Lucie Bel-Latour
email: lucie.bel-latour@univ.eiffel.fr

Marie-Axelle Granié
email: marie-axelle.granie@univ-eiffel.fr

The influence of the perceived masculinity of an occupation on risk behavior: the case of firefighters

Keywords: firefighters, masculinity, occupational perception, road risk behaviors

The influence of the perceived masculinity of an occupation on risk behavior: the case of firefighters

Highlights

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Gendered representations of the occupation directly affect risk behavior • A strongly masculine perception of the occupation is linked to riskier behavior • Risk-taking in driving and physical training allow firefighters to prove their masculinity

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These collective defense strategies are a response to the new tasks required of their occupationThe influence of the perceived masculinity of an occupation on risk behavior: the case of firefighters Abstract This article discusses the influence of the gendered perception of the firefighting profession as an explanatory factor for workers' risk behaviors. We hypothesize that the masculine perception of the firefighting profession will affect perceptions of risk behaviors, feelings of self-efficacy in driving, and reported risk behaviors in occupation-related risk activities and in driving. Gendered perceptions of the profession, risky behaviors in the context of occupational and non-occupational driving, perceptions of the risks and benefits of risky behaviors in occupational and physical activities and self-efficacy as regards risky behaviors as a driver were measured by an online questionnaire that was administered to 501 firefighters (146 professionals and 355 volunteers) in a Département in South-East France. The results confirmed our hypothesis that risky behaviors when engaged in physical activities, firefighting activities and occupational driving are more prevalent among firefighters, both male and female and of whatever age, who have a masculine perception of their occupation. The results also show that younger, professional, firefighters reported more physical risk behavior. These different practices may show a greater internalization of masculine social norms on the part of firefighters who are professionals or who have less experience.

Introduction

Accidents at work are the greatest problem facing workers and their employers. In 2018, there were 3.1 million accidents at work in the EU that resulted in at least 4 days' absence from work and 3,332 fatal accidents (Eurostat, 2020). In France, the sickness insurance agency reported a slight increase in the number of work-related commuting accidents in 2019 (99,000), the highest level since the 2000's (Fatome & Thiebeauld, 2019). These work-related accidents are the result of risky behavior [START_REF] Prati | Predictors of safety behavior among emergency responders on the highways[END_REF]. Although firefighting is a high-risk occupation [START_REF] Kanzari | Les sapeurs-pompiers, une identité temporelle de métier [The Fire Brigade, a temporal identity of profession[END_REF], the accidents firefighters have at work occur more frequently during non-firefighting activities. In France, one-third of firefighters' fatalities occur during road trips and 64% of their work-related accidents occur during physical training (National Data Bank, 2017).

These work-related accidents can be caused by the safety culture of organizations [START_REF] Lefranc | Apport de l'analyse de la conformité légale, de l'analyse des risques et du climat de sécurité à la construction de la culture de sécurité [Contribution of legal compliance analysis, risk analysis and safety climate to the construction of a safety culture[END_REF], and are determined by interactions between behaviors, psychological factors and organizational safety goals [START_REF] Cooper | The Safety Culture Construct: Theory and Practice[END_REF]. A safety culture is essential to prevent occupational accidents [START_REF] Smith | Safety-specific transformational and passive leadership influences on firefighter safety climate perceptions and safety behavior outcomes[END_REF]. For example, [START_REF] Stergiou-Kita | Examining theoretical approaches to men and masculinity in the context of high-risk work: applications, benefits and challenges[END_REF] shows that a work environment perceived as not placing a high value on workers' safety tends to lead to riskier behaviors. Martinez-Fiestas et al. (2020) have thus shown that changing the perception of risks among firefighters may modify their risktaking. While [START_REF] Desmond | Becoming a firefighter[END_REF] has shown the specific risk appeal of men becoming firefighters, however, safety cultures do not consider the gendered aspect of risk behavior [START_REF] Granié | Genre et rapport au risque : de la compréhension au levier pour l'action [Gender and risk: from understanding to leveraging action[END_REF].

Gender is defined by a socially constructed process, where men and women integrate and adapt their attitudes and behaviors according to their gender assignment [START_REF] Johnson | Better Science with Sex and Gender: A Primer for Health Research[END_REF]. In this sense, gender identities are not biological but socially acquired in a given society [START_REF] Lachenal | Questions de genre: Comprendre pour dépasser les idées reçues [Gender issues: Understanding to overcome preconceptions[END_REF]. Gender leads to the construction of social sex roles and stereotypes that will define for a given society what is expected of a man, i.e. masculinity, and what is expected of a woman, i.e. femininity [START_REF] Fiske | What's so special about sex? Gender stereotyping and discrimination[END_REF][START_REF] Ashmore | Gender stereotypes[END_REF].

Moreover, the behavior of workers can vary according to their gender but also according to their more or less gendered perception of the occupation. Studies have thus shown that professional identities of risky occupations [START_REF] Sauvage | Demographic influences on risk perceptions[END_REF][START_REF] Stergiou-Kita | Examining theoretical approaches to men and masculinity in the context of high-risk work: applications, benefits and challenges[END_REF], such as firefighters (Martinez-Fiestas, Rodríguez-Garzón & Padial, 2020), are based on masculine characteristics [START_REF] Thurnell-Read | Men, masculinities and firefighting: Occupational identity, shop-floor culture and organisational change[END_REF][START_REF] Penin | Le sexe du risque [The sex of risk[END_REF]. To go any further than this, it would be necessary to understand the origin of firefighters' specific perception of risks and to explore the effect of their masculine perceptions of the occupation on risk-taking and workrelated accidents. Yet, the concept of masculinity is not sufficiently addressed in the study of high-risk occupations, such as firefighters [START_REF] Stergiou-Kita | Danger zone: Men, masculinity and occupational health and safety in high risk occupations[END_REF] and the effects of this masculinity on risk-taking in high-risk occupations have not yet been studied.

Literature review

Perceptions of the occupation of firefighter: the construction of masculinity.

The construction of the perceptions of an occupation lies between lay knowledge (social image) and the technical knowledge individuals possess about their occupation [START_REF] Blin | Représentations, pratiques et identités professionnelles [Representations, practices and professional identities[END_REF].

These perceptions help to form the social representation of an occupation by endowing workers with an identity and unique status [START_REF] Michel-Guillou | Agriculteur, un métier en mutation : Analyse psychosociale d'une représentation professionnelle [Farmer, a changing profession : Psychosocial analysis of a professional representation[END_REF]. The gendered perception of an occupation is based on two dimensions: an objective dimension concerning the proportion of workers of each gender group and its historical evolution and a subjective dimension, through the qualities and technical and symbolic characteristics, perceived as required by the occupation and naturally associated with one of the two genders [START_REF] Zolesio | Des femmes dans un métier d'hommes : l'apprentissage de la chirurgie [Women in a man's job: learning to be a surgeon[END_REF]. Thus, in France, historically women were excluded from the firefighting occupation until 1976 and still today make up only 18% of active firefighters. Furthermore, symbolically, firefighter occupation is associated with only one gender by the skills that this occupation requires (strength, courage...) [START_REF] Duarte | Héroïsme et défenses chez les pisteurs/euses secouristes [Heroism and defences among rescue workers[END_REF].

Social representations of firefighters are associated with symbols of the masculine gender [START_REF] Michaut-Oswalt | La féminisation de professions traditionnellement masculines, l'exemple de la brigade de sapeur-pompier de Paris [The feminisation of traditionally masculine professions, the example of the Paris Fire Brigade[END_REF], such as invincibility, bravery and physical strength [START_REF] Yarnal | Don't Let the Bastards See you Sweat: Masculinity, Public and Private Space, and the Volunteer Firehouse[END_REF][START_REF] Jacobsson | Promoting and hindering health and well-being in firefighter discourse[END_REF], and with the resulting stereotypes of courage, mental strength and self-transcendence [START_REF] De Oliveira | L'effet de la dominance sociale sur les idéologies de légitimation : le rôle modérateur de l'environnement normatif [The effect of social dominance on legitimating ideologies: the moderating role of the normative environment[END_REF]. This categorization of masculinity contributes to the fact that these workers acquire a dimension of virility [START_REF] Bieder | Sexuality Stereotypes and Fantasies of Consumers of French Male Heterosexual Pornographic Media[END_REF]. Their masculinity is constructed as a contrast to the characteristics attributed to the female gender such as gentleness, empathy or listening [START_REF] Rivoal | Virilité ou masculinité ? L'usage des concepts et leur portée théorique dans les analyses scientifiques des mondes masculins [Virility or masculinity? The use of concepts and their theoretical scope in scientific analyses of male worlds[END_REF].

Masculinity in occupational socialization

The motto of the Paris Brigade firefighters ("save or perish") or that of firefighters in the rest of France ("courage and dedication") are at the origin for a certain attitude that French firefighters are intended to have on the field. These symbols reinforce a masculine perception of the profession, which could influence firefighters' behaviors. The world of firefighters is governed by adherence to a collective norm that generates perceptions, attitudes and behaviors that perpetuate a masculine ideology [START_REF] Levine | Group socialization: Theory and research[END_REF], defined as the belief of individuals in characteristics of men that women would not have [START_REF] Thompson | Men and masculinities: Scales for masculinity ideology and masculinity-related constructs[END_REF]. To conform to this ideology of masculinity, workers in high-risk occupations [START_REF] Addis | Social norms, social construction, and the psychology of men and masculinity[END_REF], and specifically firefighters [START_REF] Thurnell-Read | Men, masculinities and firefighting: Occupational identity, shop-floor culture and organisational change[END_REF][START_REF] Mahalik | Development of the conformity to masculine norms inventory[END_REF] adopt masculine attitudes and behaviors.

In this context, one can observe the presence of hegemonic masculinity and the birth of a subordinate relationship within groups of men [START_REF] Connell | Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept[END_REF]. This concept involves the systematic search for the masculine ideal in order to bind men closely to masculinity (Ericson, 2016). This may result in a power struggle in which men oppress other men who do not conform to or match a certain type of masculinity [START_REF] Connell | Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept[END_REF]. These expressions of masculine ideology are more observable in occupations where courage in the face of death, strength and violence are legitimized [START_REF] Terret | Sport et masculinité : une revue de questions [Sport and masculinity: a review of issues[END_REF]. Furthermore, in occupations where skills are linked to physical attributes [START_REF] Hall | Occupational Cultures and the Embodiment of Masculinity: Hairdressing, Estate Agency and Firefighting[END_REF], physical strength and risk-taking may be a way of visibly demonstrating virility. Thus, risktaking on the road or during sports training may be an aspect of the demonstration of masculinity [START_REF] Rivoal | Virilité ou masculinité ? L'usage des concepts et leur portée théorique dans les analyses scientifiques des mondes masculins [Virility or masculinity? The use of concepts and their theoretical scope in scientific analyses of male worlds[END_REF], as can engaging in physical challenges with colleagues (Lash-Gravier, 2002).

Risk perception in risky occupations

The way in which individuals express their identification with the male gender, in a work environment that values dominant masculinities, may influence risk-taking. Risk perception is defined as awareness that a situation has at least one potentially negative consequence [START_REF] Sjöberg | Explaining risk perception. An evaluation of the psychometric paradigm in risk perception research[END_REF]. Risk-taking is the result of voluntary, conscious, behavior in a dangerous situation, and it can also have positive effects for the individual (Assailly, 2010).

According to Le [START_REF] Breton | Sociologie du risque[END_REF], risk is socially constructed and individuals perceive it according to their own perceptions. An individual's judgment can modify the level of risk they perceive in a situation, but also their social representations (Drozda-Senkowska, [START_REF] Drozda-Senkowska | Menaces sociales et environnementales : repenser la société des risques [Social and environmental threats: rethinking the risk society[END_REF]. For example, some people violate traffic rules because of their sense of self-efficacy and their beliefs about their control of their vehicle [START_REF] Leplat | Risque et perception du risque dans l'activité [Risk and perception of risk in the activity[END_REF]. The perception of road risk varies from one individual to another, for example according to age, occupation or gender [START_REF] Granié | Les différences de sexe en sécurité routière : accidentalité, comportements à risque, accès au permis de conduire[END_REF], and also depends on the perceived costs and benefits of risk-taking (Drozda-Senkowska, [START_REF] Drozda-Senkowska | Menaces sociales et environnementales : repenser la société des risques [Social and environmental threats: rethinking the risk society[END_REF]. As risk is symbolic, subjective and social, risktaking can be modified by social interactions, the environment or peer pressure (Penin, 2020).

In risky occupations, people may break the rules more easily if they consider that risk-taking is beneficial. For example, breaking the speed limit may be justified in order to arrive more quickly on the scene [START_REF] Guého | Approche psychosociale des effets de l'identité sexuée sur les comportements à risque déclarés au volant et dans différents domaines chez les jeunes conducteurs[END_REF].

According to [START_REF] Bandura | Tests of the generality of selfefficacy theory[END_REF] theory of self-efficacy, individuals act on the production of their behaviors by exercising control over their actions. This notion "refers to individuals' beliefs about their ability to achieve particular performances" (Bandura, 2002, p.3). Perceived self-efficacy is then defined by the individual's will to succeed in a specific action and thus, by their confidence in their abilities [START_REF] Meyer | Auto-efficacité : quelle contribution aux modèles de prédiction de l'exposition aux risques et de la préservation de la santé ? [Self-efficacy: what contribution to predictive models of risk exposure and health maintenance[END_REF]). An individual may engage in risky behaviors, not just to take risks, but also to gain possible benefits such as social approval, adrenaline production or self-esteem [START_REF] Maddux | Self-efficacy[END_REF]. Thus, firefighters who believe they have excellent physical and driving abilities may take more risks because they consider that the potential negative consequences of this behavior, such as an accident, are less important than the positive consequences they can gain from doing so which will increase their sense of self-efficacy [START_REF] Bandura | Auto-efficacité : Le sentiment d'efficacité personnelle [Selfefficacy: The exercise of control[END_REF].

The demonstration of masculinity among firefighters through risk-taking behavior

Risk-taking is a question of finding an equilibrium between the risks inherent in an action and the perceived benefits that may result from it. For firefighters, one such possible benefit is gaining social prestige by conforming to the image of the occupation (Douesnard & Saint-Arnaud, 2011). Several authors have also shown that drivers or pedestrians who conform to masculine stereotypes report more accident risk behaviors (Granié, 2009;[START_REF] Guého | Approche psychosociale des effets de l'identité sexuée sur les comportements à risque déclarés au volant et dans différents domaines chez les jeunes conducteurs[END_REF]Douesnard & Saint-Arnaud, 2011, Ozkan & Lajunen, 2005, see Granié, Degraeve & Varet, 2019, for a review) and that risk-taking is performed in order to show one's abilities and is derived from masculinity. Thus, risk-taking behaviors may depend on individuals' perceptions of their occupation, especially in skilled high-risk occupations. Risk-taking is associated with the masculine gender, which is expressed in terms of its differences with the feminine gender [START_REF] Penin | Le sexe du risque [The sex of risk[END_REF].

Traditional masculinity can also be anti-feminine [START_REF] Mankowski | Men's Mental Health and masculinities[END_REF], particularly in fire stations, which are conducive to the expression of a masculine order [START_REF] Pfefferkorn | Des femmes chez les sapeurs-pompiers [Women in the fire service[END_REF]. This is a way for firefighters to express and emphasize their masculinity in contrast to everything that is feminine [START_REF] Lachenal | Questions de genre: Comprendre pour dépasser les idées reçues [Gender issues: Understanding to overcome preconceptions[END_REF]. The social context in which firefighters operate may favor the expression of masculinity when driving, in particular through risky behaviors, in order to conform to what is socially expected of them. In order to conform to what is socially expected of them, the social context in which firefighters operate may favor the expression of masculinity when driving, in particular through risky behaviors, but also through physical challenges between colleagues during sports training (Lash-Gravier, 2002;[START_REF] Guého | Approche psychosociale des effets de l'identité sexuée sur les comportements à risque déclarés au volant et dans différents domaines chez les jeunes conducteurs[END_REF].

Change of professional activity

Although this social image of firefighting occupation as strongly masculine persists in many parts of the world [START_REF] Thurnell-Read | Men, masculinities and firefighting: Occupational identity, shop-floor culture and organisational change[END_REF], in France, the actual activities of firefighters have diversified [START_REF] Kanzari | Les sapeurs-pompiers, une identité temporelle de métier [The Fire Brigade, a temporal identity of profession[END_REF] and are no longer limited to firefighting but now also include assistance to victims, therefore becoming closer to the 'caring' professions [START_REF] Memmi | Care, stigmatisation sociale et femmes: un lien inexorable: Ou: quand le cadavre se dissout dans le « relationnel » [Care, social stigma and women: an inexorable link: Or: when the dead body dissolves into the 'relational[END_REF]. The 'caring professions' are defined as those that involve 'taking care of others' and they are therefore associated with so-called feminine characteristics such as listening, empathy and sensitivity (Reedberg, 1993). These occupations are given little recognition and assigned a low value by society, as they tend to be done by women as an extension of their social roles [START_REF] Benelli | Analyser un objet invisible : le travail de care [Analysing an invisible object: care work[END_REF]. Thus, as a result of the way the occupation is changing, the image of firefighters is becoming less prestigious and military in nature and closer to that of domestic work, leading to a devaluation of the occupation (Pferffekorn, 2006). This change may affect firefighters' perceptions of their occupation in terms of masculinity and femininity.

A dissonance may then be created between the socially expected so-called masculine characteristics and the so-called feminine values they have to espouse on a daily basis, far removed from the heroism they would prefer.

In this context where masculinity is dominant, ideologies and collective defense strategies could emerge [START_REF] Kolhs | Suffering and defense in work in a mental health care service[END_REF] to compensate for this change of tasks, as "both a 'response' to the confrontation with reality present in any professional activity, and a 'response' to the social imaginary insofar as it contributes to shaping the image of the profession" (Dejours, 1990cited in Lhuilier, 2007, p.87, our translation). Historically, these strategies have been observed in high-risk occupational environments where the majority of workers are men [START_REF] Dashtipour | Work as affective experience: the contribution of Christophe Dejours''psychodynamics of work[END_REF]. They are made up of a set of perceptions, rules and collective attitudes aimed at concealing and despising any feelings of vulnerability in the face of pain and suffering (Debout, 2018), suppressing emotions and neutralizing their potential negative effects (Lhuilier, 2007). Risk-taking behaviors can then be converted into "dangerous games", such as "incomprehensible refusals to follow safety instructions, jokes and stories that mock those who show signs of weakness" (Duarte & Gernet, 2010, p.55). The purpose of these games may be to demonstrate one's masculine abilities to the peer group and to test new members of the group (Duarte & Gent, 2016).

Objectives of the study

Thus, the literature has shown that the profession of firefighter is perceived socially and by those who practice it as a masculine profession and that a professional environment presenting strong norms of masculinity induces specific behaviors in individuals who want to conform to them. While risk-taking behaviors are inherent to the firefighting profession, the literature shows that risk-taking may be greater if individuals believe that they will benefit from it, such as a confirmation of their masculinity. The masculine perception of the profession could then influence the workers' risk behaviors, especially in the current situation where the missions of firefighters are evolving towards activities with more feminine characteristics. However, to our knowledge, no study has yet examined gendered perceptions of an occupation as a factor in workers' risk behaviors, particularly in a high-risk occupation such as firefighting, whereas the social context in which firefighters find themselves may promote the expression of masculinity through driving activities and risky behaviors in order to conform to their perception of their profession.

Based on the literature, we hypothesize that a masculine perception of the firefighting profession will lead to more risky perceptions of accidental risk behaviors and more frequent risky behaviors among firefighters. Thus, we hypothesize that a masculine perception of the occupation will be linked to riskier perceptions of the observed activities. Specifically, we hypothesize that more masculine and less feminine perceptions of the occupation will be related to less perception of risk (H1) and more perception of benefits (H2) of occupation-related risky behaviors and more sense of self-efficacy in vehicle control (H3) and driving violation (H4).

We also hypothesize that the firefighters' gendered perception of their occupation in terms of masculinity and femininity will directly influence their risk-taking behaviors when engaged in driving or physical activities. Specifically, we hypothesize that a more masculine perception of this profession will lead to riskier behaviors in occupational activities (H5) and driving (H6) and that, conversely, a feminine perception of the profession will tend to inhibit risk-taking behaviors in occupational activities (H7) and driving (H8).

Method

Procedure and participants

A self-administered questionnaire was offered online to all the firefighters in a Département in South-East France. In addition to the variables mentioned in section 2.2., information was also collected for each participant concerning their age (in eight age groups, from 18 to over 55 years), gender (2 groups: man or woman), socio-occupational category (eight groups), possession of a driving license (driving license A, B, C or D), status (professional firefighter or volunteer firefighter) and occupational tenure (7 levels of experience, from 0-4 years to over 30 years).

The sample consisted of 501 firefighters, 146 of whom were professionals and 355 were volunteers (81% men and 19% women). The youngest participants were 18 years of age and the oldest over 55 years of age (mean = 38.68 years, SD=15,34) and they all had a driving license. The occupations of the volunteer firefighters were as follows: farmers (0.3%), artisans, shopkeepers and entrepreneurs (4.9%), executive and intellectual professions (20.3%), intermediate professions (26.3%), employees (26.0%), workers (12.5%), retirees (2.3%) and unemployed people (7.3%).

Variables and tools

The variables, the number of items, their format, the reference of the tool used and the aggregated scores calculated are given in Table 1.

Firefighters' perceptions of their occupation in terms of masculine and feminine characteristics was measured using the French version of the short Bem Sex-Role Inventory.

This scale, which originally measures individuals' conformity to gender stereotypes, was modified for this study to measure firefighters' perceptions of their profession. Participants were asked, "In your own experience, what qualities do you think are necessary to be a firefighter?".

A feminine item of the scale ("Loving children") was replaced with a masculine item ("Enjoying taking risks") to have 8 items for the masculine and the feminine characteristics.

Two aggregate scores were calculated, for the masculine perception of the occupation (total score obtained on the masculine items of the scale) and for the feminine perception of the occupation (total score obtained on the feminine items of the scale).

Self-efficacy as regards risky driving [START_REF] Meesmann | ESRA2 methodology[END_REF] measures individuals' perceived propensity to perform risky behaviors as drivers. Self-efficacy is defined as individuals' belief that they are able to perform a particular task [START_REF] Bandura | Auto-efficacité : Le sentiment d'efficacité personnelle [Selfefficacy: The exercise of control[END_REF]. This scale is composed of 2 items related to drinking and driving, 2 to speeding and 2 to telephone use while driving. Two aggregate scores were calculated, for self-efficacy in violation and self-efficacy in vehicle control.

Risk-taking, perceived risks and benefits of risk-taking were measured using the validated French version [START_REF] Guého | Approche psychosociale des effets de l'identité sexuée sur les comportements à risque déclarés au volant et dans différents domaines chez les jeunes conducteurs[END_REF] of the Domain-Specific Risk-Taking (DOSPERT) scale [START_REF] Weber | A domain-specific risk-attitude scale: measuring risk perceptions and risk behaviors[END_REF]. For this study, behaviors were chosen in two specific domains in which firefighters might engage in risky behavior: physical activities (3 items; e.g.:

"Starting an intense sports session without warming up") and firefighting activities (4 items; e.g.: "Adopting an emergency driving mode for a blocked elevator"). These items were used to estimate the frequency of risk-taking (asking participants how likely they were to adopt these behaviors in each situation), perceived risks (asking participants the level of risk they perceived in each situation) and perceived benefits (asking participants the level of benefits they thought they would gain in each situation). Six aggregate scores were calculated, concerning risktaking, perceived risks and perceived benefits for firefighting and physical activities.

Self-declared frequency of driving violations among participants was measured using the French version of the Driver Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) [START_REF] L'harmattan | French validation of a new version of the Driver Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) for drivers of all ages and level of experience[END_REF]. Of the 6 dimensions of the original tool, only the items corresponding to ordinary violations (defined as deliberate driving violations without an aggressive purpose; 4 items) and aggressive violations (defined as behaviors that involved confrontation with other road users; 5 items) were used. Participants were asked about the frequency of their violation behaviors during their work-related trips and their personal trips, allowing to calculate 2 aggregate scores.

Item structure was checked for each tool by principal component analysis (PCA) with Oblimin rotation, using IBM SPSS Statistics 26. The Cronbach's alphas are given in Table 1.

Results

First, we explored the effects of gender, age, status and experience on gendered perceptions of the occupation. Next, we analyzed the relationships between the gendered perceptions of the occupation and the perceptions of risky behavior, controlling for demographic and occupational variables. Finally, we analyzed the effects of gendered perceptions of the occupation on declared risky driving behavior, controlling for demographic and occupational and for variables related to the perception of risks and benefits. IBM SPSS

Statistics 26 was used to analyze the data.

Effect of gender, age, status and experience on perceptions of the occupation of firefighter

Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations of perceptions of the occupation in terms of masculinity and femininity according to gender, age and status.

Concerning gender groups, a t-test comparison of means revealed no statistically significant difference between men and women firefighters as regards the perception of the masculinity of their occupation (t(499)=1.52, ns), nor as regards the perception of its femininity (t(499)=0.165, ns) see Table 2).

We used ANOVA to test the effect of age (8 groups) on perceptions of the occupation in terms of masculinity and femininity. The results were not significant for masculinity (F(7.493)=1.48, ns). For femininity, ANOVA showed a significant main effect of age (F(7,493)=3.75, p=.001). The Bonferroni post-hoc test showed that firefighters aged 55 or older had more feminine perceptions of the occupation than those aged between 24 and 39 (see Table 2).

Concerning the effect of status, a t-test comparison of means revealed no statistically significant difference between professional and volunteer firefighters concerning the perceived masculinity of their occupation (t(499)= -0.21, ns), but a significant difference concerning its perceived femininity (t(499)= 2.45, p=.015). Volunteer firefighters attributed a higher femininity score to their occupation than professional firefighters (see Table 2).

Effect of perceptions of the occupation (masculinity and femininity) on perceptions of risky situations and the sense of self-efficacy

Eight hierarchical regression analyses were performed, with the 4 aggregated scores concerning risk-taking perception (perceptions of the risks and benefits for physical activities and for firefighting activities) and the two aggregate scores concerning self-efficacy (in vehicle control and in violations) as dependent variable. For each regression analysis, the same predictors were used: gender, age, status, level of experience, and perceptions of the masculinity and femininity of the occupation. The full results of these analyses are presented in Table 3.

Concerning physical activities, the regression model concerning the perception of risks explained 20.3% of the total variance (F(6.494)=22.21, p<.0001). Age, experience and perception of femininity were positively associated with perceived risks in physical activities, while there was a negative association with status. The regression model concerning the perception of the benefits explained 10.4% of the total variance (F(6.494)=10.69, p<.0001).

The perceived masculinity score was positively associated with the perceived benefits of physical activities, while there was a negative association with experience and age.

Concerning firefighting activities, the regression model concerning the perception of risks explained 9% of the total variance (F(6.494)=9.24, p<.0001). Age and the perception of the occupation as feminine were positively associated with an awareness of risks in firefighting activities, while there was a negative association with masculinity. The regression model on the perception of the benefits explained 4.8% of the total variance (F(6.494)=5.19, p<.0001). The perception of masculinity was positively associated with the perception of the benefits of firefighting activities, while there was a negative association with the perception of femininity. Concerning the sense of self-efficacy, the model regression concerning vehicle control explained 4.6% of the total variance (F(6.494)=5.013, p<.0001). Perceptions of masculinity were positively associated with self-efficacy as regards vehicle control, while there was a negative association with perceived femininity and level of experience. The regression model concerning violation situations explained 4.9% of the total variance (F(6,494)=5.33, p<.0001).

Perceptions of masculinity and status were positively associated with the sense of self-efficacy in violation situations, while there was a negative association with the perception of femininity.

Table 3: Standardized betas of the effect of perceptions of masculinity and femininity on perception of risks and benefits ***p<.0001, **p<.001, *p<.05

The effect of perceptions of masculinity and femininity on risky behaviors

Finally, 4 regression analyses were performed with the 4 aggregate scores concerning self-reported behaviors in physical activities, firefighting activities and occupational and nonoccupational driving as dependent variables. For each dependent variable, the predictors were the sociodemographic and occupational variables (sex, age, experience as firefighter and status), the perception of the occupation in terms of masculinity and femininity, and the aggregate scores on the perception of risk-taking for each type of activity. Thus, perceptions about physical activities were used as predictors of reported physical activity risk-taking, perceptions of firefighting activities as predictors of firefighting activity risk-taking, and violation self-efficacy scores as predictors of reported driving violation behaviors. The full results are presented in Table 4. For reported risky physical behaviors, the model explained 41.1% of the total variance (F(8,492)=46.14, p<.0001). Being young and a professional firefighter, perceiving more benefits and fewer risks in physical activities as well as having a perception of the occupation as both feminine and masculine are associated with more risky physical behaviors.

For reported risky firefighter behaviors, the model explained 38.2% of the total variance (F(8,492)=39.61, p<.0001). Being young, perceiving more benefits and fewer risks in firefighting activities and having a masculine perception of the occupation are associated with riskier behaviors in firefighting activities.

For driving behaviors in the non-occupational context, the model explained 42.4% of the total variance (F(8,492)=47.08, p<.0001). Having a high sense of self-efficacy with regard to vehicle control and violation situations and having a low feminine perception of the occupation are associated with riskier behaviors on the road.

For occupational driving behaviors, the model explained 34.2% of the total variance (F(8,492)=33.50, p<.0001). Being young, a volunteer firefighter, having a high sense of selfefficacy in vehicle control and violation situations, having high masculine and low feminine perceptions of the occupation of firefighter were associated with more risky occupational driving.

Discussion

This study has attempted to show the relationship between firefighters' gendered perceptions of their occupation and their risky behaviors. It has investigated how gendered perceptions of the occupation affect perceptions of other factors such as risk, benefits and selfefficacy, and risky behaviors in the areas of physical activities, firefighting activities and occupational and non-occupational driving. It explores the hypothesis that a perception of the occupation as masculine leads to riskier behaviors and that, on the contrary, a more feminine perception of the occupation inhibits such behaviors among firefighters.

This study first aimed to test the effect of a more masculine and less feminine perception of the profession on the perception of risk (H1) and benefits (H2) of occupation-related risky behaviors. The results show that the perception of risk of physical and firefighting activities is higher in firefighters with a feminine view of their profession and that the perception of benefits is higher in firefighters with a masculine view of their profession. This study also sought to test the effect of more masculine and less feminine perceptions of the occupation on feelings of self-efficacy in violations (H3) and vehicle control (H4). The results show that masculine perception of the occupation reinforced, whereas feminine perception of the occupation inhibited the sense of self-efficacy in vehicle control and violation situations. Thus, perceiving the firefighting profession as strongly related to feminine characteristics reinforces the perception of risks associated with certain occupational activities and lowers feelings of selfefficacy in infringing driving behaviors, whereas perceiving the profession as related to masculine characteristics leads firefighters to perceive more benefits from engaging in risky occupational behaviors and to perceive themselves as effective in infringing driving behaviors.

Thus, the results show that gendered perceptions of the occupation affect the perception of risk.

A perception of the occupation as masculine leads to a greater perception of the benefits of risktaking in sporting activities and firefighting activities than a perception of it as feminine. In addition, the feeling of self-efficacy with regard to vehicle control and driving violations was higher among firefighters with a perception of their occupation as highly masculine and slightly feminine. These results may be explained by the desire to conform to the norms of masculinity that prevail among firefighters [START_REF] Thurnell-Read | Men, masculinities and firefighting: Occupational identity, shop-floor culture and organisational change[END_REF].

We also hypothesized that a strongly masculine perception of the occupation would be associated with more frequent risky behaviors (H5), whereas a strongly feminine perception of the occupation would be associated with less frequent risky behaviors in occupational activities (H7). The results show that -whether male or female and whatever their age-risky behaviors in firefighting activities (but not in physical activities) are reinforced by a masculine perception of the job, while, contrary to H7, risky behaviors in physical activities (but not in firefighting activities) are reinforced by a feminine perception of the job. We also hypothesized that a strongly masculine perception of the occupation would be associated with more frequent risk behaviors in driving (H6), while a strongly feminine perception of the job would be associated with less frequent risk behaviors in driving (H8). The results show that, whether male or female and whatever their age, and in accordance with H6 and H8, masculine perception of the occupation reinforces, while feminine perception of the occupation inhibits risky occupational driving behaviors, while, in accordance with H8, risky behaviors in non-occupational situations are inhibited by feminine perception of occupation but are not related to masculine perception of occupation. Thus, masculine perception of occupation reinforces risky behaviors in physical activities and occupational driving, whereas feminine perception of occupation inhibits risky behaviors in both occupational and non-occupational driving. Thus, in line with the literature [START_REF] Granié | Genre et rapport au risque : de la compréhension au levier pour l'action [Gender and risk: from understanding to leveraging action[END_REF], firefighters with a strongly masculine and weakly feminine image of their occupation conform to the masculine stereotypes of their occupation and report riskier behavior in two of the three studied areas. Firefighters, who have an image of themselves as virile and invincible adopt risky behaviors that are categorized as masculine in order to conform to their occupational social identity [START_REF] Granié | Vers un modèle intégratif de la socialisation différenciée dans l'espace routier: Dialectique entre recherche fondamentale et recherche appliquée en psychologie sociale du développement [Towards an integrative model of differentiated socialization in road space: Dialectic between fundamental and applied research in social developmental psychology[END_REF]. These results support several studies that have already been conducted on the influence of masculinity in sport and certain occupations in relation to risk [START_REF] Terret | Sport et masculinité : une revue de questions [Sport and masculinity: a review of issues[END_REF][START_REF] Raveneau | Prises de risque sportives : représentations et constructions sociales [Sports risk-taking: representations and social constructions[END_REF]Lash-Gravier, 2002). In this area, it is essential to continue to study the mechanisms of hegemonic masculinity, in order to compensate for the discrimination and risky behaviors that result from it. The results also show that these risky behaviors are related to perceptions of the riskiness of the activities in question. In line with the literature, behaviors in physical and firefighting activities are related to a low perception of the risks and a high perception of the benefits of these behaviors (Irwin, 1990;[START_REF] Guého | Approche psychosociale des effets de l'identité sexuée sur les comportements à risque déclarés au volant et dans différents domaines chez les jeunes conducteurs[END_REF], while risky behaviors in driving are related to a high perception of self-efficacy with regard to violation behaviors and vehicle control [START_REF] Bandura | Auto-efficacité : Le sentiment d'efficacité personnelle [Selfefficacy: The exercise of control[END_REF]Bandura & Locke, 2003).

Thus, results show gendered perceptions of the profession influence the psychological variables that underlie risk behaviors, but also directly influence those risk behaviors. In the context of collective defense strategies (Lhuilier, 2007), firefighters with a masculine perception of their occupation tend, in accordance with traditional masculinity, to see risky behavior as beneficial, and demonstrate their virility through risky behavior on the road and during physical training. This is particularly true among young professional firefighters. These risky behaviors caused by masculine perceptions of the occupation may be the result of the way it has changed in recent years. As work in the field is becoming more focused on life-saving than firefighting (Koogan, 2008), there is a dissonance between the masculine characteristics expected of them and the feminine values that they need to espouse in everyday working life.

In this sense, the results show that the perception of the occupation as feminine increases the risk perception of physical activities while at the same time increasing the declared frequency of these same risky physical activities. These risky behaviors may be adopted as collective defense strategies (Dejours, 1990) to compensate for this perception of the occupation as feminine. Firefighters may compensate for their perception of their occupation as feminine by engaging in physically risky behaviors and challenges characterized as masculine during daily sports training.

The results also show a difference between professional and volunteer firefighters, with professionals reporting more risky physical behaviors. These different practices may show greater internalization of masculine social norms among professional firefighters. The occupational identity of professionals leads to riskier behavior in order to conform to their male environment. Moreover, the selection criteria for professionals encourage masculine views of the occupation but also create a behavioral response to conform to social expectations: "the inculcation of a virile habitus is a constant in this occupational environment which sometimes forces individuals to engage in physical risk-taking that is seen as the prerogative of strong and courageous men" (Pudal, 2016, p.20). Professional firefighters are socialized in a context of virility and permanent competition. This environment leads them to personally integrate risky behaviors that match their new occupational ideology [START_REF] Granié | Vers un modèle intégratif de la socialisation différenciée dans l'espace routier: Dialectique entre recherche fondamentale et recherche appliquée en psychologie sociale du développement [Towards an integrative model of differentiated socialization in road space: Dialectic between fundamental and applied research in social developmental psychology[END_REF][START_REF] De | La pression sociale [The social pressure[END_REF]. This difference seems to increase with their length of tenure, as the results show that older and more experienced firefighters have more masculine perceptions of the occupation. These perceptions can be explained by the perpetuation of the masculine ideology, that, as in the past, confine the work of firefighters to firefighting tasks. This seems to be a way for more experienced workers to reaffirm their membership of the virility and peer group [START_REF] Penin | Le sexe du risque [The sex of risk[END_REF].

Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of gendered occupational perceptions on firefighters' risk-taking in their professional occupations and in driving. The results show that a strongly masculine and weakly feminine perception of the firefighting profession leads to a higher frequency of risky behaviors in firefighting and physical activities but also in driving, with risk-taking and perception of the masculinity of the profession being higher in young professional firefighters. Thus, the high number of work-related accidents observed among firefighters, both in and out of firefighting operations, could be related to a willingness to demonstrate through their behavior their conformity to their masculine perception of their occupation.

This study has some limitations. At the methodological level, whereas the main scores constructed for this study (self-efficacy, driving behavior, perception of the occupation) have acceptable to good reliability, two of the aggregate scores it uses ("risky firefighting activities"

and "perceived benefits of physical activities") suffer from poor to questionable reliability. The results for these scores should therefore be interpreted with caution. Furthermore, the study focuses on firefighters from one single French Département. It is possible that the relationships between gendered perception of the occupation and risky behavior are linked to the particular geographical context and professional culture and only apply in the fire and rescue service of this Département. Further studies should therefore be carried out, with larger samples of firefighters.

More generally, the perceptions of masculinity and femininity that are examined in this study are dynamic and therefore neither universal nor timeless. The characteristics that are socially attributed to the femininity or masculinity are geographically situated and subject to change over time. While the influence of firefighters' gender on perceptions of the occupation, perceptions of risks and benefits and individuals' behaviors has been controlled for in the analyses, the conformity of individuals' behaviors to masculine and feminine stereotypes has not been taken into account, its effects on the perception of the occupation have not been explored, and its influence on risk behaviors has not been controlled for (Granié, 2009;[START_REF] Guého | Approche psychosociale des effets de l'identité sexuée sur les comportements à risque déclarés au volant et dans différents domaines chez les jeunes conducteurs[END_REF]Douesnard & Saint-Arnaud, 2011, Ozkan & Lajunen, 2005, see Granié, Degraeve & Varet, 2019). Further studies are thus needed to extend the results to other geographical and cultural contexts, taking account of individuals' conformity to gender stereotypes.

In terms of practical interest, the significant emphasis on masculinity among firefighters can lead to a collective silence on the emotions and suffering experienced by individuals. In order to influence behaviors, it is therefore necessary to engage in discussions with firefighters and build appropriate solutions. It is advisable to involve them in the process of supporting behavioral change through a collaborative and reflective approach. Furthermore, the value of all firefighters' skills, not only those founded on masculinity, should be valorized. This could have an impact on the gendered perception of the occupation and therefore on risky behavior.

Table 1 :

 1 Summary of the variables, number of items, format, reference of the scale used, aggregate scores calculated and their Cronbach's alpha.

	Variable	Items Format	Reference	Aggregate scores (Cronbach's alpha)
	Gendered	18	6-point Likert	(Fontayne,	Feminine perception (.83)
	perceptions of		scale (from	Sarrazin &	Masculine perception (.72)
	occupation		« not true at	Famose,
			all » to «	2000)
			totally true »)
	Risky driving	6	6-point Likert	(Meesmann,	Self-efficacy in vehicle control (.74)
	self-efficacy		scale (from	Torfs & Van	Self-efficacy in violation (.75)
			« totally	den Berghe,
			disagree » to	2019)
			« totally
			agree »)
	Self-declared	7	6-point Likert	(Guého,	Risky firefighting activities (.60)
	risk-taking		scale (from	2015; Weber,	Risky physical activities (.69)
			« never » to	Blais & Betz,
			« very often »)	2002)
	Perceived risk	7	6-point Likert	(Guého,	Perceived risks of firefighting activities (.76)
	of risk-taking		scale (from	2015; Weber,	Perceived risks of physical activities (.69)
	behaviors		"not at all	Blais & Betz,
			risky » to	2002)
			« extremely
			risky »)
	Perceived	7	6-point Likert	(Guého,	Perceived benefits of firefighting activities (.70)
	benefits of		scale (from	2015; Weber,	Perceived benefits of physical activities (.57)
	risk-taking		"no benefit" to	Blais & Betz,
	behaviors		"a significant	2002)
			benefit")
	Self-declared	9	6-point Likert	(Guého,	Violations in occupational driving (.69)
	driving		scale (from	Granié &	Violations in non-occupational driving (.77)
	violations		« never » to	Abric, 2014)
			« very often »)

Table 2 :

 2 Means and standard deviations of the effect of socio-demographic variables on perceptions of the occupation.

	Variable	Perceived masculinity	Perceived femininity
		Mean	SD	Means	SD
	Gender
	Men	35.51	6.00	36.63	7.17
	Women	35.41	6.13	36.49	7.46

Table 4 :

 4 Standardized betas of the final hierarchical linear regression model of the 3 types of risky behaviors (physical activities, firefighting behaviors and driving behaviors)

		Physical behaviors	Firefighter	Non-occupational	Occupational
			behaviors	driving behaviors	driving
					behaviors
	Experience	-0.087	0.044	0.047	0.050
	Sex	-0.028	-0.023	0.034	0.040
	Age	-0.169**	-0.203***	-0.083	-0.158**
	Status	0.091*	0.019	-0.042	-0.110**
	Perceived risks in	-0.215***
	physical activities
	Perceived benefits in	0.396***
	physical activities
	Perceived risks in		-0.319***
	firefighting activities
	Perceived benefits of		0.329***
	firefighting activities
	Feeling of self-efficacy -			0.238***	0.235***
	vehicle
	Feeling of self-efficacy -			0.456***	0.350***
	violation
	Perceived femininity score 0.106**	-0.025	-0.155***	-0.151***


Pierre-Emmanuel Hickel

Gerard Demazeau

R Arnaud

Rémy Chapoulie

Pierre Guibert

Vartanian Emmanuel

Gérard Villeneuve

Françoise Bechtel

Capelle Bernard

P E Hickeu•

G Demazeau\

R Arnaud\

R Chapoulie C

E Vartanian C

G Villeneuve\

B Capelle

la diffusion de documents scientifiques

Keywords: Hydrothermal crystal-growth, o-quartz, density of defects

de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

The hydrothermal growth of alpha-quartz and the nature of the physico-chemical defects detected in the resulting crystal

1. INTRODUCTION a-quartz was the first material tested for the hydrothermal crystal growth [I -3]. Single crystals of a-quartz, due to their piezoelectric properties, have been developed for different applications (industrial electronics in particular, and radiocommunications) [4].

The strong increase of the work-frequency (to 800-900Mhz for U.H.F. devices [5]), leads to a miniaturisation of the quartz-sheet (for a frequency of 2000 Mhz the thickness of the piezo-electric sheet is close to 1-2 pm). Consequently, this thickness is comparable to the size of defects.

The main defects observed in single-crystals of a-quartz can be roughly divided into two categories.

(A) physico-chemical defects, including:

(i) the cationic and anionic substitutions in the lattice (Si 4+ -.

Al 3 + with 0 2 --. OH -or with the formation of a hale h + on the oxygen site associated with alkaline -ions in substitutional position), (ii) inclusions (fluid-type as H 2 0, aqueous solution, gas or solid type as acmite NaFeSi 2 0 6 ).

(B) structural defects such as dislocations, etch-channels ....

In parallel, such defects have a negative effect on the performance of electronic devices.

For all these reasons the main objective is to reduce the density of defects in a-quartz single crystals. Consequently, the hydrothermal crystal growth must be carefully controlled; the role of the different physico-chemical parameters governing such a process has been inves tigated previously [START_REF] Lafon | Thesis of the University Bordeaux l[END_REF][START_REF] Lafon | Thesis of the University Bordeaux l[END_REF].

One important problem is to characterize the different defects existing in a-quartz single-crystals by means of physico-chemical techniques.

HYDROTHERMAL CRYSTAL GROWTH OF i,;-QUARTZ

Using a hydrothermal pilot-plant [8] with a reaction vesse! volume close to 1.5 liters and an aqueous solution of 1 M NaOH as a solvent, three a-quartz single-crystals were prepared for each run. Table I gives the different parameters characterizing their crystal growth.

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATIONS

Different characterizations were carried out: chemical analysis through ICPMS, Castaing micro-probe, IR. spectroscopy, cathodolumines cence.

The present paper gives the first results concerning the evaluation of the chemical impurities and the density of OH defects.

Chemical Analysis of the Samples

Table II gives the main impurities observed by ICPMS (µg/g).

Among the impurities, aluminum -due to its rolè in the cationic and anionic substitutions -plays a specific role in the reduction of the performance of a-quartz based devices. Centre of the seed

2 3 5
Z axis (mm)

IR. Spectroscopy

Infra-red spectroscopy is mainly able to evaluate the density of OH groups as chemical defect. The a coefficient is defined as:

A3soo-A3soo o:3soocm -1 = d with:

A 3soo = absorbance at 3500 cm -1 , A3soo = absorbance at 3800 cm -1 , d = thickness of the quartz sheet. Figure 1 illustrates the evolution of a for different the a-quartz sam ples, and for each sample versus the distance from the seed, in order to evaluate the density of OH defects during the crystal growth process.

DISCUSSION

In ICPMS analysis, the strongest variations of the chemical composi tion of the sample compared to that of the seed are observed for Al, Li, g o.oe t:::=-±.#r--lllil-.lii-,-r..,....-t--t--i

V"l M i::l 0.04 -F---!----j--t---t--'l =---+----F""""'l...::--1 -1 0 2

Z axis (mm) Na, K, Fe, Ca. In ail cases, for the sample AD 17 the concentration of impurities decreases when moving away from the zone near the seed. Such a behaviour illustrates the role of the first step of the crystal growth involving the beginning of quartz deposition. The average proportion of impurities (Tab. I and Fig. 1) seems to be strongly dependent on the crystal-growth speed.

Moreover, the pressure and �Tparameters play an important role, with the sample AD18 illustrating this double effect. The position of the sample in the crystal-growth zone also appears to be an important factor (Fig. 2).

In order to characterize all the defects and to evaluate the role of the impurities on the density of defects, cathodoluminescence and thermoluminescence studies are in progress.

  Crystal growth temperature ( 0 C) AT( °C) Pressure (MPa) Crystal-growth speed (mm/face/day) Thickness (Z axis) (mm)

FIGURE l

 l FIGURE l Evolution of a (AD18) versus the distance frorn the center of the seed to the growth part.

3 FIGURE 2

 32 FIGURE 2 Evolution of a for two samples prepared during the same experiment (AD18-l at the top and AD18-3 at the bottom of the crystal growth zone).

TABLE Ii Chemical analysis using castaing micro-probe

			0.15
			0.13
			0.11
		M	0.09
		1::3
			0.07
			0.05
			0.03
			-1	0
	lmpurities			AD14 near	AD18 near	AD11 near	AD17 far
	(µg/g)	Reference	the seed	the seed	the seed	/rom the seed
	Al Li	3.4 0		27.4 2.2	11.6 0.9	14.7 0.33	8.8 0.2
	Co Ni Na Mg K Ca Cr Mn Fe Cu	0 0.5 33.8 4.4 33.2 76.4 1.2 0.1 7.2 0.3		0.2 1.4 35.5 2.6 23.9 117.7 2.2 0.2 13 0.8	0 0.8 31.6 1.9 19.8 69.8 1.6 0.2 10.2 0.3	0 1.4 32.8 3.5 40.7 111.l 2.8 0.3 16.8 0.4	0 0.6 23.1 2 21.7 73.1 0.8 0.1 8 0.3