K Musumbu
email: musumbu@labri.fr

Towards a Model Driven Semantics Web using the Ontology

Keywords: Business rules, knowledge based systems, Model Driven Architecture, reasoning, Semantics Web, ontology

The Semantics Web is a vision for the future of the Web in which information is given explicit meaning, making it easier for machines to automatically process and integrate information available on the Web. An ontology defines the terms used to describe and represent an area of knowledge. Ontologies are used by people, databases, and applications that need to share domain information (a domain is just a specific subject area or area of knowledge, like medicine, tool manufacturing, real estate, automobile repair, financial management, etc.). The main goal of this paper is to present comprehensive introduction into MDA-based ontology development. It will provide an introduction to the field of the Semantics Web and ontology engineering, a description of several UML-and metamodeling-based solutions and tools for ontology development, an overview of the OMG's MDA effort and related standards (Meta-Object Facility -MOF, UML, XML Metadata Interchange -XMI).

Introduction

The Semantics Web is the main direction of the future Web development. Domain ontologies are the most important part of Semantics Web applications. Artificial intelligence techniques are used for ontology creation, but those techniques are more related to research laboratories. Recently, there are many proposals to use software engineering techniques, especially the UML since it is the most accepted software engineering standard, in order to bring ontology development process closer to wider practitioners' population. However, UML is based on object oriented paradigm, and has some lim-itation regarding ontology development. These limitations can be overcome using UML's extensions (i.e. UML profiles), as well as other OMG's standards (i.e. Model Driven Architecture -MDA ). Currently, there is an initiative (i.e. RFP) within the OMG aiming to define a suitable language for modeling Semantics Web ontology languages in the context of the MDA. The Semantics Web will build on XML's ability to define customized tagging schemes and RDF's flexible approach to representing data. The first level above RDF required for the Semantics Web is an ontology language what can formally describe the meaning of terminology used in Web documents. If machines are expected to perform useful reasoning tasks on these documents, the language must go beyond the basic semantics of RDF Schema. The OWL Use Cases and Requirements Document provides more details on ontologies, motivates the need for a Web Ontology Language in terms of six use cases, and formulates design goals, requirements and objectives for OWL.

Business rules define and constrains business processes in enterprises.

Therefore, many businessgoverning rules have to be implemented in businesssupporting applications, in order to reflect the real business environment. The aim of this paper is to give the methodology to automatically generate a part of the business rules by combining Model Driven Architecture and the Semantics Web using Ontology Definition Meta-model. This paper will be divided in three parts. The first covers the basis of both main topics ontology, semantics web and standards. The second part, explain the Model Driven Architecture. The last is the central one, it starts with a review of several approaches and aim to bridge the gap between ontology development and software engineering methodologies. We will also discuss the possibilities and the benefits provided by mixing models and web reasoning.

The Ontology concept

The term ontology means a specification of a conceptualization. That is, an ontology is a description (like a formal specification of a program) of the concepts and relationships that can exist for an agent or a comm unity of agents.dixit T. R. Gruber [START_REF] Gruber | Toward Principles for the Design of Ontologies Used for Knowledge Shar ing[END_REF].He .has been designing ontol ogies for the purpose of enabling knowledge sharing and reuse. In that context, an ontology is a specification used for making ontological commitments. The form al definition of ontological commitment is given below."

An ontology defines the terms used to describe and represent an area of knowledge. Ontologies are used by people, databases, and applications that need to share domain information (a domain is just a specific subject area or area of knowledge, like medicine, tool manufacturing, real estate, automobile repair, financial management, etc.).

Ontologies include computer-usable definitions of basic concepts in the domain and the relationships among them (note that here and throughout this document, definition is not used in the technical sense understood by logicians). They encode knowledge in a domain and also knowledge that spans domains. In this way, they make that knowledge reusable.

The word ontology has been used to describe artifacts with different degrees of structure. These range from simple taxonomies (such as the Yahoo hierarchy), to metadata schemes (such as the Dublin Core), to logical theories. The Semantics Web needs ontologies with a significant degree of structure. These need to specify descriptions for the following kinds of concepts:

• Classes (general things) in the many domains of interest

• The relationships that can exist among things

• The properties (or attributes) those things may have

Ontologies are usually expressed in a logic-based language, so that detailed, accurate, consistent, sound, and meaningful distinctions can be made among the classes, properties, and relations. Some ontology tools can perform automated reasoning using the ontologies, and thus provide advanced services to intelligent applications such as: conceptual/semantics search and retrieval, software agents, decision support, speech and natural language understanding, knowledge management, intelligent databases, and electronic commerce.

Ontologies figure prominently in the emerging Semantics Web as a way of representing the semantics of documents and enabling the semantics to be used by web applications and intelligent agents. Ontologies can prove very useful for a community as a way of structuring and defining the meaning of the metadata terms that are currently being collected and standardized. Using ontologies, tomorrow's applications can be "intelligent," in the sense that they can more accurately work at the human conceptual level.

Ontologies are critical for applications that want to search across or merge information from diverse communities. Although XML DTDs and XML Schemas are sufficient for exchanging data between parties who have agreed to definitions beforehand, their lack of semantics prevent machines from reliably performing this task given new XML vocabularies. The same term may be used with (sometimes subtle) different meaning in different contexts, and different terms may be used for items that have the same meaning. RDF and RDF Schema begin to approach this problem by allowing simple semantics to be associated with identifiers. With RDF Schema, one can define classes that may have multiple subclasses and super classes, and can define properties, which may have sub properties, domains, and ranges. In this sense, RDF Schema is a simple ontology language. However, in order to achieve inter-operation between numerous, autonomously developed and managed schemas, richer semantics are needed. For example, RDF Schema cannot specify that the Person and Car classes are disjoint, or that a string quartet has exactly four musicians as members.

One of the goals of this document is to specify what is needed in a web ontology language. These requirements will be motivated by potential use cases and general design objectives that take into account the difficulties in applying the standard notion of ontologies to the unique environment of the Web.

3 The Model Driven Architecture (MDA)

The Model-Driven Architecture starts with the wellknown and long established idea of separating the specification of the operation of a system from the details of the way that system uses the capabilities of its platform [START_REF]The Object Management Group OMG[END_REF]. The Figure 1 gives a general view of the MDA approach. We can see that a constru ction of a new Information System begins with the development of one or more req uirements models (CIM). Then we may develop models independent from any platform (PIM). In theories, the latter models must be partially generated from the form er. Platform independent models must Figure 1: Global view of the Model Driven Architecture approach be permanent, i.e. they do not contain any information about execution platform (is it a J2EE or .NET etc. application).

For constructing the concrete application, we must have platform specific models (PSM). These models are obtained by transforming PIM and adding technical infor mation relative to platforms. PSM are not permanent models. All these models are for facilitating code generation. The MDA approach is widely used and advanced generators exist.

MDA models and semantics

MDA principals are very interesting and allow economizing many times during appl ication life cycle by code and model generation. However, MDA specification does not tell anything about semantics on models. MDA is only interested by content and not context then that using semantics will offers more interesting way in au tomatic generation.

Why should MDA talk about semantics:

Making transformations between CIM and PIM, between PIM and PSM, and between PSM and code are done by specifying transformations rules. Nowadays these rules are manuals and machines cannot generate it because there is no notion of semantics between the entities that are concerned by transformations.

Business rules are about meanings and act on models. Generating all business rul es is impossible but it would be possible to generate a large set of generics am ong them. For example for the model in Figure 2, we should want to generate business rules like:

• Every Human must have a father and a mother. • IF a Human is the father of a Human then this Human is a Man.

For doing this automatically, it is clear that adding semantics in models is needed.

Eventual solutions for adding semantics in models:

In MDA, an instance of MOF [START_REF]The Object Management Group OMG. Meta Objet Facility (MOF) Specification Version 1.4. OMG Specification[END_REF] is use for representing models but our works are only concerned by UML models. For adding semantics in UML models we can use:

• UML profile: UML can be used for modeling many domains. The problem with this is that UML models are so generic that it is impossible to know either it is object application, a meta-model, a model, a database structures or anything else only by looking at it [START_REF] Blanc | MDA en action[END_REF]. For adding precision, the OMG has standardized the concept of UML profile [START_REF]The Object Management Group[END_REF].

A UML profile is a set of techniques and mechanisms allowing to adapt UML in a particular and specific domain. UML profile can be used in any UML model and do not modify the structure of the meta-model. UML profiles are stereotypes or labels which can be injected into models. After having stuck labels on models, we can make inference using it. As we can see, doing this can solve our problem of semantics lack on model in a low level, but this is not exploitable by machines because there is no notion of logic and taxonomy and semantics is not formally defined.

• Object Constraint Language: In UML it was not possible to define the body of an operation (or a method) so the OCL [START_REF]The Object Management Group OMG[END_REF] was standardized by OMG for doing it. OCL allows expressing any kind of constraints on UML models. For example, we can express constraints like: "before renting a car you must be sure that it is OK". Well, OCL seems to be a good solution for our problem but it is not the case. The first problem with OCL is that he does not support side effect operations and the second is that he does not offer automatic inference for machines.

• Action Semantic: remember that the main constraint with OCL was that he only supports no side effects operations. To solve this constraint, the OMG standardize Action Semantics [START_REF]The Action Semantics Consortium[END_REF]. Well, now we have a formalism being able to express any king of operations and constraints but it is not enough. This formalism is complicated to use [START_REF] Blanc | MDA en action[END_REF], was not created while thinking to machine comprehension and self-use, and do not have a textual formalism.

As we can see, none of the UML "techniques" is suitable for adding semantics in models. In an other side a new domain of computer is growing more and more: semantics web. The aim of the semantics web is to make the web both comprehensible by humans and machines [START_REF] Thomas | Explorer's guide to the Semantics Web[END_REF]. A part of semantics web is about ontology and reasoning. Modeling concept defined by ontologies can be used to model the concepts in a domain, the relationships between them, and the properties that can be used to describe instances of those concepts [START_REF] Cranefield | Bridging the Gap Between the Model-Driven Architecture and Ontology Engineering[END_REF]. In addition, the Web Ontology Language (OWL) [START_REF] Mellor | Guest Editors' Introduction: Model-Driven Development[END_REF] supports the inclusion of certain types of constraint in ontology, allowing new information to be deduced when combining instance data with these logic's description [START_REF] Cranefield | Bridging the Gap Between the Model-Driven Architecture and Ontology Engineering[END_REF]. At this point our dilemma was how can we use MDA models and Semantics Web? Ontology Definition Meta Model was the response to our need.

The Ontology Definition Metamodel

The MDA and its four-layer architecture provide a solid basis for defining the Meridel's of any modeling language, and thus a language for modeling ontology based on the MOF [START_REF] Gaěvic | Model Driven Architecture and Ontology Development[END_REF]. The ODM is a proposal for an OMG's RFP (Request For Proposal) [START_REF]Request For Proposal for Ontology Definition Metamodel. OMG Request For Proposal[END_REF] resulting of an extensive previous research in the fields of the MDA and ontology [START_REF] Baclawski | Extending UML to Support Ontology Engineering for the Semantics Web[END_REF][START_REF] Djuric | Ontology Modeling and MDA[END_REF]. The main objective of the ODM is to bridge the gap between traditional software tools for modeling (like UML) and artificial intelligence techniques (Logic's description ) for making ontology.

The principle of ODM is to merge two big domains of research which are Model Driven Architecture and Semantics Web. ODM is still in standardization process at the OMG [START_REF]The Object Management Group OMG, IBM, and Sandpiper Software. Ontology Definition Metamodel[END_REF] when this paper is being written. Basically the ODM allows making ontology using UML (by using an UML refile with existing tools like Rational Rose or Poseidon) and transforming it to OWL/RDF, Topic Map or Common Logic (Figure 3). In next section, we will see how ontology reasoning can be used to solve the lack of semantics in models.

Adding semantics on models for automatic business rules generation

MDA technologies and Semantics web are complementary; the first is concerned about automating the physical management and interchange of mandate, while the latter is focused on the semantics embodied in the content of the mandate as well as on automated reasoning over that content [START_REF] Knublauch | Ontology-Driven Software Development in the Context of the Semantics Web: An Example Scenario with Protege/OWL. 1st International Workshop on the Model-Driven Semantics Web[END_REF]. The Semantics Web is the new-generation Web that tries to represent information such that it ca be used by machines not just for display purposes, but for automation, integration, and reuse across applications [START_REF] Boley | Design Rationale for RuleML: A Markup Language for Semantic Web Rules[END_REF]. Model Driven Development (MDD) is being developed in parallel with the Semantics Web [START_REF] Mellor | Guest Editors' Introduction: Model-Driven Development[END_REF]. Emerging applications in finance, health-care, security, communications, business intelligence, and many other vertical markets are content and context sensitive (semantics), and require Enterprise scalability and performance [START_REF] Knublauch | Ontology-Driven Software Development in the Context of the Semantics Web: An Example Scenario with Protege/OWL. 1st International Workshop on the Model-Driven Semantics Web[END_REF]. Merging Semantics Web and MDA technologies can fill this lack. Merging these two domains will be benefice to both:

• MDA is only interested by content and not by context (semantics), semantics web will resolve this important problem.

• For semantics web: there are many existing ontologies development tools, and they are used by different groups of people for performing diverse tasks.

Although each tool provides different functionalities, users tend to use just one tool, as they are not able to exchange their ontologies from one tool to another. Supporting a heterogeneity of modeling language, while providing standard representations and APIs for model repositories and other tools, is one of the aims of the MDA (XMI) [START_REF] Cranefield | Bridging the Gap Between the Model-Driven Architecture and Ontology Engineering[END_REF]. Another interesting thing is that so mature UML tools cold be used for making ontologies rather than using so theoretical languages from Artificial Intelligence domain.

Merging MDA and Semantics Web technologies allow more automatic processing like: generation of constraints and business rules from models.

Our Approach for business rules automatic generation

Our principal is to use the benefice and advanced researches in Semantics Web, to combine it to Model Driven Architecture in the goal of making automatic business rules generation. For generating business rules automatically, will use principally the semantic in OWL format. In OWL reasoning, we can make automatic reasoning both with structures (TBox) or assertion on individuals and properties (ABox) [START_REF] Volz | Web Ontology Reasoning with Logic Databases[END_REF]. In our case for example, if we have: The Figure 4 schematizes our approach: using ODM, our model is generated in OWL/RDF model and this last one is enriched with semantics. With this semantically rich model two solutions are possible for generating something with: serialized the rich model in XMI [START_REF]The Object Management Group OMG. MOF 2.0/XMI Mapping Specification[END_REF] and use something like JMI [START_REF]Java Metadata Interface (JMI)[END_REF] for parsing manually the XMI. Another solution is making inference directly with the OWL model using a OWL reasoner. We adopter the last solution because it exist good OWL Reasoner and this solution uses less intermediary steps. Note that we know that generating any kind of business rules is impossible but if we arrive to generate a part of them, it will be a good thing. The Figure 5 Figure 4: Our approach Figure 5: Our approach throughout the MDA layers summarizes our approach throughout MDA layers. As we can see the first step will be a generation according to the Computation Independent Model (CIM) in a OMG SBVR like syntax (in natural language), and after this, the next step will be to generate executives rules according to the Platform Independent Model using our rule language [START_REF] Diouf | Standard Business Rules Language: why and how? The[END_REF] and models based on something like XMI. We can also see that in the figure, our business rules language or a future business rule formalism [4, ?, 7], will be used to formalize rules generated at the PIM Level. At this step we'll use our "translators" for generating rules at the PSM level for a specific rule engine. If one day, a standard business rules language is adopted, we'll either make a "translator" from our language towards the new standard or either store directly rules in the new formalism.

Conclusion

A business rules application is intentionally built to accommodate continuous change in business rules. The ability to change them effectively, are fundamental for improving business adaptability. The platform on which the application runs should support such continuous change. Offering to knowledgeable business people (experts) the possibilities to formulate, validate, and manage rules in a "zero-development" environment bring more value-added to this notion of "computer sciences in humanity's service". Allowing an automatic generation part of this business rules will be better. In this paper, we have seen that, by combining the two big domains, Model Driven Architecture and Semantics Web, a solution is possible. Right now we can only make generation according to the Computation Independent Model (CIM) in a OMG SBVR like syntax (in natural language). The next step will be to generate executives rules according to the Platform Independent Model using our rule language [START_REF] Diouf | Standard Business Rules Language: why and how? The[END_REF] and models based on something like XMI. The last step will be to have an editor allowing to edit both models and semantics. Making simples generic business rules generation possible from models will facilitates the use of the business rules approach which allows easier systems maintenance. It's clear that generating all kind of business rules is an utopia and we must delimit the degree of generation we want to obtain. Adding semantics on conceptual models will open an exciting and interesting domain of application like information merge.

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: A little human model

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: ODM principle

P

  redicate : Human -→W oman This declaration means that we have a properties Predicate going to domai n Human to range Woman. So we want to generate that: IF Object1 P redicate Object2 T HEN Object1 is of type Human ET Object2 is of type W oman


Kaninda Musumbu
email: musumbu@labri.fr

Algorithms Visualization Tool for Students and Lectures in Computer Science

Keywords: algorithm, animations, data-structure, visualizations, compilation, synchronization

The best way to understand complex data structures or algorithm is to see them in action. The present work presents a new tool, especially useful for students and lecturers in computer science. It is written in Java and developed at Bordeaux University of Sciences and Technology. Its purposes is to help students in understanding classical algorithms by illustrating them in different ways: graphical (animated), formal, and descriptive. We think that it can be useful to everyone interested in algorithms, in particular to students in computer science that want to beef up their readings and university lecturers in their major effort to enhance the data structures and algorithms course. The main new thing of this tool is the fact of making it possible to the user to animate their own algorithms.

Introduction

The algorithmic is a fundamental field in data processing, and very studied in the various university formations . However, certain concepts are not always obvious to seize, and the teachers do not have tools to allow them to illustrate their remarks. Though Al Khwarizmi's algorism referred only to the rules of performing arithmetic using Hindu-Arabic numerals, a partial formalization of what would become the modern algorithm began with attempts to solve the "decision problem" posed by David Hilbert in 1928. Subsequent formalizations were framed as attempts to define "effective calculability" or "effective method" those formalizations included the Gödel-Herbrand-Kleene recursive functions of 1930, 1934 and 1935, Alonzo Church's lambda calculus of 1936, Emil Post's "Formulation 1" of 1936, and Alan Turing's Turing machines of 19367 and 1939. Giving a formal definition of algorithms, corresponding to the intuitive notion, remains a challenging problem. The analysis and study of algorithms is a discipline of computer science, and is often practiced abstractly without the use of a specific programming language or implementation. In this sense, algorithm analysis resembles other mathematical disciplines in that it focuses on the underlying properties of the algorithm and not on the specifics of any particular implementation. Usually pseudocode is used for analysis as it is the simplest and most general representation. Knuth advises the reader that "the best way to learn an algorithm is to try it . . . immediately take pen and paper and work through an example". And besides a lot of people, instinctively, to understand an algorithm (to understand how it works) impossible by a simple blow of eye. However, this is not because many people who try to create such applications that we are found our happiness. A good number of them are really very interesting and excellent from a pedagogical point of view, but none is sufficiently complete to can served as teaching tools. And yet such a program would be very useful for the students having difficulties to assimilate precise algorithms, but also for the professors who could use it and improve their courses while making use of it in real time like support.

Our program is thus part of this lineage, and allows you to assist the understanding of algorithms. The user would have two information to enter: the data structure to view, and the algorithm to be used. The objective of our paper is to discuss a number of important issues for the design of Vizualisation tool and to contribute to improve the training of the algorithmic filed.

Motivation

The main objective is the construction of educational softwares adapted to learning. First and foremost, it is essential to have in mind that our application is designed for two very specific public: on the one side the lectures, who will use it as a teaching tool, and another side the students, for learning purposes. Perhaps, animating algorithms , on a screen, is very useful to check our self that what we want is indeed what we wrote! Quite often, by doing this, we discover that our algorithm is not accurate enough.

Animation is a complement of analysis, it is very interesting for students in "auto-formation" and in its understanding of the problem and the development of their algorithmic solution, on the one hand and on the other hand, management of synchronization and visualization of the algorithms,

Technical challenge

The definition of a high level, simple programming language which would make it possible to the users to write their own algorithms and to test the classical ones. Once an algorithm is ready, it can be run in many modes like step-by-step or breakpoint mode, so that the user has control over what he has to see, so that he understands it better.

Data structures managements

The animation of programs through the use of real-time graphic displays will depend on the model's execution of the algorithm which will be chosen by the user. Currently, our software treats all kind of binary trees. In the long term we hope to treat the graphs and finite-state machines.

Compilation

A compiler is a computer program that transforms source code written in (the source language) into another computer language (the target). The preset algorithms as those of the user must be written in an easily comprehensible language as well by a student as by a professor. A source text is known as syntactically correct if there exists a succession of derivations making it possible to build it starting from the axiom of a formal grammar. This sequence of derivations is a description of the text, called: syntactic tree. To avoid expense, we use a synthetic representation (of this syntactic tree) which contens only useful informations. This representation is an abstraction of the syntatic one: it is called abstract tree. This tree is used as support with the semantics analyzer, which visits the part Instructions (rules of derivations) to check of it semantics and also to generate the code targets corresponding. The Declarations part is useful to produce the mechanism of identification. In a compiler, it is a table of the symbols which must be built in complement of the abstracted tree, to memorize the information attached to the declarations of a program. Also, a new high level algorithmic language will have to be developed. Thus, during the execution of our various algorithms, our compiler must be able to detect any lexical, syntactic or semantic error and to announce it to the user. A successful compilation means that the algorithm was indeed translated into a programming language

Design of Interface : multiview editing

The principal window must give us a sight (called the scene) on the chart of the data structure and another sight (zone of text) on the algorithm to be carried out. This simultaneous posting will make it possible to follow the graphic evolution of the algorithm carried out, which is essential on pedagogical point of view. and is more efficient that the classical approach to debugging, (which consistes to go through a program line by line and trace it, by watching every line, and the changes it makes in a window containing information about the contents of each variable or data-structure). This graphic interface would be complete with a menu for a better navigation in the various features of our application, and the tools facilitating the drafting and the excution of algorithms.

Visualisation and synchronisation

For visualization we chose a management by frame. A frame is an object containing: a number of steps, the line to be highlighted, the list of the nodes roots, and the node currently selected. The recovery of the data we chose to use a pattern: Observer/Observable. We worked over again the compiler so that this one not provides us only an evaluation function for the whole program but an evaluation function related to each instruction. We thus obtained an evaluation function of the condition if..then...else, the evaluation of an assignment, etc Thanks to this process, let us succeeded in recovering the data at the convenient period, inserting them in the frames and terminate the visualization and synchronization. The interface is a very important element, especially, as in our case, for a software which people will choose to use (it is not imposed), and which must thus allure its users. We especially wanted to give it an appearance closer to that of the applications of the operating system, and adapted according to the platform: Linux (Gnome), Windows That very allows the user to quickly find his brands. An important part of work on accessibility is the translation of the application in several languages. It is indeed an improvement which will touch a large audience. If the application is not represented in the language of the user, then it will not be used in most case. Documentation must be clear, simply, accessible, fast and to contain examples and assistances for the initial users, we have thus to create a documentation online.

Conclusion and Perspectives

Software visualization is animated 2-D or 3-D visual representation of information about software systems based on their structure or behavior. But it is not because many people test themselves has to create such applications that one finds our happiness. A good amount of between them are really very interesting and excellent from a teaching point of view, but none is sufficiently complete at the pedagagical point of view. The creation of the language jAlgo was a scientific experiment and technological enriching. We thus propose a language jAlgo able to manage the recursivity, the algorithmic loops, conditions and other structures all via the call of functions. we did not implement the whole of the options and taken into account all the extensions of the software Nevertheless, the primary education and paramount objectives were reached we present the limits which we find with the product and the possible extensions of this last. We will like to be able to implement an evolutionary interface which would allow the user to visualize for each node, the affected values. With our taste the instructions suggested were not representative of all the situations with the which future users will have to cope. We would to have additional tools to traverse the binary trees with the algorithms assistance.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Global view of the architecture approach


J Delahaye
email: julien.delahaye@grenoble.cnrs.fr

T Grenet

Metallicity of the SrT iO 3 surface induced by room temperature evaporation of alumina

Keywords: numbers: 72, 20, -i 71, 30, +h

It is shown that a metallic state can be induced on the surface of SrT iO 3 crystals by the electron beam evaporation of oxygen deficient alumina or insulating granular aluminium. No special preparation nor heating of the SrT iO 3 surface is needed. Final metallic or insulating states can be obtained depending on the oxygen pressure during the evaporation process. Photoconductivity and electrical field effect are also demonstrated.

Introduction

SrT iO 3 crystals are insulators with a band gap of 3.2eV . The ability to change them into metals is a crucial issue towards future electronic applications. Different techniques have been used through the last 50 years, such as classical doping techniques [1,2], heating to high temperature in vacuum [1,2] or ion-bombardment of the surface [3,4]. In these last two cases, oxygen vacancies are introduced in the crystals and release electrons for the conduction.

But the most spectacular results were observed in LaAlO 3 /SrT iO 3 heterostructures grown by pulsed laser deposition (PLD) at high temperature (typically 800 • C) [5,6,7]. Under specific growth conditions, a high mobility electron gas confined to the interface was found on (100) oriented and T iO 2 terminated SrT iO 3 surface [6,7,8]. The respective roles of oxygen vacancies [9,10,11], ionic interdiffusion [12,13] and electronic reconstruction [5,6] in the formation of this electron gas are not yet fully clarified. Here, we demonstrate that a metallic layer can be induced at room temperature on the SrT iO 3 surface by using classical electron beam evaporation techniques. After a description of our experimental results, we discuss the possible origin of this metallic state.

Experimental

We used SrT iO 3 crystals from Neyco, one side polished, (100) oriented and 0.5mm thick. The polished surface was simply cleaned by successive ultrasonic bath in trichlorethylene, acetone and alcohol before being mounted in the electron beam evaporator. 20nm thick Al contacts are evaporated first. Then, about 5nm of alumina or insulating granular Al are deposited between the contacts, which are partly protected by a mechanical mask. The alumina layer is obtained from the evaporation of Al 2 O 3 crystallites at 0.5A/s with or without O 2 pressure (base pressure of the evaporator ≃ 10 -6 mbar). The insulating granular Al layer is made by the evaporation of pure Al at 1.8 Å/s under an O 2 pressure around 2×10 -5 mbar (see [14] and the discussion below). Finally, this ≃ 5nm thick layer is covered by a protective layer of alumina 95nm thick and evaporated at an O 2 pressure of 2 × 10 -4 mbar. For the insulating samples, the resistances were measured with a two contacts configuration. For the metallic samples, two or four contacts configurations were used and gave similar results [15]. The currentvoltage curves were all linear at low voltages .

Results and discussion

Samples electrical properties

Typical results for the sheet resistances R s at room T are reported in Table 1. It is seen that the resistance strongly depends on the oxygen pressure during deposition and that resistances as low as a few tens of kΩ can be obtained. Samples 1 and 5 are indeed metallic, as highlighted by the R -T curve of sample 1 plotted in Fig. 1 Table 1. R s values obtained at 300K for different evaporated materials and O 2 pressures during the evaporation. The "light" value was measured under an indirect daylight. The "dark" value was measured 20000s after a stay in a closed metallic box. Sample Evap. mat. O 2 pressure R s "light" R s "dark"

1 Al 2 O 3 < 3 × 10 -6 20kΩ 22kΩ 2 Al 2 O 3 1 × 10 -5 30M Ω 150M Ω 3 Al 2 O 3 4 × 10 -5 80M Ω 1.5GΩ 4 Al 2 O 3 2 × 10 -4 800M Ω 40GΩ 5 Al 3 × 10 -5 10kΩ
(resistance ratio R 300K /R 4K is about 10). For the sample 1, Hall effect measurement at 300K gives a negative sheet charge carrier density of ≃ 5 × 10 13 cm -2 and a mobility of ≃ 6cm 2 V -1 s -1 [15]. All the other films are insulating, and their resistances were not measurable at 4K (larger than 10 12 Ω). Moreover, they display a large and slow photoconductivity effect. For the metallic ones, the "light" contribution represents only a small fraction of the resistance, typically 10%. A similar photoconductivity attributed to photocarrier injection was also reported in SrT iO 3 /LaAlO 3 heterostructures made by PLD [7,16,17]. We have tested the influence of a gate voltage V g on the resistance of the samples. The backside of the SrT iO 3 substrate was covered with silver paint and used as the gate, the bulk of the SrT iO 3 crystal being the gate insulator. Due to its large dielectric constant at low T (up to 20000 at 4K [18]), sheet charge carrier densities as high as 7 × 10 12 cm -2 can be induced by a V g value of 30V . Typical result for the metallic sample 1 is shown at 4K in Fig. 2. A clear modulation of the resistance is visible, with a small memory effect when the gate voltage is switched back to 0V . At room T , the relative resistance modulation is smaller and very slow. For the insulating samples, no measurable resistance can be induced at low T by a V g value of 30V whereas a large but slow relative modulation of the resistance is observed at room T .

Figure 2. g modulation of R s for sample 1 at 4.2K. The source-drain voltage was kept smaller than 100mV and V g was successively and repeatedly fixed to 30V , 0V , -30V and 0V .

What is metallic?

The first question which arises is: what is metallic in samples 1 and 5? Is it the SrT iO 3 substrate or the material deposited on top? Sample 1 was obtained from the evaporation of an insulating material, alumina. Even if the alumina layer deposited on the SrT iO 3 substrate is most probably oxygen deficient (see below), it is still insulating. This was confirmed by evaporating alumina with the same parameters as for sample 1 but on a glass substrate: no resistance was measurable at room T (R s > 10 12 Ω). For sample 5, the response is less trivial since the granular Al layer is obtained from the evaporation of a metal, Al, in the presence of oxygen. We know from our previous studies on sapphire or SiO 2 substrates that above and close to an O 2 pressure of ≃ 1.5 × 10 -5 mbar, the deposited films are insulating and made of nanometric Al grains separated by amorphous alumina regions, a material called granular Al [14,19]. Films 20nm thick evaporated on SiO 2 substrates with the same parameters as sample 5 have R s value of ≃ 100M Ω at room T . Even more informative was the direct comparison between two granular Al layers evaporated with the same parameters but on SrT iO 3 and SiO 2 substrates. The conductance displayed in Fig. 3 was measured in-situ between two metallic contacts during the evaporation process. A striking difference is seen: on SrT iO 3 , the conductance sharply increases during the first 2 -3nm of deposition (amounting to 10 -4 Ω -1 at 2nm) while on SiO 2 the conductance remains much smaller. This increase comes from the presence of the SrT iO 3 substrate becoming conducting upon deposition of granular Al. It appears from Fig. 3 that the SrT iO 3 contribution to the conductance is almost complete after the deposition of 3nm, which justifies our choice of 5nm for the thickness of the alumina or granular Al layers. The increase of the conductance seen beyond ≃ 4nm is similar for both substrates and reflects the granular Al contribution (this contribution is significant here due to an O 2 pressure smaller than for sample 5).

Role of the oxygen pressure and origin of the metallicity

The next question we have to answer is: why the SrT iO 3 surface becomes metallic? It clearly appears from Table 1 that the O 2 pressure plays a role in the resistance of the samples. Looking at the alumina samples, the resistance increases from 20kΩ to 30M Ω when the O 2 pressure is changed from < 3 × 10 -6 mbar to 1 × 10 -5 mbar. But when evaporating from a pure Al source, a metallic state is obtained even with an O 2 pressure as high as 3 × 10 -5 mbar (sample 5), which suggests that it is not the O 2 pressure but indeed the Al/O ratio that matters. Al is known to react strongly with oxygen, the Al 2 O 3 phase being the stable final state. A possible explanation to our experimental results is that during the deposition of an alumina layer at low O 2 pressure, part of the missing oxygen is "pumped" from the SrT iO 3 substrate. Oxygen vacancies are indeed known to release electrons [1], in agreement with the sign of the Hall effect measurements on sample 1. This pumping oxygen scenario was strengthened by two more results. First, the highest breakdown voltages of 100nm thick alumina layers evaporated on sapphire were obtained for an O 2 pressure above 1 × 10 -4 mbar. This suggests that the alumina layers of samples 1 to 3 are indeed oxygen deficient, whereas that of sample 4 is close to stoichiometric conditions (this is why the parameters of sample 4 were chosen for the evaporation of the 95nm alumina protective layer). Second, in one sample made under similar conditions to sample 1, the Al 2 O 3 evaporation rate was stopped during 10s after the deposition of 1nm of alumina. Instead of being metallic, this sample was strongly insulating, with a R s value similar to that of the sample 4. During 10s, the missing oxygen was probably provided by the residual O 2 pressure of the chamber and not by SrT iO 3 substrate.

Possible mechanism for the oxygen transfer

It is known that oxygen vacancies are introduced in the bulk of SrT iO 3 crystals during an annealing in a reducing atmosphere (≃ 900 • C and above) [1] and during the epitaxial growth of oxides at high temperature by PLD or molecular beam epitaxy under a low oxygen pressure [21,22,20,23]. In this last case, an oxygen transfer occurs from the SrT iO 3 substrate to its oxide overlayer, a mechanism called "autofeeding epitaxy". But out-diffusion of oxygen at room temperature has been much rarely reported. Metal oxidation and corresponding SrT iO 3 reduction was indeed observed at room temperature when reactive metals are deposited on top of SrT iO 3 surfaces under ultra high vacuum [24,25], the results being strongly dependent on the metal element [26]. The heat of formation of the corresponding metal oxide determines if the metal oxidation is energetically favorable and the metal work function influences the onset temperature of metal oxidation. The role of the metal work function was attributed to the existence of local electric fields at the metal-SrT iO 3 interface that favor or prevent the out-diffusion of the negatively charged oxygen ions. Metal oxidation was indeed observed under ultra high vacuum and at room temperature for Al [25], Y , T i and Ba [24], metals which combine large oxide heat of formations and low metal work functions [26,[START_REF]The heat of formation of Al 2 O 3 is 520kJ/mol O and the work function of Al is about 4.2eV . It was found that a simple thermodynamic criteria for metal oxidation on SrT iO 3 surfaces is a heat of formation (absolute value) larger than 250[END_REF]. For Y , T i and Ba, the metal oxidation was found to be diffusion limited, with a gradual decrease of the oxygen content in the first nanometers of the metal overlayer [24]. We believe that the metallic state observed when an insulating granular Al is evaporated (sample 5) is due to the same oxygen transfer mechanism. The difference with the metal oxidation discussed in Ref. [24,25] is that in our case oxygen from the substrate competes with the gaseous oxygen in the evaporation chamber. The conductance measurement of Fig. 3 indicates that the SrT iO 3 reduction saturates after the deposition of 2-3nm of granular Al, which can be explained by the limited diffusion of oxygen in the granular Al overlayer. When alumina is evaporated (samples 1 to 4), Al grains probably never form. But as long as the alumina layer is oxygen deficient, a similar (but weaker) reduction of the SrT iO 3 substrate certainly occurs. Structural and chemical investigations are now needed in order to precise the nature of the insulating overlayers and the oxygen vacancies distribution in the SrT iO 3 substrate when the evaporation is completed. Whether energetic species or X-rays generated by the e-beam gun play a role in the formation of the oxygen vacancies, like in ion-milling [4] or PLD [20] experiments, has also to be determined. Interestingly enough, a metallic state was recently found when amorphous LaAlO 3 , SrT iO 3 and yttria-stabilized zirconia films are deposited by PLD at room T and under a low oxygen pressure (< 10 -2 mbar) on SrT iO 3 substrates [START_REF] Chen | [END_REF]. This metallic state was also attributed to the presence of oxygen vacancies at the SrT iO 3 /oxide interface coming from the reduction of the SrT iO 3 substrate by the reactive species of the plasma.

Comparison with other results

The room T electronic properties of sample 1 (R s values, charge carrier density, mobility) are similar to those observed on low charge carrier density LaAlO 3 /SrT iO 3 heterostructures, when the metallic layer was found to be confined close to the interface [6,7]. The differences in the conditions of obtention of the metallic surface between the two systems are however important. First, we don't heat the SrT iO 3 substrate whereas a T as high as 800 • C is usually used in PLD experiments during the growth of the LaAlO 3 film. Second, no specific preparation of the surface is needed in our case whereas a T iO 2 termination was found to be crucial in LaAlO 3 /SrT iO 3 heterostructures. Last, according to the low T of the substrate during the evaporation, our alumina layer is expected to be amorphous and not crystalline [29]. Future structural and physical investigations should clarify the similarities and the differences between the two systems.

Ref. [START_REF] Chen | [END_REF] has recently demonstrated that a metallic interface can be obtained by the PLD of an amorphous oxide layer at room T. Our results suggest that the use of the PLD technique and a specific surface preparation of the SrT iO 3 are even not necessary.

Other results should also be reconsidered in light of our findings. A large but finite resistance was observed in MOSFET devices made by the sputtering of an alumina layer on top of a SrT iO 3 surface [30]. It may come from the fact that the deposited alumina layer was slightly oxygen deficient. Similarly, Al is known to make good electrical contacts on the SrT iO 3 surface, which may be explained by the existence of a metallic layer below the contacts.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we have demonstrated that a metallic state can be induced on the SrT iO 3 surface by the electron beam evaporation of oxygen deficient alumina or insulating granular aluminium. The resistance of the sample depends on the Al/O ratio during the evaporation process. No heating of the substrate was needed which suggests that the metallic state remains confined close to the surface. Oxygen vacancies seem to be at the origin of this metallicity, which calls for more detailed structural and chemical investigations of the SrT iO 3 substrate and its insulating overlayer. We hope that our results and the simplicity of the technique used will stimulate new fundamental and applied research on the electronic properties of the SrT iO 3 surface.

This work was financially supported by the Région Rhône-Alpes (CIBLE 2010 program) and the Université Joseph Fourier (SMINGUE 2010 program). Discussions with T. Lopez-Rios are gratefully acknowledged.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Temperature dependence of the sheet resistance R s for sample 1.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Sheet conductance G s measured in-situ during the deposition of a granular Al layer on SrT iO 3 (squares) and SiO 2 (circles) substrates. The Al rate is 1.8 Å/s and the O 2 pressure 1.8 × 10 -5 mbar for both substrates.


Bertrand Pauget
email: bertrandpauget@ebs-paris.com

Mathieu Cabrol

THE ROLE OF RELATIONAL COMPETENCE IN THE HEALTHCARE SECTOR

Keywords: Entrepreneur, relational processes, relational competence, hospital, healthcare system

The role of entrepreneurs is highly regarded in our societies. It is widely recognized that their roles are not limited to the private sector, but can affect all sectors of the economy. In view of this, we focus on entrepreneurs acting in the healthcare sector. We concentrate more particularly on these entrepreneurs' specific competences. We propose to conceptualise the concept of relational competence, defined as the act of building and structuring relationships in order to adapt and innovate in a given environment. The aim of this exploratory study is to better understand why this type of competence is expected on the construction site of a new hospital in France.

INTRODUCTION

Entrepreneurship is no longer limited to the sphere of private enterprise. There are not, on the one hand, private sector entrepreneurs, and, on the other, public sector entrepreneurs [START_REF]Literature review on Social Entrepreneurship[END_REF], as shown by the emergence of a vast body of literature on social entrepreneurship [START_REF] Wallace | Social entrepreneurship: The role of social purpose enterprises in facilitating community economic development[END_REF]. Social entrepreneurship appears a specific form of entrepreneurship underpinned by a will to replace the welfare state [START_REF] Bayad | Démarche d'identification et évaluation : approche par les référentiels de compétence, 5 ème congrès international de l'académie de l'entreprenariat[END_REF]. However, social entrepreneurship leaves the question of public sector entrepreneurship and its specificities unresolved. What does it mean to act entrepreneurially when one works in a large public institution? This question is all the more relevant since the healthcare sector is highly regulated, and the place for entrepreneurship may seem limited, or even non-existent. This may explain the relative paucity of the literature on the topic.

Entrepreneurship is often considered as a career requiring specific competences. The role of the entrepreneur consists in the "capacity to anticipate changes in the environment in order to act proactively, a capacity for change, which is recognized as a key success factor" (Davidsson, 1989).

According to [START_REF] Chandler | The Founder's Self-assessed Competence and Venture Performance[END_REF], entrepreneurs can be described based on the three main competences they must possess (entrepreneurial, managerial, and technical-functional):

-the ability to detect and capture opportunities, -the ability to work and master specific tools, especially technological tools, -and the cognitive ability to coordinate the firm's interests and activities, implying the capacity to manage individuals and use a social network. For [START_REF] Laviolette | Les compétences entrepreneuriales : définition et construction d'un référentiel. 8 ème journée des CIFPME[END_REF], entrepreneurs' competences can be internal (strategic and managerial) as well as external (opportunism, ability to use the best technological tools -when they have not invented them). However, this set of skills is not totally adequate when considering entrepreneurs in the healthcare sector. Indeed, while the social and economic aspects seem to be inherent dimensions of all entrepreneurs' relationships (Johannisson & Monsted, 1997, Smida & Khelil, 2010), we believe that the nature of the relation in itself can be of interest. [START_REF] Ostgaard | Personal networks and firm competitive strategy -a strategic or coincidental match ?[END_REF], the entrepreneur's social network is his or her most important resource. We believe it is necessary to go a step further in this approach in the specific context of the healthcare sector. Jobs in healthcare are structured by relations between colleagues and/or patients [START_REF] Demailly | Politiques de la relation : approche sociologique des métiers et des activités professionnelles et relationnelles[END_REF]. Consequently, the distinctive characteristic of healthcare entrepreneurship seems to be its relational dimension, but not only in terms of developing social networks.

With this in mind, we focus more specifically on the entrepreneur's role, and in particular his or her capacity to mobilise relationships. Our premise is that there is such a thing as relational competence, and putting it to good use may partly explain the success or failure of entrepreneurial events in the healthcare sector. We first propose to operationalise a relational competence analysis framework before contributing our early observations of a unique case requiring the deployment of such competences: the building of a new hospital.

LITERATURE REVIEW

We will first present the traditional competences required of "relational entrepreneurs", and specifically the ability to use and develop a social network. Then, after defining what we mean by relational competence, we will explain why this construct can help overcome the limitations of the social network approach.

Why relational competence is more than the capacity to develop social networks: contributions and specificities of relational competence

The importance of social networks in entrepreneurship literature Initiating and developing entrepreneurial activities is a highly resource-consuming process. In this light, social networks are often viewed as a way to make up for the lack of resources and access specific assets required by organisations [START_REF] Vesper | New venture strategies[END_REF]. It is also widely admitted that the necessary information to start a new venture is often accessed through a network of friends and acquaintances (Johannisson, 1987). For all these reasons, the notion of network defined by [START_REF] Dubini | Personal and extended networks are central to the entrepreneurial process[END_REF] as "patterned relationships between individuals, groups, and organisations", is prevalent in the research on entrepreneurial processes. The entrepreneur's personal network is important throughout the entrepreneurial process: from the entrepreneurial idea to its transformation into a project, within a new or existing organisation. Consequently, some authors consider networks to be the reason why some individuals start new ventures, while others do not [START_REF] Aldrich | Entrepreneurship through social networks[END_REF]Johannisson, 1987). Personal networks relate to the personal ties formed by entrepreneurs, which often combine social and business aspects (Johannisson, 1996). This relational perspective of entrepreneurship implies the uniqueness of the set of relationships thus formed, since two persons engaging in a mutually committing relationship bring their own specific history and expectations (Monsted & Johannisson, 1997). The entrepreneur's personal network may thus evolve into a structured set of strong and weak ties, which then become structured between the entrepreneur and his or her network. Entrepreneurs, through interactions with their network, will develop a specific competence towards the activation and reinforcement of the network ties, that is to say the capacity to develop and maintain relationships in their personal environment. Entrepreneurs can thus develop a form of relational competence within the emergent or existing organisation.

The transformation of personal networks into organisational multi-viewpoint networks

For Johannisson et al. (1994), the separation between interpersonal and inter-organisational exchanges is no longer relevant in entrepreneurship research. In many ways, the entrepreneur is the firm, which means that, in practice, he or she must personally integrate the various economic and social dimensions of the network. Accordingly, entrepreneurship research on entrepreneurs' personal networks generally combines the study of both informal and formal ties between individuals as well as ties between individuals and organisations in their environment. The network approach to entrepreneurship highlights how entrepreneurs are 'embedded' in social contexts, which can be sources of inhibition, guidance, or support, depending on their position in the social networks concerned [START_REF] Aldrich | Entrepreneurship through social networks[END_REF][START_REF] Granovetter | Economic institutions as social constructions: a framework for analysis[END_REF]. Networking is not the sole doing of the entrepreneurial individual, it can also stem from the members of the organisation. For [START_REF] Dubini | Personal and extended networks are central to the entrepreneurial process[END_REF], seizing opportunities is not solely down to the entrepreneur, since the firm as a whole can develop an awareness of its environment, thus allowing for a better monitoring of its territory. In the early stages of entrepreneurial activity, there is consequently no need to distinguish between personal and inter-organisational networks, as they merge and enrich one another. In short, "an entrepreneur's social capital is the added value provided by his/her social network, or in other words, the set of all the ties, strong and/or weak in the sense of Granovetter, established with his/her environment" [START_REF] Paturel | Du capital social au management relationnel[END_REF]. The concept of social network [START_REF] Lazega | Réseaux et sociologie des organisations[END_REF] highlights the capacity of actors to use these relationships. Networks are characterised by intensity [START_REF] Lemieux | Les réseaux d'acteurs sociaux[END_REF], and direction [START_REF] Coleman | Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital[END_REF]). However, few works have addressed the contents of the relationship. We therefore intend to explore this aspect in order to better understand how the ability to utilise relationships (and more specifically their contents) can affect the organisation and the entrepreneur.

Early difficulties in operationalising relational competence: a definitional issue

The notion of relationship can sometimes be regarded as something too obvious, so much so that [START_REF] Clarkson | A Stakeholder Framework for Analyzing and Evaluating Corporate Social Performance[END_REF] states "It is the first condition of being human. It is so obvious that it is frequently taken for granted, and so mysterious that many… have made it a focal point of a lifetime's preoccupying passion". Nevertheless, more often than not, the focus is on the processes surrounding relationships, rather than the relationships themselves or how actors use them. Thus, while the field of strategy refers to concepts of coordination and cooperation within the network, anthropology uses the concept of ethos, and sociology that of experience, norms and deviances, or even social ties.

Definition of relational competence

The term of relational competence has already been used in the literature [START_REF] Persais | Les compétences relationnelles peuvent-elles s'avérer stratégiques ?[END_REF]. One stream of research focuses more particularly on key actors' strategies to sustain and develop these relational competences that constitute competitive advantages for the organisation [START_REF] Froehlicher | La compétence relationnelle[END_REF]. Several subsets of competences are identified, such as the relations with the environment in the broadest sense (including end consumers -Abecassis-Moedas & Benghosi, 2004), as used by strategic actors in order to increase the organisation's performance. Organisations can also utilise relational competence to increase their selling capabilities [START_REF] Geiger | The Perceived Impact of Information Technology on Salespeople's Relational Competencies[END_REF]; Gardès & Maque, 2009). However, this perspective seems to underestimate the relational game in which actors are involved, as well as the variety of actions that entrepreneurs can initiate [START_REF] Combes | La compétence relationnelle: Une question d'organisation[END_REF] in the process of starting a new venture or project. During these phases of the organisation's life cycle, the competence to use and reinforce social interactions can be crucial [START_REF] Grenier | Les défaillances et les recompositions professionnelles et relationnelles induites par la création de réseaux de santé[END_REF]. Relational competence results from the combination of two terms. Competence is generally regarded as a combination of knowledge, know-how and interpersonal skills (Le Boterf, 1994, p. 175; Tremblay & Sire, 1999). We prefer to view competence as the "capacity to solve a given problem in a given context" (Michel & [START_REF] Ledru | Capital Compétence dans l'Entreprise. Une approche cognitive[END_REF]. The notion of relationship is understood in its usual sense, as "an emotional or other connection between people" (Random House Dictionary). For Hatchuel et al. (2000 : 33), the notion of relationship is a form of "knowledge about what connects people, and a condition bearing on every individual's knowledge", it contributes to the creation and maintenance of relational systems between actors, and gives coherence and meaning to the fact of acting together in the organisation.

The "strategic-actor perspective" [START_REF] Sainsaulieu | Méthode pour une sociologie de l'entreprise[END_REF] focuses on what strategic resources can be mobilised by actors in an organisation. This approach has been acknowledged in Management Science by [START_REF] Rouleau | Représentations et compétences sociales au coeur de l'activité stratégique. 7 ème Conférence de l'AIMS[END_REF] for whom "the strategic actor of the 1990s can be occasional, emergent, constrained, threatened. He may also be an interface actor, or a controlling authority, depending on the position held in the global economy's characteristic structural mutations". There are social competences capable of going beyond these networks; they require entrepreneurs to know and understand the relational rules, that is to say where exactly to position themselves between actors. For Segal ( 2005) "If we perceive 'interpersonal skills' as a particular form of qualification, it is easier to visualize from what social construction process they originate".

By combining the insights of these two terms, we define relational competence as the use of a capacity in order to build and structure a relationship so as to adapt (and innovate) with regard to others. We thus concur with the definitions of [START_REF] Munier | Firm size technological intensity of sector and relational competencies to innovate: evidence from French industrial innovating firms[END_REF] and Kokou-Dokou & Gourdont-Cabaret (2006) who note that "relational competences relate to takeoverentrepreneurs' ability to commit to certain key functions of the firm and construct information and/or collaborative links with the current employees, external partners, and support structures throughout the three main stages of the project: before, during and after the takeover. This ability is what gives entrepreneurs real entrepreneurial skills". It really is the takeoverentrepreneur's ability to construct links and develop relations that enables him or her to succeed in the entrepreneurial activity.

Operationalisation and analysis framework

By summarizing the approaches described above and based on the works of Orlikowski (2002: 257), we consider that relational competence is the competence to build, structure and adapt one's relationships with others.

-Relationship-building: individuals possess knowledge-based competences resulting from their practice of building interpersonal relationships. This part is consistent what has been written in the literature on social networks: all entrepreneurs create relationships but what makes them different is their ability to structure and nurture them.

-Structuring: the ability to structure a relationship is a two-way phenomenon. On the one hand, it refers to the competence to socialize various actors' to a vision of what the relation should be (Dubet, 2002). On the other hand, it refers to the main actor's ability to institutionalise this vision of the relation through the establishment of organisational rules and norms [START_REF] Alter | L'innovation ordinaire[END_REF], in order to diffuse it throughout the organisation and maintain it in the long term. Once crystallized, the relationship thus established enables actors to identify with the organisation.

-Adapting: relations are always embedded in a specific context [START_REF] Milburn | La médiation : expérience et compétence[END_REF]. Each protagonist must know his or her particular role. Entrepreneurs who understand the ins and outs of relational alingment can determine the scope of their intervention: they know how to adapt to other actors and so to the environment. Relational competence therefore relates to the way in which actors, through their interactions, can build, structure and modify relationships. It is the combination of these three factors that we will examine as they determine the success or failure of healthcare entrepreneurs.

METHOD AND EPISTEMOLOGY

Our method first consisted in locating informants, in the anthropological sense [START_REF] Laplantine | L'anthropologie[END_REF][START_REF] Kilani | Les compétences relationnelles comme source de la réussite de la reprise des PME[END_REF], that is to say people who could give us access to the entrepreneurial logic of the project and the relational competences required of the various actors. The researchers involved in the project follow the principles of participatory action-research [START_REF] Lewin | Frontiers in Group Dynamics[END_REF]. The research project all started in the context of another intervention in the same hospital, when one of the researchers met the vice director in charge of the project. This person constitutes an informant in the ethnographical sense: he provides contacts and explains the way in which the hospital and the project operate. We are currently collecting data (January 2011) in order to understand the relational issues underpinning the project. This is the prerequisite before conducting one-hour qualitative interviews in the spring with the main actors who possess such relational competences and/or are likely to explain them.

The researchers are working in the context of a one-year (renewable) partnership with the hospital. This research lies within the framework of a more general audit on relational practices in the new hospital (influence of networks, knowledge produced, actor strategies).

PRESENTATION OF THE RESEARCH CASE AND RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES: CAN RELATIONAL COMPETENCE BE APPLIED TO THE HEALTHCARE SECTOR?

Our research concerns a unique case, that of a French hospital. In 2009 the construction of new premises began. By 2015 the future hospital will accommodate all the health services that are today provided by two distinct hospitals over six different sites. The hospital is located in a city of 300,000 inhabitants. With the influx of new inhabitants due to its proximity to Paris and the ageing population, demand for healthcare over the next quarter of a century should increase by more than 30 percent. Contrary to the rest of France, this demand does not only concern gerontology, but also obstetric-gynaecology and surgery among other services. The new hospital will be spread over 205,000m2 with over 1100 beds and 3900 staff. It has been certified as a High Environmental Quality building (Haute Qualité Environmentale -HQE). In concrete terms, during construction the hospital is committed to limiting its environmental impact (limiting noise pollution, installing a waste recycling centre, producing its own concrete on site in order to reduce pointless transport of materials, etc.). In fine, this certification guarantees that the new buildings will be more economical in terms of energy consumption. The directors have made the conscious and explicit choice of creating a new architectural design that does not currently exist in France. The most recently built large hospitals date back to the 1970s. The design decisions at the time were not concerned with ecological considerations but with how to treat the largest number of patients under the same roof in order to rationalize the buildings (for example the Mondor hospital on the outskirts of Paris is emblematic of this period). The creation of this construction site has forced the hospital to formalize sooner than expected the establishment's medical development plan. The creation of new premises made it necessary to rethink the hitherto organisation of space as well as organisational and functional priorities: which services should be privileged? Following what principles?

As a whole, this case can be considered entrepreneurial. Indeed, the construction site is managed following a project-based approach, with a dedicated and multi-skilled team, working jointly at the development of a new activity and the construction of the new hospital. The reorganisation of the buildings, the rethinking of the hospital's medical development plan and the integration of new actors (construction engineers, city hall, etc.) are all undertaken conjointly.

The decision-making teams have benefited from a great freedom to act and make entrepreneurial decisions. There was a will on behalf of the hospital to innovate regarding the rethinking of services and of the links between them by creating new functions dedicated to the construction of the new building. The new hospital is currently under construction. The first bricks were laid mid-2010. At the time of writing, the first phase of construction is underway. The entrepreneurial project is evolving with the ups and downs of the construction, with more than 1,000 people working simultaneously on the site. This is the beginning of a five-year project. The simultaneous presence of extremely different professions to those involved in healthcare has caused several relational problems when trying to understand one another, trying to speak the same language as it were. This constitutes an initial requirement for competences in order to understand one another and cooperate. This is the first relational competence that must be operationalised. Beyond the construction aspect of the case, which may well modify our findings, it seems that there really is a relational competence that is specific to the medical sector. Indeed, as is underlined in much of the literature [START_REF] Demailly | Politiques de la relation : approche sociologique des métiers et des activités professionnelles et relationnelles[END_REF], the healthcare sector is very much centred on relational practices: the core activity of healthcare professions consists in dealing with people. Furthermore, socio-cultural patterns have led to a strategic construction of relations in this sector. There is a strategic challenge in how relations are established in the sense of [START_REF] Crozier | Continued entrepreneurship and small firm growth[END_REF], which determines the orientation given to relational competence.

So far, two entrepreneurial figures have been identified. One is the former director of the hospital who retired at the beginning of 2010. He was the instigator of the new hospital. The other is the vice director in charge of the project: his role must combine both the hospital organisational logic and the management of the construction site, and as a result, he has played an important role in the decision to embark on the high environmental quality certification process.

We are currently collecting data. It appears that the "relationship-building" competence has quickly given way to the "structuring" competence. This structuring dimension seems to go beyond the traditional process in which the social network is first constructed and then institutionalised. On the contrary, from what we have been able to observe, the core of the relational competence in this particular case seems to be its capacity to structure.

Perhaps we can see in this the will to create new types of relationships. Kervadoué (2003) stated that the healthcare sector was in crisis. Our work rather suggests that there is a will to reinvent the professions and services in the healthcare sector, but that these innovations are not formally managed. The entrepreneurial approach may lead to a certain recognition for these initiatives, by using and developing relational competence as a means to achieve this aim. Is relational competence explicit? How do actors use it to create an entrepreneurial spirit in the healthcare sector?

CONCLUSION

This research paper proposes an analysis in its preliminary phase. However, we felt it important to lay the theoretical foundations of our project. Indeed, while the concept of relational competence is often used in the literature, there have been few attempts to define it.

Our research contribution was to give an overview of the situation before proposing an operational analysis framework, with a view to addressing the following research questions:

-How is relational competence linked to a project-oriented logic? -How is relational competence linked to hospitals? -How does it evolve over time? Indeed, we have noted that few articles propose longitudinal studies (Yin, 1994) on this subject. In addition, the idea of entrepreneurship in the healthcare sector is still relatively new in France.

As a conclusion we hope to further our research by examining the roles of key actors and the explicit competences deployed. This requires a longitudinal study in order to understand which actors decide to act entrepreneurially, during the various phases of the project.


Phd Pr Benoît Bérard

European rules, American lands

Introduction

The French American territories are essentially composed by: Martinique island, the Guadeloupean archipelago and the French Guyana 2 . France had colonized those lands in the 17 th century. Since that time they have been French colonies until 1946 when they became French Overseas Departments. Thus, they are supposed to be in the same legal situation than any other French metropolitan department. That includes the heritage protection legal frame.

In a certain way, as part of France, the French American departments can be considered as founding members of the European Community. Therefore, all the European conventions, including the Malta one, are applied by the way of their adaptation in the French law. The only specificity of the F.W.I. at the European level is to be part of the Outermost Regions.

The F.W.I. archaeological heritage can be roughly divided in two sets: the Amerindian sites, pre-and post-Columbian, and the colonial ones.

If, in French Guyana the Amerindian occupation starts around 7000 B.C., it only begins few centuries before Christ in Martinique and Guadeloupe 3 . Those indigenous occupations are essentially linked to sedentary, ceramic groups (Neolithic type). The colonial archaeology has for the moment essentially concern: military sites, the first colonial towns, churches, cemeteries and mostly colonial plantation with a specific focus since few years on slavery archaeology.

Very soon, the 10 th of October I believe, the Dutch West Indies of Bonaire, St. Eustatius and Saba (B.E.S.) will become direct part of Netherlands as special municipalities. By this way 1 EA 929 AIHP-GEODE, Université des Antilles et de la Guyane. 2 The French part of Saint Martin and Saint Barthelemy complete that list. 3 Earliest datations have been obtained in Saint Martin. they will integrate the European Community likely as Outermost Regions. Thus they will have to apply the European Malta convention about archaeological heritage protection.

Therefore, with an archaeological heritage roughly identical, they will be in the same situation than the F.W.I.. That is the reason of my presence in that session about the Netherlands Antilles archaeology, even if I don't speak Dutch or Papiamento. Professor Corinne Hofman, I want to thank her for is invitation, has considered that it might be relevant before those historical changes for the B.E.S. to take a look at the situation of the archaeological heritage protection in the F.W.I., to try to see how the people in Martinique, Guadeloupe and French Guyana have deal since now decades with rules decided thousands of kilometres away in Paris or Brussels, in places largely more economically developed and with a very different archaeological heritage. That is what I will try to do now.

About the French law

The French West Indies have, like other Antillean islands, a rich cultural heritage. Whatever the area: archaeology, architecture, industrial heritage, antiques and work of art, oral and written archives, intangible heritage the legal frame in force is exactly the same than in metropolitan France. However, the implementation of the regulation and of the institutions in charge of is application is fairly recent, their development started to be possible only after 1946 when the F.W.I. stopped to be French colonies to became officially French Overseas Departments.

All the French laws relating to cultural heritage are grouped in the Heritage Code that contains several topics such as archives, museums, archaeology and historic monuments. Some articles refer to the Penal Code, the Code of Urban Development, the Environmental Code or the Mining Code. These laws are supplemented by various decrees that define the applying conditions for different areas: preventive archaeology, INRAP 4 , advisory bodies, the content of the field reports, penal provisions, etc ... In France, the heritage laws have been created in 1913 (Historic Monuments) and 1941 (archaeology). The law on preventive archaeology is only since 2001 and is an application of the European Convention of Malta (1992).

The main principles were established in France in 1941 and reflect the idea that the archaeological heritage is a common good, even if it is confronted with the notion of private property. Thus were established: the obligation to declare discovery, the prohibition to destroy the remains, the central role of the State which is the only one who can deliver permits for excavation and the principle of the findings property by the land owner.

State structures responsible for the management of archaeology in the regions are the Regional Archaeological Services, located in the Regional Cultural Affairs Direction.

What is the archaeological heritage management history in the F.W.I. ?

The first scientific descriptions and interpretations date from the nineteenth century and concern the pre-Columbian period. Thus in 1804, General Ernouf, commander of the Guadeloupe colony, mentions the presence of "human fossils" on the Morel beach at the Moule, then Louis Guesde collects, describes and draws number of stone axes found in The second way is to try to attract Caribbean archaeology specialists from other European or North American countries. That is not without difficulties linked to the language problem and to the differences existing between the various archaeological practice traditions. But, from the scientific point of view, this is definitively a good strategy. The important works realized by the Leiden University team in Guadeloupe or by Louis Allaire in Martinique are the perfect examples of the benefits that can be obtained by this way.

However, if the use of external researchers is scientifically essential, it cannot socially be a valid substitute to the presence of strong local actors for popular education and to increase the level of involvement of the population. Those two elements are essential to insure a long-term protection of the archaeological heritage and to answer to the major identity questions existing nowadays in the West Indian society. And, even at the scientific level that is crucial to maintain research continuity and define a real research politic.

Preventive archaeology

The major change in the F.W.I. archaeology during the last decade has been aside the programmed archaeology, the preventive archaeology development. Preventive archaeology include several components that must work together:

Upstream, the state services installed in the region must be informed of development projects potentially threatening the archaeological heritage. In cases where the Regional Archaeological Service believes that the archaeological heritage is threatened, it emits an order requiring to the developer an archaeological diagnosis operation to evaluate the site archaeological potential. If interesting archaeological remains are discovered, the Regional Archaeological Service may impose an archaeological excavation before the project. The Regional Archaeological Service monitors the realization of this archaeological operation.

Accredited bodies conducted the archaeological operations; in France most of them are specialized in this activity and are not directly linked with the academic research world. The most important is the National Institute of Preventive Archaeological Research, the others, currently more than sixty, are either local communities archaeological services or private companies. Diagnoses are funded by a national fund fed by a tax on the most important development projects. This national fund guaranty to the F.W.I. an operating reserve they would not have benefited if the funding has been exclusively local. Developers directly paid the excavations, except in some particular case (private houses, social housing projects).

Preventive archaeology in the F.W.I.

Gradually the preventive archaeology takes place in the F.W.I.. At first the development projects concern were few public projects conducted by actors sensitizes to such research.

Then around 2000-2001 held the first major operations: one on a housing project at Oriental Bay in St. Martin and the other on the Capesterre-Belle-Eau road deviation in Guadeloupe.

These two operations was a real scientific success, demonstrating that preventive archaeology can be a major contribution to Caribbean archaeology and confirming the Regional Archaeological Services in pursuing their action.

By 2001, the developments of the preventive archaeology in the two regions (Martinique and Guadeloupe) start to be lightly different: The Guadeloupean archaeological administration, better scientifically staffed and with a director who choose preventive archaeology as priority action, quickly put up a very effective referral system, which leads more and more requests for permits to the Regional Archaeological Service. The application process is also facilitated by the use of an operational GIS. For example, in Guadeloupe between 2005 and 2008, 100 ha/year of archaeological diagnoses and 1,5 ha/year of preventives archaeology excavations have been realized.

The National Institute for Preventive Archaeology Research staff who conducts those preventive archaeology operations has now a six people staff for the F.W.I. However, it's still not enough. The result is a fairly important delay imposed to the developers, sometimes more than one year before the realization of a diagnosis. This situation creates important relationship problems between the archaeology actors and the developers, more embarrassed by those delay than by the price of the excavation. The National Institute for Preventive Archaeology Research need frequently to call for reinforcements archaeologists from France to try to reduce this delay. Sadly, those archaeologists are again European archaeology specialist. If they have a high qualification level to do the fieldwork, that considerably limits their scientific contribution. Another negative point of this situation, is a difficulty to diffuse those researches results, the INRAP agents been too much monopolized by fieldwork. This problem is visible at the scientific publication level than at the level of the diffusion for local people. However, its can be considered as youth defects of a discipline still emerging in the F.W.I.. The analysis of the preventive archaeology scientific results in the F.W.I., show numerous positive aspects. The more important one is that the archaeological richness of the FW.I.

underground is highly more considerable that what have been supposed before: the rate of positive diagnosis is up to 70%. The preventive archaeology operations have permit to find original sites likes: archaic coastal sites, inland ceramic sites or pre-Columbian agricultural fields. The site findings multiplication is highly useful for all the settlement pattern studies.

On another hand, the great quantity of remains coming from preventive archaeology operation analysis support typological database creation. Colonial heritage also benefit of this process with important findings of slave villages and cemeteries largely understudied for the moment.

Conclusions and perspectives

After a delayed heritage management structures development in comparisons with France, nowadays the F.W.I. benefit more or less of the French national heritage protection system. This system is characterized by a strong State control of the archaeological heritage. This system has lot of advantages and ensures a fairly high level of preservation. However, is application in the F.W.I. knows a few difficulties. Indeed, the politics are decided at a national level essentially in relation with the French situation and are not always suitable with the F.W.I. specificity. For the future, the development of an Antillean centred reflection appears to be highly necessary. Another element is the poor level of interest of the French West Indian people for those questions of archaeological heritage preservation. This last point is with no doubt directly link to the first one. The lack of a locally decided politic largely contributes to this disinterestedness.

However, the situation will certainly change in the future. Indeed, the actual French politic is characterized by a progressive State disengagement, which transfer his responsibility to the local politic structures. If this transfer does not affect the quality of the protection (and the funding question is like often the crucial one), it can be an exciting challenge. It will need the development of a local reflection, which will necessarily more implicate the French West Indian population. Our capacity to realize this transfer in good condition is the great challenge for the next years in the field of cultural resource management in general and of archaeological heritage preservation specifically.

  Guadeloupe. These axes and a cast of a petroglyph are presented at the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1867. The real prehistoric researches in the F.W.I. are gradually developed between the 30's and the 60's by French and French West Indian archaeologists (RP Pinchon, Jacques. Petitjean Roget, Edgar Clerc) or North Americans ones (Bullen & Bullen, M. Mc Kusick, W. Hagg). The French West Indian researchers organized in Martinique in 1961 the first International Congress for the Lesser Antilles pre-Columbian Civilizations Study. Aside this gradual growing of the research activities, the administrative structures in charge of cultural and archaeological heritages management have been developed fairly late in the F.W.I.. For example, the services in charge of archaeology created in 1965 in France appear in the F.W.I. only in 1972 with the appointment of E. Clerc and M. Mattioni as Directeurs des Antiquités in Martinique and Guadeloupe.What is the situation in the F.W.I. since 1991?If the organization seems to be the same in the F.W.I. than in France, the archaeology is fairly less developed. It is essentially linked with two factors: the management structure late creation and the low number of researchers.Actors and programmed archaeologyAfter the Directeurs des Antiquités period, which had no operational capacities, the State sets up Archaeological Regional Services inMartinique (1991) andGuadeloupe (1992). Since 1993, real small teams of 4 to 5 state agents are in place in these two regions. However, until 2001, the other local actor activity remain very low: one archaeologist at the Regional Council of Guadeloupe, two Curators for the two museums, and only two associations are quite active:Ouacabou in Martinique and the Hope Estate Archaeological Association in St. Martin. The last actor is the Université des Antilles et de la Guyane, with, since 1997, the appointment of an assistant professor in Caribbean archaeology which became an associate professor position in 2006. Thus, the main activities of the Regional Archaeological Services are: first, to establish the archaeological map of the territories (in France the tool is national, this is a database coupled with a G.I.S. The number of registered sites is around 3000 in Guadeloupe and 1000 in Martinique), second to organize and control the preventive archaeology and third to invite external researchers to come operate programmed archaeology on the F.W.I.. Concerning that last point, two ways have been explored. The first is to activate national links and to invite French archaeologist to come to work. Sadly, Caribbean archaeology more or less does not exist in French universities and research institutions. Therefore, the French archaeologist who came to work in Martinique and Guadeloupe were essentially European archaeology specialists who have all to learn about the local context. Thus, this first strategy can be really efficient only if those researchers do not come for one shot but with a long-term investment project.