Ph.D Chloé Freydier
email: chloe.freydier@lpl-aix.fr

Mireille Bastien-Toniazzo
email: mireille.bastien@lpl-aix.fr

Guy Gineyt
email: ggineyt@ch-salon.fr

Divided attention in young drivers under the influence of alcohol

Keywords: alcohol, divided attention, driving experience, simulator, car following

Aim: The present research evaluates driving impairment linked to two crashes factors, divided attention task and alcohol, and determines whether it is higher for novice drivers than for experienced drivers. Method: Novice and experienced drivers participated in three experimental sessions in which blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) were 0.0 g/L, 0.2 g/L and 0.5 g/L. They performed a divided attention task with a main task of car-following task and an additional task of number parity identification. Driving performance, response time and accuracy on the additional task were measured. Results: ANOVA showed a driving impairment and a decrease in additional task performance from BAC of 0.5g/L, particularly for novice drivers. Indeed, the latter adopt more risky behaviour such as tailgating. In the divided attention task, driving impairment was found for all drivers and impairment on information processing accuracy was highlighted, notably in peripheral vision. Impact of research: The divided attention task used here provides a relevant method for identifying the effects of alcohol on cognitive functions and could be used in psychopharmacological research.

INTRODUCTION

Driving is a complex dynamic process control activity which requires accurate diagnosis of the situation and relevant decision making. Drivers have to select relevant information in traffic in order to anticipate and react effectively to sudden events. Many factors can influence driver behaviour and lead to crashes.

Among them, alcohol is recognized as one major factor of driving impairment and a linear relationship has been demonstrated between blood alcohol concentration (BAC) and crash risk, notably for young drivers [START_REF] Peck | The relationship between blood alcohol concentration (BAC), age, and crash risk[END_REF][START_REF] Zador | Alcohol related relative risk of driver fatalities and driving involvement in fatal crashes in relation to driver age and gender : an update using the 1996 data[END_REF]. Alcohol consumption impairs the skills necessary for safe driving (Moskowitz & Fiorentino, 2000) and disrupts information processing [START_REF] Harrison | Alcohol and distraction interact to impair driving performance[END_REF]Fillmore, Freydier, C., et al., Divided attention in young drivers under the influence of alcohol, Journal of Safety Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.jsr.2014.02.003 2003). Driving performance is traditionally evaluated by measuring the standard deviation of lateral position (SDLP), which is defined as an indicator of the degree of adjustment that a driver implements to maintain a desired position within a lane [START_REF] Harrison | Alcohol and distraction interact to impair driving performance[END_REF]. Studies indicate that, after alcohol intake, an increase in SDLP, a delay in reaction time to sudden events and an impairment of vigilance, visual and divided attention may occur [START_REF] Meskali | Effect of moderated doses of alcohol on behavior of drivers confronted to simulated scenarios of accident[END_REF][START_REF] Rakauskas | Combined effects of alcohol and distraction on driving performance[END_REF][START_REF] Koelaga | Alcohol and vigilance performance: a review[END_REF].

The lack of experience is also recognized as a main factor of crash. Indeed, young drivers are widely over-represented in road accidents: in France for example, the lack of experience is the first cause of death among young drivers (ONISR, 2011). Many studies showed that the skills necessary for safe driving improve significantly with experience [START_REF] Mc Cartt | Effects of age and experience on young driver crashes : review of recent literature[END_REF][START_REF] Mayhew | The role of driving experience: Implications for the training and licensing of new drivers[END_REF]. The ability to control a vehicle is one of the first skills acquired by training and it is mastered in a few hours [START_REF] Hall | Role of formal instruction and informal practice in learning to drive[END_REF], and then the perceptive and cognitive abilities can be developed. They are slower processes which include attentional allocation [START_REF] Crundall | Effects of experience and processing demands on visual information acquisition in drivers[END_REF], matching between task demands and driving skills [START_REF] Brown | Risk perception and decision taking during the transition between novice and experienced driver status[END_REF], and contribute to drivers' potential ability to detect hazards. These crucial skills improve with experience [START_REF] Deery | Hazard and Risk Perception among Young Novice Drivers[END_REF][START_REF] Underwood | Visual attention and the transition from novice to advanced driver[END_REF].

Another factor of crash is driver distraction [START_REF] Klauer | Cognitive load and detection thresholds in car following situations: safety implications for using mobile (cellular) telephones while driving[END_REF] which can occur when the driver's attention is captured, intentionally or not, by a secondary task unrelated to the driving task [START_REF] Regan | Driver distraction and driver inattention: definition, relationship and taxonomy[END_REF]. Actually, 19% of drivers are engaged in an additional task like speaking, eating, drinking, smoking or using the mobile phone while driving [START_REF] Gras | Driving distractions in Spain[END_REF]. Performing an additional task is known to reduce driving performance and to increase reaction time [START_REF] Andersen | Limits of spatial attention in three-dimensional space and dual task driving performance[END_REF]Cantin, Lavallière, Simoneau & Teadsale, 2009 ;Bian, Kang & Andersen, 2000). For example, using a mobile phone during a car-following task increases the mental load, which causes a delay in brake reaction time (Lamble, Kauranen, Laakso, & Summala, 1999) and in the reaction time to headway changes [START_REF] Brookhuis | Measuring driving performance by car-following in traffic[END_REF]. Driver distraction by an additional visual task leads to an increase in mistake production [START_REF] Young | Examining the relationship between driver distraction and driving errors : A discussion of theory, studies and methods[END_REF] and when a novice driver is texting a message, he/she spends less time looking at the driving scene [START_REF] Hosking | The Effects of Text Messaging on Young Drivers[END_REF]. Performance impairment linked to an additional task, often measured in a simulated environment, is confirmed by a study carried out in real environment [START_REF] Blanco | The impact of secondary task cognitive processing demand on driving performance[END_REF] and can be interpreted in terms of limited information processing capacity [START_REF] Kahneman | Attention and Effort[END_REF]. When a driver performs several tasks simultaneously, he/she is placed in a divided attention situation and he/she has to divide his/her attentional resources adequately between driving and the additional task. Thereby, the mental load related to the driving task increases when the driver has to divide his/her attentional resources between two tasks [START_REF] Lemercier | Les défauts de l'attention en conduite automobile : inattention, distraction et interférence[END_REF]. It has recently been shown that the impairment linked to divided attention is even more pronounced when the driver is under the influence of alcohol (Harrisson & Fillmore, 2011).

Alcohol, lack of experience and divided attention are thus recognized as three factors contributing to road accidents. Many studies have focused on the effects of each of these factors, but few have investigated their possible interaction. The aim of the present research is to evaluate driving impairment linked to divided attention and alcohol and to determine if this impairment is higher for novice drivers than for more experienced drivers.

METHOD Participants

32 students divided into two groups depending on driving experience took part in this study. The first group consisted of 16 novice drivers (7 females and 9 males) aged 18, with less than 2 months of driving experience and less than 5000 km. The second group consisted of 16 experienced drivers (8 female and 8 male) aged 21, with three years of driving experience and more than 20,000 km. All participants had obtained their driving license at the age of 18. These two groups correspond to the beginning and end of the French 3-year probationary period.

Participants underwent a medical examination in order to confirm their good physical condition, the absence of any sleep disorder and of any medical treatment at the time of their inclusion in the experiment and during the previous 15 days. Volunteers completed a questionnaire that provided demographic information as well as information on their drinking habits in order to control whether they had a substance abuse disorder. Only social drinkers, defined as individuals with moderate alcohol consumption (about two glasses of alcohol, not every day) chiefly in a social context, were included in this experiment.

To avoid any learning effect, participants received training before the experimental sessions.

They provided written informed consent and received 120 Euros for their participation. The experimental protocol was approved by a local Ethics Committee.

Experimental Design

The driving experiment was carried out on the SIM2-IFSTTAR fixed base driving simulator equipped with an ARCHISISM object database [START_REF] Espié | Driving simulators validation : The issue of transferability of results acquired on simulator[END_REF] (See Figure 1a).

The driving station includes one quarter of a vehicle. Drivers manage the vehicle by moving a steering wheel and manipulating the accelerator and brake pedals. The image projection surface spans 150° horizontally and 40° vertically. The images are generated at a frequency of 30Hz. A driving simulator was a relevant tool for our study because there is a large degree of similarity in the relationship between BAC levels and driving impairment observed in the driving simulator and in real driving (track test) [START_REF] Helland | Comparison of driving simulator performance with real driving after alcohol intake: a randomised, single blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial[END_REF].

Three experimental sessions were carried out according to a single-blind, balanced, cross-over design. Before each session, each participant had a drink (vodka and orange juice) in order to obtain a BAC of 0 (placebo), 0.2 or 0.5 g/L. BACs were measured with a breathalyzer (SD-400 DJP/LION) 15 min after alcohol intake, and then every 10 min until the desired BAC was obtained. All volunteers participated in the three sessions held at intervals of at least one day. Each session included three tasks and had a total duration of 30 min. The order of presentation of the two single tasks was counterbalanced between each experimental session. A car-following single task was performed in order to assess the baseline driving performance. Drivers had to follow a lead vehicle while keeping constant distance from this vehicle. In order to prevent learning effects, the lead vehicle speed was varied with sixteen accelerations and sixteen decelerations with either high or low amplitude. The driver was placed in the middle lane of a three-lane road so that his/her visual environment was perfectly symmetrical. A single task of number parity identification was carried out in order to ensure that its cognitive cost was similar for experienced and novice drivers. This number parity identification task required to identify even and odd numbers and to activate the right control of the steering wheel if the target was even or the left control if the target was odd. A three-figure number appeared at 1.5 second to 2.5 second intervals with the duration of 400 milliseconds, in either the central or peripheral visual field of the driver. Then, the volunteers performed a divided attention task : they were asked to simultaneously perform a car-following task and identify the parity of numbers appearing in either their central or their peripheral visual field (left or right) (See Figure 1b).The interference related to the divided attention task was computed and compared with baseline measures obtained in single tasks.

The main driving task was specifically chosen on the basis of a previous study showing that a carfollowing situation involves behavioural impairment in case of alcohol intoxication [START_REF] Meskali | Effect of moderated doses of alcohol on behavior of drivers confronted to simulated scenarios of accident[END_REF] and the secondary task was chosen outside the driving context in order to avoid prospective learning effects linked to driving experience. In addition, while driving most of information used is visual information [START_REF] Sivak | The information that drivers use: Is it indeed 90% visual?[END_REF]. The interference between the two tasks should be particularly pronounced because both tasks use the same perceptual channel (visual), and therefore, mobilize the same resources [START_REF] Wickens | Processing resources in attention[END_REF][START_REF] Wickens | Multiple ressources and performance prediction[END_REF].

Measurements

Driving performance was evaluated using lateral and longitudinal vehicle control. Lateral control was assessed by measuring SDLP, which reflects lane-keeping skills. Many research studies have established that SDLP is a valid and sensitive indicator of impaired behaviour [START_REF] Harrison | Are bad drivers more impaired by alcohol? Sober driving predicts impairment from alcohol in a simulated driving task[END_REF][START_REF] Rakauskas | Combined effects of alcohol and distraction on driving performance[END_REF][START_REF] Shinar | Effects of practice, age, and task demands, on interference from a phone task while driving[END_REF] and an increase in SDLP indicates an impairment of lateral control ability (Harrisson & Fillmore, 2011).

Longitudinal control was assessed by measuring the minimum inter-vehicular distance (min IVD) e.g. the minimum distance adopted between the rear of the lead vehicle and the front of the following vehicle.

The reaction time (RT) and the percentage of correct responses (CR) on the additional task were also assessed.

Data Analyses

Results from the divided attention task were compared to results obtained in the reference tasks (car-following single task of and single task of number parity identification).

Firstly, the effects of BAC, task and driving experience on driving performance were analyzed by 2 (driving experience)* 3 (BAC) * 2 (task) repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVAs).

Secondly the effects of BAC, task, number location and driving experience on response time and accuracy of number parity identification were analyzed by a 2 (driving experience) * 3 (BAC) * 2 (task) * 3 (number location) ANOVAs. Statistical analyses were performed using Statistica software. The data were tested for a significance threshold of p < 0.05. Bonferroni post-hoc tests were subsequently used for pair-wise comparisons.

RESULTS

Driving Performance

Standard Deviation of Lateral Position

As expected, ANOVA showed a significant main effect of driving experience (F (1, 30) = 3.92, p < 0.05). SDLPs were higher for novice drivers than for experienced drivers (respectively, M = 14.72 cm ; SD = 4.2 and M = 12.71 cm ; SD = 3.4).

A significant main effect of task was also highlighted (F (1, 30) = 13.64, p < 0.001). Overall, SDLPs were higher in a divided attention task than in a car-following single task (respectively, M = 14.4 cm ; SD = 3.8 and M = 13.07 cm ; SD = 3.3).

In accordance with our assumption, ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of BAC (F (2, 60) = 9.5, p < 0.001). SDLPs for drivers with a BAC of 0.5 g/L (M = 14.95 cm ; SD = 4) were higher than for those with a BAC of 0.2 g/L (M = 13.47 cm ; SD = 4) and 0.0 g/L (M = 12.7 cm ; SD = 2.8). No significant difference was found between the placebo and a BAC of 0.2 g/L.

A trend toward a significant interaction between BAC and task was found (F (2, 60) = 2.44, p = 0.09). Pair-wise comparisons showed that the increase in SDLPs in a divided attention task compared to that in a single task was only significant for a BAC of 0.5 g/L (respectively, M = 16.07 cm ; SD = 4.5 and M = 13.83 cm ; SD = 3.5). When drivers with a BAC of 0.5 g/L were involved in a divided attention task, their SDLPs were significantly higher than in all other conditions of BAC and task (see Figure 2).

No significant interaction was found between driving experience and BAC (F (2, 60) = 1.68, p = 0.19), neither between driving experience and task (F (1, 30) = 0.48, p = 0.49). ). An interaction between task and driving experience (F (1, 30) = 6.9, p < 0.05) showed that a decrease in min IVD in a divided attention task was only significant for experienced drivers (See Figure 3). ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of BAC on min IVD (F (2, 60) = 16.36, p < 0.001).

Overall, the min IVD of drivers with a BAC of 0.5 g/ L (M = 16.22 m ; SD = 4.4) were shorter than those of drivers with a BAC of 0.2 g/L (M = 18.85 m ; SD = 4.4) and with placebo (M = 19.35 m ; SD = 4.4). No significant difference was found between the placebo and a BAC of 0.2 g/L. In accordance with our assumption, a significant interaction between BAC and driving experience (F (2, 60) = 6.6, p < 0.01) revealed that the decrease in min IVD with alcohol was only significant for novice drivers (See Figure 4).

Additional Task Performance

Response time

As expected, a significant main effect of driving experience was found (F (1, 30) = 4.43, p < .05).

Overall, novice drivers had slower response times than experienced drivers (respectively, M = 0.88 s ; SD = 0.12 and M = 0.84 s ; SD = 0.1). ANOVA showed a significant main effect of task (F (1, 30) = 11.01, p < .005). Overall, drivers had slower response times in a single task of number identification than in a divided attention task (respectively, M = 0.87 s ; SD = 0.1 and M = 0.85 s ; SD = 0.10).

A significant main effect of number location was also found (F (2, 60) = 629.54, p < .001).

Drivers had slower response times when a number appeared in the peripheral visual field -right (M = 0.93 s ; SD = 0.09) and left (M = 0.90 s ; SD = 0.09) -than in the central visual field (M = 0.77 s ; SD = 0.08). Response time difference between right and left peripheral identification was significant.

A trend toward a significant interaction between number location and driving experience was obtained (F (2, 60) = 2.49, p = 0.09) showing that only experienced drivers' response times were slower when a number appeared in their right peripheral visual field than in their left peripheral visual field (see Figure 5).

No significant main effect of alcohol on response time was found, or any interactive effect between BAC and driving experience (F (2, 60) = 0.86, p =.43), BAC and task (F (2, 60) = 0.21, 315 p = .81), BAC and number location (F (4, 120) = 0.52, p = .72).

Figure 5 Reaction Time depending on Driving Experience and Number location

Accuracy

In accordance with our assumption, ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of BAC (F (2, 60) = 4.03, p < .05). The correct response percentage was lower for drivers with a BAC of 0.5 g/L (M = 86.8 % ; SD = 8.6) than for drivers with a BAC of 0.2 g/L (M = 89 % ; SD = 9) and 0.0 g/L (M = 89.6 % ; SD = 7.4).

A significant main effect of number location was found (F (2, 60) = 81.27, p < .001). Pair-wise comparisons indicated that the correct response percentage was lower when a number appeared in A significant interaction between BAC and number location (F (4, 120) = 3.1, p < .05) indicated that the decrement of correct response percentage for the drivers with the highest BAC was only significant when the number appeared in the peripheral visual field (right and left side). In addition, a significant decrease in the correct response percentage was found for drivers with a BAC of 0.5 g/L compared to drivers with a BAC of 0.2 g/L only when a number appeared in the right peripheral visual field (see Figure 6).

ANOVA also revealed a significant main effect of task, (F (1, 30) = 28.88, p < .001) showing a decrease in correct response percentage in a divided attention task compared to baseline performance on a single task of number parity identification (respectively, M = 86.2 % ; SD = 9.7 and M = 90.8 % ; SD = 7).

A significant interaction between task and number location (F (2, 60) = 21.76, p < .001) revealed that this decrease in correct response percentage for divided attention task was only significant when a number appeared in the right peripheral visual field (See Figure 7).

DISCUSSION

In the present study, the relationships between BAC, divided attention and driving experience on simulated driving performance were investigated. The hypothesis was that the combination of alcohol and divided attention task would interact to impair driving performance, especially for novice drivers.

Alcohol effects

Analyses revealed that alcohol consumption impaired lateral and longitudinal control from a BAC of 0.5 g/L. As for lateral control measured by SDLP, our findings are consistent with those of previous studies in which a dose-response relationship between BAC level and SDLP was demonstrated [START_REF] Helland | Comparison of driving simulator performance with real driving after alcohol intake: a randomised, single blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial[END_REF]Harrisson & Fillmore, 2011 ;[START_REF] Meskali | Effect of moderated doses of alcohol on behavior of drivers confronted to simulated scenarios of accident[END_REF]. Therefore, our data confirm that SDLP is a valid and sensitive indicator of driving impairment related to alcohol consumption. Overall, alcohol impairs lateral control independent of driving experience. It seems worthwile to compare this result with those obtained by [START_REF] Damn | The evaluation of traditional and early driver training with simulated accident scenarios[END_REF] because both studies used the same driving simulator and a car-following task. In [START_REF] Damn | The evaluation of traditional and early driver training with simulated accident scenarios[END_REF], the SDLP increase was found significant only for a BAC of 0.8 g/L, but subjects were experienced drivers with a mean age higher than that of our participants. This might suggest that lateral control impairment appeared earlier for young drivers, for a BAC as low as 0.5 g/L, but this hypothesis has yet not been tested statistically. As for longitudinal control measured by min IVD, only novice drivers with a BAC of 0.5 g/L adopted shorter inter-vehicular distances, that is to say, alcohol impairs the longitudinal control ability of novice drivers but not that of experienced drivers. Thus, min IVD is a relevant parameter to investigate specifically novice drivers' skills and differentiate novice drivers from experienced drivers.

As for additional task performance, cognitive processing accuracy -but not response time -was impaired from a BAC of 0.5 g/L. This differential effect of alcohol depending on the parameters measured was explained by [START_REF] Schweizer | Alcohol-impaired speed and accuracy of cognitive functions: a review of acute tolerance and recovery of cognitive performance[END_REF], who showed that information processing speed tends to develop acute alcohol tolerance, but not accuracy. Regarding accuracy, alcohol impairment occurred only when a number appeared in the peripheral visual field. This result replicates the common effect of tunnel vision induced by alcohol, as suggested by the inability of drivers to disengage their attention from their central visual field toward their peripheral visual field (Do Canto-Pereira, de PA David, Machado-Pinheiro, & Ranvaud, 2007).

In spite of a clear dose-response effect, no significant driving impairment linked to a low dose of alcohol (BAC of 0.2 g/L) was found. Epidemiological studies indicated that the crash severity increases for BACs as low as 0.1 g/L [START_REF] Phillips | The relationship between serious injury and blood alcohol concentration (BAC) in fatal motor vehicle accidents: BAC = 0.01% is associated with significantly more dangerous accidents than BAC = 0.00%[END_REF] and the fatal crash risk is twice for a BAC of 0.2 g/L compared to a BAC of 0.0 g/L, especially for young novice drivers [START_REF] Peck | The relationship between blood alcohol concentration (BAC), age, and crash risk[END_REF]. Two hypotheses could explain this result. Firstly, it might suggest that driving impairment induced by alcohol occurs for a BAC higher than 0.2 g/L, as in other experimental studies that reveal driving impairment only from 0.3 g/L [START_REF] Schnabel | Meta-analysis of empirical studies concerning the effects of alcohol on safe driving EU Project DRUID[END_REF] for a revue). Thereby, this research contributes to specify the minimum level of BAC that impairs driving skills. Indeed, the BAC limit for safe driving could be situated between 0.2 g/L and 0.3 g/L. Moreover, some countries have reduced the tolerated BAC down to 0.2 g/L for specific populations such as novice and professional drivers and they have recorded a decrease in crash number [START_REF] Andreuccetti | Reducing the legal blood alcohol concentration limit for driving in developing countries : a time for change? Results and implications derived from a time-series analysis (2001-10) conducted in Brazil[END_REF]Dupont, Martensen & Silverans, 2000). Secondly, another explanation concerns task characteristics. In our study, the driving scenario was relatively easy and involved only a straight road. Since novice drivers are already in difficulty in a complex situation without alcohol [START_REF] Damn | The evaluation of traditional and early driver training with simulated accident scenarios[END_REF] and that alcohol especially impairs complex tasks [START_REF] Schnabel | Meta-analysis of empirical studies concerning the effects of alcohol on safe driving EU Project DRUID[END_REF] it might be that a more complex task could highlight driving impairment of novice drivers with low doses of alcohol. Thus, future research should include more complex situations to refine these results.

Divided attention task effects

Performance impairment was observed in a divided attention task compared to the reference single tasks, that is, car-following task or number identification task. Overall, driving performance (SDLP) and accuracy (CR) on additional task were impaired in a divided attention task, whatever the driving experience. This result confirmed that performing an additional task while driving leads to a driving impairment and disrupts the information processing. The difficulties observed in a divided attention task can be explained by the limited information processing capacity. Indeed, the amount of attentional resources mobilized in a divided attention task increases compared to each task alone and can exceed the amount of available resources [START_REF] Kahneman | Attention and Effort[END_REF].

As for longitudinal control, only the min IVD of experienced drivers decreased in a divided attention task compared to a car-following single task. The min IVD of novice drivers also decreased in a divided attention task compared to baseline measures obtained in a car-following single task but this difference was not significant, certainly on account of the high heterogeneity of performance. In addition, our volunteer drivers were all students, which can reduce the difference between the two groups. It is actually well recognized that student drivers with high educational background are less involved in crashes than the general population at the same age [START_REF] Murray | The home and school background of young drivers involved in traffic accidents[END_REF].

Regarding additional task performance, drivers had a lower correct response percentage in a divided attention task compared to a single task of number parity identification only when the numbers appeared in right peripheral visual field. Response time was also impaired in right peripheral vision compared to left peripheral vision, whatever the task. These results highlight differences in information processing depending on the number location, and notably depending on the side of the peripheral visual field. Response time difference depending on peripheral side was only found for experienced drivers, suggesting that it develops gradually with driving experience. Indeed, when the task is more demanding, e.g. in a divided attention task or when the driver is novice, his/her gaze is focused on his/her central visual field [START_REF] Lemercier | Les défauts de l'attention en conduite automobile : inattention, distraction et interférence[END_REF][START_REF] Williams | Peripherical target recognition and visual field narrowing in aviators and non aviators[END_REF]. Surprisingly, subject response times were slower for single task of number parity identification than for divided attention task. Note that number identification task responses were given with vehicle commands situated near the steering wheel and that different hand positions were observed depending on the task. Indeed, in single task of number parity identification, participants' hand positions were variable whereas in divided attention task, their hands were kept on the steering wheel. Hand position in space may be a relevant index of load related to the task demands and it seems that future research studies should have a control on this factor.

Driving experience effects

Finally, results revealed that SDLP of novice drivers was higher than those of experienced drivers, which reflects a poorer lateral vehicle control. This result confirms the assumption that driving skills of novice drivers are lower than those of experienced drivers, and is consistent with previous studies showing that experienced drivers, contrary to novice drivers, exhibited an active control of their lateral position during urban scenarios [START_REF] Damn | The evaluation of traditional and early driver training with simulated accident scenarios[END_REF]. In a similar way, novice drivers' response times on additional task were slower than those of experienced drivers, which can be explained by the involvement of different cognitive processes depending on driving experience. Indeed, the main car-following task involved controlled processes for novice drivers, while these processes become automatic with experience. As a consequence, this task mobilized the quasi totality of attentional resources for novice drivers, and few resources were available to process an additional task.

CONCLUSIONS

To sum up, our results show that, classically, alcohol, divided attention and lack of experience were independently related to driving impairment. In addition, our hypothesis is also confirmed: alcohol and driving experience interact to lead to a higher driving impairment for young novice drivers than for young experienced drivers. It is particularly interesting because what was used to differentiate novice and experienced drivers was only three years' driving experience and age. As a result, this research contributes to improve the knowledge on the specific probationary period applied in France. In addition, the divided attention task used here provides a relevant method to

  Freydier, C., et al., Divided attention in young drivers under the influence of alcohol, Journal of Safety Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2014.02.003

Figure 1

 1 Figure 1 a. Driving simulator ; b. Visual scenario of divided attention task

Figure 2

 2 Figure 2 Standard Deviation of Lateral Position depending on BAC and Task

  Freydier, C., et al., Divided attention in young drivers under the influence of alcohol, Journal of Safety Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2014.02.003Minimum Inter-Vehicular DistanceA significant main effect of task was demonstrated (F (1, 30) = 7.38, p < 0.05). Overall, the minimum Inter-Vehicular Distance (min-IVD) was shorter in a divided attention task than in a car-following single-task (respectively, M = 17.55 m ; SD = 4.5 and M = 18.73 m ; SD = 4.6

Figure 3

 3 Figure 3 Minimum Inter-vehicular Distance depending on Task and Driving Experience

  Freydier, C., et al., Divided attention in young drivers under the influence of alcohol, Journal of Safety Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2014.02.003the peripheral visual field, either the right (M = 87.2 % ; SD = 9) or left (M = 81.7 % ; SD = 11.8) side, than when it appeared in the central visual field (M = 96.1 % ; SD = 4.3). Moreover, the percentage of correct responses in right peripheral vision was significantly lower than that in left peripheral vision.

Figure 6

 6 Figure 6 Correct responses depending on BAC and Number location.

Figure 7

 7 Figure 7 Correct responses depending on Task and Number location

  Freydier, C., et al., Divided attention in young drivers under the influence of alcohol, Journal of Safety Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2014.02.003

  Freydier, C., et al., Divided attention in young drivers under the influence of alcohol, Journal of Safety Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2014.02.003

  Freydier, C., et al., Divided attention in young drivers under the influence of alcohol, Journal of Safety Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2014.02.003

  Freydier, C., et al., Divided attention in young drivers under the influence of alcohol, Journal of Safety Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2014.02.003

  Freydier, C., et al., Divided attention in young drivers under the influence of alcohol, Journal of Safety Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2014.02.003

  Freydier, C., et al., Divided attention in young drivers under the influence of alcohol, Journal of Safety Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2014.02.003

  Freydier, C., et al., Divided attention in young drivers under the influence of alcohol, Journal of Safety Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2014.02.003

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was supported in part by IFSTTAR, French Institute of Science and Technology, Transport and Networks. We thank Isabelle Aillerie for the establishment of scenario images and Virginie Etienne for her constructive suggestions. We also thank all the participants for their cooperation.


Michel Grangeat
email: michel.grangeat@ujf-grenoble.fr

An Inquiry Based Continuing Professional Development Programme: how to make the first Steps?*

Conditions for collective settings efficiency

.

 found impacts on action in the classroom when the school organization allows teachers to share understandings through professional learning activities. In such a case, teachers changed their approaches and practices in order to meet students' learning needs. Such a disparity is coherent with the conclusions of Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) who notice that 'schools [as well as teachers] improve when they collaborate with and learn from other schools [and teachers] -but not always. ' (p. 136).

) reports a project designed to create inquiry communities between teachers and educationists in order to promote and develop IBST methods within the classroom. The key feature of this inquiry community is that participants acknowledge and address issues and tensions within their approaches and practices. This critical alignment is both a goal and an outcome of the collective work. The study reports the way this community supports teachers towards their goals, such as fostering students' self-esteem, despite their old habits and the social context which could impede these changes.

Consequently, this leads to design collaborative settings that spur teacher development as:

-networking actors from a same educational sector who share common interest and motivation in resolving a specific educational problem, -stimulating cooperation amongst different kinds schools (primary and lower secondary) and of professionals (teachers, head of schools, inspectors, researchers and teacher educators), -underpinning the long process of teacher learning and teaching transformation by extending the CPD program length of time. These three conditions specify a new way for teacher training. This kind of collaborative settings is frequently called 'Inquiry Based Continuing Professional Development program' since all the actors involved in this IB-CPD program endeavour to resolve the common problem but any of them know the solution of this problem.

This paper addresses a specific IB-CPD program that involves teachers from two lower secondary and four primary schools within a urban sector in France. A first question is to describe and understand the basis and the structure that underpin this programme. A second question is to figure out a set of variables that will be monitored in order to regulate and evaluate the program efficiency.

Evaluating the efficiency of a specific IB-CPD program

The sample consists of fifteen teachers involved in the EvaCoDICE project that aims to develop formative assessment practices within science inquiry-based teaching method. This EvaCoDICE project is included in a network of collaborative settings in France --ruled by the French Institute of Education--and is part of a European project --ASSIST-ME-about assessment within science education. The EvaCoDICE project is planned to last three years from 2012 to 2015. Thus this paper addresses the first steps of the study.

A first kind of data results from an analysis of the material that was shared by the actors through a specific website and three seminars per year. This will lead to describe the basis and structure of the studied collaborative setting.

A second kind of data is drawn from focus groups that had been held with the teachers involved in the project. This will elicit the evolution of teachers' approaches.

Finally, the third kind of data will result from a content analysis of teaching material, classroom observations, and interviews with teachers. This will occur after the 2d year of the project.

As the project is just beginning, the paper focuses on outcomes that are able to reinforce the project itself. Thus, it highlights the factors that appear as helpful for the teachers.

Results

The study is based on the activity theory framework after [START_REF] Engeström | Expansive learning at work: toward an activity theoretical reconceptualization[END_REF] modelling as below.

IB-CPD program description

Firstly, we will describe the different elements of the system in which the teachers were embedded.

Actors

The EvaCoDICE project had concerned three types of professional team:

-Practitioner team comprised 11 science teachers from 2 lower secondary schools and 4 primary teachers from 4 schools; all these schools were part of one educational sector nested within an urban sector where the population is socially disadvantaged. -Research team comprised 5 teacher educators and 6 researchers from the university in charge of teacher education; this research team was complemented by a PhD student. -Institutional team comprised 2 principals of lower secondary schools, 2 persons (inspector and counsellor) who rule the primary schools, and 3 persons from the regional authorities for secondary schools (inspectors and counsellor).

Tools, signs and resources

The EvaCoDICE project was based on three types of resources:

-A dedicated website had allowed actors to share the project documents (courses preparations, assessment tools, meeting minutes, scientific articles, etc.). In the beginning of the first year, the documents implemented by teachers on the website were very general and quite useless: these were lesson plans and formal assessment rubrics drawn from the internet. At the end of the first year, teachers had shared personal documents, and often they had asked for comments from peers that might be helpful for improving their draft. -Three quarterly one-day seminars had concerned all the actors. These sessions were designed by the research team, with the institutional team's agreement, and their agendas were communicated to the practitioner team through the website. A report of each seminar was made available on the website. -Many meetings with teacher educators in order to improve teaching material and assessment tools with regard to each subject.

Rules

Many rules and devices were designed in order to pull the actors within the project.

-Two rules underpinned the EvaCoDICE project: cooperation is horizontal thus any can't refer to his or her position in order to convince others; teacher knowledge is always valuable -and improvable-since teachers experience teaching in classrooms all days along the project. -Seminars had taken place in a very flexible room. Chairs and tables had been moved several times by seminar. Walls were used to pin posters. Works in-progress were shared and discussed easily through a video projector. A table was available for coffee and light foods.

-Regional and national meetings had required actors from the three teams for presenting the EvaCoDICE project to other teachers, heads of schools, and stakeholders.

Community and division of labour

The EvaCoDICE project was implemented in a sector were teachers and principals were used to cooperate. Some primary teachers had yet encountered some lower secondary teachers since they had discussed about their pupils. Inspectors described themselves as counsellors. Consequently, any major changes were expected on this part of the system.

IB-CPD program impacts on teachers approaches

The study will analyse the elements of the activity system which contribute to shape the action of the teachers involved in the project. The analysis is drawn on the discussion through the teachers during the focus groups. All their ideas were categorized according to the research model.

Teachers' objects and purposes

The first element of the activity system model consists of the teachers' objects and purposes. During the focus groups, teachers were asked to elicit how their approaches of assessment had changed during the project first year, in terms of objects and purposes. Six types of modification are noticed.

-Assessing for learning is becoming more important than assessing for marking or ranking.

-Assessing is becoming more focused and aligned on what is essential during the course.

-Assessing is conceived as an on-going process undertaking the inherent learning long time.

-Sharing a common vocabulary through the different teachers and subjects is seen as essential in facilitating students' understanding. -Extending the project outcomes to others subjects or classes is shared by most teachers.

Primary teachers had overcome scientific subjects and used the assessment methods in native language, for instance. Secondary teachers used these methods with the classes that are not concerned by the project. -One teacher had explained that his comments about his pupils' work had totally changed since he replaced all humoristic (may be sarcastic) comments by positive and supportive interactions. Teachers had suggested to dedicate the project second year to design, share, test and improve other formative assessment tools and methods.

Tools, signs and resources

The second element of the activity system consists of tools and resources that mediate teacher actions. During the focus groups, teachers were asked to elicit what tools and resources were useful in their approaches transformation. Seven sources of modification are noticed.

-The volition for making explicit and for sharing teaching material (course preparations and assessment tools) had been steered by the seminars themselves. Teachers explained that they had always wanted to interact like that but without a deadline that contrives them, they had always postponed this kind of interactions with their colleagues. A collective dynamic among actors and teams had been created by the project and that had supported the necessary efforts required by the program. -Designing the seminars and the entire project as an inquiry had made the teachers more comfortable and confident in undertaking IBST methods with their own students. -The positive interactions among the actors and teams and the entire respect of teacher knowledge had support the teachers in improving their practices. -The pedagogical content knowledge provided by the research team was ranked as very helpful since, for instance, it had allowed the teachers to know and to foresee the students' usual mistakes or misconceptions with respect to a specific content. -The goals and methods of the research team that had been explained and stressed as limited and focused had supported the teachers in the limitation and focusing of their expectation in their own classrooms. -The location of each lesson within the whole curriculum, from primary to secondary classes, was helpful for a better understanding of the nature of the content, specifically for primary teachers. -The use of the scientific equipment of the secondary schools by the primary teachers was very helpful in improving the consistence of their lessons and the experience of their pupils. Teachers had suggested improving the students' responsibility in the assessment process. They like to design tools and methods that allow their students to formulate the criteria for assessing knowledge, skills and attitude toward a scientific problem.

Rules

The third element of the activity system consists of rules that shape teacher actions. During the focus groups, teachers were asked to explain what practical changes had occurred during the past year. Changes were grasped into five types:

-Courses anticipations are deepened since teachers focused on the knowledge that is requested by the problem resolution, on the nature of the hypothesis that might be tested by students and on the warrants that might be used to support their claims. -Courses are more aligned with student progression than with official guidelines. Thus, teachers anticipated assessment methods allowing students to monitor and check their learning activities. -Awareness of each student activity and reflection is shared by all teachers. They explained that all their students enter within the asked activity and are able to justify their strategies while most of them were passive at the beginning of the year and all the other past years. -Transforming the collective organisation of a seminar in a collective organisation of the classroom is mentioned by a mathematics teacher. The method was: creating students' teams devoted to an aspect of a common problem, asking these teams to elaborate a poster about their results, matching groups of students with respect of each poster, rotating these groups in order to contrive each student to explain and to discuss each poster. -Giving room for student reflection during the lesson is mentioned by a sport teacher. The method is: stopping the activity for two minutes maximum and asking dyads of students to mutually assess their activity, resuming the same activity and asking students to improve their strategies and performance. Teachers had suggested making more explicit for students what will be expected during the lesson ('As a teacher, I'd like you to be able to…') and after the lesson (Strategies for homework).

Community and division of labour

As expected, teachers didn't explain any deep changes towards these elements. The only transformation concerned the way teachers conceived the research team: educational research methods and actors had appeared as reachable and understandable. Some teachers had seemed interested in educational studies: they read articles and heard videotaped lectures on internet.

Discussion

These results are aligned with other research. The first main characteristic of this kind of IB-CPD program is the 'push-pull architecture' of the project: teachers and schools were both pushed and pulled into by 'voluntary participation, common bonding, professional inspiration, peer assistance, practical strategies, and technical supports' (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012, p.138). The second is the project focus on a shared specific professional question that underpins the collective inquiry.

These results are consistent with the project expectations, thus they encourage in making the following steps!


Michel Grangeat
email: michel.grangeat@ujf-grenoble.fr

Effects of expert teachers' collaboration on their conceptualisations and practices towards inquiry based methods in

Keywords: teacher collaboration, inquiry based methods, secondary school, teacher education, teacher professional development

HAL is

Theoretical framework

The individual aspects of teachers' activities are well known. Nevertheless, few studies aim to understand the interactive processes which underpin teacher collective work [TCW] and which contribute to change practitioners' conceptualisations and practices [START_REF] Grangeat | Teaching as a collective work: analysis, current research and implications for teacher education[END_REF]. Nevertheless, with respect to vocational fields, these questions are well known since the 90s, through the ergonomics or activity theory frameworks [START_REF] Schmidt | Cooperative work: a conceptual framework[END_REF]. These studies produced some findings which could be helpful for understanding the factors which influence teacher collective work .

Three collective work features

A first result leads to identify three collective work features. The first associates an increasing form (several teachers who teach the same subject) with a collaborative function (these persons act with similar goals and methods): within this feature, the difficulty consists to ensure the coherency, the similarity, amongst the actions of the different actors [START_REF] Tiberghien | Modeling as a basis for analyzing teaching-learning situations[END_REF]. The second associates a completive form (teachers from different subjects act together) with a co-operative function (teachers deal different tasks to accomplish a same goal). Here, the difficulty is to maintain both the specificity of each actor and their mutual support [START_REF] Hansen | The curriculum workshop: a place for deliberative enquiry and teacher professional learning[END_REF]. The third associates a co-active form (actors work within the same space and time) with a debative function (they confront their ideas). The challenge is the respect of each point of view and the helpfulness of the common resources which result from the debate [START_REF] Tillema | Constructing knowledge in professional conversations: The role of beliefs on knowledge and knowing[END_REF]. This paper focuses on this debative function and aims to understand its effects on NSTs' conceptualisations and

Collective work effects

A second result highlights the collective work effects. Research shows how informal interactions transform the way in which professionals think about their work: professionals extend the range of elements which are caught in the situation in order to steer the activities at work. This extent occurs when actors could interact either through specific training sessions -aiming to confront methods about a specific professional problemor through projects accomplished with partners [START_REF] Engeström | Expansive learning at work: toward an activity theoretical reconceptualization[END_REF]. This paper addresses interactions amongst NSTs which are organized during five specific sessions -called seminar of professional practices analysis (SPPA)-based on the creation of socio-cognitive conflict amongst NSTs. These debates are about pupils' motivation towards science subjects and specifically the way inquiry based science teaching [IBST] methods allow teachers to improve pupils' responsibility, to take care of their specificity and to make explicit the knowledge and the competence which had been taught through IBST session.

Research question

This paper aims to identify the effects of debates amongst new science teachers [NSTs] about specific teaching problems (i.e. new science teachers exchange about the gain and loss of inquiry based methods).

Methodology

The data are collected through videotaped IBST sessions and interviews with each NST about the video.

Each lesson and interview are transcribed. Six NSTs intended to the inquiry (2 mathematics, 2 physics and 2 biology teachers). The activity system of each NST is elaborated from these transcriptions.

Basic components of the activity system

Four elements define professional knowledge [START_REF] Grangeat | Teachers' knowledge: a synthesis between personal goals, collective culture and conceptual knowledge[END_REF][START_REF] Grangeat | Effects of teacher collaboration on teaching approaches: can we show some evidence[END_REF]:

-Goal: the teachers' purpose which is held individually or collectively (e.g. to maintain the learners' attention...).

-Clue: the piece of information picked out from the teaching situation, which is seen as relevant by teachers, and which activates a specific teaching strategy (e.g. when some students begin to chat...) -Repertoire of actions: set of the teaching strategies witch are triggered by the clue and orientated by the goal (e.g. so I organised a peer-work session...) -Reference knowledge: the set of individual or collective knowledge which enable one situation to be matched to another, taking into account similarities and singularities, in order to define and justify a teaching strategy (e.g. since varying teaching often renews students' attention, thus I accustom students to learn by themselves through peer-work).

These elements compose a teacher professional knowledge which is called "teaching process-knowledge" for it addresses teaching as a long term process and not as a punctual action. The set of teaching processknowledge which is built by each professional compose the activity system of this person [START_REF] Engeström | Activity theory as a framework for analyzing and redesigning work[END_REF]. This activity system is organised according to the main dimensions of the activity .

Dimensions of the activity system of new science teacher towards IBST

The activity which is addressed by this paper refers to inquiry based science teaching (IBST). Following the mid-term results of the S-TEAM project 1 IBST is built on six dimensions which represent a continuum:

-The origin of questioning which spur the inquiry: from teacher only to pupils' group only.

-The nature of the problem : from an open-ended problem introducing a new chapter to the existence of a research problem whose answer is not obvious, even for the teacher.

-The learners' level of responsibility for steering the inquiry: from following a standardized procedure to ensuring the control of a personal "hands on" process, including self-assessment.

-The consideration of pupils' diversity (cognitive, affective, social, gender, disability): from an unique way to conduct the class-room during inquiry to different ways and resources made available for the pupil's by the teacher.

-The role of argumentation: from presentation of the results of each pupils' group to comparison of each rationale.

-The level of explanation about what is learned during the inquiry : from implicit to explicit teaching about knowledge and meta-knowledge.

Each teacher, and specifically each NST, cannot be always on the top level of each dimension.

Nevertheless, we think that debates could help NST -which, in 2010 in France, are very new teachers, quite student teachers-to overcome the first stage of each dimension of the IBST model.

Results

This study addresses three dimensions of the IBST model: responsibility, diversity, and explanation. These dimensions represent the content of the socio-cognitive debates within the SPPA.

Improving pupils responsibility towards inquiry

On the two first levels of this dimension teacher steer the inquiry. On the two upper levels, pupils are allowed to self-regulate the inquiry.

Level 1: Implementing IBST within the classroom. All the NSTs (6/6) involved in the study reach this level at least. Their activity system are generally built on 2 goals amongst [within brackets the number of NSTs who indicated each goal]:

-Allowing pupils to learn together [3].

-Indicating clearly to the pupils what they have to do [3].

-Enabling pupils to ask question to themselves and to propose some answers [2].

Level 2: Enabling pupils to conceive many solutions. This level is reached by 5/6 NST who generally follow 3 goals:

-Directing pupils' activity towards the expected inquiry process [3].

-Enabling pupils to achieve the task [2].

-Answering to pupils' questions [2]. -Managing the use of laboratory material by the pupils [2].

-Maintaining active the object of the current inquiry within the pupils' memory [1].

Level 4: Enabling pupils' self-assessment. No NST reach this level which we observed within experienced science teachers practices.

Taking care of pupils' specific needs and diversity

On the two first levels teachers address generally to the whole class-room. On the two upper, teaching strategies are based on pupils team work.

Level 1: Coping with the behaviour of some pupils in order to make them more active . All the NST (6/6) involved in the study reach this level at least. They follow 2 goals amongst:

-Gaining pupils' attention and speaking to them [4].

-Coping with a disturbed pupil's behaviour [3].

-Allowing pupils to discuss and exchange [2].

-Helping a pupil who is encountering difficulties [2].

-Choosing the class-room with which the IBST will be implemented [2].

Level 2: Adapting the task to maintain pupils' involvement. Half part of the NST (3/6) quote teaching knowledge which belong to this level; they follow 2 goals:

-Coping with advanced pupils [2].

-Allocating more time to pupils to accomplish the task [1].

Level 3 : Verifying the understanding of each pupils team. All the NST (6/6) involved in the study reach this level; they follow 3 goals in mean:

-Choosing the pupils' team which need teacher's help [6].

-Creating the pupils' teams [4].

-Helping a pupils' team who is encountering difficulties [3].

Level 4: Adapting the teaching strategies to specific pupils. Only 1/6 NST reaches the top level of this dimension. The NST action aims to include a disabled pupil.

Making explicit what is tough through IBST

The two first level consist on clarifying teacher expectations. The two upper levels aim to spur pupils' metacognitive reflection.

Level 1: Making explicit teacher's goal for the current session. Our methodology cannot allow us to access this point for the interview addressed the 20 last minutes of the session. IBST can have different meanings thus we align ourselves with the S-TEAM and Mind the Gap 2 projects, which describe IBST as including:

authentic and problem based learning activities where there may not be a correct answer;

a proportion of experimental procedures, experiments and "hands on" activities, including searching for information;

self regulated learning sequences where student autonomy is emphasised;

discursive argumentation and communication with peers ("talking science").

Within this paper we studied only the third part of this definition which we completed by a specific focus on explanation for it is a strong component of self-regulated learning.

The results show that the 6 NSTs are able to implement within their class-rooms some teaching strategies which are relevant for the three dimensions of this study: responsibility (6/6), diversity (6/6), explanation

(5/6). They are able to reach the upper levels of two of three of these dimensions: the results highlight a weakness with respect to the ability to make explicit what is learn through IBST.

Consequently, after the SPPA sessions, NSTs are able to implement IBST session in which pupils responsibility is emphasised and in which they pay attention to pupil's diverse needs; in some extent, they make explicit their expectation for and what is learned through IBST session. Thus, in some extend, such new teachers could be call "expert" teachers.

Does debates amongst NSTs' alter their conceptualisation and practices?

Within our theoretical framework, teacher knowledge should come both from interactions amongst colleagues and from teacher education or training. We had found that kind of results with experienced teachers [START_REF] Grangeat | Teachers' knowledge: a synthesis between personal goals, collective culture and conceptual knowledge[END_REF][START_REF] Grangeat | Factors influencing teachers' professional competence development[END_REF]. Nevertheless, surprisingly, this hypothesis seems to be irrelevant to NSTs' case. Through observations and interviews, they report few interactions which could improve their practices: few colleagues and partners are quoted (a mentor, a person who is responsible of the laboratory, and another who help a disabled pupil are mentioned once); teacher education is only quoted in a very generic way (teacher education institute is mentioned as a whole which had enabled NST to implement IBST). Thus, we could conclude that NSTs act in a strongly individual way and that teacher education cannot change their conceptualisations and practices. It could be a very strange result! Deepening the study, we compared the NSTs' teaching process-knowledge (goals, clue, repertoire of actions, reference knowledge) with the material which was dealt by teacher educators during the SPPA. We 2http://www.uv.uio.no/english/research/projects/mindingthegap/about/index.html

  practices.*Grangeat, M. (2010). Effects of Expert Teachers' Collaboration on their Conceptualisations and practices towards Inquiry Based Methods in Science Teaching. Paper presented at European Conference on Educational Research (ECER), Helsinki, Finland. ECER 2010

  The effects concern NSTs' conceptualisations and practices about IBST implementation. The study tackles two questions: At what level NSTs are able to implement IBST within their class-room? Does interactions which are generated by the TE specific session (SPPA) change the NSTs' conceptualisations and practices?

Level 2 :--

 2 Making explicit what is been achieved during the session. One of the NST reports no knowledge about this dimension; the other (5/6) reach this level but they not overcome it. They follow 2 goals:-Making explicit what is expected to be learned during the session[3]. Keeping track of the results in order to anticipate the next session[2]. Enabling pupils to master the scientific methodology[2]. what level NSTs are able to implement IBST within their class-room?

Michel Grangeat5 / 6

ECER 2010 found a strong coherency amongst NSTs' teaching process-knowledge and knowledge which was explicitly discussed and taught during the SPPA. These similarities consist on :

-Supporting each pupil towards overcoming complex and challenging problems.

-Paying attention to pupils solutions which aim to resolve the problem.

-Helping pupils to find out a solution to resolve the problem.

-Providing feed-backs about pupils progresses towards overcoming the problem.

-Creating heterogeneous teams amongst pupils in which each person could contribute.

-Creating equitable opportunities for all kind of pupils.

-Asking to shift amongst different ways for writing procedures and results (draw, diagram, text).

-Writing the mid-term results.

-Discussing about methodology.

Consequently, through implicit and no direct ways, the socio-cognitive debates which were organized during the SPPA seem to contribute to the change of the NSTs' conceptualisations and practices about IBST.

Perspectives

These results need further studies in order to confirm the contribution of SPPA with respect to the three dimensions which were studied by this paper. They need also to extend the study toward the other dimensions of the model: the origin of the questioning (teacher vs pupils vs authentic problem from actual life); the nature of the problem (open-ended problem vs problem with no correct answer); role of argumentation (presentation of the right answer vs debates about methodology and results). Finally, further studies need to focus on experienced teachers.