Emmanuelle Bardin

Alexandra Pastor

Michaela Semeraro

Anita Golec

Kate Hayes

Benoit Chevalier

Farouk Berhal

Guillaume Prestat

Alexandre Hinzpeter

Christine Gravier-Pelletier

Chevalier Benoit

Iwona Pranke

I Sermet-Gaudelus

Modulators of CFTR. Updates on clinical development and future directions

Keywords: Cystic Fibrosis, CFTR modulators, corrector, potentiator, ivacaftor, lumacaftor, tezacafor, 32 elexacaftor 33

de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a life-limiting autosomal recessive disorder due to mutations in the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR) gene. It affects approximately 75,000 people in North America, Europe and Australia. Recently, better knowledge of the CFTR protein structure and functional consequences of mutations have enabled pharmacologic therapy aiming to restore CFTR expression and function. This revolutionizes the approach in treating CF patients and should improve the prognosis for a considerable number of patients. This review presents the results obtained from clinical trials of the main CFTR modulators.

CFTR channel, CF-causing mutations and CFTR modulators

The CFTR protein -or ABCC7 -is the only member of the old family of human ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters that functions as an anion channel. It is expressed in the apical membrane of the epithelial cells of multiple exocrine organs where it contributes primarily to the active transport of chloride (Cl -) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions across epithelial cell membranes. It also impacts other ion transport channels, notably the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC), which drives sodium (Na + ) absorption.

CFTR is composed of two transmembrane domains (TMD), two intracellular subunits called nucleotide binding domains (NBD) and a Regulator R domain [START_REF] Muallem | ATP hydrolysis-driven gating in cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator[END_REF]. TMD1 and TMD2 together make up the channel pore through the membrane. Conformational changes of the TMDs and the opening of the channel are induced by the binding of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to NBD1 and NBD2 [START_REF] Riordan | CFTR Function and Prospects for Therapy[END_REF]. Conversely, dissociation of ATP from the NBD domains leads to the closing of the channel and to the return to its basal state [START_REF] Vergani | CFTR channel opening by ATP-driven tight dimerization of its nucleotide-binding domains[END_REF].

The regulatory (R) domain is unique amongst the 48 members of the ABC transporter family and determines the channel activity [START_REF] Sheppard | Structure and Function of the CFTR Chloride Channel[END_REF]. The binding of ATP to NBD is enhanced by the phosphorylation of the R domain, which is induced by cAMP-dependent protein kinases A and C. Maturation of a functional CFTR channel requires multiple steps to achieve the complex folding and arrangement of its 5 domains in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and further glycosylation in the Golgi apparatus. The CFTR protein is thus prone to processing errors and a significant proportion (60 to 80%) is eliminated by the ERassociated ubiquitin-dependent degradation system even in the wild-type (WT) cells (60-80%) [START_REF] Jensen | Multiple proteolytic systems, including the proteasome, contribute to CFTR processing[END_REF]- [START_REF] Varga | Efficient Intracellular Processing of the Endogenous Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator in Epithelial Cell Lines[END_REF].

Once matured CFTR proteins have reached the plasma membrane (PM), they undergo continuous recycling through clathrin-dependent endocytosis at a rate of 10% per minute [START_REF] Sharma | Misfolding diverts CFTR from recycling to degradation quality control at early endosomes[END_REF], [START_REF] Pranke | Biosynthesis of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator[END_REF].

Defective CFTR channel functioning is the primary cause of CF and its clinical consequences. Impairment of the channel causes an ion imbalance as Cl -secretion is disrupted whilst Na + absorption increases, causing a secondary osmotic uptake of water and therefore the dehydration of epithelial surface fluids in multiple organs, including lungs, pancreas, vas deferens, liver, and intestine. In sweat glands, the secretory coil duct excretes water, Na + and Cl -, which is reabsorbed along the sweat duct. Defective CFTR channel prevents reabsorption of Cl -, resulting in sweat with abnormally high Cl -concentration. This phenomenon led to the implementation of the diagnostic "sweat test" based on sweat Cl - measurement. Whilst the digestive, reproductive and other systems are also impacted, most of the morbidity and mortality associated with CF is due to its impact upon the respiratory system. Lack of HCO3-excretion causes a pH decrease at the mucosal surface because reduced pH inhibits the activity of antimicrobial peptides in the airway surface liquid [START_REF] Pezzulo | Reduced airway surface pH impairs bacterial killing in the porcine cystic fibrosis lung[END_REF]. These phenomena result in impaired host defence in the airways. The dehydration of airway surfaces results in increased fluid viscosity, which impairs mucociliary clearance, one of the lung's innate defence mechanisms. Mucus accumulates in the respiratory tract, allowing infection to initiate and persist. An excessive and inefficient inflammatory response to microbiological infection contributes to this impaired airway defence and progressive lung degradation [START_REF] Konstan | Current understanding of the inflammatory process in cystic fibrosis: Onset and etiology[END_REF], [START_REF] Cantin | Inflammation in cystic fibrosis lung disease: Pathogenesis and therapy[END_REF]. Early in life, a vicious circle of chronic bacterial infections and lung inflammation is initiated, eventually leading to irreversible lung damage, which is responsible for more than 95% of deaths amongst the CF population [START_REF] Davis | Cystic fibrosis[END_REF], [START_REF] Stoltz | Origins of Cystic Fibrosis Lung Disease[END_REF]. In 2018, median age at death for people with CF was still in the 30s in the US [START_REF]CFF Patient Registry Annual Data Report[END_REF].

Classification of CF-causing mutations

The CFTR protein is composed of 1 480 amino acids that are encoded by the CFTR gene located on the long arm of chromosome 7. Mutations in both CFTR alleles lead to CF, which is the most common genetic life limiting disease affecting the Caucasian population. There are currently 2103 variants of the CFTR gene reported in the CFTR Mutation Database (CFTR1 Database [START_REF]CFTR1 Database[END_REF]) and 442 mutations have documented clinical consequences (CFTR2 Database [START_REF]CFTR2 Database[END_REF]). CF-causing mutations are classified into 6 categories, according to their impact on the production, trafficking, functioning or stability of the CFTR channel [START_REF] O'sullivan | Cystic fibrosis[END_REF]. Mutations belonging to classes I, II and III usually result in little to no CFTR activity, leading to severe clinical outcomes, whilst mutations from classes IV, V and VI allow significant residual CFTR function leading to milder phenotypes.

Class I mutations, also known as protein production mutations, are often due to a premature termination codon (PTC) caused by nonsense mutations, which engender unstable messenger RNA (mRNA) that is rapidly eliminated by the nonsense mRNA decay (NMD) surveillance system [START_REF] Maquat | Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay: splicing, translation and mRNP dynamics[END_REF]- [START_REF] Martiniano | Cystic fibrosis: a model system for precision medicine[END_REF].

The small proportion of mRNA that may escape NMD is usually translated into shortened and nonfunctional proteins resulting in the absence of CFTR channels. Other genetic errors included in class I are large insertions/deletions of genetic material and alterations of splicing sites.

Class II mutations, also known as protein processing mutations, lead to abnormal processing and trafficking of the CFTR protein, which result in the absence of CFTR channels at the PM. The most common mutation, legacy name F508del, belongs to this class. Overall prevalence of F508del is around 80% of the CF population worldwide, yet there are important geographical disparities, from 30% in Turkey to above 95% in Denmark [START_REF]ECFS Patient Registry Annual Data Report[END_REF]. This in-frame deletion of phenylalanine at position 508 (p.Phe508del) causes abnormal folding of the F508del-CFTR-NBD1 protein generating its thermoinstability. This hinders adequate assembly of NBD1 with the two TMD domains and makes CFTR prone to degradation by the proteasome [START_REF] Lukacs | CFTR: folding, misfolding and correcting the ΔF508 conformational defect[END_REF]. The very few proteins that reach the apical PM present defects in channel gating and are highly unstable [START_REF] Lukacs | The delta F508 mutation decreases the stability of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator in the plasma membrane. Determination of functional half-lives on transfected cells[END_REF].

Class III mutations, also called gating mutations, allow the generation of CFTR proteins that can be expressed at the PM, but they display a drastic decrease in opening probability due to failure of the ATPactivation of the channel. The most common class III mutation is G551D (c.1652G>A). The substitution of glycine by aspartate interferes with the junction of NBD1 and NBD2, thereby impeding the binding of ATP, which leads to a 100-fold decrease in the opening probability of the channel compared to the WT channel [START_REF] Zielenski | Cystic fibrosis: genotypic and phenotypic variations[END_REF].

Class IV mutations, also known as conduction mutations, primarily impact the TMD domains, leading to a decrease in ion conductance. CFTR proteins are present at the PM but display a decreased function.

R117H (c.350G>A

) is the most frequent class IV mutation and affects 0.7% of patients [START_REF] Zielenski | Cystic fibrosis: genotypic and phenotypic variations[END_REF].

Class V mutations reduce the density of operational CFTR channels at the PM because of promoter mutations limiting transcription, splicing abnormalities or missense mutations, all yielding aberrant mRNA products [START_REF] Zielenski | Cystic fibrosis: genotypic and phenotypic variations[END_REF]. In contrast to Class I splicing mutation, a small quantity of viable mRNA is still generated allowing residual CFTR function. The most frequent mutation is 3849+10kb C→T (c.3718-2477C>T), globally carried by 0.6% of patients.

Class VI mutations are characterised by the production of fairly functional CFTR proteins with a low overall concentration at the cell surface. Alterations in the protein conformation and additional endocytic signals confer the proteins with a high instability at the cell surface [START_REF] Haardt | C-terminal Truncations Destabilize the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator without Impairing Its Biogenesis: A NOVEL CLASS OF MUTATION[END_REF], [START_REF] Silvis | A Mutation in the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator Generates a Novel Internalization Sequence and Enhances Endocytic Rates[END_REF]. The enhanced endocytic rate leads to a globally reduced amount of CFTR channels operating at the PM.

There are multiple limitations in this classification including the fact that mutations may lead to several defects and thus belong to various classes. In this way, the F508del mutation, which entails deficiency in the trafficking, functioning, and stability of the CFTR protein may be classified as class II, III and VI [START_REF] Veit | From CFTR biology toward combinatorial pharmacotherapy: expanded classification of cystic fibrosis mutations[END_REF].

Furthermore, individuals with CF may carry different mutations on each allele, leading to multiple potential combinations of defects.

Classes of CFTR modulators

This classification has been crucial in understanding the pathophysiology of the CFTR channel, steering research for precision therapies targeting the original cause of CF. Indeed, precision therapies pursue various objectives inspired by this classification: enhancing the production of proteins, restoring acceptable folding, gating, ion conductance or stability, and overcoming the insertion of PTCs. Classes I and II induce little or no production of CFTR proteins, which has been qualified as minimal function (MF) activity and represents a considerable rescue challenge. Classes IV, V and VI enable the generation of some functional channels associated with residual function (RF) activity and milder clinical outcomes. This has led to the concept of proteic therapy modulating the expression and/or the activity of the CFTR channel. Those drugs are designed to rectify specific defaults stemming from mutations on the CFTR gene. Depending on the targeted defect, they have distinct modes of action [START_REF] Sloane | Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator protein repair as a therapeutic strategy in cystic fibrosis[END_REF].

Correctors support the trafficking to the cell surface of mutated CFTR proteins resulting from class II mutations and increase the amount of CFTR channels at the apical PM. Two strategies may be employed to prevent the degradation of defective proteins: pharmaceutical chaperones directly binding to the misfolded protein and probably correcting the folding and the resulting thermoinstability of the protein or proteostasis regulators that modulate protein homeostasis and the cellular quality control system.

Potentiators intend to enhance ion transport of CFTR proteins that are present at the PM but are not functional. This can be achieved through interaction with CFTR in order to prolong the open state of the channel.

Amplifiers stimulate protein expression by improving mRNA stability and assisting CFTR transcription or translation.

Stabilisers restore the stability of class VI-produced proteins and decrease endocytosis at the PM, leading a higher quantity of CFTR channels at the surface. This can be achieved by anchoring the defective CFTR protein at the PM or establishing stabilising interactions with other components of the membrane.

Rescue of the most common mutation, F508del, requires acting upon several defaults: aid folding of the protein to restore the channel stability, escape the ER quality control system, stabilise the channel at the PM, and enhance its functional activity.

This review intends to thoroughly present the results obtained with CFTR modulators in clinical trials.

Results focus, for comparability and ease of reading on 2 endpoints: the assessment of the CFTR channel activity based on the measurement of sweat Cl -concentration, and lung function based on percent predicted forced expiratory volume in 1 second (ppFEV1).

Listed clinical trials are interventional and exclude roll-over and observational studies. Least square mean differences are reported (i) between the treated group and the baseline, and (ii) between the treated group and the controls, according to data availability and relevance. Tables 1 to 3 summarise the clinical outcomes obtained with the first modulators and dual combinations currently approved in Europe; Tables 4 and5 present the results obtained with the next-generation modulators at different stages of development, and Table 6 the list of reported trials.

Approved CFTR modulators 1. CFTR potentiator, VX-770

The first potentiator, VX-770, Ivacaftor, is based on a 4-(1H)-quinolinone connected to a di-tert-butylsubstituted phenol by an amide linkage (Figure 1). VX-770 was selected following high-throughput (HTS) pharmaceutical screening on CFTR Cl -transport activity. The compound demonstrated an increase in the activity of both WT and defective CFTR cells with specific mutations affecting the activation of the channel, such as G551D [START_REF] Goor | Rescue of CF airway epithelial cell function in vitro by a CFTR potentiator, VX-770[END_REF]. In vitro assays revealed that VX-770 prolongs the duration of the CFTR channel opening even in the absence of ATP [START_REF] Hwang | Gating of the CFTR Cl-channel by ATP-driven nucleotidebinding domain dimerisation[END_REF], [START_REF] Eckford | Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR) Potentiator VX-770 (Ivacaftor) Opens the Defective Channel Gate of Mutant CFTR in a Phosphorylation-dependent but ATP-independent Manner[END_REF], suggesting a potentiation mechanism independent of ATP and NBD domains. Recent studies demonstrated that the binding of VX-770 to CFTR occurs at the interface of the two TMDs [START_REF] Yeh | Identifying the molecular target sites for CFTR potentiators GLPG1837 and VX-770[END_REF], [START_REF] Liu | Structural identification of a hotspot on CFTR for potentiation[END_REF]. Yet, the mechanism of action behind VX-770's action remains to be fully elucidated. Interestingly, VX-770 also rescues other ABC proteins such as ABCB4, suggesting that it is not CFTR specific [START_REF] Van Goor | Correction of the F508del-CFTR protein processing defect in vitro by the investigational drug VX-809[END_REF].

The first proof of concept clinical trial was performed in 2007, in adults carrying the G551D mutation and showed a dose dependant improvement in sweat Cl -, as well as other parameters of CFTR function such as nasal potential difference, and amazingly, respiratory function (Table 1). This clinical trial demonstrated for the first time the proof of concept that restoring CFTR function was associated with clinical benefits in patients. VX-770 was further shown to increase the ppFEV1 in subjects carrying at least one G551D [START_REF] Accurso | Effect of VX-770 in persons with cystic fibrosis and the G551D-CFTR mutation[END_REF] but not in F508del homozygous patients [START_REF] Flume | Ivacaftor in Subjects With Cystic Fibrosis Who Are Homozygous for the F508del-CFTR Mutation[END_REF] (Table 1). Subsequent clinical trials consistently demonstrated the efficacy of VX-770 in decreasing sweat Cl -concentration, improving lung function and nutritional status as well as decreasing the number of exacerbations in patients carrying at least one gating mutation [START_REF] Ramsey | A CFTR Potentiator in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis and the G551D Mutation[END_REF]- [START_REF] Boeck | Efficacy and safety of ivacaftor in patients with cystic fibrosis and a non-G551D gating mutation[END_REF]. Occurrence of adverse events was globally comparable in the ivacaftor and placebo groups and most frequently included cough, headache, fever, nausea, rash and pulmonary exacerbations in the treated group [START_REF] Ramsey | A CFTR Potentiator in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis and the G551D Mutation[END_REF]- [START_REF] Boeck | Efficacy and safety of ivacaftor in patients with cystic fibrosis and a non-G551D gating mutation[END_REF]. Young children also showed a good response to VX-770 with a decrease in sweat Cl -concentrations, and possible changes in pancreatic function, as assessed by an increase in pancreatic elastase [START_REF] Davies | Safety, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of ivacaftor in patients aged 2-5 years with cystic fibrosis and a CFTR gating mutation (KIWI): an open-label, single-arm study[END_REF]. Nevertheless, abnormal liver function was found in a significant number of children enrolled, highlighting necessity of careful monitoring [START_REF] Davies | Safety, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of ivacaftor in patients aged 2-5 years with cystic fibrosis and a CFTR gating mutation (KIWI): an open-label, single-arm study[END_REF]. Studies in patients with RF mutations did not demonstrate drastic improvements, but a decrease in sweat Cl -in people with one or two R117H mutations was still highly favourable, as well as an increase in ppFEV1 in adults [START_REF] Rowe | Lumacaftor/Ivacaftor Treatment of Patients with Cystic Fibrosis Heterozygous for F508del-CFTR[END_REF], [START_REF] Moss | Efficacy and safety of ivacaftor in patients with cystic fibrosis who have an Arg117His-CFTR mutation: a double-blind, randomised controlled trial[END_REF]. Interestingly, a recent promising study followed 26 patients carrying an RF mutation with a severe CF phenotype who had compassionate access to VX-770. The potentiator was found to safely improve respiratory function with a sustained increase of about 10 points in ppFEV1 and a significant decrease in antibiotic therapies after one year of treatment [START_REF] Salvatore | Ivacaftor improves lung disease in patients with advanced CF carrying CFTR mutations that confer residual function[END_REF].

VX-770 (trade name Kalydeco®, Vertex pharmaceuticals) was granted marketing authorisation in the United States (early 2012), Europe and Canada (late 2012), and then in Australia, and New Zealand (2013). The American Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Medicines Agency (EMA) have approved the clinical use of VX-770 to treat patients from four-months old carrying one of the nine gating mutations: G178R, S549N, S549R, G551D, G551S, G1244E, S1251N, S1255P, G1349D (G970R was not approved) or the conduction mutation R117H, which have all been tested through clinical trials. In addition to these, the FDA further authorised 23 RF mutations based on clinically proved benefits and further in vitro assays: A455E, E193K, R117C, A1067T, F1052V, R347H, D110E, D110H, F1074L, R352Q, G1069R, R1070Q, D579G, K1060T, R1070W, D1152H, L206W, S945L, D1270N, P67L, S977F, E56K, R74W; and5 splice mutations 711+3A→G, 3272-26A→G, E831X, 2789+5G→A, 3849+10kBc→T. These have not yet been approved by the EMA. Indeed, the FDA and the EMA slightly differ in their application requirements. There are precedents of the FDA granting authorisation based on in vitro data whilst the EMA has so far demanded clinical trial data. This may hamper timely access to new treatments for European patients carrying rare mutations. Notably, the HIT-CF consortium is currently discussing with the EMA to qualify rectal organoids as relevant personalised ex-vivo models to predict the efficacy of innovative drugs [START_REF] Hit-Cf Consortium | Rationale and design of the HIT-CF organoid study: stratifying cystic fibrosis patients based on intestinal organoid response to different CFTR-modulators[END_REF].

CFTR correctors

VX-809

The first corrector demonstrating safe and efficient rescue of misfolded F508del-CFTR protein in vitro was VX-809, lumacaftor [START_REF] Van Goor | Correction of the F508del-CFTR protein processing defect in vitro by the investigational drug VX-809[END_REF]. As for VX-770, VX-809 was selected by HTS screening. This compound is based on a di-fluorobenzodioxolyl-cyclopropane linked to a substituted arylpyridine through an amide linkage (Figure 1). Its mode of action is yet to be elucidated but several studies indicate that it may stabilise the folding of the molecule either by direct binding to NBD1 [START_REF] Hudson | Direct Binding of the Corrector VX-809 to Human CFTR NBD1: Evidence of an Allosteric Coupling between the Binding Site and the NBD1:CL4 Interface[END_REF] or through promoting interactions between TMD1 and NBD1 [START_REF] Laselva | Correctors of the Major Cystic Fibrosis Mutant Interact through Membrane-Spanning Domains[END_REF]. Interestingly, VX-809 was shown to rectify trafficking of another deficient ABC transporter (ABC4), which shares large homology with CFTR NBDs, indicating that, similarly to VX-770, VX-809 is not CFTR-specific [START_REF] Liu | The CFTR Corrector, VX-809 (Lumacaftor), Rescues ABCA4 Trafficking Mutants: a Potential Treatment for Stargardt Disease[END_REF].

VX-809 alone failed to demonstrate clinical effect on patients heterozygous for F508del [START_REF] Clancy | Results of a phase IIa study of VX-809, an investigational CFTR corrector compound, in subjects with cystic fibrosis homozygous for the F508del-CFTR mutation[END_REF] (Table 2).

Indeed, rescued F508del-CFTR may reach the PM but shows reduced cell surface stability and low open probability. Therefore, VX-809 was combined with the potentiator VX-770 to further aid channel opening. Phase 2 [START_REF] Boyle | A CFTR corrector (lumacaftor) and a CFTR potentiator (ivacaftor) for treatment of patients with cystic fibrosis who have a phe508del CFTR mutation: a phase 2 randomised controlled trial[END_REF] and longer phase 3 [START_REF] Wainwright | Lumacaftor-Ivacaftor in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis Homozygous for Phe508del CFTR[END_REF] studies showed slight but significant positive effects, notably on lung function for F508del homozygous patients, together with a significant increase in body mass index (BMI) and a reduced number of exacerbations as well as hospitalizations. Subsequent studies on children aged 6 to 11-years, consistently confirmed an improved functioning of the channel with a reduction in sweat Cl -of more than 20mmol/L and a decrease in lung clearance index (LCI) around 1 unit [START_REF] Ratjen | Efficacy and safety of lumacaftor and ivacaftor in patients aged 6-11 years with cystic fibrosis homozygous for F508del-CFTR : a randomised, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial[END_REF], [START_REF] Milla | Lumacaftor/Ivacaftor in Patients Aged 6-11 Years with Cystic Fibrosis and Homozygous for F508del-CFTR[END_REF]. Importantly, follow-up studies now confirm the benefits (and the safety) of long-term therapy with a rate of decline in lung function 42% slower than in matched registry controls [START_REF] Konstan | Assessment of safety and efficacy of long-term treatment with combination lumacaftor and ivacaftor therapy in patients with cystic fibrosis homozygous for the F508del-CFTR mutation (PROGRESS): a phase 3, extension study[END_REF]. A phase 3b open-label prospective study evaluating the benefit of this combination for patients with advanced lung disease (ppFEV1<40%) observed more frequent respiratory adverse occurrences which is a source of concern. Study conclusions recommended treatment initiation at a lower dose [START_REF] Taylor-Cousar | Effect of ivacaftor in patients with advanced cystic fibrosis and a G551D-CFTR mutation: Safety and efficacy in an expanded access program in the United States[END_REF] (NCT02390219, results not reported in Table 2). Common adverse reactions associated with treatment were indeed respiratory based, such as dyspnoea, chest tightness or haemoptysis. Abnormal liver function tests and increased blood pressure were also reported but did not lead to severe adverse events [START_REF] Rowe | Lumacaftor/Ivacaftor Treatment of Patients with Cystic Fibrosis Heterozygous for F508del-CFTR[END_REF], [START_REF] Wainwright | Lumacaftor-Ivacaftor in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis Homozygous for Phe508del CFTR[END_REF]- [START_REF] Konstan | Assessment of safety and efficacy of long-term treatment with combination lumacaftor and ivacaftor therapy in patients with cystic fibrosis homozygous for the F508del-CFTR mutation (PROGRESS): a phase 3, extension study[END_REF].

It should be noted however, that improvements as a result of VX-809 treatment were not commensurate with VX-770-responsive patients, (e.g ~4% versus ~10% improvement for ppFEV1). This has been initially attributed to inhibition of VX-809 by VX-770 hindering the overall rescue of F508del-CFTR [START_REF] Cholon | Potentiator Ivacaftor Abrogates Pharmacological Correction of ΔF508 CFTR in Cystic Fibrosis[END_REF]. In addition, VX-770 metabolites and VX-809 induce cytochrome CYP3A4 activity, decreasing plasma concentration of VX-770 (see below for more details) [START_REF] Schneider | Cytochrome P450 3A4 Induction: Lumacaftor versus Ivacaftor Potentially Resulting in Significantly Reduced Plasma Concentration of Ivacaftor[END_REF].

The combination VX-809/VX-770 (trade name Orkambi®, Vertex Pharmaceuticals) was approved both by the FDA and the EMA in 2015 for patients from two years old. Later, real-life data further revealed frequent respiratory adverse effects and drug intolerance which led to discontinuation of the treatment in some cases [START_REF] Hubert | Real-life initiation of lumacaftor/ivacaftor combination in adults with cystic fibrosis homozygous for the Phe508del CFTR mutation and severe lung disease[END_REF], [START_REF] Jennings | An Observational Study of Outcomes and Tolerances in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis Initiated on Lumacaftor/Ivacaftor[END_REF]. Importantly, clinical response may also vary significantly amongst patients bearing the same genotype, the mechanism of which is yet not clearly understood but, supporting the need for personalised therapeutic approaches and assessment [START_REF] Boyle | A CFTR corrector (lumacaftor) and a CFTR potentiator (ivacaftor) for treatment of patients with cystic fibrosis who have a phe508del CFTR mutation: a phase 2 randomised controlled trial[END_REF], [START_REF] Wainwright | Lumacaftor-Ivacaftor in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis Homozygous for Phe508del CFTR[END_REF].

VX-661

VX-661, or tezacaftor, is a corrector designed on the basis of the chemical structure of VX-809 yet with improved pharmacokinetics and less side-effects. The skeleton remains the same, but the pyridine ring has been replaced by a functionalised indole moiety (Figure 1).

VX-661 monotherapy led to some improvement in lung function in F508del homozygous patients [START_REF] Donaldson | Tezacaftor/Ivacaftor in Subjects with Cystic Fibrosis and F508del / F508del-CFTR or F508del / G551D-CFTR[END_REF] (Table 3), slightly higher than VX-809 [START_REF] Clancy | Results of a phase IIa study of VX-809, an investigational CFTR corrector compound, in subjects with cystic fibrosis homozygous for the F508del-CFTR mutation[END_REF] but displayed similar effect in association with potentiator VX-770 in F508del homozygotes [START_REF] Boyle | A CFTR corrector (lumacaftor) and a CFTR potentiator (ivacaftor) for treatment of patients with cystic fibrosis who have a phe508del CFTR mutation: a phase 2 randomised controlled trial[END_REF], [START_REF] Donaldson | Tezacaftor/Ivacaftor in Subjects with Cystic Fibrosis and F508del / F508del-CFTR or F508del / G551D-CFTR[END_REF]. Patients compound heterozygous F508del with G551D or RF mutations appeared more responsive than F508Del homozygous to the VX-661/VX-770 combination with a confirmed decrease in sweat Cl -and consistent increase in ppFEV1, in contrast to VX-809/VX-770 which did not display a significant response (Table 3.) [START_REF] Donaldson | Tezacaftor/Ivacaftor in Subjects with Cystic Fibrosis and F508del / F508del-CFTR or F508del / G551D-CFTR[END_REF], [START_REF] Rowe | Tezacaftor-Ivacaftor in Residual-Function Heterozygotes with Cystic Fibrosis[END_REF]. Reported adverse effects included respiratory events of mild severity such as pulmonary exacerbation, cough, and increased sputum, but also included nausea, diarrhea, headache, and fatigue. These were less frequent in the treated group compared to placebo [START_REF] Donaldson | Tezacaftor/Ivacaftor in Subjects with Cystic Fibrosis and F508del / F508del-CFTR or F508del / G551D-CFTR[END_REF]- [START_REF] Taylor-Cousar | Tezacaftor-Ivacaftor in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis Homozygous for Phe508del[END_REF]. Moreover, patients encountered less respiratory adverse effects and drug-drug interactions with the VX-661/VX-770 co-treatment than previously reported with VX-809/VX-770 [START_REF] Rowe | Lumacaftor/Ivacaftor Treatment of Patients with Cystic Fibrosis Heterozygous for F508del-CFTR[END_REF], [START_REF] Wainwright | Lumacaftor-Ivacaftor in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis Homozygous for Phe508del CFTR[END_REF]. Further studies confirmed VX-661 safety and potential benefit on younger patients [START_REF] Walker | A phase 3 study of tezacaftor in combination with ivacaftor in children aged 6 through 11 years with cystic fibrosis[END_REF].

The VX-661/VX-770 co-therapy (trade name Symdeko® or Symkevi®, Vertex Pharmaceuticals) received marketing authorisation in 2018. To date, the combination is approved in Europe for patients above 12 years old homozygous for F508del and heterozygous with one of the following 10 RF mutations : P67L, R117C, L206W, R352Q, A455E, D579G, S945L, S977F, R1070W, D1152H; or one of the 4 splice mutations: 2789+5G>A, 3272-26A>G, 3849+10kbC>T, 711+3A>G. Authorisation was granted in the United States for patients from six years old and for the 12 additional mutations: E56K, R74W, A1067T, E193K, D110H, R347H, D110E, F1052V, F1074L, K1060T, D170N, E831X. (elexacaftor) and VX-659 (bamocaftor) were further shortlisted because of their better pharmacological properties and long-term safety. Both molecules present a different structure than VX-661/809. They display a common pyrazolo pyrrolidinopyridine moiety connected respectively to a pyrazolylsulfonyl or a phenylsulfonyl group through an amide appendage (Figure 1). Since they were anticipated to act on different binding sites than the first-generation correctors, they were tested in combination to supplement the action of the potentiator VX-770 and an old-generation corrector. VX-661 was chosen for its enhanced pharmacokinetics and lower activation of cytochrome CYP3A4 compared to VX-809.

Both triple combinations underwent phase 2 clinical trials in patients homozygous for F508del and heterozygous with a MF mutation [START_REF] Keating | VX-445-Tezacaftor-Ivacaftor in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis and One or Two Phe508del Alleles[END_REF], [START_REF] Davies | VX-659-Tezacaftor-Ivacaftor in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis and One or Two Phe508del Alleles[END_REF]. They demonstrated spectacular improvements with a minimum decrease of -40mmol/L in sweat Cl -and at least 10% improvement in ppFEV1 (Table 4).

Importantly, and unexpectedly, the benefits gained in patients heterozygous for F508del and an MF mutation, for whom no therapeutic options were available at the time, were comparable to those of F508del homozygous patients. The majority of patients experienced mild to moderate adverse effects that did not lead to treatment discontinuation. They were similar for both triple combinations and comparable to those of individual CFTR modulators as well as representative of CF disease, i.e. cough, increased sputum production, infective pulmonary exacerbation, haemoptysis, and fever. In addition, reactions that were significantly more frequent in the treated group and call for caution included rash, slight increase in blood pressure, elevated levels of aminotransferases, and elevated levels of creatine kinase in serum that were often associated with exercise [START_REF] Keating | VX-445-Tezacaftor-Ivacaftor in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis and One or Two Phe508del Alleles[END_REF]- [START_REF] Middleton | Elexacaftor-Tezacaftor-Ivacaftor for Cystic Fibrosis with a Single Phe508del Allele[END_REF]. At this point, it is not known whether it was one specific compound or their association that was responsible for these adverse events. Phase 3 clinical trials further tested the combination of VX-661, VX-445 and VX-770 and confirmed the benefits and the safety profile on a larger cohort of patients above 12 years old, F508delhomozygous and -heterozygous [START_REF] Middleton | Elexacaftor-Tezacaftor-Ivacaftor for Cystic Fibrosis with a Single Phe508del Allele[END_REF], [START_REF] Heijerman | Efficacy and safety of the elexacaftor plus tezacaftor plus ivacaftor combination regimen in people with cystic fibrosis homozygous for the F508del mutation: a doubleblind, randomised, phase 3 trial[END_REF] (Table 4). Nevertheless, assessment of liver function is recommended prior to initiating treatment, as well as a close follow-up during the first year of treatment with the triple combination.

These results clearly created immense hope within the CF community. Following these outstanding results, the FDA soon granted a broad marketing authorisation in the United States (Autumn 2019) under the trade name Trikafta® (Vertex Pharmaceuticals) for all patients aged 12 years and older, with at least one F508del mutation. The FDA is currently reviewing supplemental in vitro data to expand the indication to some rare mutations [START_REF] Pharmaceuticals | FDA Accepts Vertex's Supplemental New Drug Applications for TRIKAFTA® (elexacaftor/tezacaftor/ivacaftor and ivacaftor), SYMDEKO® (tezacaftor/ivacaftor and ivacaftor) and KALYDECO® (ivacaftor) for Additional CFTR Mutations[END_REF]. Trials are being completed to assess efficacy and safety on F508del-heterozygous with a gating or RF mutation (NCT04058353) and in younger children, aged 6 to 11 years of age (NCT03691779) (Table 7). In the summer 2020, Vertex press-released positive results of the Phase 3 study of Trikafta® in patients aged 12 years and older, compound heterozygotes for F508del and one gating mutation or one RF mutation. ppFEV1 increased significantly from baseline (after a 4week run-in of treatment on ivacaftor or tezacaftor/ivacaftor) through 8 weeks of treatment by 3.7 percentage point (p<0.0001) as well as a significant mean within-group reduction of 22 mmol/L from baseline in sweat Cl -(p<0.0001) [START_REF]Positive Phase 3 Study Results for TRIKAFTA® (elexacaftor/tezacaftor/ivacaftor and ivacaftor) in People Ages 12 and Older With Cystic Fibrosis Who Have One Copy of the F508del Mutation and One Gating or Residual Function Mutation[END_REF]. The EMA has approved the combination under the trade name Kaftrio® (Vertex Pharmaceuticals) for patients homozygous for F508del or heterozygous with a broad range of MF mutations only (August 2020). The recent available clinical data on RF mutations is currently being evaluated through a post-authorisation procedure [START_REF]Vertex Announces European Medicines Agency Type II Variation Marketing Authorization Application Validation for KAFTRIO® (ivacaftor/tezacaftor/elexacaftor) in Combination with ivacaftor in People with One Copy of the F508del Mutation[END_REF].

CFTR modulators in the pipeline

Vertex pipeline

Several promising compounds are currently being investigated in order to offer alternatives to VX-770 to potentiate gating mutations. Vertex pharmaceuticals is working on VX-561 (also called deutivacaftor, formerly CTP-656), an analogue of VX-770 in which one of the tert-butyl groups was replaced by a perdeuterated one (Figure 1). This altered version of VX-770 has shown similar pharmacologic potency in preliminary studies. Furthermore, the metabolic stability with regards to cytochrome activity was increased in vitro and in vivo, suggesting it could be prescribed once daily only, contrary to VX-770, which must be administered every 12h [START_REF] Harbeson | Altering Metabolic Profiles of Drugs by Precision Deuteration 2: Discovery of a Deuterated Analog of Ivacaftor with Differentiated Pharmacokinetics for Clinical Development[END_REF]. Following these encouraging data, VX-561 was included in phase 2 clinical trials evaluating two possible triple combinations. Substitution of VX-770 by VX-561 in the triple combinations VX-445/VX-661/VX-770 [START_REF] Keating | VX-445-Tezacaftor-Ivacaftor in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis and One or Two Phe508del Alleles[END_REF] or VX-659/VX-661/VX-770 [START_REF] Davies | VX-659-Tezacaftor-Ivacaftor in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis and One or Two Phe508del Alleles[END_REF] led to equally positive clinical outcomes (Table 4). A phase 2 clinical trial started mid-2019 to assess the effects of VX-561 alone on gating mutations in comparison to VX-770 in adults 18 years and older (NCT03911713).

The company is also developing another corrector, VX-121, which has reached clinical phase 2. It is being assessed in combination with VX-661, VX-770, and/or VX-561 (NCT03768089 and NCT03912233). Its structure is still not available at the Drug bank.

AbbVie pipeline

Galapagos NV, had initiated the development of several potentiators, whose development is being continued by AbbVie Inc, notably ABBV-974, ABBV-2451, and ABBV-3067 (formerly GLPG-1837, GLPG-2451, and GLPG-3067, respectively).

Their chemical structures differ significantly from that of VX-770 (Figure 1). ABBV-974 is built on a pyrazole ring connected through an amide bond to a substituted thiophen-carboxamide. ABBV-2451 is based on a phenylsulfonyl aminopyridine connected through an amide linkage to a 2-hydroxypropyl group. Both potentiators enhanced the activity of the corrected F508del-CFTR channel by increasing opening time and shortening basal state conformation [START_REF] Gees | Identification and Characterization of Novel CFTR Potentiators[END_REF]. Combined treatment of ABBV-974 or ABBV-2451 with VX-770 did not lead to an increase in channel activity, suggesting a common binding site on the protein [START_REF] Gees | Identification and Characterization of Novel CFTR Potentiators[END_REF]. Similar to VX-770, ABBV-974 was confirmed to bind to the same site between the two TMDs and to display a mechanism independent of ATP hydrolysis [START_REF] Yeh | Identifying the molecular target sites for CFTR potentiators GLPG1837 and VX-770[END_REF], [START_REF] Liu | Structural identification of a hotspot on CFTR for potentiation[END_REF]. ABBV-974 and ABBV-2451 improved CFTR activity in class III and IV mutants in vitro to a level that was at least comparable to the benchmark VX-770 [START_REF] Gees | Identification and Characterization of Novel CFTR Potentiators[END_REF], [START_REF] Van Der Plas | Discovery of N -(3-Carbamoyl-5,5,7,7-tetramethyl-5,7-dihydro-4 Hthieno[2,3c ]pyran-2-yl)-l H -pyrazole-5-carboxamide (GLPG1837), a Novel Potentiator Which Can Open Class III Mutant Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR) Channels to a High Extent[END_REF]. A phase 2a clinical trial assessed the clinical safety, pharmacokinetics and efficacy of ABBV-974 in patients with at least one G551D allele, after withdrawal from standard of care VX-770 treatment and a short washout period [START_REF] Davies | GLPG1837, a CFTR potentiator, in p.Gly551Asp (G551D)-CF patients: An openlabel, single-arm, phase 2a study (SAPHIRA1)[END_REF]. The one-week VX-770 washout was not a barrier to patients' participation and overall, was well tolerated. VX-770 withdrawal resulted in a decline in lung function, which was restored to pre-washout levels after four weeks of ABBV-974 treatment. Sweat Cl - decreased in a dose-dependent manner (Table 5), confirming that ABBV-974 enhances the activity of G551D-CFTR, though respiratory adverse effects were reported. Although most of adverse events were mild and typical of CF disease, they seemed to be dose-dependent as they were more frequent during the high-dose (500mg) treatment period. A significant number of participants (38.5%) had an abnormal increase in aminotransferase levels. Four of the 26 treated patients experienced severe effects calling for caution in future trials: fatigue, cough, increased blood creatine phosphokinase and pulmonary exacerbation [START_REF] Davies | GLPG1837, a CFTR potentiator, in p.Gly551Asp (G551D)-CF patients: An openlabel, single-arm, phase 2a study (SAPHIRA1)[END_REF].

Another potentiator, ABBV-3067, is currently being tested alone and in combination with a corrector (ABBV-2222) in a phase 2 clinical trial with adult patients homozygous for F508del (NCT03969888).

AbbVie is pursuing the development of the correctors ABBV-2222, ABBV-2737 and ABBV-3221 (formerly GLPG-2222, GLPG-2737, GLPG-3221, respectively); some of them have reached an advanced stage of validation. Chemical structure of ABBV-2222, also called galifactor, presents similarities with the firstgeneration correctors (Figure 1). Compared to VX-809, the pyridine appendage has been replaced by a functionalised chromane moiety in ABBV-2222. The latter demonstrated efficiency to correct on F508del-CFTR in homozygous bronchial epithelial cells [START_REF] Wang | Discovery of 4-[(2 R ,4 R )-4-({[1-(2,2-Difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5yl)cyclopropyl]carbonyl}amino)-7-(difluoromethoxy)-3,4-dihydro-2 H -chromen-2-yl]benzoic Acid (ABBV/GLPG-2222), a Potent Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR) Corrector for the Treatment of Cystic Fibrosis[END_REF], [START_REF] Singh | Biological Characterization of F508delCFTR Protein Processing by the CFTR Corrector ABBV-2222/GLPG2222[END_REF] . In a two-fold phase 2a clinical trial patients heterozygous for F508del and a gating mutation received ABBV-2222 alone, whilst F508delhomozygous subjects had ABBV-2222 in combination with VX-770 [START_REF] Bell | CFTR activity is enhanced by the novel corrector GLPG2222, given with and without ivacaftor in two randomized trials[END_REF]. ABBV-2222 at a high dose markedly decreased sweat Cl -concentrations in heterozygous patients and, to a lesser extent, in homozygous patients on VX-770 (Table 5). Impact on lung function was weak but comparable to the results obtained with a single first-generation corrector such as VX-809 [START_REF] Clancy | Results of a phase IIa study of VX-809, an investigational CFTR corrector compound, in subjects with cystic fibrosis homozygous for the F508del-CFTR mutation[END_REF], [START_REF] Boyle | A CFTR corrector (lumacaftor) and a CFTR potentiator (ivacaftor) for treatment of patients with cystic fibrosis who have a phe508del CFTR mutation: a phase 2 randomised controlled trial[END_REF] (Table 2

, 3 and 5).

Common reported treatment-related adverse events were headache, cough, pulmonary exacerbation, sputum quantity and diarrhea [START_REF] Bell | CFTR activity is enhanced by the novel corrector GLPG2222, given with and without ivacaftor in two randomized trials[END_REF].

Other on-going studies are currently examining safety and efficacy of dual or triple combinations of the second-generation corrector ABBV-2737 with the potentiators ABBV-2451 or ABBV-3067. In vitro studies previously proved the ability of ABBV-2737 to increase the number of CFTR channels expressed at the PM, notably in combination with the potentiator ABBV-3067 and the corrector ABBV-2222 [START_REF] De Wilde | Identification of GLPG/ABBV-2737, a Novel Class of Corrector, Which Exerts Functional Synergy With Other CFTR Modulators[END_REF].

Although ABBV-2737 seemed to facilitate the F508del protein escape from the quality control system of the cell, it yielded to a more rigid conformation presenting opening defects similar the G551D-CFTR channel that required the addition of ABBV-3067. ABBV-2737 significantly improved F508del-CFTR activity, compared to the dual combination ABBV-3067/ABBV-2222, indicating that ABBV-2737 and ABBV-2222 have distinct modes of action. It further demonstrated its added value in F508del homozygous patients already treated with Orkambi® (VX-770/VX-809) [START_REF] Van Koningsbruggen-Rietschel | GLPG2737 in lumacaftor/ivacaftor-treated CF subjects homozygous for the F508del mutation: A randomized phase 2A trial (PELICAN)[END_REF]. The phase 2a clinical trial led to a significant decrease in sweat Cl -concentration and a small improvement in lung function compared to the dual combination (Table 5). The most common adverse events were upper respiratory tract infection and headache. There were no serious adverse effects related to treatment leading to treatment discontinuation and no impact on liver function as previously reported with Orkambi® [START_REF] Wainwright | Lumacaftor-Ivacaftor in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis Homozygous for Phe508del CFTR[END_REF], [START_REF] Van Koningsbruggen-Rietschel | GLPG2737 in lumacaftor/ivacaftor-treated CF subjects homozygous for the F508del mutation: A randomized phase 2A trial (PELICAN)[END_REF].

An early stage clinical study is currently testing the triple combination of the two correctors ABBV-2737 and ABBV-2222 with the potentiator ABBV-2451 (NCT03540524, FALCON study). ABBV-3221, a secondgeneration corrector (Figure 1) is a promising molecule, which enhances CFTR function in vitro in combination with ABBV-2222 corrector and ABBV-974 potentiator [START_REF] Scanio | Discovery of ABBV/GLPG-3221, a Potent Corrector of CFTR for the Treatment of Cystic Fibrosis[END_REF]. This compound displays an original structure around a polyfunctionalised proline core as compared to the previous ones.

Proteostasis pipeline

Since the association of several correctors demonstrated outstanding clinical benefits, pharmaceutical companies have been testing triple combinations. Proteostasis Therapeutics Inc. (PTI) is the first company to elaborate a cocktail involving a potentiator, a corrector and an amplifier that has reached clinical phase 2.

The amplifier PTI-428 (or nesolicaftor) was identified through the phenotypic HTS of thousands of compounds. Nesolicaftor, displays a linear polyheteroaromatic structure distributed around a cyclobutane (Figure 1). PTI-428 was tested in vitro in combination with the potentiator VX-770 and the corrector VX-809 and proved to add onto their activity, indicating a different mode of action [START_REF] Giuliano | Use of a High-Throughput Phenotypic Screening Strategy to Identify Amplifiers, a Novel Pharmacological Class of Small Molecules That Exhibit Functional Synergy with Potentiators and Correctors[END_REF], [START_REF] Molinski | Orkambi® and amplifier co-therapy improves function from a rare CFTR mutation in gene-edited cells and patient tissue[END_REF]. It was demonstrated to selectively enhance the production of defective CFTR mRNA in vitro across various mutations, including F508del and some rare mutations, by targeting the defects hindering synthesis at early stages [START_REF] Giuliano | Use of a High-Throughput Phenotypic Screening Strategy to Identify Amplifiers, a Novel Pharmacological Class of Small Molecules That Exhibit Functional Synergy with Potentiators and Correctors[END_REF]. Biochemical and proteomic studies revealed that the amplifier improves CFTR mRNA stability and the fraction of CFTR mRNA associated with polysomes. Pull-downs identified that the amplifier binds to the poly(rC)-binding protein 1 (PCBP1) [START_REF] Dukovski | Amplifiers co-translationally enhance CFTR biosynthesis via PCBP1-mediated regulation of CFTR mRNA[END_REF]. It was further shown that this increase in the production of misfolded F508del-CFTR protein did not trigger ER-associated cellular stress responses [START_REF] Giuliano | Use of a High-Throughput Phenotypic Screening Strategy to Identify Amplifiers, a Novel Pharmacological Class of Small Molecules That Exhibit Functional Synergy with Potentiators and Correctors[END_REF]. Yet, the amplification of F508del-CFTR biosynthesis did not increase expression of the CFTR channel at the PM indicating that the produced protein remains mostly misfolded and non-functional [START_REF] Molinski | Orkambi® and amplifier co-therapy improves function from a rare CFTR mutation in gene-edited cells and patient tissue[END_REF]. Early stage clinical trials are in progress to evaluate the safety and efficacy of PTI-428 in CF patients in addition to stable treatment with ivacaftor (NCT03258424), lumacaftor/ivacaftor (NCT02718495), or tezacaftor/ivacaftor (NCT03591094).

Proteostasis Therapeutics is also developing a third-generation corrector, PTI-801 or posenacaftor and a potentiator, PTI-808, or dirocaftor. PTI-808 is an analogue of VX-770 and VX-561 in which tert-butyl groups have been replaced by trimethylsilyl groups. PTI-801 displays a benzofuranyl quinoline central motif (Figure 1). The triple combination, PTI-428, PTI-801 and PTI-808 proved to enhance F508del-CFTR activity in vitro. A phase 1/2 clinical study (NCT03500263) showed an improvement of 8% in ppFEV1 and a decrease of 29 mmol/L in sweat Cl -in adults homozygous for F508del after 4 weeks of treatment compared to the placebo (communication by Proteostasis Therapeutics). The F508del heterozygotes showed a range of response in clinical response, suggesting specificity towards a number of definite mutations, but as a whole, the effect on lung function was not significant. The combination is currently being tested ex vivo on intestinal organoids grown from rectal biopsies taken from more than 500 CF patients with ultra-rare mutations as part of the HIT-CF Europe project [START_REF] Hit-Cf Consortium | Rationale and design of the HIT-CF organoid study: stratifying cystic fibrosis patients based on intestinal organoid response to different CFTR-modulators[END_REF]. A selection of these patients whose organoids showed a positive response will be invited to participate in CHOICES, a clinical phase 3 study planned to start in the last quarter of 2020 (Proteostasis Therapeutics).

Daily challenges of CFTR modulator therapies

Compliance

The first and often underestimated challenge of CFTR modulator treatment is compliance [START_REF] Olivereau | Adherence to lumacaftor-ivacaftor therapy in patients with cystic fibrosis in France[END_REF]. Indeed, patients who report symptomatic improvement may reduce their adherence to baseline therapies, such as physiotherapy or nutritional support. Moreover, patients who gain too much weight or have side effects such as acnea may decide to discontinue the drug. To evaluate the extent of these phenomena, more accurate patient-reported outcomes discriminating between benefits and side effects are needed (Cooke et al, personal data).

Drug interactions

CF patients routinely take a significant number of medications, therefore drug interactions involving CFTR modulators must be carefully considered in order to obtain high local (bronchial secretions) concentrations.

Pharmacokinetics of CFTR modulators mainly involves the family of P450 cytochrome (CYP450) enzymes (CYP3A4 and CYP3A5). Cytochrome enzymes may be induced (increased expression) by drugs or food (usually, but not only, substrates of the cytochrome such as phenobarbital, phenytoin, rifampicin, glucocorticoids terfenadine, eletriptan, St. John's Wort), resulting in enhanced metabolism, and thus lower levels of its substrate compounds. They may be inhibited by a number of compounds, such as azole antifungal therapies (voriconazole, ketoconazole, miconazole, itraconazole), clarithromycin, erythromycin, diltiazem, midazolam, verapamil, goldenseal root, grapefruit. This results in increased drug levels. Moreover, several genetic polymorphisms can involve the CYP gene leading to variations of that enzyme's activity.

The enzyme CYP3A4 metabolises VX-770 to less active metabolite M1 and inactive metabolite M6 and the enzyme CYP3A5 metabolises VX-661 to less active metabolites M1, M2 and M5. On the other hand, they do not impact VX-809 levels [START_REF] Davies | Efficacy and Safety of Ivacaftor in Patients Aged 6 to 11 Years with Cystic Fibrosis with a G551D Mutation[END_REF], [START_REF] Boeck | Efficacy and safety of ivacaftor in patients with cystic fibrosis and a non-G551D gating mutation[END_REF]. Therefore, concomitant treatment of Kalydeco ® , Symdeko ® or even VX-770-containing Orkambi® with CYP3A4 inhibitors increases the exposure to VX-770/VX-661, whilst concomitant treatment with an inducer decreases the exposure.

CYP3A expression is strongly induced by VX-809 and, to a lesser extent, by VX-770 metabolites, but not by VX-661. The combination VX-770/VX-809 is thus both a CYP3A4 substrate (VX-770) and a strong inducer of other CYP (VX-809 and VX-770 metabolites). Therefore, the level or the activity of drugs usually metabolised by CYP4 should be carefully monitored in patients treated by Orkambi®, which may lead to a decrease in efficacy, for example of oestroprogestatives, antifungals, or clarithromycin [START_REF] Jordan | Therapeutic challenges posed by critical drug-drug interactions in cystic fibrosis[END_REF].

These examples demonstrate that drug interactions must be carefully monitored by clinicians for CF patients in order to avoid lack of efficacy, toxicity and associated adverse effects.

Future directions

In less than 10 years, dramatic advances in CFTR science has opened new pathways to a therapeutic landscape reshuffle. These modulators have deeply transformed CF therapeutic approaches and will undoubtedly positively impact prognosis. The number of CF patients who are candidates for highly effective CFTR modulation is now over 80%. The portfolio of efficient molecules is increasing dramatically, and future personalised therapy is now a reality. Given the different combinations available in a near future for the same mutation, new tools are now needed to identify the optimal association of molecules. To best tailor treatment to each patient, models are being developed from patient cells. Two-or three-dimension primary cell cultures should help to recapitulate the transcriptomic and proteomic background of the patient and its impact on individual metabolism and efficiency of the drugs. This includes 2D primary cultures from nasal brushings and/or 3D spheroids from intestinal or respiratory cells. These techniques should help to tailor the most efficient therapy to a given patient and initiate the era of novel personalised therapies. However, the question remains whether these patient-derived models are representative of clinical phenotypes. Whilst organoids and primary cells may provide information about the "correctability" of a given mutation as a preclinical model [START_REF] Berkers | Rectal Organoids Enable Personalized Treatment of Cystic Fibrosis[END_REF], [START_REF] Pranke | Correction of CFTR function in nasal epithelial cells from cystic fibrosis patients predicts improvement of respiratory function by CFTR modulators[END_REF], it remains to be proved whether they can predict the clinical response at an individual level. Recent publications [START_REF] Graeber | Comparison of Organoid Swelling and In Vivo Biomarkers of CFTR Function to Determine Effects of Lumacaftor-Ivacaftor in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis Homozygous for the F508del Mutation[END_REF]- [START_REF] Kerem | Ivacaftor in People With Cystic Fibrosis and a 3849+10kb C →T or D1152H Residual Function Mutation[END_REF] did not provide evidence for patients carrying the same mutation treated by CFTR modulators of the relationship between the variation of the ppFEV1 and the Forskolin-Induced response of rectal organoids incubated with the drug. A study is ongoing to establish a potential relationship between the improvement in ppFEV1 at 6 months of Orkambi® in F508del homozygous patients and the variation of CFTR function in their primary nasal cells upon lumacafor/ivacaftor (PREDICT-CF study, NCT03894657).

Future challenges also lie in study design for increasingly asymptomatic patients and implementation of new surrogate endpoints. Not only are naïve patients rarer and rarer, they may also be reluctant to interrupt an efficient treatment to participate in trials if their condition is improved by modulators.

Therefore, studies should be designed as non-inferiority trials and be as short as possible. The sweat test remains one of the most sensitive biomarkers, widely used during clinical trials for its dynamic range and its capacity to adjust quickly. Sweat Cl -concentration was previously shown to differ at the basal state depending on the mutation class, with notably lower concentrations for class IV mutations [START_REF] Wilschanski | Correlation of sweat chloride concentration with classes of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene mutations[END_REF]. More recently, changes in sweat Cl -concentration were related to variations in other interesting biomarkers, such as nasal potential difference (NPD) and intestinal current measurements (ICM) in patients initiating Orkambi® treatment [START_REF] Graeber | Effects of Lumacaftor/Ivacaftor Therapy on CFTR Function in Phe508del Homozygous Patients with Cystic Fibrosis[END_REF], [START_REF] Masson | Predictive factors for lumacaftor/ivacaftor clinical response[END_REF]. However, no correlation with clinical outcomes could be established.

Importantly, one study in patients treated by Orkambi® showed that the change in CFTR activity in 2D nasal primary cultures upon lumacaftor/ivacaftor was correlated to that of intestinal biopsies sampled in the same patient at 6 months of treatment. Moreover, in this pilot study, this variation was also correlated to changes in ppFEV1 at 6 months of treatment. Conversely, it was not related to variations in sweat Cl -concentration or CFTR-related Cl -transport in NPD [START_REF] Pranke | Might Brushed Nasal Cells Be a Surrogate for CFTR Modulator Clinical Response?[END_REF]. Other outcome measures such as lung imaging, lung clearance index as well as "Omics" biomarkers should be further investigated.

Last but not least, the CF community, including healthcare staff, researchers, as well as people with CF and Patient Advocacy Associations, continue in their collaborative endeavours for equitable global access to these expensive molecules for all people with CF. CF is at the cutting edge of basic and translational research; these results should have important implications well beyond the science of CFTR modulation as a paradigm for other rare disease pharmacological therapies.

2. 3 .

 3 VX-445 and the advent of Vertex triple combination VX-770 and combinations with first generation correctors (VX-809 or VX-661) now constitute the standard of care with sustainable clinical benefits and serve as the benchmark to evaluate novel treatments. However, clinical improvement remains moderate, notably in lung function. F508del-CFTR function is incompletely restored and many mutations, especially related to minimal CFTR function, are still lacking suitable treatments. Advances in the last two years have shown the importance of targeting different CFTR sites to maximise the corrector effect. Therefore, pharmaceutical companies now aim for combinatory therapies [64]. Vertex Pharmaceuticals selected 4 compounds showing correcting potential combined with VX-661 and VX-770 for further evaluation: VX-152, VX-440, VX-445 and VX-659. VX-445

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Structure of correctors, potentiators and amplifier 801

2

 2 Part, Open-Label Study to Evaluate the Safety, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacodynamics of Ivacaftor in Subjects With Cystic Fibrosis Who Are Less Than 24 Months of Age and Have a CFTR Gating Mutation Recruiting Clinical studies on VX-770/VX-809 (IVA/LUM) NCT03601637 A Phase 3, 2-part, Open-label Study to Evaluate the Safety and Pharmacokinetics of Lumacaftor/Ivacaftor in Subjects 1 to Less Than 2 Years of Age With Cystic Fibrosis, Homozygous for F508del Recruiting Clinical studies on VX-770/VX-661 (IVA/TEZ) NCT03624101 Novel Therapeutic Approaches for Treatment of CF Patients With W1282X Premature Termination Codon Mutations Recruiting Clinical studies on VX-770/VX-661/VX-445 (IVA/TEZ/ELE) NCT04058353 A Phase 3, Randomized, Double-blind, Controlled Study Evaluating the Efficacy and Safety of VX-445 Combination Therapy in Subjects With Cystic Fibrosis Who Are Heterozygous for the F508del Mutation and a Gating or Residual Function Mutation (F/G and F/RF Genotypes) Completed NCT03691779 Evaluation of VX 445/TEZ/IVA in Cystic Fibrosis Subjects 6 Through 11 Years of Age Completed NCT04353817 A Phase 3b, Randomized, Placebo-controlled Study Evaluating the Efficacy and Safety of Elexacaftor/Tezacaftor/Ivacaftor in Cystic Fibrosis Subjects 6 Through 11 Years of Age Who Are Heterozygous for the F508del Mutation and a Minimal Function Mutation (F/MF) Recruiting NCT04509050 BEGIN study A Prospective Study to Evaluate Biological and Clinical Effects of Significantly Corrected CFTR Function in Infants and Young Children Recruiting NCT04378153 SIMPLIFY study A Master Protocol to Test the Impact of Discontinuing Chronic Therapies in People With Cystic Fibrosis on Highly Effective CFTR Modulator Therapy Recruiting Clinical studies on VX-770 and the combinations VX-770/VX-809 and VX-770/VX-661 NCT03587961 Personalized Theratyping Trial for off-label mutations Recruiting

Table 1 . Interventional clinical studies on the potentiator VX-770 (IVA)

 1

		Clinical				N total			Treatment	Sweat Cl -change # (mmol/L)		ppFEV1 change # (%)
		Trial		Age		(incl.	N	Intervention	duration
	Ref.	Period Genotype	(yrs) Control	controls)	VX-770 dose	(weeks)	(i) from baseline (ii) from control	p-value (i) from baseline	(ii) from control	p-value
								25mg BID	2	-33.8 (-43.4 to -24.2) NC	<0.0001 +4.7* (-2.7 to +12.2) NC	NS
						42		75mg BID	2	-42.0 (-49.9 to -34.1) NC	<0.0001 +9.5* (+4.1 to +14.8) NC	NS
	[36]	2007-2008	1 or 2x G551D	≥18	Placebo (cross-over)	(9)		150mg BID 250mg BID	2 2	-46.0 (-53.9 to -38.2) NC -27.1 (-39.7 to -14.6) NC	<0.0001 +10.8* (+5.6 to +15.9) NC 0.05 +12.0* (+3.8 to +20.1) NC	NS NS
						20		150mg BID	4	-44.2 (-51.1 to -37.3) NC	0.02	+10.6* (+6.5 to +14.8) NC	NS
						(5)		250mg BID	4	-28.2 (-39.0 to -17.4) NC	0.03	+9.4* (+3.4 to +15.4) NC	NS
	[37]	2009-2013	2x F508del	≥12	Placebo (parallel)	140 (28)		150mg BID	16	-2.7 (0.6)	-2.9 (1.4)	0.04	+1.5 (0.5)	+1.7 (1.2)	NS
	[38]	2009-2012	1 or 2x G551D	>12	Placebo (parallel)	161 (78)		150mg BID	48	-48.7 (1.2)	-48.1 (1.7)	<0.0001 +10.1 (0.7)	+10.5 (1.0)	<0.0001
	[39]	2009-2011	1 or 2x G551D	6-11	Placebo (parallel)	52 (26)		150mg BID	48	-56.0 (2.5)	-54.3 (3.7)	<0.0001 +10.7 (1.9)	+10.0 (2.7)	0.0006
	[43]	2012-2013	1 or 2x R117H	≥6	Placebo (parallel)	70 (34)		150mg BID	24	-26.3 (1.4)	-24.0 (-28.0 to -19.9) <0.0001 +2.6 (1.2)	+2.1 (-1.1 to +5.4)	NS
	[40]	2012-2013	1 or 2x non-G551D mutation § ≥6	Placebo (cross-over)	39 (39)		150mg BID	8	-55.8 (24.9)	-49.2 (-57.0 to -41.4) <0.0001 8.13 (9.9)	+10.7 (+7.3 to +14.1) <0.0001
	[41]	2013-2014	1 or 2x gating mutation 2-5 Open label	34 (N/A)		<14kg: 50mg BID >14kg: 75mg BID 24	-46.9 (26.2)	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
	[42]	2015-2017	F508del + RF	≥12	Placebo (cross-over)	248 (160)		150mg BID (8)	8	-4.9 (-6.7 to -3.0)	-4.5 (-6.7 to -2.3)	<0.0001 +4.4 (+3.5 to +5.3)	+4.7 (+3.7 to +5.8) <0.0001
	[96]	2016-2017	1 or 2x gating mutation 1-2 Open label	19 (N/A)		<14kg: 50mg BID >14kg: 75mg BID 24	-73.5 (17.5)	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
		OD = Once daily
		BID = Twice daily
		N/A = Not applicable
		NC = Not communicated

Table 2 . Interventional clinical studies on VX-809 (LUM) combinations

 2

		Clinical				N total		Treatment	Sweat Cl -change # (mmol/L)		ppFEV1 change # (%)
		Trial		Age		(incl.	N	duration
	Ref.	Period Genotype (yrs) Control	controls) Intervention	(weeks)	(i) from baseline	(ii) from control	p-value (i) from baseline (ii) from control p-value
							25mg LUM OD	4	+0.9 (-3.3 to +5.2)	+0.1 (-12.3 to 0.0)	NS	-1.6 (-4.7 to +1.4) NC	NS
	[49] 2009	2x F508del	≥18	Placebo (parallel)	93 (19)	50mg LUM OD 100mg LUM OD	4 4	-3.8 (-8.0 to +0.4) -5.3 (-9.6 to -1.0)	-4.6 (-12.3 to 0.0) -6.1 (-12.3 to 0.0)	NS <0.05	-0.4 (-3.5 to +2.7) NC +0.2 (-3.0 to +3.3) NC	NS NS
							200mg LUM OD	4	-7.4 (-11.6 to -3.2)	-8.2 (-14.3 to -2.1)	<0.01	-0.2(-3.1 to +2.8) NC	NS
							*200mg LUM OD followed by 200mg LUM OD +150mg IVA BID	2 +1	-6.7 (-11.1 to -2.4)	-5.0 (-11.6 to +1.5)	NS	+3.1 (+0.1 to +6.1) +2.8 (-1.3 to +7.0) NS
							*200mg LUM OD followed by 2/ 200mg LUM OD +250mg IVA BID	2 +1	-12.6 (-17.2 to -7.9)	-10.9 (-17.6 to -4.2)	0.002	+0.5 (-2.8 to +3.8) +0.3 (-4.2 to +4.7) NS
							*200mg LUM OD followed by 200mg LUM OD +250mg IVA BID	4 +4	-4.4 (-8.5 to -0.3)	-5.1 (-10.7 to +0.5)	NS	+1.8 (-1.3 to +4.9) +3.8 (-0.4 to +8.1) NS
	[50]	2010-2014	2x F508del	≥18	Placebo (parallel)	(42)	*400mg LUM OD followed by 2/ 400mg LUM OD +250mg IVA BID	4 +4	-9.1 (-3.3 to -4.9)	-9.8 (-15.5 to -4.2)	<0.001	+0.6 (-2.5 to +3.8) +2.7 (-1.7 to +7.0) NS
							*600mg LUM OD followed by 2/ 600mg LUM OD +250mg IVA BID	4 +4	-8.9 (-13.1 to -4.7)	-9.6 (-15.3 to -4.0)	0.001	+3.6 (+0.4 to +6.8) +5.6 (+1.2 to +10.0) 0.01
							* 400mg LUM OD followed by 2/ 400mg LUM BID +250mg IVA BID	4 +4	-10.3 (-16.7 to -4)	-11.1 (-18.5 to -3.7)	0.004	+2.2 (-2.3 to +6.7) +4.2 (-1.3 to +9.6) NS
	[42], [50]	2010-2014	1 or 2x F508del ≥18	Placebo (parallel)	(69)	* 600mg LUM OD followed by 2/ 600mg LUM OD +250mg IVA BID 400mg LUM BID +250 IVA BID	4 +4 8	-5.2 (-9.8 to -0.7) -11.8 (1.3)	-6.0 (-11.9 to 0.0) -11.0 (-14.5 to -7.6)	0.05 <0.0001 -0.6 (0.8) -1.7 (-5.1 to +1.8) +0.3 (-4.2 to +4.9) NS +0.6 (-1.7 to +2.9) NS
	[51]	2013-2014	2x F508del	>12	Placebo (parallel)	(187)	600mg LUM OD +250mg IVA BID 24 400mg LUM BID +250 IVA BID 24	N/A N/A	N/A N/A	N/A N/A	+3.6 (0.5) +2.2 (0.5)	+4.0 (+2.6 to +5.4) <0.0001 +2.6 (+1.2 to +4.0) 0.0003
	[51]	2013-2014	2x F508del	≥12	Placebo (parallel)	(187)	600mg LUM OD +250mg IVA BID 24 400mg BID +250 IVA BID 24	N/A N/A	N/A N/A	N/A N/A	+2.5 (0.5) +2.9 (0.5)	+2.6 (+1.2 to +4.1) 0.0004 +3.0 (+1.6 to +4.4) <0.0001
	[53]	2013-2015	2x F508del	6-11	Open label	58 (N/A)	200mg BID +250mg IVA BID	24	-24.8 (-29.1 to -20.5) N/A	N/A	+2.5 (-0.2 to + 5.2) N/A	N/A
	[52] 2015-2x	6-11 Placebo		200mg BID +250mg IVA BID	24	-20.0 § (-22.0 to -18.1) -20.8 § (-23.4 to -18.2) >0.0001 +1.1 (-0.4 to +2.6) +2.4 (+0.4 to +4.4) 0.02

#

Absolute changes given as the least squares mean difference between the treated group and (i) its baseline characteristics (within patient changes) or (ii) the control group (e.g. changes vs placebo).

When standard deviation was not communicated, 95% confidence intervals are given within brackets. P-values are given between treated and control groups. *Intervention involved two consecutive treatment steps, duration in weeks are given accordingly for each step. § Change given at week 4. Change at week 24 = -21.6 (1.3).

Table 3 . Interventional clinical studies on VX-661 (TEZ) combinations

 3

		Clinical						Treatment	Sweat Cl -change # (mmol/L)		ppFEV1 change # (%)
		Trial		Age		N total		duration
	Ref.	Period Genotype	(yrs) Control	(incl. N controls) Intervention (weeks)	(weeks)	(i) from baseline	(ii) from control	p-value (i) from baseline (ii) from control	p-value
							10mg TEZ OD	4	+3.9 (-0.5 to +8.3)	+4.8 (-0.3 to +9.8)	NS	+3.3 (-0.8 to +7.3) +3.6 (-0.2 to +7.4)	NC
							30mg TEZ OD	4	-4.8 (-9.8 to +0.2)	-3.9 (-9.5 to +1.7)	NS	+0.2 (-3.7 to +4.1) +1.8 (-2.0 to +5.5)	NC
							100mg TEZ OD	4	-20.4 (-24.8 to -16.1) -19.6 (-24.6 to -14.6) >0.0001 +1.6 (-2.3 to +5.5) +1.7 (-2.0 to +5.5)	NC
							150mg TEZ OD	4	-10.5 (-14.5 to -6.4) -9.6 (-14.4 to -4.8)	0.0001 +2.3 (-1.3 to +6.0) +2.7 (+0.9 to +6.3)	NC
	[60]	2012-2014	2x F508del	>12	Placebo (parallel)	194 (38)	10mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID 30mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID 100mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID	4 4 4	-5.1 (-8.0 to -2.1) -6.0 (-9.0 to +3.0) -6.0 (-9.1 to -3.0)	-4.2 (-8.1 to -0.3) -5.1 (-9.0 to -1.3) -5.2 (-9.2 to -1.2)	0.03 0.01 0.01	+2.0 (-0.7 to +4.6) +1.4 (-1.4 to +4.3) +3.0 (+0.4 to +5.6) +3.0 (+0.2 to +5.9) +4.4 (+1.7 to +7.2) +3.9 (+0.9 to +6.8)	NC NC NC
							150mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID	4	-2.6 (-5.7 to +0.4)	-1.8 (-5.7 to +2.2)	NS	+4.1 (+1.4 to +6.9) +3.8 (+0.8 to +6.7)	NC
							100mg TEZ OD +50mg IVA BID	4	-6.1 (-10.8 to -1.3) -4.9 (-11.2 to +1.4) NC	+0.8 (-2.0 to +3.6) -0.5 (-4.1 to +3.0)	NC
							50mg TEZ BID +150mg IVA BID	4	-7.9 (-12.3 to -3.5) -6.7 (-12.9 to -0.5)	0.04	+1.6 (-1.3 to +4.4) +0.8 (-2.8 to +4.5)	NC
			F508del + G551D >12	Placebo (parallel)	14 (4)	100mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID	4	-7.0 (-14.2 to +0.1) -17.2 (-31.8 to -2.7) 0.02	+5.2 (+1.7 to +8.7) +3.2 (-4.1 to +10.5) NS
	[62]	2015-2017	2x F508del	>12	Placebo (parallel)	510 (259)	100mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID	24	-9.9 (-10.9 to -8.9) -10.1 (-11.4 to -8.8) NC	+3.4 (+2.7 to +4.0) +4.0 (+3.1 to +4.8)	<0.0001

Table 4 . Interventional clinical studies on Vertex triple combinations

 4

		Clinical					N total		Treatmen	Sweat Cl -change # (mmol/L)		ppFEV1 change # (%)
		Trial			Age		(incl. N	t duration
	Ref.	Period Genotype		(yrs) Control	controls) Intervention (weeks)	(weeks)	(i) from baseline	(ii) from control	p-value (i) from baseline (ii) from control	p-value
								80mg VX-659 OD +100mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID	4	-45.7 (4.3)	NC	NC	+10.2 (2.7)	NC	NC
	[66]	2017-2018	F508del + MF	≥18	Placebo (parallel)	63 (10)	240mg VX-659 OD +100mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID 400mg VX-659 OD +100mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID	4 4	-43.8 (3.4) -51.4 (3.2)	NC NC	NC NC	+12.0 (2.0) +13.3 (1.9)	NC NC	NC NC
						Placebo (parallel)	25 (6)	200mg VX-561 OD +100mg TEZ OD +400mg VX-659 OD	4	-38.1 (3.0)	NC	NC	+12.2 (1.9)	NC	NC
			2x F508del ≥18	Symdeko® (parallel)	29 (11)	*100mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID +150mg IVA BID 400mg VX-659 OD +100mg TEZ OD	4 +4	-42.2 (2.2)	NC	NC	+9.7 (1.5)	NC	NC
								50mg ELE OD +100mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID	4	-38.2 (4.2)	NC	NC	+11.1 (2.1)	NC	NC
	[65]	2017-2018	F508del MF	+ ≥18	Placebo (parallel)	63 (10)	100mg ELE OD +100mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID 200mg ELE OD +100mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID	4 4	-33.2 (2.8) -39.1 (2.9)	NC NC	NC NC	+7.9 (1.4) +13.8 (1.4)	NC NC	NC NC
						Placebo (parallel)	29 (8)	150mg VX561 OD +200mg ELE OD +100mg TEZ OD	4	-33.6 (2.8)	NC	NC	+11.7 (1.6)	NC	NC
			2x F508del ≥18	Symdeko® (parallel)	29 (11)	*100mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID +150mg IVA BID 200mg ELE OD +100mg TEZ OD	4 +4	-39.6 (2.8)	NC	NC	+11.0 (1.5)	NC	NC
	[67]	2018-2019	F508del MF	+ ≥12	Placebo (parallel)	405 (204)	200mg ELE OD +100mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID	24	-42.2 (-44.0 to -40.4)	-41.8 (-44.4 to -39.3)	<0.001	+13.9 (+12.8 to +15.0)	+14.3 (+12.7 to +15.8)	<0.001
	[68] 2018	2x F508del ≥12	Symdeko® (parallel)	107 (52)	1*/ 100mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID 2/ 200mg ELE OD +100mg TEZ OD +150mg IVA BID	4 +4	-43.4 § (-46.9 to -40.0)	-45.1 (-50.1 to -40.1)	<0.0001	+10.4 § (+8.6 to +12.2)	+10.0 (+7.4 to +12.6)	<0.0001

Table 6 . List and references of reported clinical studies

 6

	Ref.	Clinical trial number	Study name
	Clinical studies on the potentiator VX-770 (IVA)
	[36]	NCT00457821
	[37]	NCT00953706	DISCOVER
	[38]	NCT00909532	STRIVE
	[39]	NCT00909727	ENVISION
	[43]	NCT01614457	KONDUCT
	[40]	NCT01614470	KONNECTION
	[41]	NCT01705145	KIWI
	[42]	NCT02392234
	[96]	NCT02725567	ARRIVAL
	Clinical studies on VX-809 (LUM) combinations
	[49]	NCT00865904

# Absolute changes given as the least squares mean difference between the treated group and (i) its baseline characteristics (within patient changes) or (ii) the control group (e.g. changes vs placebo).

When standard deviation was not communicated, 95% confidence intervals are given within brackets. P-values are given between treated and control groups. Absolute changes given as the least squares mean difference between the treated group and (i) its baseline characteristics (within patient changes) or (ii) the control group (e.g. changes vs placebo).

When standard deviation was not communicated, 95% confidence intervals are given within brackets. P-values are given between treated and control groups.

*Intervention involved two consecutive treatment steps, duration in weeks are given accordingly for each step. Absolute changes given as the least squares mean difference between the treated group and (i) its baseline characteristics (within patient changes) or (ii) the control group (e.g. changes vs placebo).

When standard deviation was not communicated, 95% confidence intervals are given within brackets. P-values are given between treated and control groups.

*Intervention involved three consecutive treatment steps, duration in weeks are given accordingly for each step.