioneers" of gentrifi cation (students, artists, and intellectuals), who have often come from other French or European cities. However, these neighborhoods are considered repulsive by the middle and upper classes, who have chosen to move away from the working-class city center and never set foot there. 25 Marseille's social boundaries are also community-based. Stemming from ethnic origins more than nationality or even place of birth, they are diffi cult to study because French legislation prohibits all "ethnic" or religious statistics. Analyzing fi les of fi rst names provides an approximation, but this politically sensitive subject is often avoided. A study conducted from 2016 to 2019 concerning the urban representations of 1,100 Marseille high school students, including 300 youth from the privileged southern neighborhoods, confi rmed that Noailles is the neighborhood most often considered "repulsive" and stigmatized, frequently in the absence of direct experience. [START_REF] Dorier | Les jeunes et la ville. " 27[END_REF] Feeding underlying racist prejudices, the deteriorated housing, dirty streets, and prevailing insalubrity are attributed not to the lack of upkeep by landlords or the municipality but to the residents' practices. Th ese shared representations no doubt explain the denial of questions of poverty, inequalities, and unfi t housing that have marked Marseille's politics for decades.

Contrasting living conditions Population densities in Marseille

Housing Inequalities: Th e Overcrowded City

Rate of occupancy is one of the indicators of potential "bad housing, " a notion that encompasses "over-occupation, " 27 insalubrity, and "danger" (risk of collapse). It is a lens for evaluating one of the most concrete consequences of inequality in Marseille. Note the resemblance between Figure 11.7, showing the average number of people per room in primary residences, and Figure 11.3, illustrating poverty levels. With equivalent average population density per square kilometer (always higher in the city center and lower on the outskirts), [START_REF]Marseille's average density is 5,703[END_REF] one can see the extent of contrasts in housing conditions related to social diff erences. Th e size of private, old housing in the city center is diminishing with the speculative practice of purchasing apartments chopped into small units to increase rental profi ts. Not every owner, whether heir to a family-owned building or an investor, is a slumlord, and certain small accommodations are "decent. " But the overcrowding of private rental units is the daily reality of the most vulnerable residents, whose employment is precarious and who are denied access to social housing. Added to these disparities in occupation density is residents' unequal access to natural spaces (the sea, hills, parks, and private gardens). During the COVID epidemic, sev-eral contagion "clusters" developed in zones of overcrowded housing, particularly in the 3rd arrondissement (St. Mauront, Belle de Mai) and in the impoverished areas of the northern neighborhoods.

Th e Collapsing City: A Crisis of Buildings at Risk and Evacuations in the City Center

It was in Noailles, the historical, small-business, and working-class center of Marseille, that eight residents-migrants, artists, and studentsdied in the collapse of two decrepit apartment buildings on 5 November 2018. Th e emotional, media, and political shock took on a national and international scale, with articles in Le Monde and Th e New York Times. Mayor Gaudin provoked an outcry by citing rain and landslides as the only cause. Highlighting municipal inertia, one of the collapsed buildings had belonged to the city for ten years. Th e other building belonged to private owners, including a local elected offi cial, which brought the historical connections between Marseille's political and real estate worlds to the fore. Media and legal investigations exposed signifi cant government negligence, even indulgence, regarding unscrupulous real estate businesses, property owners, and property management companies that even acted as slumlords.

Under pressure, the mayor's offi ce ordered the emergency evacuation of nearby buildings as a preventative measure. Hundreds of others were inspected and declared "at risk": 1,300 people were evacuated in fi fteen days; more than 5,000 were evacuated from more than six hundred buildings over two years. Th ough residents' security was the goal of these evacuations, they took place in traumatizing emergency conditions. Th e occupants of a building recognized as "at risk" had less than an hour to leave their residence, supervised by fi re fi ghters and the police. When evacuations were ordered due to dangerous conditions, it fell to the owner-landlord to provide accommodations during the completion of the construction work required before residents could return to their homes. But in light of many owners' insuffi cient response, the city took over and ensured emergency accommodations in hotels, [START_REF]Th e owner at fault must then reimburse hotel costs[END_REF] where family life proved impossible. Many forced hotel stays lasted several weeks to several months while residents waited for their buildings to be secured. Th e construction ordered by some slumlords was botched and poorly overseen by the city. Some attempted to rehouse their tenants in equally unfi t units. A temporary situation hence extended over several months for the most vulnerable households. Many households evacuated in 2018 still had not been rehoused in 2021. According to a report by the Haut Comité au logement des personnes défavorisées (High Committee for the Housing of Underprivileged Persons), the situation evolved "from a housing crisis into a humanitarian crisis" in the center of France's second-largest city. [START_REF]Haut Comité pour le Logement des Personnes Défavorisées[END_REF]

Associational Activism and Oversight of Evacuations

Th e great majority of the victims of the collapsed buildings on 5 November 2018 were very socially precarious residents, but there were also students, artists, white-collar workers, and even an elected offi cial-a testament to the beginnings of spontaneous gentrifi cation in the city's center. Th e presence of these forerunner residents possessing signifi cant cultural resources explains the substantial local reaction and its political impact in a year preceding municipal elections. In the fi rst days after the collapses, existing associations like Un Centre Ville pour Tous (A City Center for All), founded in 2001 and new groups like the Collectif du 5 novembre and Marseille en Colère (Enraged Marseille) joined forces to organize large street demonstrations and an intense media campaign. Th ey denounced the crisis's causes as much as the response to it, demanding temporary accommodations and new housing more aligned with family life and close to the evacuees' original housing. Mitigating public authorities' signifi cant weaknesses in the fi rst months, they guided the most fragile displaced tenants through the process, particularly households ineligible for public aid (informal roommates and people housed without a lease, etc.). An ensemble of associations that joined these groups with infl uential private institutions, like the Fondation Abbé Pierre, fi ercely negotiated a Rehousing Charter for evacuees. Signed on 8 July 2019 by the mayor's offi ce, the state, and activist groups, its oversight coordination committee aimed to guarantee more humane management of the evacuations, temporary lodgings, and provisional rehousing, above and beyond legal requirements. It ensured a "right to return" in dignifi ed conditions after the evacuation phase: a return to duly secured and habitable original housing or rehousing near the original neighborhood. Th e charter was unevenly respected. Activist groups and the new municipal administration, elected in 2020, nevertheless negotiated its three-year renewal, which was offi cialized in October 2021.

Mechanisms of a "Poor Housing" Market

Observation of buildings evacuated because of dangerous conditions indicates they belong to a largely private rental housing stock, fi rst and foremost to private individuals (personnes physiques) who themselves live in Marseille. Th is stock has long been identifi ed as unmaintained and "potentially unfi t. " [START_REF]). Files of the AVAP (Aire de valorisation et d'aménagement du patrimone, 2015) and the Etude urbaine du quartier de Noailles[END_REF] Th e few owner-occupants are rather low-income. Th e rental of old, unmaintained buildings is a source of profi ts due to pressing demand from a poor, captive clientele, grateful to have access to housing in a centralized location, even in poor condition, and due to the indiscriminate awarding of public subsidies. In France, the income of owners who rent to the poorest populations is guaranteed by individual public benefi ts, usually determined by the quality of housing off ered. But the municipal administration has long closed its eyes to the piteous state of buildings in Marseille's city center, for this housing supply mediates the lack of "very social" housing off ers, leading to incorrect assertions of "de facto social housing. " [START_REF] Fijalkow | [END_REF] According to our studies, the rent per square meter of dangerous housing evacuated since 2018 is two or three times higher than that of social housing with an equivalent surface area. Such prices encourage overcrowding, which exacerbates poor housing conditions. Th e slumlords of deteriorating buildings engage in a particular speculative strategy in order to profi t from monthly rent payments. Out of fear of violent reprisals or eviction, tenants often pay the owners illegal supplementary rent in cash. Our research into land registry fi les confi rms that many landlords in the Noailles, Belsunce, and Belle de Mai neighborhoods themselves live in the wealthiest parts of the city (nearly 40 percent) or in the wider Métropole's wealthy towns.

Th e municipal administration's negligence concerning deteriorated private housing and its lack of intervention with regard to neglectful owners and property management companies have been forcefully blamed for this situation. Nonetheless, a succession of numerous planned operations for housing improvement (OPAH), real estate restoration perimeters (PRI), and programs for the eradication of "unfi t housing" 33 has off ered assistance to private owners. 34 But all these initiatives performed extraordinarily poorly: slumlords benefi ted from public assistance while completing only superfi cial construction work. Th e city expropriated or preemptively purchased rundown buildings, but several of the buildings bought in this manner between 2005 and 2008 to create social housing remained unrenovated, for-profi t furnished hotels, while others were left vacant and subsequently deteriorated, like the building at 63 rue d' Aubagne, which ended up collapsing. Clientelism is a useful interpretive framework for understanding some of this indulgence and inertia. [START_REF] Mattina | Clientélismes urbains; and Peraldi and Samson[END_REF] Negligence and clientelism are often invoked by media outlets, but they do not explain everything; there are also strategic reasons that derive from neoliberal choices. After several unfi nished initiatives in the 1980s and 1990s, the municipal administration's strategies left the old, deteriorated working-class neighborhoods as "fallow land" for future gentrifi cation by allowing rental profi ts to soar there. In the last quarter of a century, the only municipal investments in property renovations in the old neighborhoods concerned buildings with historical value, transformed into luxury hotels granted to private operators, or perimeters assumed to be profi table for large investors. Th e latter benefi ted from access to land, buildings, tax assistance, and public construction equipment, often in partnership with the state in the context of the Euromediterranée Operation of National Interest (see Beschon's chapter in this volume). Such was the case of the operation in the rue de la République, a Haussmann-era artery, which benefi ted from the refurbishment of the road and a tramway. [START_REF] Borja | Attention à la fermeture[END_REF]

Governance of a Crisis of Unfi t Housing: Emergency Management through Private Contracting of Public Services

Faced with these factors of the crisis, improvised management in the early stages, and pressure from activists, the state directly intervened in the implementation, fi nancing, and inspection of measures delegated to private operators in Marseille. Several ministers' visits publicized the state's intervention in the city during a sensitive pre-election period. In the beginning of 2019, an Urban and Social Project Management (Maîtrise d'oeuvre urbaine et sociale, MOUS) rehousing initiative associated the state, the City of Marseille, the Métropole, and two private operators, one for the welcoming and social support of evacuated households and the other for temporary rehousing (SOLIHA). A budget was allocated for the appropriation of empty units from public and private landlords to rehouse eligible evacuated households. Only tenants with a lease were entitled to rehousing, excluding informal roommates and residents who were hosted by others. Th e 514 leases signed by SOLIHA allowed for households' temporary lodging on a rolling basis until each evacuated unit was declared habitable.

But both the provisional and defi nitive rehousing of evacuated households was confronted with the structural lack of social housing in the old city center. As we saw earlier, Marseille remains defi cient in "SRU" housing despite a slight recent increase (21.01 percent compared to the 25 percent requirement), and its central arrondissements especially lack a very inexpensive stock of "familial" social housing (fi g. 11.5). Th e several thousand "very social" housing units constructed in the last few years remain concentrated in the north (15th arrondissement) and the center-north (3rd arrondissement). Evacuated households are likely to be permanently rehoused there.

From Evacuations to Provisional Rehousing: Cartographic Monitoring

Many examples from near and far feed the fear that this urban crisis will be exploited to justify the eviction of low-income occupants, legitimize an accelerated refurbishment, and provoke the gentrifi cation of the city center's profi table areas. Th e exploitation of risks or catastrophes by urban authorities has been documented in Mexico City and Istanbul. [START_REF] Diaz | La gentrifi cation négociée; and Durmaz[END_REF] It can be more or less effi ciently contested or negotiated by residents and activist groups. 38 Mobilization in Marseille has been fed by the city's recent history, including the abrupt eviction of hundreds of low-income households in the rue de la République (near the Vieux Port) in the context of fi nancial institutions' speculative resale of Haussmann-era building lots from 2004 to 2007. [START_REF]Restructurations urbaines[END_REF] A portion of the evicted households dispersed. A large number of renovated housing units and businesses remained empty because they had become too expensive. [START_REF]Un Centre and Ville Pour Tous[END_REF] But others ended up siphoning off new middle-and upper-class residents and were transformed for seasonal and student rentals. 41 Faced with unclear public statistics, our initiative to map "at risk" buildings aimed to avoid the repetition of a similar scenario. [START_REF] Dorier | Marseille, Fragmentation[END_REF] It was conducted as a collaborative eff ort between scholars and activist groups. [START_REF]Th e Collectif du 5 novembre's Commission on the Evicted (Commission des délogés)[END_REF] It allowed for the geolocalization of evacuated buildings and the paths taken by evicted households supported by associations. [START_REF]LPED/Marsactu animated map of Municipal Decrees of Imminent Danger. Vinzent[END_REF] After six months of work, this web-cartography collaborative was publicized to accompany the signing of the fi rst Rehousing Charter. 45 Th is approach aimed to obtain access to complete offi cial statistics. As a result of media coverage, these statistics were indeed relayed to the university upon prefectural

Geography and Temporality of Municipal Decrees of Imminent Danger and Evacuations

Our study confi rmed that nearly all the decreed risks concerning the old and private buildings of the city's center-north coincided with a diagonal line of deep poverty in Marseille. In the beginning, the perimeter remained close to the collapsed buildings. But as the months went on, the perimeter of legal procedures extended to the entire old city center (Noailles, Belsunce, Panier, Joliette), then to neighborhoods on the outskirts of the center (Belle de Mai, Versailles), following the axis of the Euroméditerranée operation. Beginning in the summer of 2019, evacuations related to the security perimeter and to established risks corresponded to public refurbishment sites so closely that one could well wonder whether the municipal decree, coupled with the evacuation of low-income residents, was not becoming an overly commonplace tool for securing urban renewal operations.

Evolutions under Tutelage for Marseille's City Center?

One of the consequences of this crisis was a series of direct state interventions that repudiated local action. Over the previous twenty-fi ve years, the state had already launched most of the urban renewal measures in the deindustrialized port neighborhoods through an Operation of National Interest led by the Euroméditerranée public agency. Similarly, the National Urban Renewal Plan (Programme National de Rénovation Urbaine, PNRU) for seventeen neighborhoods, including the center-north, was piloted by the state in cooperation with local governments. It was again the state that fi nanced several large construction sites, including the renowned Mucem (Museum of the Civilizations of Europe and the Mediterranean), which was undesired by the Gaudin municipal administration but has become the pride of Marseille in the very center of town. Following the crisis, the state initiated a vast, fi fteen-year "cooperative construction project" (projet partenarial d'aménagement, PPA) for the renovation of the built environment that concerns 1,000 hectares and two hundred thousand residents of the greater city center. Th ough it involves all levels of local government (Métropole, department, municipality), this project confers the most action resources to state agencies and to the Métropole. It leaves little fi nancial and decision-making power to the city of Marseille, and at fi rst, left no space for the residents in question to express themselves. It involved a profound evolution of the city center that would lead to new evacuations of residents, for in addition to spontaneous "reports" of deteriorated buildings under investigation (six hundred reports in 2020), the PPA provides for the systematic assessment of old buildings. Th is is the reason why an operation to rehouse evacuated households remains entrusted, in a contract valid until 2023, to the private operators who managed the emergency situation. Th e Reception Center for Evacuated Persons (EAPE) has been allotted a permanent space and expanded personnel. With these conditions in mind, activist groups fi rmly renegotiated the Rehousing Charter in 2021 to protect the most vulnerable households. With support from the new municipal administration elected in 2020, they obtained the creation of a "committee for the oversight of local usage by residents" within the PPA to ensure residents' opinions would be heard.

A City Th at Is Spreading Out and Closing Itself Off

For the past twenty-fi ve years, the areas surrounding the deteriorated city center have been built up and transformed. In the context of widespread real estate speculation, the authorities' laissez-faire attitude toward private owners in the impoverished city center is on par only with the spontaneous and disorganized spread of building initiatives in wealthy neighborhoods and the residential suburbs. Th ese are the two inseparable sides of Marseille's "privatopia" coin.

A Tradition of a Private Urban Fabric, the City of Subdivisions

Without being planned, the landscape of Marseille's outskirts has been shaped since the nineteenth century by the initiatives of property owners, developers, promoters, and housing management companies through the subdivision of agricultural land and informal agreements with successive municipal administrations. It has been dominated by the dynamics of land parceling and the sale of fragments of the large properties (bastides) owned by bourgeois families to fi nancial and promotion companies. [START_REF] Donzel | Politique urbaine[END_REF] Th is tradition of ad hoc agreements between public and private actors created vast residential neighborhoods that turned their backs on the historic city center. Th is dynamic, based on the promotion of property value, showed little respect for the rules and norms concerning roads, social housing quotas, and protected natural spaces. It resulted in incongruous landscapes and undersized and ineffi cient public roadways. 48 Th ese neighborhoods' social and political functioning is steeped in the comanagement practices of economic and political elites and the tolerance of local agreements based on interpersonal connections, clientelism, and community-based relationships. [START_REF] Samson | Clientélismes urbains; Dario[END_REF]

Twenty-Five Years of Policies Centered on Private Housing

For twenty-fi ve years, the municipality's acceptance of neoliberal positions added a new layer to a historical laissez-faire attitude, facilitating sprawl and urban fragmentation. Neglecting the impoverished city cen-ter, the municipality deliberately focused on the profi tability of suburban real estate. [START_REF] Dorier | Ensembles résidentiels fermés[END_REF] It did not remain inactive in the housing domain, but rather than prioritize making up for the lack of social housing, it deliberately chose to support the development of "quality" residential housing stock for the middle classes, particularly in areas where the city borders natural areas. Th us, Marseille has followed the "entrepreneurial" model adopted by a number of cities in postindustrial crisis that had lost residents: prioritizing its environmental assets (sea, rocky inlets, natural spaces) and neglecting the old city center, which has therefore remained working class. [START_REF] Harvey ; Harvey | Redéveloppement urbain[END_REF] Th e strategy of disengaging with the management of underprivileged, centralized spaces and supporting private investments is justifi ed through arguments about the city's attractiveness and reductions in public funding. It is ubiquitous in the municipal council meeting minutes and public studies we have analyzed. 52 53 To fi nance and complete this "population" project, a classic among neoliberal possibilities for increasing the city's status, 54 the municipality methodically associated itself with real estate promoters through a series of Joint Construction Zones (Zones d' Aménagement Concerté, ZAC) intended as living spaces. We analyzed ten of these situated along the coast, near the hills, at the gateway to the Parc national des Calanques. 55 Despite the city's delays in social housing, these ZAC accommodations have only rarely been provided with the smallest proportion of student housing or social housing with intermediate-level rents, still inaccessible to the poorest populations. Th ey have served as The accelerating pace of gated communities in Marseille

Residential enclosures :

Spatial spread of gated communities

Occupation of the land :

Primarily "undeveloped" spaces Primarily "developed" spaces

Administrative borders

Municipality of Marseille centers for the most diff use real estate operations, facilitated by the reworking of Local Urbanism Plans (Plans locaux d'urbanisme, PLU). Th e city has not hesitated to sell its assets to facilitate these operations: stadiums, public gardens, wooded spaces, sites for public parks, and even roadways. It has sometimes preemptively purchased land for public construction before reselling it to real estate promoters. All these initiatives have accentuated urban sprawl in the form of supposedly high-quality residential areas near the coast and on the border of city and nature, where Marseille has begun regaining inhabitants since 1999, distant and disconnected from the center (Figure 11.11). Th e needs related to public roads and infrastructure that derive from these real estate programs (public transport, public parks, schools) have often been forgotten, generating a dissatisfaction with the environment expressed during inquiries with new residents. [START_REF] Toth | La qualité environnementale, and Glauda[END_REF] New amenities are private and located inside apartment complexes and therefore do not contribute to shared resources in the area: enclosed gardens, play areas for children, and especially new parking spaces, as these accommodations are poorly served by public transport and require several vehicles.

Th e Dynamics of Enclosed Apartment Complexes

Two-thirds of the apartment complexes built between 1993 and 2017 (represented in fi g. 11.10) were conceived as enclosed and secured, including within municipal ZAC zones. [START_REF] Dorier | Ensembles résidentiels fermés[END_REF] Th is trend intensifi ed spatial fragmentation and socially homogeneous population clusters, accentuating the mosaic eff ect of peripheral neighborhoods. Th e massive phenomenon of gated apartment complexes began in the south and west in the 1990s with the enclosure of existing apartment complexes and private streets located in old subdivisions, which were requested by co-owners' associations that had been encouraged by property management companies. [START_REF] Dorier | Géographie d'une ville fragmentée[END_REF] It was accelerated by the creation of new complexes primarily conceived as enclosed spaces.

Th is spread of enclosures was almost wholly unregulated. [START_REF] Dorier | Ensembles résidentiels fermés[END_REF] It occurred through mimicry: more than half of the closed-off housing complexes touch one another in clusters, transforming the appearance and possible uses of urban space. Th e city and the Métropole, responsible for roadways, approved of this retreat into socially homogenous groups and the private management of space. Th is city-mosaic made of closed-off condominiums can be described as a "privatopia. " [START_REF] Mckenzie | [END_REF] Conceived by local developers and real estate giants and run by condominium management companies, they function more and more as an archipelago disconnected from the historic city center. 61

Th e Impacts of Enclosed Apartment Complexes

Due to the authorities' disengagement, even Marseille's privatopia fi nds itself fragmented. Aggregates of several adjoining, enclosed apartment complexes require detours and block pedestrian crossings and access to public transportation stations, a source of confl icts and traffi c congestion. 62 Th ese evolutions aggravate local inequalities in living conditions. Within working-class neighborhoods near renewal zones, projects for enclosed properties benefi t from tax support as a supposed tool for promoting social diversity. But in reality, this strategy has increased the value of the most well-located private properties (in terms of view and surrounding environment). Th ese enclaves of quality accommodations for the middle classes within underprivileged zones sharpen local tensions and are even constructed to the detriment of the development of public spaces and infrastructure. For example, in the Plan d' Aou neighborhood in the 15th arrondissement, a large, closed-off apartment complex took the place of a plan for a public park between two low-income housing projects. [START_REF] Dorier | Fermeture résidentielle"; and Dorier and Dario[END_REF]

Conclusion

If Marseille appears to be a city with two faces, it is the same urbanization of rentier properties that simultaneously led to the abandonment of the old, private buildings in the city center (the "collapsing city") and the rise of the "gated city" on the outskirts. Between passive governance and self-assumed neoliberalism, real estate speculation was elevated as the motor of urban policies. Th e abandoned state of old, private buildings in the city center, dedicated to the development of rental units, can be assimilated to a public/private strategy of turning real estate into fallow ground while waiting for public funds to assist the owners in renovations and allowing them to conduct speculative resales. In parallel, the same real estate and property actors, closely linked to local administrations and sometimes to local elected offi cials, have shaped the unsustainable suburban sprawl of the "gated city. " However, the crisis of building collapses and evacuations intensifi ed pressure regarding the future of a working-class center confronted with a city of condominiums, where everyone lives and consumes according to their means. It also precipitated an increased awareness of the need for public policies, regulation, and planning in Marseille.

Following the 2018 tragedy, subsequent social and political mobilizations, and new, on-going governmental measures, what kind of renewal will take shape for the city center and its low-income residents? Th e new municipal government advocates a diversity strategy, a quota for the number of social housing units in the renewal of the old city center and in all new construction plans. But it has little room for maneuver. According to recent reforms enacted in France (the Nôtre Law of 2014, and the Métropole requirement, 2016), the primary expertise and regulatory and fi nancial resources for housing planning are now attributed to Métropoles and not to municipalities. And the new political context following the 2020 elections is confl ictual: Marseille's former municipal majority won the Métropole elections that took place through indirect suff rage in the Métropole's ninety-two municipalities. Martine Vassal, heir apparent to former Mayor Gaudin, who lost the election to Marseille's current administration, therefore remained president of the wider Métropole thanks to the support of small municipalities. Marseille's social needs must be understood in the context of the Métropole, which is very unequal and was built up quite painstakingly under pressure from the state in 2016. Th e wealthy municipalities are hesitant to join in solidarity with Marseille, particularly in matters concerning social housing but also public transportation and cleanliness.

Th ese circumstances have been lamented in several public reports (Ettouati and INSEE [2015]; ADIL 13 [2015]) and even an OCDE study (2013). Despite its commitments, the Métropole has not yet mobilized existing tools in order to address the problems. [START_REF]Th ese tools would be the extension of the "rental permit, " a vote in favor of social housing planning (PLH), or modifi cations to the local plan for intermunicipal urbanism (PLUI)[END_REF] In the middle of the evacuation crisis, the Local Housing Plan (PLH), which planned social housing and its balanced distribution between municipalities, was rejected by a majority of the wider Métropole's ninety-two municipalities, including several prosperous towns surrounding Aix-en-Provence and along the coastline that have some of the lowest proportions of social housing in France when compared to legal quotas. Th ree years after the buildings' collapse, it was once again the state, through two solemn visits to Marseille by the President of the Republic (August and October 2021), that demanded that the Métropole reform its operations in exchange for exceptional subsidies for the city.

Th e new framework of a cooperative construction project (PPA) for the broader city center, which brings together the city, Métropole, state, and private actors, off ers a new outlook. To defend its policies against the Métropole, the new municipal government, elected for fi ve years, will have to rely on state arbitration and a strong civil society consensus, particularly among the activist groups and associations committed to the "right to the city, " from which the new administration partially emanates. Unprecedented citizen mobilization around housing has led to innovations in governance, such as the Rehousing Charter for evacuees-renewed in October 2021 between activist groups, the city, and the state-and the offi cial creation of a committee for the oversight of practices imposed on the PPA by the city. Th e perspectives for the urban renewal of Marseille's city center are not consensual and will therefore remain at the center of the city's contradictions and diffi cult social and political negotiations in the years to come.

Elisabeth Dorier is a geographer. Professor at Aix-Marseille Université and researcher at the LPED (Laboratoire Population Environnement Développement), she has lived in Marseille since 1996. Since 2007, her research has focused on the real estate dynamics of residential fragmentation, inequalities, and housing policies in Marseille. She conducted a series of studies on these subjects for local governments (City of Marseille, 2014; Région Sud, 2021) and public institutions (PUCA, 2010; Haut Comité pour le Logement des Personnes Défavorisées, 2020). She administers a research journal on these themes at https://urbanicites .hypotheses.org.

Notes

Figure 11 . 1 .

 111 Figure 11.1. Th e Collapsing City, the Gated City. © Dorier and Dario.

  Figure 11.2. Marseille, larger and more inequal than Paris intra-muros. © Dario and Dorier.

Figure 11 . 3 .

 113 Figure 11.3. Endemic poverty inside the municipal perimeter of Marseille, 2015. © Dario and Dorier.

Figure 11 . 4 .

 114 Figure 11.4. Social housing under the SRU (French Urban Solidarity and Renewal) Law. © Dorier and Dario.

Figure 11

 11 Figure 11.5. Social Family Residences. © Dorier and Dario.

Figure 11 . 6 .

 116 Figure 11.6. Contrasting living conditions: Population densities in Marseille. © Dorier and Dario.

  Explanation : The density figures are obtained by dividing the total population by the surface in square km of IRIS Discretization : quantiles Sources : INSEE base evol. struct. pop. 2016 © Dorier E., Dario J., 2020 Aix-Marseille Univ., IRD, LPED UMR 151 Marseille, France by IRIS (2016) -inhabitant/km² 20

Figure 11 . 7 .

 117 Figure 11.7. Contrasting living conditions: Housing occupancy in Marseille. © Dorier and Dario.

Figure 11 . 8 .

 118 Figure 11.8. Locations of evacuated residences aided by SOLIHA. © Dario and Dorier.

Figure 11 . 9 .

 119 Figure 11.9. Housing in danger and low annual income in the center of the city. © Dorier and Dario.

Figure 11 . 10 .

 1110 Figure 11.10. Housing in danger compared with housing construction in Marseille, 1993-2017. © Dorier and Dario.

Figure 11 . 11 .

 1111 Figure 11.11. Th e accelerating pace of gated communities in Marseille. © Dorier, Dario, and Rouquier.


Askar Kondybayev

Gerard Loiseau

Nawel Achir

Christian Mestres

Gaukhar Konuspayeva
email: konuspayevags@hotmail.fr

Fermented mare milk product (Qymyz, Koumiss)

Keywords: horse, mare milk, qymyz, koumiss, health

Mare milk has been consumed for thousands of years in Central Asia and neighboring regions.

Its composition is similar to human milk, but different from cow's milk. Fermentation with lactic acid bacteria and yeasts leads to the production of a traditional drink called qymyz. Qymyz, which is a symbol of good health, is a central part of the national cuisine and of the traditional cycle of horse husbandry, as well as playing a role in the cultural identity of Central Asian people. Mare milk, along with qymyz, has been reported to have a wide range of therapeutic effects. In this article, the authors have compiled information on mare milk composition, qymyz production and the therapeutic effects of mare milk and its products.

Introduction

Despite the widespread use of cow's milk throughout the world, it is necessary to bear in mind the possibility of providing the population with milk from other farm animals. Of the 702.1 billion tons of milk produced globally, 118.7 (16.9%) billion tons are acquired from species other than dairy cattle. This proportion has been increasing regularly (B. [START_REF] Faye | The sustainability challenge to the dairy sector -The growing importance of non-cattle milk production worldwide[END_REF]. Mare milk has been consumed for thousands of years in Central Asia and neighboring regions. Herodotus in the 5th century BC described how Scythians used to consume it [START_REF] West | Introducing the Scythians: Herodotus on Koumiss (4.2)[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Outram | The Earliest Horse Harnessing and Milking[END_REF] the first domestication of horses and consumption of mare milk took place in present day Akmola province of Kazakhstan approximately in 3500 BCE. Nowadays horses are mainly used as dairy animals in former USSR countries, such as Mongolia, and parts of China [START_REF] Doreau | Recent knowledge on mare milk production: A review[END_REF].

Due to its composition (proteins, lipids, vitamins, carbohydrates, macro and microelements, enzymes, hormones and a number of other important substances), raw horse milk has high nutritional value and digestibility. However, in Central Asian countries it is more widely consumed fermented under the name of qymyz. Fermented mare milk is phonetically pronounced as qymyz, but due to Russian domination in the region, the international literature term for fermented mare milk became better known as koumiss or kumis. It is an acidic and slightly alcoholic drink, the fermentation of which involves lactic bacteria and yeasts.

Many studies were carried out in 20 th century in the USSR in Russian languages which are not accessible for the international community. This current review focuses mainly on data published by soviet authors which will help to understand the importance of mare milk and qymyz for human consumption.

Horse numbers, economic figures, market

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United nations (FAO), in 2017 there were about 60 million horses worldwide (Figure 2).

In most of the world except Central Asia, horses are not traditionally used as dairy animals. [START_REF] Salimei | Mare milk. In Handbook of milk of non-bovine mammals[END_REF]. In Kazakhstan horses are used as dairy animals and on top of that horse meat is consumed. About 30% of horses are slaughtered for meat annually in Kazakhstan and as a result, Kazakhstan has become the second largest horse meat producer in the world behind China [START_REF] Faye | Report of a foreign expert in the direction of horse breeding[END_REF]. This has led to the steady growth in the number of horses in Kazakhstan. In fact, the number of horses has more than doubled since 2007 from 1.16 million to 2.85 million (Figure 3).

In Russia, on the other hand, a decrease of 15% (from 1.61 million to 1.37 million) between 2001-2014 was reported [START_REF] Knyazev | Dynamics of Horse Stock And Current State of Horse Resources in Siberia[END_REF]. However, in regions with developed horse meat production such as Yakutia, Bashkortstan, Altai, etc. the number of horses has increased by 22% between 2008-2010 [START_REF] Kalashnikov | The development of herd horse breeding in Russia[END_REF]. In Kyrgyzstan, an increase of 50% (from 347 thousand to 450 thousand) between 2006-2019 is reported. In Mongolia during the period 2009-2019 the number of horses increased from 2,2 million to 4,2 million. Uzbekistan has also seen an increase in horse numbers from 168 thousand to 242 thousand during the period 2008-2018. One of the other reasons for the steady increase in the number of horses is the low cost of horse breeding. Horses are bred in herds and feed on pasture during winter and summer, which means they do not rely on fodder.

Mare Milk

Differences and similarities with other types of animal milk

The comparison of the composition of mare milk with other types of milk cited by various references show important differences (Table 2). The reported values are relatively variable, which can be explained by different geographies, genetics and methods of analysis.

When comparing the content of sugar, protein and mineral salts, mare milk is quite similar to human milk but differs significantly from cow's milk Milk protein from all animals is divided into two major groups: caseins (αs1-, αs2-, β-, κand γ -caseins) and whey proteins, which include α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, serum albumin, lactoferrin, immunoglobulins and lysozyme [START_REF] Medhammar | Composition of milk from minor dairy animals and buffalo breeds: A biodiversity perspective[END_REF].

The protein in cow's milk is dominated by casein, which makes up about 72-77% of all nitrogen, while whey proteins account for only 13-18% of nitrogen, which is around 6 g/kg.

This means cow's milk is defined as caseinic milk as it is rich in casein. Mare milk and human milk on the other hand are rich in whey protein containing 8.3 and 7 g/kg respectively, which is around 36 and 53% of all nitrogen respectively. Consecutively, mare milk and human milk are considered to be albumin-types of milk -high in albumin content [START_REF] Malacarne | Protein and fat composition of mare's milk: Some nutritional remarks with reference to human and cow's milk[END_REF][START_REF] Uniacke-Lowe | Equine milk proteins: Chemistry, structure and nutritional significance[END_REF].

Mare milk casein mainly consists of β-casein (78.5%) while the αs-caseins and κ-casein are present at 20% and 1.8%, respectively. Whey proteins in mare milk are present in the following proportions: β-lactoglobulin, 30.7%, α-lactalbumin, 28.5%, serum albumin-4.4%, immunoglobulins-19.6%, lactoferrin -7%, lysozyme 10,5% [START_REF] Salimei | Horse and Donkey Milk[END_REF]. The percentages differ in other studies, for example [START_REF] Duisembaev | Zoo-technical bases of intensification of manufacture of mare's milk on koumiss farms[END_REF] reported that β-casein and κ-casein concentrations are similar and amount to 39.9 and 46.0% respectively, while that of αs-casein is equal to 7.2%.

Non-protein nitrogen (NPN) include urea, free amino acids, amino sugars, bioactive peptides, uric acid, creatine, creatinine, nucleic acids, and nucleotide. Free amino acid content of mare milk (1900 μm/kg) is higher than in cow's milk (560 μm/kg), but lower than in human milk (2930 μm/kg) [START_REF] Salimei | Mare milk. In Handbook of milk of non-bovine mammals[END_REF].

Mare milk is poor in fat. In fact, according to Jennes (1988) mare milk, along with donkey milk, contains the least amount of fat among milk types regularly consumed by humans.

As a result, horse milk has a lower calorific value (52 kcal/100g) than human (72 kcal/100g) or cow's (66 kcal/100g) milk. The lipids in milk are organized in globules, that have different sizes in different species. The lower the amount of fat in milk the smaller the diameter of the globules. Thus, mare milk has lipid globules with a small diameter. The diameter of mare milk globules ranges from 2-3 μm, while human and cow milk globules have an average diameter of 3-4 μm. [START_REF] Gantner | The overall and fat composition of milk of various species[END_REF]. Mare milk globules are similar to human milk globules in having branched oligosaccharide structures on the surface, which may enhance digestion by binding to lipases. Concerning lipid classes, mare milk is different from both human and cow's milk, in that it has 80% triglycerides, 9 -10% free fatty acids and 5 -19% phospholipids. Human and cow milk fat consists almost entirely of triglycerides (97-98%) [START_REF] Malacarne | Protein and fat composition of mare's milk: Some nutritional remarks with reference to human and cow's milk[END_REF][START_REF] Miraglia | Nutrition and feeding of the broodmare[END_REF]. In terms of free fatty acids mare milk, like human milk, has higher amounts of unsaturated fatty acids and a lower amount of saturated fatty acids compared to cow's milk [START_REF] Claeys | Consumption of raw or heated milk from different species: An evaluation of the nutritional and potential health benefits[END_REF][START_REF] Salimei | Horse and Donkey Milk[END_REF][START_REF] Sinyavskii | Comparative assessment of fatty acid composition, indices of atherogenicity and thrombogenicity of milk of various types of farm animals[END_REF].

From a dietetic point of view mare milk has an index of atherogenicity of 0.51 and thrombogenicity of 0.99, which are significantly lower than in cow's milk (2.87 and 3.53 respectively) [START_REF] Sinyavskii | Comparative assessment of fatty acid composition, indices of atherogenicity and thrombogenicity of milk of various types of farm animals[END_REF]. The lower the atherogenic index the less likely lipids will adhere to cells of the immunological and circulatory system, and thus prevent atherosclerosis. The thrombogenicity index shows tendency to form clots in the blood vessels.

Carbohydrates in mare milk mainly consist of lactose and trace amounts of monosaccharides and oligosaccharides. Lactose content in mare milk (6-7g•100 ml -1 ) is similar to that in human milk and significantly higher than in cow's milk (4-5g•100 ml -1 ). Among monosaccharides, glucose was reported to change during the lactation period and range between 50 -150 mg•L -1 (Uniacke-Lowe [START_REF] Uniacke-Lowe | Equid Milk: Chemistry, Biochemistry and Processing[END_REF]. According to Seitov (2005) colostrum has a lower amount of carbohydrates than milk, which equals 2.9-3.4%. The amount increases rapidly and a day after foaling the amount equals 5%. The maximum amount of carbohydrates is present 1-3 months after foaling and ranges between 6.4-7%. Oligosaccharide concentration was reported to range between 79.8 -217.8 mg•L -1 and includes 58.3% neutral, 33.3% Neu5Ac, 6.25% fucosylated and 2.1% NeuGc oligosaccharides [START_REF] Karav | Thoroughbred mare's milk exhibits a unique and diverse free oligosaccharide profile[END_REF].

Minerals and trace elements play a major role in nutrition and aging of foals. Among major minerals (Ca, P, K, Na, Mg) Ca (0.83 g•kg -1 ) and P (0.61 g•kg -1 ) have the highest concentrations in mare milk, while Mg (0.06 g•kg -1 ) has the lowest concentration [START_REF] Park | Handbook of milk of non-bovine mammals[END_REF]Seitov et al., 2005). All five minerals have lower concentrations in human milk and higher concentrations in cow's milk [START_REF] Salimei | Horse and Donkey Milk[END_REF]. Among trace elements (Zn, Fe, Cu) Zn has the highest concentration in any milk. Mare milk when compared to human and cow's milk has a lower concentration of Zn (0.02 mg•kg -1 ). Fe and Cu have 0.01 and 0.005 mg/kg concentration in mare milk respectively [START_REF] Medhammar | Composition of milk from minor dairy animals and buffalo breeds: A biodiversity perspective[END_REF]. Similar concentrations of minerals were found in Mongolian mare milk [START_REF] Ishii | Study on Production and Properties of Kumiss of Herders in Mongolian Dry Steppe[END_REF] Data on vitamin content of mare milk is variable. Some authors note lower concentrations of fat-soluble vitamins in mare milk due to a low amount of milk fat [START_REF] Salimei | Horse and Donkey Milk[END_REF]. Others report similar content in mare and cow milk (Fuquay et al., 2011). Both works agree on higher content of vitamin C in mare milk (150 mg•L -1 ). The works of Berlin and Gricenko as reported by Seitov (2005) found concentrations of vitamins B1 -291-390; B2 -261-373; PP -229; B5-1547; B7 (biotin) -10.2; B9 (folate) -263; B12 -2,5-3.3 µg•L -1 in mare milk.

Horse breed effect on mare milk composition

The effect of breed on milk composition is hard to differentiate from the effect of a certain feeding regimen or herd conditions. Additionally, individual variability of mares complicates the assessment. The stage of lactation plays a major role in the composition of mare milk. Authors note a higher content of fat, cholesterol, protein, total solids and citric acid, and a lower content of lactose and vitamin C in colostrum compared to milk [START_REF] Coenen | Recent German Developments in the Formulation of Energy and Nutrient Requirements in Horses and the Resulting Feeding Recommendations[END_REF][START_REF] Markiewicz-Kęszycka | Influence of stage of lactation and year season on composition of mares' colostrum and milk and method and time of storage on vitamin C content in mares' milk: Influence of stage of lactation and season on composition of mares' colostrum and milk[END_REF]. Mare milking starts 20-45 days after foaling [START_REF] Salimei | Mare milk. In Handbook of milk of non-bovine mammals[END_REF]. The table below shows differences in milk composition and production between various breeds from post-Soviet countries.

Milk production in mares is even throughout the day, so most authors use the following formula proposed by Saigin to calculate daily milk production:

𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 = (𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 * 24)/𝑇𝑇
where Us-daily milk production (kg/day); Uf-amount of milk obtained during milking (kg); T-duration of milking.

According to [START_REF] Doreau | Recent knowledge on mare milk production: A review[END_REF] the yield of milk increases until the age of 11-15 years, but the age effect on milk composition is low. Milk yield differences according to breed is dependent on adult mare liveweight; 2.5 to 3.35 kg of milk per 100 kg of body weight [START_REF] Salimei | Mare milk. In Handbook of milk of non-bovine mammals[END_REF]. [START_REF] Duisembaev | Zoo-technical bases of intensification of manufacture of mare's milk on koumiss farms[END_REF] found that Kazakh zhabe type mares producing milk with a higher fat content produce less overall milk per day. Subsequently, milk productivity can be attributed to the characteristics of individual mares. According to reviews on the effect of nutrition of the mare , the energy supply of the diet above requirements has a negative effect on protein content in milk and the amount of milk produced can be increased by increasing the level of energy fed [START_REF] Martuzzi | Mare milk composition: Recent findings about protein fractions and mineral content[END_REF].

Qymyz

Qymyz is a traditional beverage of nomadic people in central Asia, which is obtained by fermenting mare's milk with lactic acid bacteria and yeasts. Mare milk undergoes two-step fermentation -lactic fermentation and alcoholic fermentation. The final products of these fermentations are lactic acid, ethyl alcohol, carbon dioxide and other by-products such as volatile acids, fusel alcohols, and other compounds with a strong and distinctive aroma and taste (Fuquay et al., 2011;[START_REF] Kondybayev | Volatile organic compounds profiles in milk fermented by lactic bacteria[END_REF]. In 1858 N.V. Postnikov, a Russian doctor, discovered the effectiveness of the use of sour mare's milk in the treatment of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis and decided to introduce the use of qymyz into medical practice by opening a 'qymyz' hospital near Samara, Russia. From this moment, hospitals became very popular and widespread in the USSR [START_REF] Kudayarova | Historical aspects of the use of koumiss in medicine[END_REF].

There are two types of qymyz: i) traditional qymyz, which is prepared using starters containing unspecified microorganisms and ii) qymyz prepared with a mixture of pure cultures.

Traditional qymyz

In traditional processing, mare milk is inoculated using substances such as boiled millet, malt, soured cow's milk, soured soup, smoked horse meat, etc. [START_REF] Shigaeva | Microflora of national fermented milk drinks[END_REF] described several types of traditional qymyz starters (Figure 4) and classified them into 3 main groups: a) spontaneous fermentation caused by microorganisms in fresh mare milk; b) fermentation caused by microorganisms from fermented milk products or sour dough; c) mixed combination of both types of starters. After inoculation mare milk is churned for 20-30 minutes and left to ferment at room temperature. During the day, fresh mare milk may be added several times depending on the number of milkings, which is around 6 milkings per day. The process of churning and fermentation is repeated each time fresh mare milk is added. The purpose of adding milk and churning it is to increase qymyz volume and to increase acid and ethanol production, giving it a stronger taste.

Qymyz is churned in special containers called saba (made from horsehide) or kubi (made from wood). The purpose of churning is to spread the starter in the milk and to provide aeration for the yeasts. In times prior to the creation of the Soviet Union, leather containers for qymyz were very convenient for nomads, as they were attached in a special way to the saddle, and during a long trip, due to constant shaking from horse movement, qymyz acquired its true taste and strength. The wooden container, Kubi, has a cylindrical shape, tapering upwards, with a diameter of 20-40 cm and a height of about a meter, closed with a lid with a hole in the center.

A plunger (a pole with a cross at the end or a disc with holes) is inserted into the hole and the qymyz is churned.

Microbiota of traditional qymyz are not well defined. The study of Bashkirian qymyz found bacteria, A. aceti, L. bulgaricum and S. thermophilus and yeasts, Saccharomyces lactis (previous name of Kluyveromyces lactis) and Saccharomyces cartilaginosus, along with yeast belonging to the genus mycoderma [START_REF] Gricenko | The influence of microflora on the content of vitamins of group "B" in koumiss[END_REF]. A study conducted on qymyz from Mongolia found bacteria such as L. helveticus, L. kefiranofaciens, L. lactis, L. mesenteroides and yeasts, Kluyveromyces marxianus. Authors found that the most abundant bacteria in qymyz from Mongolia was L helveticus and concluded that the final bacterial composition of qymyz is related to the high acid stress tolerance of lactobacilli [START_REF] Miyamoto | Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis Analysis of Lactic Acid Bacteria and Yeasts in Traditional Mongolian Fermented Milk[END_REF]. Similarly in the Xin Jiang region of China the most abundant bacteria in qymyz was found to be L. helveticus, while L. casei and L. plantarum were prevalent in Inner Mongolia and the Qing Hai regions respectively [START_REF] Sun | Identification and characterization of the dominant lactobacilli isolated from koumiss in China[END_REF]. Yeast composition of qymyz in China showed the most dominant yeast species to be K. marxianus, K. unispora and S. cerevisiae, but their frequencies differed in different regions resulting in a distinct aroma and taste of qymyz belonging to these regions.

There was no study on correlation between yeast species and flavor of qymyz [START_REF] Mu | Detection and identification of wild yeast in Koumiss[END_REF].

In Kazakhstani qymyz bacteria such as L. bulgaricus, L. casei, Str. lactis and yeasts Torulopsis kefyr and Torulopsis sphaerica can be found [START_REF] Shigaeva | Microflora of national fermented milk drinks[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Montanari | Saccharomyces unisporus as the principal alcoholic fermentation microorganism of traditional koumiss[END_REF], the most abundant yeast species in Kazakhstani qymyz is Saccharomyces unisporus (Kazakhstania unispora), which does not ferment lactose but can ferment galactose. [START_REF] Krekker | Development of the technology of bacterial concentrate for the production of koumiss[END_REF] confirmed that coculture of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeasts naturally leads to domination of non-lactose fermenting yeast over other types of yeasts.

This means that Kazakhstani qymyz has a 2-step fermentation where lactose is first hydrolyzed by LAB that metabolize glucose but secrete the remaining galactose to the environment where it is consumed by yeasts. Among LAB that have this type of metabolism are L. bulgaricus, L. lactis, L. acidophilus and S. thermophiles [START_REF] Gadaga | Growth characteristics of Candida kefyr and two strains of Lactococcus lactis subsp. Lactis isolated from Zimbabwean naturally fermented milk[END_REF][START_REF] Hickey | Transport and Metabolism of Lactose, Glucose, and Galactose in Homofermentative Lactobacilli[END_REF].

Qymyz making with pure cultures

The first studies of qymyz production using pure cultures, carried out by Ginzburg and Bachinski-Raichenko (Seitov et al., 2005), date back to 1910. However, the guidelines to be followed for producing qymyz were defined and published in 1969 through Inter-Republican Technical Specifications (MRTU 46-573-69), which were approved by the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Meat and Dairy Industry of the USSR (Figure 5). According to this standard method there are 2 steps in the preparation of qymyz. First the laboratory starter is prepared with a mixed culture of L. bulgaricus and Saccharomyces lactis, which ferment lactose and have antibacterial properties (Figure 6). According to the standard, mare milk didn't have to be pasteurized, but it had to have acidity ≤0.06% w/v lactic acid, a density of 1,029-1,033 g/cm 3 and fat content of at least 1% w/v. Second, the bulk starter is prepared on the basis of the obtained laboratory starter over four to five days at 26-28 °C. Qymyz is obtained by using a bulk starter and adding fresh mare milk 2-3 times a day until it loses its activity. An indicator of good activity is the formation of bubbles (foam) when churned, detection of at least 8-10 yeast cells and abundance of LAB in the field of view of a microscope (Seitov et al., 2005;[START_REF] Shigaeva | Microflora of national fermented milk drinks[END_REF].

In present times, most qymyz hospitals use qymyz from the previous year as a starter.

The scheme of qymyz production in hospitals can be seen from Figure 7 [START_REF] Mursalimov | Bashkir horse[END_REF]; O. N. [START_REF] Popova | Economic and biological features of horses of Belarusian breed[END_REF]. There is a possibility that due to the standardization of qymyz production in the USSR all hospitals had to use MRTU 46-573-69 in their production, but later on hospitals started using old qymyz as a starter.

Qymyz quality

Three categories of qymyz obtained from pure culture were defined according to their 4).

A study conducted on people's preferences of qymyz resulted in the following sensory characteristics being ranked from 'liked most' to 'liked least': taste, freshness, acidity, color, smell. The results show that aroma of qymyz is the least significant for consumers. The same study showed that a higher proportion of consumers preferred strong qymyz (30%) when compared to weak (12%) and medium (5%) qymyz. 54% of responders couldn't perceive the different qymyz types [START_REF] Real | Narratives of kumis consumption and production in contemporary Kazakhstan[END_REF].

The content of qymyz protein or fat remained relatively the same as in the mare milk used for the preparation, but amino acid composition changed: the essential amino acids, lysine, valine, isoleucine, phenylalanine and tyrosine decreased; methionine, cysteine and leucine didn't change, but tryptophan increased; the nonessential amino acids, histidine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid and proline increased; alanine, serine and arginine decreased [START_REF] Lebedev | Some questions of the development of kumys production in a non-steppe zone[END_REF][START_REF] Urbisinov | Nutritional and biological value of traditionally local dairy and meat products [Autoreferat of dissertation for the degree of candidate in biological sciences[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Damdinsurengiin | The influence of food builders on biochemical changes in the protein complex of koumiss during storage [Autoreferat of dissertation for the degree of candidate of technical sciences[END_REF] concentrations of all amino acids decreased, except for threonine and alanine. [START_REF] Gafiatullin | Genetic and parathypical variability of protein composition of milk in mares of heavy breeds [Autoreferat of dissertation for the degree of candidate of biological sciences[END_REF] reported an overall 11% decrease in protein; subsequently casein and whey concentrations also decreased by 11.2% and 10.7%. Weak qymyz usually still contains a high amount of lactose and as a result has a slightly sweet taste. Overall qymyz has a sour taste and slightly spicy flavor, without any extraneous flavors or odors. A yeasty flavor is acceptable in qymyz. The consistency of qymyz is liquid, homogeneous, carbonated, slightly foaming, without any particles of fat.

Qymyz process modifications

Most of the studies on controlled preparation of qymyz proposed methods similar to the MRTU 46-573-69 standard but with a number of changes; i) pasteurization of mare milk, ii) fermentation with different or additional species of microorganisms, iii) preparation of qymyz with cow's milk, iv) extending storage of mare milk and qymyz using different methods. Mare milk pasteurization has been a topic of a number of studies. In general heating mare milk above 65 °C precipitates milk whey protein and albumin, oxidizes polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin C, and changes the taste of the milk. Due to these reasons and the relative resistance of horses to such diseases as brucellosis and tuberculosis, the use of unpasteurized mare milk for qymyz production is assumed to be safe [START_REF] Rahimov | Features of production of kumys by different ways from milk of mares[END_REF]Seitov et al., 2005).

Pasteurization of mare milk would be essential when it comes to producing qymyz made from pure strains, because unpasteurized mare's milk can contain a variety of microorganisms (Skorodumova, 1961). [START_REF] Shigaeva | Microflora of national fermented milk drinks[END_REF] proposed the pasteurization of mare milk at 65°C for 15 min and reported no difference in taste, color or consistency. Authors reported a slower fermentation rate in pasteurized milk as the utilization of lactose and the production of ethanol reached maximal rates after 7-14 days, while in unpasteurized milk 3-5 days was enough to get the same results. [START_REF] Kanareikina | Effect of pasteurization regimes on organoleptic performance and acidity of mare's milk during storage[END_REF] compared timetemperature combinations for pasteurization ranging from 63-94°C and found that 30-min pasteurization at temperatures of 63, 65 and 67 °C resulted in the same color and consistency, while the taste and aroma was close to raw mare milk.

The use of different strains of microorganisms in starter conditions improves not just the taste and aroma of qymyz, but also its shelf-life and probiotic properties. The main difficulty during qymyz making is the control of the kinetics of acidification. Generally, in qymyz hospitals the maximum tolerated level of acidity of qymyz is reached in 72 hours. Beyond this, qymyz is considered unsuitable for consumption, which has the consequence of limiting the shelf-life of the qymyz. The use of selected microbial strains capable of producing less lactic acid and a slower fermentation rate appeared to be a means of extending the shelf-life of qymyz as shown by [START_REF] Shigaeva | Microflora of national fermented milk drinks[END_REF] with strains of S. lactis and Lb. bulgaricus which led to the maximum formation of lactic acid of 1% and 2.25% respectively. Yeasts in qymyz have been shown to grow better in more acidic environments (pH 4-5) [START_REF] Hrisanova | Scientific bases of koumiss production on pure cultures [Autoreferat of dissertation for the degree of candidate in biological sciences[END_REF]. Indeed separate coculture of Torulopsis kefyr var kumis with S. lactis and Lb. bulgaricus leads to better growth with Lb. bulgaricus, that has a higher production of lactic acid [START_REF] Shigaeva | Microflora of national fermented milk drinks[END_REF]. In contrast, yeast such as Saccharomyces lactis has an optimum pH for lactose hydrolysis at 6.5 [START_REF] Guy | Properties of β-Galactosidase of Saccharomyces Lactis in Milk and Milk Products[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Fox | Dairy Chemistry and Biochemistry[END_REF], usage of LAB with lactose-fermenting yeast is optimal in qymyz fermentation as lactic acid formation and alcoholic fermentations occur simultaneously and the products of fermentation are in definite proportions. However simultaneous fermentation leads to competition between LAB and lactose-fermenting yeasts and results in a lower number of yeasts and thus a lower amount of ethanol [START_REF] Krekker | Development of the technology of bacterial concentrate for the production of koumiss[END_REF].

Several authors have used acetate forming bacteria such as Acetobacter aceti [START_REF] Gricenko | The influence of microflora on the content of vitamins of group "B" in koumiss[END_REF][START_REF] Shigaeva | Microflora of national fermented milk drinks[END_REF][START_REF] Urbisinov | Nutritional and biological value of traditionally local dairy and meat products [Autoreferat of dissertation for the degree of candidate in biological sciences[END_REF]. The features of A. aceti include uptake of lactic acid and ethanol. [START_REF] Gricenko | The influence of microflora on the content of vitamins of group "B" in koumiss[END_REF] reported production of vitamin B12 by A.aceti. [START_REF] Shigaeva | Microflora of national fermented milk drinks[END_REF] reported production of diacetyl, that gives dairy products a buttery flavor, by A. aceti. In their work, addition of A. aceti to the usual starter consisting of LAB and yeasts leads to a decrease in ethanol concentration and an increase in lactic acid concentration in the final composition of qymyz. Thus, they concluded that in the mixture of LAB and ethanol producing yeasts, A. aceti prefers to consume ethanol rather than lactic acid and overall recommended the inclusion of A. aceti in starters as the aromatic quality of qymyz increased. However, a decrease in ethanol could be due to the inhibition of yeast growth as [START_REF] Gricenko | The influence of microflora on the content of vitamins of group "B" in koumiss[END_REF] reported a slower growth rate of lactose fermenting yeast and the total suppression of yeast that don't ferment lactose in the presence of A. aceti. Overall interaction between microorganisms in qymyz is summarized in Figure 8. In general bacteria are responsible for production of acids, while yeast is responsible for ethanol production. Acids lower the pH, which has a positive effect on yeast growth. LAB and lactose (+) yeasts compete for lactose, which has a negative effect on growth of lactose (+) yeasts. Lactose (-) yeasts grow on galactose produced by LAB. Acetic acid bacteria (AAB) inhibit growth of lactose (+) yeast and suppress growth of lactose (-) yeasts, and thus inhibit production of ethanol in qymyz.

Aroma is mostly produced by yeasts and AAB.

The cost and availability of mare milk made authors seek ways to prepare qymyz from cow's milk. [START_REF] Hrisanova | Scientific bases of koumiss production on pure cultures [Autoreferat of dissertation for the degree of candidate in biological sciences[END_REF] simply decreased pH of cow's milk to 5.2 and added qymyz starter cultures. The resulting cow milk qymyz had the same antagonistic effect against M. tuberculosis (H37Rv strain) as qymyz from mare milk. [START_REF] Shamgin | Dairy product for the production of fermented milk drink koumiss and method for producing this product[END_REF] proposed using a mixture of whole milk (33-36%), skimmed milk (0.6-1%) and whey (63-67%), which results in 1:1 ratio of casein to whey, similar to mare milk. [START_REF] Kücükcetin | Adaptation of bovine milk towards mares' milk composition by means of membrane technology for koumiss manufacture[END_REF] used ultrafiltration, microfiltration and nanofiltration to modify cow's milk so that the final composition was equal to mare milk in terms of protein, lactose and other compositional factors. Prepared qymyz had no significant compositional or sensorial difference from mare milk qymyz.

Extending mare milk storage is mainly done by spray drying. Before drying, mare milk is thickened in a vacuum. Reconstituted milk had a lower amount of vitamins C and A, 5-6% less protein, lactose and fat [START_REF] Mursalimov | Bashkir horse[END_REF]. Qymyz lyophilization and reconstitution after 12 months leads to a lower amount of lactic acid (0.06% decrease), and ethanol almost evaporates completely. Bacterial and yeast populations remain viable [START_REF] Musaeva | Characterization of freeze-dried mare's milk koumiss [Autoreferat of dissertation for the degree of candidate of biological sciences[END_REF]. [START_REF] Damdinsurengiin | The influence of food builders on biochemical changes in the protein complex of koumiss during storage [Autoreferat of dissertation for the degree of candidate of technical sciences[END_REF] was able to prolong shelf life of qymyz to 21 days at 20 °C by adding stabilizers, agar-agar (E406) and apple pectin (E440) and pasteurizing bottled qymyz at 95 °C for 5-10 minutes.

Different products from mare milk

In Europe mare milk is gaining interest in France, Germany and Italy as a source of nutrition and as a substitute for children allergic to cow's milk [START_REF] Malacarne | Protein and fat composition of mare's milk: Some nutritional remarks with reference to human and cow's milk[END_REF]. In Kazakhstan, in addition to qymyz, several other types of products such as yogurt and curd are made for children [START_REF] Sinyavskii | Comparative assessment of fatty acid composition, indices of atherogenicity and thrombogenicity of milk of various types of farm animals[END_REF][START_REF] Yakunin | Evaluation of the nutritional value of mare's milk and fermented milk products based on it and the possibility of their use in baby food[END_REF]. [START_REF] Iannella | Equid milk renneting through pure camel chymosin and cheese manufacturing[END_REF] developed a method of cheese making from mare milk using camel chymosin at 0.4 g to 5 L.

Before addition of chymosin authors advocated adding starter cultures as they suppress undesirable bacteria, and produce lactic acid, which increase curd firmness and lower pH to 5.1 (optimal for camel chymosin). Mare milk has also been used in cosmetics such as shampoo, shower gel, body cream, soap, hand cream [START_REF] Stuparu | Pharmaceuticals and Dietary Supplements Extracted from Mare's Milk[END_REF]. However, the main use of horses in Europe remains to be recreational riding and horse racing [START_REF] Liljenstolpe | Horses in Europe[END_REF]. In Central Asia, mare milk is generally used to produce qymyz, but it is also served fresh in special "saumal" (fresh mare milk) sanatoriums.

Health benefits of mare milk and qymyz

Qymyz is accepted as a therapeutic drink in the former USSR countries mainly against tuberculosis. Its anti-tuberculosis effect was reported in 1861 by a military doctor N. Zeland [START_REF] Kudayarova | Historical aspects of the use of koumiss in medicine[END_REF]. Qymyz is believed to inhibit growth of bad bacteria due to low pH, bactericidal substances produced by qymyz microbiota and high levels of lysozyme and lactoferrin in the original mare milk. [START_REF] Gricenko | The influence of microflora on the content of vitamins of group "B" in koumiss[END_REF] found that lactose-negative yeast isolated from qymyz had a higher bactericidal effect than lactose positive yeasts against non-pathogenic В. subtilis and В. mesentericus. [START_REF] Hrisanova | Scientific bases of koumiss production on pure cultures [Autoreferat of dissertation for the degree of candidate in biological sciences[END_REF] reported that the antibacterial effect of qymyz was due to qymyz microbiota as qymyz prepared from cow's milk showed the same antibacterial effect against M. tuberculosis (H36Rv strain) as qymyz from mare milk.

Mare milk and qymyz are beneficial against atherosclerosis [START_REF] Chiofalo | Other utilisation of mare's and ass's milk[END_REF]. [START_REF] Zhang | Effect of Lactobacillus casei Zhang administration on liver lipids metabolism of high-Fat diet induced hypercholesterolemia rats[END_REF] have found that a strain isolated from qymyz reduces high cholesterol. [START_REF] Chen | Identification of angiotensin Iconverting enzyme inhibitory peptides from koumiss, a traditional fermented mare's milk[END_REF] report qymyz to be rich in angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, which indicates the beneficial effect of qymyz on cardiovascular health. [START_REF] Jirillo | Modulation of the human aged immune response by donkey milk intake[END_REF] found that mare milk strengthens the immune system. It was explained by a high content of albumin and globulin in the milk, which are building materials for antibodies [START_REF] Stuparu | Pharmaceuticals and Dietary Supplements Extracted from Mare's Milk[END_REF].

Mare milk is beneficial for children with cow milk protein allergy (CPMA). As a result, in European countries such as France, Germany, Belgium and Italy mare milk is sold as an alternative to powdered milk formula for babies [START_REF] Pieszka | Is mare milk an appropriate food for people? -A review[END_REF]. Low lactose in qymyz is beneficial for lactose intolerant people. 88% of Mongolians are lactose intolerant, but they can still consume qymyz without any problem [START_REF] Fox | Dairy Chemistry and Biochemistry[END_REF].

Mare milk was found to have anti-proliferative and anti-tumor effects against lung cancer cells [START_REF] Mao | Anti-proliferative and anti-tumour effect of active components in donkey milk on A549 human lung cancer cells[END_REF]. Consequently authors have recommended use of mare milk in treatment of cancer, as along with its anti-tumor effects, qymyz can be beneficial in fighting chemotherapy side effects [START_REF] Stuparu | Pharmaceuticals and Dietary Supplements Extracted from Mare's Milk[END_REF][START_REF] Uniacke-Lowe | Equine milk proteins: Chemistry, structure and nutritional significance[END_REF].

Other than tuberculosis, diseases such as asthma, hyperlipidemia, anemia, nephritis, diarrhea, and gastritis, as well as other digestive diseases, are treated with qymyz and mare milk [START_REF] Hou | Koumiss consumption modulates gut microbiota, increases plasma high density cholesterol, decreases immunoglobulin G and albumin[END_REF][START_REF] Salimei | Mare milk. In Handbook of milk of non-bovine mammals[END_REF].

Conclusion

Mare milk and qymyz have been the topic of a vast number of studies since the beginning of the 20th century. Mare milk composition is closer to human milk than cow's. Its composition varies due to horse breed, feed, location and lactation period. Qymyz is the main product made from mare milk. The microbiota of qymyz is highly variable, but the main microorganisms in qymyz are LAB and yeasts. Mare milk, along with qymyz, has long been used in the treatment of various diseases. Recent studies are reporting new beneficial properties of mare milk and qymyz. Due to these findings qymyz production has a lot of market potential. The quality of qymyz depends on the use of specific microorganisms and specific fermentation conditions. The interaction between these microorganisms is one of the more complex and important areas of qymyz production, which requires further research. Optimizing succession (non-lactose fermentation yeast) or co-fermentation (lactose-fermenting yeast) of lactic and ethanol fermentations in qymyz is still unclear, and thus deserves further study. [START_REF] Mursalimov | Bashkir horse[END_REF][START_REF] Popova | Economic and biological features of horses of Belarusian breed[END_REF].

  sensory quality in National standard of the Republic of Kazakhstan -ST RK 1004-98 (Kazakh Research and Development Institute of Meat and Dairy Industry of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan., 1999): weak -one day fermentation, medium -two-day fermentation, and strong -three-day fermentation (Table

Fig. 1 .Fig. 2 .Fig. 3 .Fig. 4 .

 1234 Fig. 1.Countries where horses are used as dairy animals[START_REF] Doreau | Recent knowledge on mare milk production: A review[END_REF]

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. Qymyz preparation containers: (A) different forms of saba; (B) kubi.

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig.6. Qymyz starter preparation scheme according toMRTU 46-573-69 (Seitov et al., 2005;

Fig. 7 .

 7 Fig. 7. Starter preparation (A) and qymyz production (B) in 'qymyz' hospitals(Mursalimov &

Fig. 8 .

 8 Fig. 8. Diagram of interaction between microorganisms in qymyz. Green lines -stimulation,

  Figure 8

Table 1

 1 Horse population in Central Asian and bordering countries.

	Country	Horse population	Year reported	References
	Kazakhstan	2.85 million	2019	(Committee on Statistics, 2020)
	Kyrgyzstan	0.52 million	2019	(Agriculture -Official Statistics -
				Statistics of Kyrgyzstan, 2020)
	Mongolia	4.21 million	2019	(Mongolian	Statistical
				Information	Service-Livestock,
				2020)
	Russia	1.37 million	2014	(Knyazev & Timchenko, 2016)
	Uzbekistan	0.24 million	2018	(FAOSTAT, 2020)

Table 2 .

 2 Mare, cow and human milk composition (% W/V)

	References	Mare milk	Cow milk	Human milk
		Protein
	(Park et al., 2017)	2	3,3	1,3
	(Claeys et al., 2014)	1,4-3,2	3-3,9	0,9-1,9
	(Akhatova, 2008)	1,6-2,3	2,5-3,3	1,8-3,5
	(Jenness, 1988)	2,5	3,2	0,9
		Fat
	(Park et al., 2017)	1,2	3,8	4,2
	(Claeys et al., 2014)	0,3-4,2	3,3-5,4	2,1-4
	(Akhatova, 2008)	1,2-2,8	3,7	3,7
	(Jenness, 1988)	1,9	3,9	4,5
		Carbohydrate
	(Park et al., 2017)	6,5	4,8	7
	(Claeys et al., 2014)	5,6-7,2	4,4-5,6	6,3-7
	(Akhatova, 2008)	6,2-7	4,7	6,3
	(Jenness, 1988)	6,2	4,6	7,1

Table 3

 3 Protein composition of mare, human and cow milk in g/kg. In brackets % of total nitrogen.

			Mare			%		Human		%		Cow			%
	References	(Uniac ke-Lowe et al., 2010)	(Malaca rne et al., 2002)	(Gafiatul lin, 2006)	(Uniac ke-Lowe et al., 2010)	(Malaca rne et al., 2002)	(Gafiatul lin, 2006)	(Uniac ke-Lowe et al., 2010)	(Malaca rne et al., 2002)	(Uniac ke-Lowe et al., 2010)	(Malaca rne et al., 2002)	(Uniac ke-Lowe et al., 2010)	(Malaca rne et al., 2002)	(Gafiatul lin, 2006)	(Uniac ke-Lowe et al., 2010)	(Malaca rne et al., 2002)	(Gafiatul lin, 2006)
	Whole protein	24	21	20	100	100	100	12	14	100	100	34	33	33	100	100	100
	Whey protein	8,3	8,3	11,7	34,2	38,8	54,7	6,2	7,6	53,0	53,5	6,3	5,7	6,6	18,4	17,5	20,4
	Casein	13,6	10,7	8,0	56,0	50,0	37,4	2,4	3,7	20,5	26,1	26,0	25,1	25,9	76,0	77,2	79,4
	Non-
	protein nitrogen *	2,4	2,4	-	9,9	11,2	-	3,1	2,9	26,5	20,4	1,9	1,7	-	5,6	5,2	-
	6.38

Table 4 .

 4 Milk composition and productivity of different horse breeds

	Horse breed	Protein (%)	Dry matter (%)	Lactose (%)	Fat (%)	Milk production (kg/day)	Average liveweight (kg)

Table 6

 6 Qymyz sensory types classification according to ST RK 1004-98 (Kazakh Research and Development Institute of Meat and Dairy Industry of theMinistry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan., 1999).

	Characteristics	Weak	Types of qymyz Medium	Strong
	Lactic acid %	0.7	0.9	1.08
	Ethanol %	1	1.5	3
	Density g/cm 3	1.025-1.021	1.020-1.018	1.017-1.015

Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments

The work was supported by Abaï-Verne joint program of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the French Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs.

We also thank Dr. Bernard Faye for critical reading of our paper.

Author

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