G Desie

G Deroover

F De Voeght

A Soucemarianadin

Printing of Dye and Pigment-Based Aqueous Inks Onto Porous Substrates

In this article, the dynamics of droplet impingement and absorption into microporous materials for pigment based aqueous inks and dye based aqueous inks are compared. For dye based inks it was shown earlier that three main phases could be resolved: inertial spreading, absorption, and evaporation of the liquid, leading to the final equilibrium condition on which the typical customer is evaluating the image quality. For the inertial spreading phase it could be shown that the spreading behavior is largely determined by the hydrodynamic properties, and is easily amenable to dimensionless analysis. The absorption phase could be well described by a capillary wicking process according to imbibition models. Evaporation is the slowest process only being finalized after many seconds. These results are now compared with droplet impingement and absorption of pigment based inks on microporous receivers. It is shown that these inks behave totally differently from dye based inks. Immediately after impingement and initial spreading the pigment particles start to coagulate on the surface of the microporous layer, creating a filter cake limiting the passage of carrier liquid. As a result much longer absorption times are observed and the equilibrium dot stays on top of the microporous layer. Most polymer stabilizers in the pigment based inks create a colored polymer layer having polymeric blend characteristics limiting considerably the penetration of water compared to the capillary wicking process. The capillary imbibition models are not valid any more because now the build-up of the filter cake changes not only the receding contact angle but also introduces a diffusion process changing as a function of time during the drying of the wet ink.

Introduction

Drop on Demand ink jet technology has gained a lot of attention for printing digital documents. Good image quality can be achieved with cheap devices for a wide variety of substrates, ranging from plain papers, over cast-coated papers, to high end photo quality papers and specialties. Most photo quality papers found on the market are characterized by non-absorbing substrates, coated with rather thick absorbing coating layers or microporous receptive layers.

The coating layers comprising polymer blends (such as gelatin, polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl pyrrolidone) perform extremely well using printers with moderate printing speeds and dye based inks, and deliver an excellent color gamut, but also show slow dry times and bad lightfastness. Coating layers comprising microvoids and working according to the principle of capillary wicking [START_REF] Bear | Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media[END_REF] show much faster drying times with high image quality, [START_REF] Desie | Influence of substrate properties in drop on demand printing[END_REF] but are much more sensitive to light and dark fad-ing. Pigment based inks, showing a reduced color gamut as compared to dye based inks, perform much better for lightfastness, but the compatibility with microporous coatings is not always very good.

It is important to understand better the interaction mechanisms between pigment based aqueous inks and microporous receivers, in order to be able to develop systems with a much better performance. The full ink media interaction model is composed of the behavior immediately after impact of the ink on the substrate, which in the case of low to moderate impact velocities is mainly determined by the kinetic energy, the viscosity and surface tension of the droplet, [START_REF] Desie | Influence of substrate properties in drop on demand printing[END_REF] and the behavior on the longer time scale dealing with the penetration in the medium [START_REF] Bear | Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media[END_REF][START_REF] Davis | Spreading and imbibition of viscous liquids on a porous base[END_REF][START_REF] Davis | Spreading and imbibition of viscous liquids on a porous base. II[END_REF] and being investigated in more detail in this article. The penetration of the pigment based inks in microporous media is compared with data on dye based inks. The evolution of the droplet diameter and volume on top of the microporous layer is followed as a function of time using high speed video techniques. 5 The results are related to the ink and media properties.

These results are compared with a model including transient filter cake buildup during the absorption process. Both physical and physicochemical analyses are done on the filter cake to determine its typical properties, and explain why the drying process is evolving as found experimentally. After printing using pigment based aqueous inks a dot is formed on top of the microporous layer. This dot has been analyzed using optical, microscopic and surface analysis tools to determine different parameters such as porosity, roughness, etc. The absorption phase can be explained by combining two separate physical behaviors: a diffusion process [START_REF] Yip | Measurement and modeling of drop absorption time for various ink-receiver systems[END_REF] for the liquid through a filter cake on top of the microporous layer and a capillary wicking into this microporous layer. Optimum image quality and printing performance can only be gained by optimization of both ink and media properties.

Experimental

The basic experimental setup used in this work is built around droplet generating devices (commercially available printheads), an illumination source, an optical system coupled to an image recording system, and triggering electronics, as described elsewhere. [START_REF] Desie | Influence of substrate properties in drop on demand printing[END_REF]5

Drop Ejection Devices

Droplets with a volume of about 70 picoliters were created by using a Hewlett Packard HP500 printhead, cartridge HP51625a. Signals of 4 µs in duration and of 19V in amplitude were sent to a single connecting point of the resistor element in this head. The velocity of the drops was found to be a function of the ink composition and was varied between 5 and 12 m/s. The speed was determined by dual-exposure shot measurements using a SensiCam short shutter-time camera. Droplets with a volume of 80 to 200 picoliters were created using an Ink Jet Technologies 64 ID2 printhead coupled to driving electronics developed by Ardeje. [START_REF] Pierron | Dynamics of jetted liquid filaments[END_REF] The main components of the experimental set-up are shown in Fig. 1.

Visualization Devices

A short shutter time video camera from PCO, SensiCam TM , was used to capture a high resolution single image of 1280 × 1024 pixels with a shutter time comprised between 500 ns and 1 µs, to assemble a "video movie" according to the pseudo-cinematography technique that has been described elsewhere. [START_REF] Pierron | Dynamics of jetted liquid filaments[END_REF] A highspeed camera, Kodak HG2000, was used to capture images of 512 × 356 pixels at a real high speed frame rate of 1000 fps. [START_REF] Desie | Influence of substrate properties in drop on demand printing[END_REF]5 The camera was equipped with a Mitutoyo long working distance objective (type M Plan Apo 20x), mounted on a 123 mm extension tube for appropriate

Ink Composition

The inks that were used in this study were commercially available aqueous inks especially tuned for thermal printheads (Hewlett Packard HP500 Black ink), and for piezoelectric printheads (AgfaJet TM Sherpa TM Cyan Dye ink, AgfaJet TM Sherpa TM Cyan Pigment ink) and other prototype pigment type aqueous inks.

Viscosity and surface tension was set to ranges of 1-4 mPa.s and 30-40 mN/m, while pigment type and stabilization of the inks was also varied. The characteristics were measured using a Brookfield DVII viscometer and a Krüss K9 digital tensiometer. The properties of the test inks for the printing tests on paper are given in Table I.

Receiving Substrates (AgfaJet) and Characteristics

Different substrate materials were used throughout this work, ranging from ink jet polymeric blend materials to ink jet microporous and macroporous materials. These materials (AgfaJet) were obtained by coating pigment/binder compositions on PET and measuring the resulting porous characteristics using mercury porosimetry, gas adsorption, and scanning electron microscopy techniques as detailed below.

For the analysis of dots printed on the various substrates a system available from "ImageXpert" coupled with a camera was used to do dot-quality analysis, while SEM (JEOL JSM-6500 ), or field emission gun scanning electron microscopy (FEG-SEM: FEI Sirion) and optical microscopy were used to characterize the optical and physical characteristics of the printed dots. The porosity of the substrates was measured using the Hg porosimetry technique (Auto IV 9500, from Micromeritics Instrument) and the gas adsorption technique (Micromeritics ASAP2400). The BET model was used to determine the specific surface area while the BJH model was used to determine the pore size distribution. [START_REF] Webb | Analytical methods in fine particle technology[END_REF] The mean pore size diameter of the tested substrates is given in Table II.

Results and Discussion

To fulfill the objectives listed in the introduction part, drop impinging experiments were performed using dye and pigment based inks on different substrates. The results are discussed in term of the different time scales associated with these processes.

Inertial Spreading

As soon as there is contact between a drop and a solid surface, the liquid generally starts spreading out. In the limiting case i.e., when the drop is carefully placed onto the surface, the process of spreading is dominated by intermolecular forces. The dependence on time of the radius of the wetted spot and of the contact angle can be described by universal scaling laws as shown in detail first by de Gennes. [START_REF] De Gennes | Wetting: Statics and dynamics[END_REF] In the case of a finite velocity, which is obvious for printing, the drop first spreads radially into a "pancake" shape before taking on an truncated sphere shape. The rate of spreading depends on a combination of parameters, as described previously. [START_REF] Desie | Influence of substrate properties in drop on demand printing[END_REF]5 It was found that the inertial spreading phase of the pigment based inks, analyzed according to the models that were presented elsewhere, 2-4 corresponds rather well with the behavior of that of dye based inks. [START_REF] Allaman | Liquid adsorption into porous surfaces during drop on demand printing[END_REF] The big difference in practical behavior between pigment and dye based inks on microporous layers therefore cannot be attributed to the inertial spreading phase. More details on the inertial spreading phase are described elsewhere. 5,[START_REF] Allaman | Impact and spreading of microdrops onto solid substrates[END_REF]

Drop Imbibition

After a certain period of time a pseudo-equilibrium condition is reached, determining the final shape of the liquid on top of the receiving substrate prior to penetration or absorption into the receptive coating.

Most experiments regarding the drop imbibition phase were conducted using the HP500 print head and the HG2000 fast video capturing of the droplet impinging upon the substrates. An example of photographs taken by this camera is shown in Fig. 2, where a dye and a pigment-based ink droplet disappear into a microporous paper.

HP black thermal dye ink, AgfaJet Sherpa Cyan Dye ink, AgfaJet Sherpa Cyan Pigment ink, and two carbon black pigment model inks of varying viscosities have been jetted on top of different ink jet receptive substrates. The penetration speed of the thermal ink jet ink (HP 51625a) into the different receivers is depicted in Fig. 3. The mechanism of ink absorption of dye based inks into these substrates has been described elsewhere. [START_REF] Allaman | Liquid adsorption into porous surfaces during drop on demand printing[END_REF] Three big classes could be found among these substrates: cast-coated papers and macroporous outdoor materials showing a very short absorption time, polymeric blend materials in which all the liquid has to be absorbed via a diffusion process, and microporous materials showing good glossy characteristics and a much faster drying time than the polymeric blend materials. The microporous test samples were made by changing the fillers, binders and filler to binder ratio of the porous coating layers. The porosity characteristics were evaluated using Hg porosimetry. The main difference between the samples shown was the pore size distribution, with variations in pore volumes and mean pore sizes as represented in Fig. 4. Four main classes were investigated having pore sizes in the ranges of 16, 35, 100 and 140 nm. For comparison the very big pores found in a macroporous material (1000 nm) are also shown in Fig. 4.

In order to describe the imbibition process for dye and pigment based inks, simplified numerical models based on Darcy's law 2 and the Davis-Hocking 3,4 model were used. Darcy's law describes the vertical absorption of a drop initially at rest into a porous layer. It is based upon the simplification that the capillary wicking process is given by four different contributions (Eq. ( 1)) among which the first one, which represents the suction pressure, is by far the largest.

2 cos 2 P =+ gh d + VDW (1) R p R d
In this equation, is the surface tension, the internal contact angle, R p is the pore radius, R d the contact radius of the drop with the substrate and h d its height. Only the first term has a significant contribution, 9 so all other can be neglected. The flow through the capillary is assumed to follow Poiseuille's law:

2 dx R P u == (2) dt 8µx
where x is the wetted length in the capillary. Finally, solving this equation and assuming that the contact area of the drop is independent of time, the final absorption time, or the so-called capillary wicking time is given by:

2µV 0 2 t w = 24 (3) R p cos R d 2
where V 0 is the initial drop volume and is the fractional open area depending on the capillary size and the porosity of the material. This model considers that absorption happens as in one cylinder, for which the basis is the contact radius of the drop when the absorption starts. As a result the wet spot in the porous material has the shape of a cylinder. Another description of the absorption phenomena, again based on Darcy's law, which can be found in the literature, is the Davis-Hocking model. [START_REF] De Gennes | Wetting: Statics and dynamics[END_REF][START_REF] Allaman | Liquid adsorption into porous surfaces during drop on demand printing[END_REF] During sorption, the wet spot, and hence the available surface for sorption, diminishes. This model leads to a wet spot in the porous material in the form of a paraboloid with a depth (D) equal to the initial droplet height (h) divided by the porosity. The kinematics of the flow are described by the well-known Lucas Washburn equation, giving the depth d as a square root of time:

dt ) = R cos( )t p (4) ( 2µ
The pore radius is given by R p . The wet spot inside the porous material has the shape of a truncated paraboloid with a volume described at any time by:

Vt ) = 2dt ) dt ) 2 ( R p 2 ( ( D (5) 2
All other parameters like droplet radius, droplet volume, droplet height and absorbed volume can then easily be calculated.

Both models were tested and compared with experiments. For the dye based inks good agreement was found between the Davis-Hocking model [START_REF] Davis | Spreading and imbibition of viscous liquids on a porous base[END_REF][START_REF] Davis | Spreading and imbibition of viscous liquids on a porous base. II[END_REF] and the experiments. An example of the absorption speed of 70 pl of AgfaJet Sherpa Dye ink on different microporous media, and the results of a Davis-Hocking analysis [START_REF] Davis | Spreading and imbibition of viscous liquids on a porous base[END_REF][START_REF] Davis | Spreading and imbibition of viscous liquids on a porous base. II[END_REF] are shown in Fig. 5.

The Davis-Hocking model [START_REF] Davis | Spreading and imbibition of viscous liquids on a porous base[END_REF][START_REF] Davis | Spreading and imbibition of viscous liquids on a porous base. II[END_REF] can be considered valid for describing porous media. In the case of polymeric blend materials it was shown that a diffusion law is much more appropriate. 6 If a larger amount of ink is printed upon the microporous media it could be observed that the penetration speed is decreasing as a function of applied ink volume. This is shown in Fig. 6 for a Dye based ink with viscosity of 4.5 mPa.s and surface tension of 30.2 mN/m.

The evolution of the volume and of the diameter of a pigment ink drop (Carbon Black model ink with 3.2 mPa.s, 41.3 mN/m) on top of a microporous receiver (microporous_6) is depicted in Fig. 7.

The main differences between dye and pigment based inks are visible in Figs. 3 and7: the overall absorption speed is much higher for dye based inks, while the evolution of the dot diameter remains much more constant as a function of time for the pigment based inks.

For the pigment based inks very big deviations were found compared to dye based inks, so none of the two previously described models (Darcy 2 , Davis-Hocking [START_REF] Davis | Spreading and imbibition of viscous liquids on a porous base[END_REF][START_REF] Davis | Spreading and imbibition of viscous liquids on a porous base. II[END_REF] ) can represent the process accurately. Taking a closer look at the Fig. 7 we see that the dot diameter remains constant during the full wicking process for the pigment based inks, so the Darcy model 2 should be a better description. However, during the wicking process the pigment particles from the ink are coagulating at the top of the receptive coating, creating a barrier layer limiting the penetration of carrier liquid into the coating. Therefore, the properties of this additional barrier layer were analyzed.

Evaluation of the Filter Cake Layer

In a first set of experiments single dots and areas of full ink load were printed using the dye and pigment based inks and analyzed using optical and physicochemical tools.

Images captured of printed dots are shown in Figs. 8 to 10. It is clear that the pigment ink has formed an addi-and mercury porosimetry: no significant additional potional layer on top of the microporous layer having a rosity could be found, neither on polymeric blend materougher surface characteristic. This additional layer has rial, nor on different microporous media. It is clear that a thickness of 600 to 800 nm as visible in a FEG-SEM the pigment filter cake is composed of pigment particles picture of the microporous coating layer, shown in Fig.

stabilized via polymeric dispersants, leading to a typi-9 and also on the scan using optical profilometry as cal "polymeric blend" type of coating having almost no shown in Fig. 10.

porosity. Contact angle measurements on these pigment The microporous layer with printed pigment layer on layers were also performed, using AgfaJet Sherpa Cyan top of its surface was characterized via gas adsorption Pigment ink as liquid, and considerably lower contact ably longer than on the raw microporous medium, proving that the formed pigment filter cake considerably limits the absorption speed. It is also evident from this figure that not only the pigment ink properties have a big influence on the absorption times, but also the receiver properties. Indeed, on the macroporous medium having pores with a diameter larger than the pigment particles an additional pigment layer is not built up due to the ratio of sizes of pores compared to pigments. A printout was made using Agfa cyan pigment ink on microporous media microporous 6 using a 45 pl Xaar head operated in a 4 × 4 shingling algorithm. The result of a SEM analysis with the resultant image is shown in Fig. 12. It is clear that in this printout where neighboring droplets are time-separated by 10 seconds a collection of different independent "pancakes" can be found.

The impact delay between two consecutive droplets of pigment ink has been reduced to 100 ms as shown in Fig. 13, and here too it could be demonstrated that the two ink droplets are not merging together and are not forming a single large dot. For dye based inks this coalescence has been shown to lead to a single large dot with dye molecules intruding into the pores of the microporous medium. 9

Model for the Description of the Absorption Phase

Taking into account that there is no significant deviation in the inertial spreading regime 5 between the dye and pigment based inks as explained elsewhere, 5 and that during the absorption phase a filter cake is being built up, having polymeric blend characteristics and lower receding contact angle values, it seems plain that a model describing the absorption phase should start with Darcy's law and as a function of time add diffusion limits based on Fick's law [START_REF] Yip | Measurement and modeling of drop absorption time for various ink-receiver systems[END_REF] to the overall behavior. This is the topic for further work.

Conclusions

In this article, the absorption process of dye and pigment based aqueous inks on different receivers has been compared. In the inertial spreading phase both inks behave quite similarly. In the imbibition phase the dye based inks are mainly absorbed into the microporous coating due to a capillary wicking process which can best be described by the Davis-Hocking model. The pigment based inks show initial imbibition into the microporous layer with aggregation of pigment particles on the top of the surface. These sedimenting and clustering particles are forming a pigment filter cake having a polymeric blend character and limiting the imbibition by a diffusion process. The full description can be best explained with a Darcy model at the beginning of the absorption, followed by a diffusion trend according to Fick's law as the absorption continues as a function of time. The filter cake layer has better wetting properties leading to constant dot diameters, which is in contrast to the dot diameter of a dye based ink which is reduced as a function of the drying time.

If the time difference between two neighboring pigment ink droplets is small enough, overlapping "pancake" structures are visible in the final image. It is clear that the process of absorption for pigment based inks leads to more constraints in the printing process with regard to drying times and coalescence. Pigment stabilization by polymers in the inks leads to better rub resistance but it reduces significantly absorption times thus hampering higher printing velocities.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Experimental set-up with Xe-light, HP500 printhead, Kodak HG2000 high speed video camera

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Microphotographs taken during the course of the imbibition phase: left = dye, right = pigment based ink.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Imbibition of HP51625a inks into different receivers

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Porosity distribution of different samples

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5. Piezo dye-based ink drop imbibiton for different receiving layers.

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6. Piezo dye-based ink drop imbibiton for different receiving layers.

Figure 7 .Figure 8 .

 78 Figure 7. Evolution of drop volume and diameter for a Carbon Black pigment ink on a microporous coating

Figure 9 .

 9 Figure 9. FEG-SEM picture of AgfaJet Sherpa Black Pigment ink printed on microporous 6 material

Figure 10 .Figure 11 .

 1011 Figure 10. Optical profilometry on printed dots of pigment ink (pigment ink 1) on microporous media (microporous 6)

Figure 13 .

 13 Figure 13. Optical microscopic analysis of 2 droplets of pigment ink printed upon the microporous 6 receiver with a delay of 100 ms between the 2 impact times of the droplets

TABLE I . Properties of the Inks

 I

		Viscosity	Surface tension
		(mPa.s)	(mN/m)
	Thermal black dye ink (HP)	1.1	43.1
	Piezo cyan dye ink (Agfa)	3.2	33.2
	Piezo cyan pigment ink (Agfa)	3.6	32.0
	Piezo black pigment ink 1 (Agfa)	4.0	40.7
	Piezo black pigment ink 2 (Agfa)	3.2	41.3
	Piezo cyan dye ink 2 (Agfa)	4.5	30.2
	magnification. Light illumination was provided by a high
	intensity Xenon lamp from ILC Technology, (model
	LX300F) with a 300 Watt collimated Cermax Xenon
	lamp with peak intensity of 515.000 candelas.

TABLE II . Properties of the Substrates Substrate Mean pore size diameter (nm)

 II

	Microporous 1	16
	Microporous 2	35
	Microporous 3	100
	Microporous 4	140
	Microporous 5 = Macroporous	1000
	Microporous 6	20
	Microporous 7	26

Acknowledgment

The authors are indebted to the Belgian and French Governments (IWT-MRNT) for partial financial support of this work via projects PROFIJET and PRODIJ !2911. S. Lingier, M. Graindourze, H. Gamme, P. Mertens, R. Geelen, C. Van Roost, K. Anthonissen, O. Lievens, G. Dieltjens, and O. Pascual and the full ink jet team of Agfa are acknowledged for their help in developing and analyzing the ink jet inks and media.


Carlos A Rabassó

Francisco Javier Rabassó

Mariana Rondon'

Pelo Malo

5 / Trans-Gender Roles under Patriarchy: Pelo Malo (Bad Hair)

tells a story of the emergence of gendered identities within the network of male/female family relationships. Junior (played by Samuel Lange Zambrano) is a nine year-old boy with luxuriant curly hair which he longs to straighten in order to fulfil his fantasy of becoming a long-haired singer. Junior's mother, Marta (Samantha Castillo), is trying to regain the job she recently lost as a security guard, and as a single mother she now struggles to care for Junior and his baby brother. She is increasingly determined to correct Junior's preoccupation with his appearance, but the boy is encouraged by his grandmother, Carmen (played by Nelly

Ramos), who thinks she understands why Junior is attracted to the handsome Mario, who runs nearby grocery stall, and who, in the course of some tough and selfish talk with Marta, would very much like to take the boy into her care.

In patriarchal/phallocratic societies, women have a fixed role as mothers and wives and are thus are excluded from the forces of production and the circles of power. In Bad Hair, the patriarchal/phallocratic model is challenged by the story's complex representations of gender involving the female/male domestic behaviour of women (the mother and neighbours) and the ambiguous and 'trans-gendered' masculine/feminine attitude of the son, Junior, with his clearly homosexual inclinations. This form of hybridity in emotional behaviour confronts the different forms of sexuality, and the active role that many women play in social life, an issue which in many Latin American societies has been repressed by structures of male dominance.

The struggle for survival on the part of the mother in Bad Hair, as well as that of most of the women who appear throughout the film, is undertaken in a female interior space and determined by the absence of the male. At the same time the mothers themselves also evince a 'masculine' quality, exercising the dual function of players and producers, individuals in a subsistence economy who take on what are traditionally male role in working environments, such as that of a security guard (the mother) or psychologist and dietician (a friend).

Bad Hair thus evokes "the unbreathable atmosphere of a fundamentally violent society. And violence understood almost everything from questions of a lost mother to the unhealthiness of a city hit by diseases such as fear, isolation and stupidity". 1 The intrusion of public life into the private sphere of citizens takes place through television, that instrument of alienation and propagandistic control of mentalities, which also creates great discomfort for the viewer (as in Buñuel's Los Olvidados/The Forgotten, Mexico, 1950). From the perspective of the new Latin American cinema, Bad Hair is, like the films of Buñuel, a "dark family chronicle", depicting a world "devastated by unemployment and poverty, and the constant soundtrack of gunshots and police sirens". 2

A 'Poor' and 'Imperfect' Cinema

With its interests in exploring 'double' identities full of complexity and ambiguity in relation to women's behaviour, the film is then also a type of 'trans-gender' work in progress which follows some of the post-colonial aesthetic principles proposed by Julio Garcia Espinosa in 'For an Imperfect Cinema' (1969), developed in Cuba in the 1970s, and applied to the letter by Sara Gómez in De cierta manera (In a Certain Way, 1974). 3 Following this model, Bad Hair then reflects many of the ethical and political problems that threaten Latin American revolutionary societies.

Shifting between fiction and chronicle, social reality and committed rebellion, the film is not a contemplative work of art but a combative text portraying a society in transformation where the contradictions are part of changing attitudes and roles. From this perspective the film is in intertextual dialogue with the work of Cuban film-makers such as Humberto Solas (Lucia, 1968), Tomas Gutierrez Alea (Memorias del subdesarrollo/Memories of Under development, 1968), and Claudia Guillen (La teta asustada/The Milk of Sorrow, 2009) in Peru, re-framing the revolutionary realities (such as those of sixties Cuba) within the contemporary framework of the 'new' New Left in Latin America, in this case in Venezuela.

In addition to its allegiance to the ethos of 'imperfect cinema', Bad Hair, made on a budget of just 350,000 Euros, is also one of the films that follow the principles of Cine Pobre ('Poor Cinema'), an alternative film festival devoted to lowand no-budget films founded by Humberto Solás in the former colonial town of Gibara in 2003 as an alternative to the Latin American Film Festival based in the capital, La Havana. 'Poor Cinema' proposes a dialogue of dissidence with the traditional chronicles produced by Latin American cinema.

Women, both as film-makers and as filmic characters, are crucial here. It is no coincidence that both the mother of Pedro in The Forgotten and the mother of Junior in Bad Hair bear the same name, Marta. Both are 'masculinised' by having to support the family with their work and their relationship with the fathers, whose absence is ambiguous. So too are their intimate encounters with men, who become little more than objects of female sexual desire.

A Polyphonic and Hybrid Narrative

In terms of narration, Bad Hair deploys characters who develop the dramatic conflict (incorporating into the fiction Marta's difficult working life and the ambiguous affirmation and rejection of heterosexuality on the part of Junior) while the camera also chronicles the wider society in which the characters endure harsh living conditions. Given the multiple focus on different sites of alienation, this polyphonic narrative is in the tradition of hybridity celebrated by 'Imperfect Cinema', with the boundaries between fiction and reality vanishing as fictional characters are seen outdoors participating in an 'improvised' staging which incorporates the everyday world of Venezuelan people (as Tomás Gutiérrez Alea did in Cuba in Memories of Underdevelopment).

Bad Hair also represents a challenge to the male domination identified with Marta's lovers. Where these men are concerned, Martha's sexuality is expressed purely instinctively, devoid of any feeling: the young neighbour she summons with a glance for intense but perfunctory sex, the boss with whom she trades sex in order to get her job back. The sexual act is shown as raw and brutish on two occasions in the course of the film, the gestural expression of bodies in a world of decomposing social conventions and ethical values.

The objectification of the 'male' as an instrument at the service of desire also has another funtcion in the course of the difficult relationship between mother and child. This is depicted in the scene where Martha has sex with her boss in full view of Junior, who has gone to bed. She looks his way, perhaps in a demonstration of the business of heterosexual desire and activity, but he closes his eyes as though sleepinghe does not identify with the heterosexual behaviour expected of him by his mother.

Bad Hair thus becomes an agonising and lapidary chronicle of a polyphony of looks and cold Orwellian images as Big Brother appears on the TV screen in the guise of Hugo Chavez, addressing a speech to the Venezuelan people in a Castro-like lecture, while other revolutionary leaders such Che Guevara and Fidel Castro himself appear in references to an external world, alien to the characters and their daily lives, characterised by an heady mix of politics and religiosity.

The Trans-Cultural Marta

Bad Hair underlines the presence of the mother, Marta, as the producer and host of looks and actions, giving her the status of a 'meta-chronicler' in contrast to her lack of full identity in a society that marginalises women as historical subjects. She becomes an emblem of the masses exploited by political, economic, cultural ideologies and global brands. As a result, Marta becomes a trans-cultural character who works on a symbolic level as an indication of the status of women and the exploited of Latin America who have not been fully recognised as citizens through modern history.

An intense debate in the press and other media followed statements by Mariana Rondón criticising the situation of women in Venezuela and Latin America. Like the women on behalf of whom she was pleading, the film itself was also marginalised, as the paternalistic academic milieu did not consider it as a valid social chronicle: in their view it failed to comply with the rules inherited from traditional literary discourse.

This reinforces the status of Bad Hair as a subaltern chronicle, with its post-colonial perspective on how people live in alienating spaces, suffering domination and oblivion. In the context of Latin American identity, Marta is like another version of Caliban, taking as reference the works of Roberto Fernández Retamar 4 , as well as Fausta, the central character in Guillén's The Milk of Sorrow and any of the trio of Lucías in Humberto Solás's study of three Cuban women of the same name, but from different epochs, in Lucia.

Rondón studied film at the school of San Antonio de los Baños in Cuba, where many directors and theorists of 'Third' Cinema were taught (Fernando Birri, Santiago Alvarez and Fernando Solanas amongst others). Her cinema is a committed denunciation of the political, social, economic and cultural colonisation of Latin America. It is a form of 'guerilla' cinema in which an individual biography is mixed with a biography of the nation. This is also the case in Rondon's Postales de Leningrado (Postcards from Leningrad, 2007) where the director refers to her parents, members of the Venezuelan guerrilla movement, the Armed Forces of National Liberation (FALN), and one of her grandparents who participated in the founding of the Venezuelan Communist Party in 1931. This film portrays children playing games while waiting for the arrival of their absent parents who are fighting with the guerrillas. In Bad Hair, she shows the struggle for survival in the city, where children also play and dream of becoming beauty queens or famous singers, in the absence of parents who are missing, forgotten, or unknown.

Latin American Film History: A Context

In constant dialogue with the urban cinema of the dispossessed, Rondon's film belongs to the tradition of cinema about the exploited in Latin America, looking to the Cuzco school of indigenous cinema, as well as the films of Victor Gabiria (for example La vendedora de rosas/The Rose Seller, Colombia, 1988) and Arturo Ripstein, especially Un lugar sin límites/The Place without Limits (Mexico, 1978), based on the novel by Chile's José Donoso. In the latter the main character, La Manuela -a transvestite played by Roberto Cobo (El Jaibo in Bunuel's The Forgotten) -suffers a violent death in the streets at the hands of the 'male' Pancho, whom he has dared to kiss.

Rondon's film can also be seen in the context of dissident Latin American films dealing with homophobia, such as Hector Babenco's adaptation of the novel by Argentine Manuel Puig, El beso de la mujer araña/Kiss of the Spider Woman (Brazil/USA, 1985), and Cuban revolutionary films such as Nestor Almendros' Conducta impropia/Misconduct (1983), Tomas Guitierrez Alea's Fresa y chocolate/Strawberry and Chocolate (1994), and Fernando Pérez's Suite Habana/Havana Suite (2003), as well as the film adaptation by Julian Schnabel of the autobiography of Reynaldo Arenas, Before Night Falls/Antes que anochezca (USA, 2000).

Equally, Rondon's film can be linked to the cinematic treatment of gender and in particular homosexuality in the transition to democracy in Spain, especially in the work of Catalan Ventura Pons (for example, Ocaña, retrato de un artista intermitente/Ocaña, an Intermittent Portrait, 1978) and the early films of Pedro Almodóvar -Pepi, Luci, Bom, y otras chicas del montón/Pepi, Luci, Bom and Other Girls like Mom (1980), Laberinto de pasiones/Labyrinth of Passion (1982), and La ley del deseo/Law of Desire (1987).

The complex form of hybrid identity proposed in Bad Hair is strongly present, for example, in one of Almodovar's later films, La piel que habito/The Skin I Live In (2011), with its tribute to the French artist Louise Bourgeois concerning sexual ambiguity and the ideas about 'post-gender' identity developed by the American feminist theoretician Judith Butler. In the case of Bad Hair, if the absence of the father is a determining factor for the young Junior and his performance of a feminised masculinity, then the title of the film is marked by a rebellious and politically engaged history in Venezuela and also refers to wider Afro-Caribbean cultures, issues of discrimination, and struggles for identity.

A DiaIogue with Venezuala: Nelly Ramos

The actress who plays Bad Hair's paternal grandmother is Nelly Ramos, the veteran Afro-Venezuelan activist for the rights of black women. She was a founder of el grupo Madera (the 'Wood Group'), a great diffuser of Venezuelan music, dance and folklore, most of whose fifteen Afro-Venezuelan musicians tragically perished on 15 August 1980 when their boat sank in the Orinoco delta during a tour of the indigenous villages of the State of Amazonas. Shortly before the triumph of the film at the San Sebastian Film Festival in September 2013, Venezualan President Nicolás Maduro paid tribute to the group on the 33rd anniversary of their death.

Nelly Ramos is one of the first feminists of the 1970s to demand the social re-integration of impoverished women in areas suffering from deprivation in terms of education, work, health, and so on. Afro-Venezuelan women of The Wood Group emulated the ideas and clothing of women in the Black Power movement in the United States by growing curly hair and re-interpreting black poetry, controversially claiming that the black slave should also be seen as a coloniser by dint of being male and therefore dominant.

As played by Nelly Ramos, in Bad Hair Grandmother Carmen is black -which by tradition makes Junior a mulatto -while his mother is white. From a social perspective the mixture of black and white has almost never been fully accepted in Latin America. Curly hair indeed makes Junior look more 'black' than 'white', more 'barbarian' (following the crude dichotomy between 'civilisation' and 'barbarism' in Latin American thinking). On a broader front the iconic 'Afro' hairstyle has been a way of claiming membership in a committed 'barbarism' which confronts the aesthetic and social values of 'straight-haired' bourgeois society. Junior thus moves in two opposed directions -on the one hand towards a conventional rejection of 'black' hair, and on the other towards an equally unconventional identification of his own sexuality.

From this perspective, Rondón's film is in a fertile dialogue with the longer history of Venezuela, with its minorities, women, blacks, homosexuals, transvestites or members of the 'third sex', vast colonised minorities and all those recognised by Fanon as "the wretched of the earth". 5 Where contemporary values are concerned, we should add, Rondon's film is also a cry of cinematic protest against a Bolivarian Venezuelan revolution which is fraught with contradictions and still marked by the profound cultural biases of paternalism and of the conservative tradition.

Notes and References

1 Luis Martínez, 'Peluquería emocional', El mundo, 14 March 2014, online at http://www.elmundo.es/cultura/2014/03/14/ 5321f699ca474102508b4576.html.

2 Sergi Sánchez, 'Pelo malo', Time Out Barcelona, 14 March 2014, online at http://www.timeout barcelona.es/Barcelona/es/cine/ pelo-malo.

3 Julio García Espinosa, Por un cine imperfecto, Havana: Cinemateca de Cuba/Ediciones ICAIC, 1969.

Roberto Fernáandez Retamar, Todo Calibán, San Juan, PR: Ediciones Callejón, 2002.

Franz Fanon, Les damnés de la terre, Paris : EditionsMaspero, 1961.


Carlos A Rabassó

Martin Briars

Javier Rabassó Fco

Rabassó

Neoma Business School

Fco Javier Rabassó

ROYAL FAMILY BUSINESS IN QATAR AND THE EMIRATES THROUGH SPORTS CLUB MANAGEMENT: "GREEN WASHING" OR A SUSTAINABLE MODEL? THE CASES OF FC BARCELONA AND MANCHESTER CITY

Keywords: family business, global responsibility, sports management, football, sustainability

d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

INTRODUCTION

The first part of this paper will consider the links of Qatar and the Emirates with European Sports Management, proceeding on to a comparative analysis of the key elements which are at the centre of the fundamental responsible principles and actions of FC Barcelona [START_REF] Rabassó | Cultural diversity as a tool for caring and productive resistance. The case of FC Barcelona: A responsible perspective[END_REF] and Manchester City. It is important to keep in mind the different approaches of these two sport institutions in relation to corporate social responsibility, as the national cultures (Catalonia and England) are not the same. The fact that FC Barcelona is considered a symbol of Catalan identity highlights the necessity for this institution to reinforce its brand image through its responsible practices. Networking is, as a result, a common practice of the FC Barcelona Foundation with other global organisations (for example, the United Nations) and national foundations from different countries. The emergence of Manchester City as a global sports brand gave the opportunity to these institutions to sign the United Nations Global Compact 1 and to embrace caring for the game and caring for people, as sport has become a way to get close to the under-privileged.

The second part of this paper seeks to assess how these two clubs are building a sustainable and globally responsible sports organisation and how this can have an impact on the "cleaning up" of the irresponsible images of Qatar and the Emirates. These two countries have received a lot of bad press from the international mass media in relation to the poor labour relations developed in different sectors of their respective economies. "Green washing" [START_REF] Horiuchi | Migrant Workers' Rights on Saadiyat Island in the United Arab Emirates (2015 Progress Report)[END_REF]) is a phrase used by the press when referring to the sports management and mass media operations carried out in the last decade through these sports clubs that are, today, global brands. This expression refers to the corporate marketing strategy and brand culture values many organisations develop through mass media and advertisement to give a responsible image concerning their practices and ethical behaviour. Many times this does not conform to the real profit oriented objectives these corporation have. Accountability and sustainable and responsible practices are sine qua non conditions to see if Qatar and the Emirates' business strategy will be perceived as globally responsible. "Green washing" is understood in this paper as the result of bad sustainable practices and poor ethical behaviour conducted by Qatar and Emirates corporations and governments related to labour conditions, the respect of human rights and political freedom.

The responsible visions of Qatar and the Emirates created through their cultural institutions, foundations, universities and business leaders (Colliers International, 2014) are also important in linking their activities with those of FC Barcelona and Manchester City. Finally, the paper will put forward the possibility for this family business sports organisation (especially Manchester City, but to a lesser extent FC Barcelona, as this club is owned by its "socios" [START_REF] Carter | The Football Manager: A History[END_REF][START_REF] Morrow | The New Business of Football: A Study of Current and Aspirant Football Club Managers[END_REF])) to have a real impact for global change in Middle East societies and the Arab world as the responsible social activities of these sports organisations are becoming a role model for many of the people and corporations in these countries.

QATAR AND THE EMIRATES, EMERGING ECONOMIES PRESENT IN EUROPEAN SPORTS

Culture has been a driving force for change in the Middle East over the last few decades. The internet, sports and global tourism have also had a real impact on the social changes and the business diversification of Qatar and the Emirates (Michie & Oughton, 2005). Over the past 20 years, the House of Thani, the Qatar royal family for the last 150 years, has been very much involved in the art world, in addition to the cultural activities developed by the Qatar Foundation through its multiple universities embracing corporate and scientific responsible projects. Sports, culture, arts and technology are part of the Qatar New Vision 2030 2 which portrays a world of education for all, inviting students and people from all over the world to share and participate in many of the activities held by these new emerging economies. This country already has the most extensive collection of modern Arab art in the world 3 as a way to place its wealth into activities which will attract global investors. The new emerging luxury sector of its economy attracts a global consumer class with high buying power for exclusive products and high quality services. Related to this new vision, sports have been another area where Qatar has been investing a lot of effort and money to improve its country brand image. Qatar Sports Investment (QSI) is a company founded by the Crown Prince and son of the current Emir, Sheikh Tamin bin Hamad Al-Thani 4 (member of the International Olympic Committee), to invest in sports abroad. In 2014, QSI became the major shareholder of Paris 2 QGSDP (Qatar General Secretariat for Development Planning (2011). Qatar National Development Strategy 2011-2016(towards Qatar National Vision 2030) www.gsdp.gov.qa 3 Hassan bin Mohamed bin Ali Al Thani, Sheik Saud's older brother, owns more than 6,300 pieces of modern Arab art (Arabic-Iraqi paintings specially). Saud bin Muhammed Al Thani, another family Al Thani member, is also an art collectionist with many traditional art pieces, manuscripts, jewellery, carpets, and scientific instruments and so on. All of this is exhibited in the Museum of Islamic Art, the National Library, the Natural History Museum and other cultural institutions. The Emir's daughter Al-Mayassa bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani is the most powerful woman in the art world today, as she has the economic resources and her commitment towards developing the art culture of Qatar is one of the most prominent and extensive in the Arab world. The Al-Thani family has spent around 1 billion on Western painting and sculpture over the last two decades and Qatari art buyers make up a quarter of the Middle East's 11 billion art market. 4 He is one of the wealthiest royal family members in the world with a personal fortune of about 2.5 billion dollars. Saint-Germain (PSG). At the same time, his mother, Sheikha Moza bin Nasser, is the head of the Qatar Foundation, one of the major sponsors of FC Barcelona (the logo emblazons the club shirt) with a deal worth 171 million euros, the largest in football history.

Recently, there have been many changes in human resources management practices related to gender discrimination at the workplace in Qatar5 . One of the most important corporations of the country, Qatar Airways has made important decisions to overcome policies that discriminate against women. International pressure has been exerted by mass media and other organisations6 to force the Qatari government to change their human resource behaviour related to female workers. In August 2015 Qatar Airways relaxed controversial policies on firing female workers when they became pregnant or were married within five years of employment 7 . Under the new regulations, women who become pregnant are offered temporary ground jobs and staff can also get married after notifying the company. The company has about 9000 cabin crew and about 7000 are women 8 . On the other hand, working conditions for most of the low paying migrant workers are still difficult. About 1.2 million foreign workers (94 percent of the two million residents are foreigners) come from poor countries or emerging economies like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and the Philippines. Qatar human resource management policies are based on the kafala 9 (sponsorship) system which enables employers to arbitrarily prevent their employees from leaving Qatar and returning to their home country (Qatar Law No. 4, 2009). The consequence of this is labour exploitation, and bad living conditions are the norm in many working environments. Due to international pressure, the Qatari government, from September 2015, is planning to replace this arbitrary labour system by employment contracts which will protect foreign workers from abusive employers10 .

The Abou Dabi Emir, Khalifa ben Zayed Al Nahyane, also president of United Arab Emirates, owns several football clubs around the world through his holding City Football Group (SWF Institute, 2008;[START_REF] Singh | Race for Dubai is an exciting development[END_REF]. His fortune is the second highest in the Persian Gulf and he is the 17th richest man in the world with $19 billion in 201411 . His interest in investing in international football started in 2008 as a way of promoting the brand image of the Emirates as a "sports country" (Madichie, 2009a). The Abu Dhabi United Group (ADUG) bought Manchester City for 259 million euros from the previous owner, the former Thai Prime Minister in exile, Thaksin Shinawatra [START_REF] Rodenbeck | Buying the world[END_REF]. In May 2013, ADUG also bought a franchise football team in the United States, the New York City Football Club, a satellite club of Manchester City. In January 2014, ADUG bought the Melbourne City Football Club in Australia for US$12 million. In May 2014, ADUG acquired its fourth football club, the Yokohama F. Marinos in Japan (Madichie, 2009b).

Khaldoon Khalifa Al Mubarak, a top business manager in the Emirates, in 2008 became the chairman of Manchester City (UAE Yearbook, 2007a;UAE Yearbook, 2007b). In 2011 the club hired the former vice-president of FC Barcelona, Ferrán Soriano, who left the club after Joan Laporta finished his second term as president of the Catalan institution. Before going to Manchester, Soriano was the president of Spainair, a Spanish airline company. Today Soriano is the CEO of Manchester City as well as the president of New York City FC and Melbourne City FC. The links between these two, FC Barcelona and Manchester City, have become very close, as the royal families and the management teams, as well as some players (for example Yaya Touré), are interrelated in their activities. Soriano, like Khalifa Al Mubarak, was educated in top business schools around the world (Tufts University in Boston for Al Mubarak, ESADE in Barcelona for Soriano) so their corporate vision becomes crucial to developing a new responsible brand image for these sports organisations. The former FC Barcelona Sports "technical" director with Joan Laporta and Ferrán Soriano, "Txiki" Begiristain, a former player of Johan Cruyff's Dream Team (the first Barcelona side to win the European Cup, in 1992), also moved to Manchester City in 2012 to take up the equivalent position he had held at FC Barcelona.

The strategy of Khalifa ben Zayed Al Nahyane and Khalifa Al Mubarak towards international football is very similar to the one developed by the Qatari royal family. In the Emirates only 18 per cent of the population are national citizens.

With the 82 per cent of immigrants, the total population is only 2.6 million, with a very high income per capita ($65,000) and a very low female population (24 per cent). The reputation of the Emirates concerning labour conditions has been severely criticised around the world due to the high number of work accidents, the lack of security and rest for its workers, the confiscation of their passports and the heavy debt many people accumulate due to the expensive and hard living conditions (small rooms, lack of drinking water and electricity in many houses, poor eating habits and insufficient health care) (Human Rights Watch, 2012) 12 . Sixty-five per cent of their workers are Indians or Pakistanis who suffer discrimination as well as exploitation with long working hours and very little rest time. The consequence has been many riots led by overworked immigrants demanding more humane conditions and fairness in the workplace 13 . All of this is part of a larger negative image the Emirates suffered during the last decade, despite the efforts of many corporations to implement better working conditions to allow foreign investors to consider the country for their future business strategies 14 . International tourism has been another key factor in the development of the Emirates as an attractive tourist luxury destination. This is one of the main reasons why sports and culture have a key role to play in improving the brand image of the country. Local satellites of the Louvre, the Guggenheim and the British Museum have been included in Abu Dhabi's mega cultural projects, as well as many international sports events to attract the attention of global media. Art works of global artists, such as the Japanese Takashi Murakami or the French Louise Bourgeois, have been exhibited in Qatar as a part of sending a message to the world about the new funders of culture and sports entertainment in this part of the world (UAE Yearbook, 2008).

12 "Hundreds of thousands of male workers -primarily from India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and Bangladesh -migrate to Qatar to work as low-rage laborers on construction projects", (Human Rights Watch, 2012, p.2) 13 Seventy-one workers from Bangladesh demanding better wages, social benefits and living conditions were threatened with deportation to their original country after the riots. The government is not willing to negotiate not matter what and the priority is always given to the nationals. Many corporations are threatened by the authorities about the contracts signed with the foreigners. Human Right Watch and Amnesty International have been denouncing in their annual reports this situation. Reporters without Borders placed the Emirates as a country in the 114 th position in the world for freedom of the press.

FOOTBALL, BRANDING AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY, TOOLS FOR BRAND COUNTRY IMAGE IN THE MIDDLE EAST

The business models [START_REF] Osterwalder | Business Model Generation: A Handbook for Visionaries, Game Changers, and Challengers[END_REF] of the two sport organisations selected for this study reflect the increasing concern about building up a globally responsible brand image [START_REF] Betz | Strategic business models[END_REF][START_REF] Lunn | Using business models and revenue streams for digital marketplace success[END_REF]Andreff & Staudobar, 2000). Each club will rely on its past and its environment to reinforce, through its media strategy, the strength and values of a corporate sports culture that wants to make a difference in relation to competitors (Amit & Zott, 2001: 511;[START_REF] Armistead | Resource activity mapping: The value chain in service operations strategy[END_REF][START_REF] Stabell | Configuring Value for Competitive Advantage: On Chains, Shops, and Networks[END_REF] 15 . FC Barcelona puts forward the idea of being "more than a club" as it is an institution of the Catalan culture and identity. Manchester City looks at its surroundings and is trying to develop a sustainable model with the people and the social conditions of a province in England that has witnessed the impoverishment of a large part of the population and the privatisation of many of its social services and infrastructures under the dominance of a neoliberal model which has benefited, as in many other countries, only a minority.

These two sports organisations are part of a larger global sports environment where marketing and branding have provided corporations and an elite of top managers and shareholders with huge profits, taking advantage of deregulation, downsizing, outsourcing and the emergence of a productive majority in emerging countries [START_REF] Brady | Managing in the Talent Economy: The Football Model for Business[END_REF]. Most of the workers in the factories of Asia for instance are sports fans of many of these football teams, so they become consumers buying their shirts and many of the items that bring a huge amount of money to these institutions. At the same time, a global consumer class [START_REF] Jones | Location and Survival in the National Hockey League[END_REF][START_REF] Baimbridge | Satellite Television and the demand for Football: A whole new Ball game?[END_REF]Dobson & Goddard, 1996;[START_REF] Janssens | Belgian Football Attendances[END_REF]Wilson & Sim, 1995;[START_REF] Gardner | The State of Consumption Today, State of the World (The Consumer Society)[END_REF][START_REF] Nielsen | Consumer Confidence, 1st Quarter[END_REF] is willing to spend part of their revenue on many of the symbolic brands that surround the teams, as advertisements portray a picture of the world that conforms to the interest and objectives of the corporations operating around sports. Because of this, "green washing" 16 could be the other side of a truly "responsible" strategy in the business environment of these sports organisations and the corporations that surround them. Michael Moore in his film The Big One asked Philip Knight, the founder and CEO of Nike, one of the main sponsors of FC Barcelona, if he could go with him to Indonesia to see the living conditions of the workers producing Nike shoes. Knight apparently did not even know about it and did not give much importance to the political and social conditions of the country. This is a clear example of how global corporations surrounding sports have been pressurised to become, like many financial managers, globally responsible against the abuses, crimes and unethical behaviour of the business environment for the last twenty years [START_REF] Wells | Corporations and Criminal Responsibility[END_REF] 17 . An alienating "globalitarianism", a new economic neoliberal ideology, as Paul Virilio pointed out (2000: 38), has become extremely powerful with the help of technology, branding and advertising. The global population has embraced sport as a highly entertaining way of life, and as a consequence, the overuse of Facebook, Twitter and Instagram have become helpful tools for corporations as many people fall into the trap of overconsumption. The players of many of these football teams have also become money makers, participating in the marketing campaigns and the commercials that are posted all over the world on television channels, internet and public screens that are increasing exponentially in our cities.

Philip K. Dick anticipated in Minority Report a city environment where the ads were directed at people as they were wired or connected online permanently (Dick, 2002). This is becoming a common practice in our science fiction reality today as sports have a very important role to play in the "entertainment" industry, a great tool for global corporations to imprison former citizens in a new space of permanent consumption. "Green washing" becomes, therefore, another tool to give corporations a clean image for their practices. Consequently, our planet has been polluted physically (as most of the consumption products are not recyclable) and mentally (with the overuse of advertising, a kind of cultural terrorism our corporations practise on a daily basis over alienated audiences). Younger generations become amnesic about their local history and the contribution of their people through arts and humanities and yet most of the people have a very sophisticated knowledge about brands and football global "heroes" in a new branded world (a term used by Naomi Klein in No Logo [START_REF] Klein | No Logo[END_REF] towards cultural diversity and environmental issues, had also become part of the discourse of responsible organisations. A "maternalistic" concern about people through "caring for children, caring for the world" gave sports organisations the possibility of contributing to global change with the actions all over the world by their foundations and corporate sponsors. Networking with other caring organisations 18 is part of their strategy for improving the social and economic conditions of many people in different parts of the planet. In this part of the paper it is necessary to look at the values, actions and identities of these two football organisations to understand the true meaning and authenticity that lies behind their actions, and how the Qatar and the Emirates royal families can contribute to the well-being of the planet.

FC BARCELONA AND MANCHESTER CITY, TWO COMMITTED FOOTBALL TEAMS THROUGH THEIR SOCIAL ACTIVITIES

The histories of FC Barcelona and Manchester City vary as these two clubs have very different pasts concerning responsible actions. It is important to bear in mind the fact that FC Barcelona is owned by its almost 160,000 members (socios), who elect a management team every four years. 19 The profits of this sports organisation are reinvested in the expansion of the club as the "owners" receive no dividend, and the management team is accountable to the socios. Qatar's royal family does not own the team, as it does with Paris Saint Germain, so its interest to invest in the club is not only for economic profitability (as could happen with Qatar Airlines) but for building up their country's brand image through sports. The FC Barcelona Foundation allows its corporate partners to contribute to the expansion and practice of corporate global responsibility with activities directed at local communities and children in many countries around the world. Children who project their lives onto the actions of their football heroes like Messi or Neymar, global sports role models who contribute also with their foundation to the improvement of the social conditions of poor people living in developing countries.

The FC Barcelona Foundation operates on different levels. A part of its activities is realised in Catalonia, in 60 schools and poor areas with cultural diversity and integration difficulties. Fifteen thousand students have participated in activities such as the "Barça Kids" project. The Foundation operates in 73 per cent of the territory. Sport is a great tool to educate children about responsible behaviour and giving them the motivation to become better citizens. The values promoted through its activities are strength, respect, team work, modesty and ambition. The activities of "Joves Solidaris" have involved 1,000 teenagers with more than 40 projects benefiting more than 100,000 children. More than 4,000 disabled children attended the FC Barcelona first team's training session with more than 600 boys and girls meeting their heroes, the professional players. "Fútbol Net" has been teaching the Foundation values to 28,000 children in Catalonia and more than 100,000 around the world. The project "Som el que mengen" (we are what we eat) has promoted healthy eating habits to the 25,000 people (through access to the website someelquemangemfc.cat). For FC Barcelona, caring for children is a way of caring for the world from a responsible global perspective.

In 2014, FC Barcelona Foundation celebrated its 20th birthday. During these two decades this sport organisation has accomplished many responsible activities, most of them related to children and forging new alliances. On a larger scale, the FC Barcelona Foundation is present in 70 locations and 30 countries around the world collaborating with other international organisations including UNICEF, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the International Olympic Committee, the Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID), the Fundación Leo Messi, the Instituto Projecto Neymar Jr (INJR) and the Fundación Pies Descalzos (founded by Shakira). Since its beginnings, the FC Barcelona Foundation can count more than 400,000 beneficiaries. The slogan "with values, you win" has been a driving force to involve boys and girls in education through sports with projects like FutbolNet which has had great success in Qatar, and also in other Middle East and African countries. The Caring Youth project has given teenagers the possibility to build up confidence, self-respect, creativity and entrepreneurship in many different places. The Foundation has a strong online presence. In the 2013/2014 season the Foundation Facebook had more than 515,000 friends, many of them caring for the activities and the values promoted by it.

FC Barcelona signed a six-year collaboration deal with Qatar Foundation in December 2010 worth 180 million euros (30 million every year starting in the season 2011-2012). The UNICEF logo was replaced by the Qatar Foundation logo on the club shirt, and two years later for Qatar Airways. The deal expires in 2016 and will probably not be renewed, as the brand image has suffered in the last few years due to international media accusations of Qatar financing terrorist groups, as well as the already mentioned exploitation of many emigrants living there20 and the corruption scandal that surrounded the election of Qatar for the World Cup in 2022. However, the Qatar Foundation excelled in higher education, sciences and community development, aspects that are also part of FC Barcelona activities. Founded in 1995 by the Emir Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, the President is his second wife Mozah bin Nasser al-Missned. Half of the FC Barcelona socios agreed to end ties with Qatar (the Foundation as well as Qatar Airways), the sooner the better.

Manchester City has had a long history of struggle and recognition as an important team in England as their eternal rival, Manchester United, won most of the credit as the team of the city, and one of the best teams in England and the world of football (Shindler, 1998). For most of its supporters, following Manchester City has been like riding a gigantic 40-year roller coaster, as the club itself has repeatedly fallen, staggered, risen, and fallen even lower before rising once more [START_REF] Shindler | Manchester City Ruined My Life[END_REF]. The team was stricken by a disease that former player and manager, Joe Royle, termed "Cityitis"21 , which can best be described as a fatal flaw all City teams have of shooting themselves in the foot and letting the fans down and in for another bout of depression; it is a kind of loser mentality that is aptly noted by the resonating phrase from City supporters, "typical City", destined never to win, and always to lose out, and generally to United. In England following a football club is like being a tribe member, with rituals, songs and heroes22 . To follow a football team is deeply engrained in British culture. It represents a need to belong, to belong to a club, to be part of a group. However, the Manchester City of 2015 is a club looking at financial security and a sustainable future. The supporters now are not only the 40,000+ from the local areas around Manchester who regularly attend the games; they are from all corners of the world. This is because the English Premier League has become a global brand, a global product, worth billions of pounds.

MANCHESTER CITY'S NEW BUSINESS AND RESPONSIBLE STRATEGIES

The overhaul of the club since Sheikh Mansour took over the reins in 2008, has been phenomenal. The colour blue hasn't changed, but it is now synonymous with success, stability and perhaps more importantly, sustainability. All the reports from the City camp talk about the sustainable business model. But is there more to the investment? Why would a multi-billionaire Arab prince take over a relatively unsuccessful English football club? On a wider view the Arab states are taking over the sporting world in a big way -from TV sports rights (BeIn sports) to hosting the World Cup in 2022, the Qatar F1, cycling and the prospective Olympics bid, plus the investment and partnerships at FCB, PSG, Malaga FC to name a few. According to the BBC, the purchase of City is simply one more acquisition and investment aiming to see the country through the inevitable post gas and oil period -when the current source of wealth runs out 23 . The list of business deals, acquisitions and constructions around the globe as well as in the home UAE states of Qatar, Abu Dhabi and Dubai, is phenomenal -a new Louvre museum, a new Guggenheim, hosting a whole range of major sporting events, negotiated sponsorship and sports club deals from Melbourne to New York, via Milan, Manchester, London, Paris and Madrid.

When Sheikh Mansour bought the club, his advisor, Sulaiman Al Fahim, arrived from Dubai and made his boisterous comments that the new owner had unlimited wealth and could buy any player he wanted (Conn, 2013: 89-90). Al Fahim's bold and boisterous statements, bordering on arrogance, did not reveal Abu Dhabi in a positive light, and the current Chairman Kaldoon Al Mubarak was sent to replace him 24 . Oil has generated incredible wealth into the UAE -an estimated 2.7m barrels a day, at $100/barrel, means the country with a population of a mere 400,000 is earning something like $100 billion per yearand this is just the oil, not the investments (Conn, 2013: 84). Al Mubarak has many functions today, and running Manchester City FC is only a minor role. Perhaps most interestingly, he chairs the EAA (Executive Affairs Authority), which provides key strategic advice to the Crown Prince, Sheikh Mohammed. One of the EAA's roles is to generate a vision for the country's development as far ahead as 2030. Put simply, this involves providing a brand image for Abu Dhabi through its diplomatic and international relations, such as its ties with the United Nations. The role is similar to that of a PR/image management consultancy. In a nutshell, the person responsible for the image of Abu Dhabi is also responsible for the image of Manchester City. Al Mubarak is at pains to point out through his interviews with City TV 25 , City's in-house media channel, that when Sheikh Mansour purchased City, it was a private investment; he used his own personal funds, and the Abu Dhabi government did not buy Manchester City.

23

Ben Smith writing for BBC Sport online, 24 November, 2014 http://www.bbc.com/sport/0/football/30180206 24 Kaldoon Al Mubarak is a visible symbol of the reliability and assertiveness the club had been lacking for so long. Born and raised in Abu Dhabi, he studied in Boston before starting to work for the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company. 25 The Sheikh is first and foremost a fan of football; so, when the chance to buy a PL club arose, he could not resist. The Sheikh is already involved with Al Jazira FC in Abu Dhabi, but City is the real deal so to speak. Al Mubarak is clear and consistent on this point and cites the letter of introduction made available to City supporters at the time 26 that Sheikh Mansour is a football fan with a keen eye for business, and buying City offered a perfect investment opportunity in a growing football market:

He (Sheikh Mansour) is an astute businessman; he also believes you can create a value proposition in football that has not yet been accomplished… It's a great ride, a great journey, but there is also a business sense that we can create a franchise, a business, over years, which will create value and reap a long-term return (Conn, 2013: 91).

What is clear is that Manchester City has become a vehicle for the values of Abu Dhabi. The Chairman says that buying the club has brought so much more media attention than any of the other multi-million pound deals in which the Sheikh or the country has been involved. With the estimated £1 billion invested by Sheikh Mansour so far in the club, the measurable return recently published in El Sport indicates a fan base growth of 523 per cent -the highest of any club, doubling that of Bayern Munich [START_REF] Jefferson | Man City's fan base grows 523% as rivals Man Utd see worrying 19% drop off[END_REF] 27 .

The City Of Manchester Stadium, built by the City Council, using £127m of public money, was one of the few positive points about the club when Kaldoon Al Mubarak flew in to investigate what the Sheikh had actually bought. City did not have to spend anything on the stadium. The fact that the Council had a sustainable legacy for its Commonwealth stadium made the investment put into building it (with public money and lottery funding) worthwhile. The now named Etihad Stadium is surrounded with advertising to persuade viewers to 'Visit Abu Dhabi' where 'tourists are welcome' and to fly with Etihad Airways direct from Manchester. It is not aimed at the average spectator at City -it is aimed at the global audience. So if there is no success on the playing field, there is no audience for the ads -alongside the global brands Nike, Hays Employment, Nissan, there is a range of Abu Dhabi companies present: Etisalat, the Middle East, Asia, and Africa telecom company; the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix; Abar, an oil and gas investment company; and simply the country itself -Abu Dhabi, which 'welcomes travellers'; and of course, you can fly there with Etihad Airways, itself [START_REF] Jefferson | Man City's fan base grows 523% as rivals Man Utd see worrying 19% drop off[END_REF] owned by the Al Nahyan family of Sheikh Mansour, as all state enterprises, which paid £350m for the ten-year deal to have its name on the shirts, the stadium and the new Academy. Interestingly, the Sheikh turned down the chance to buy the stadium outright and instead agreed to double the £2m per year fee paid to the council in order to allow the name to be changed to the Etihad Stadium -the naming rights of the stadium belonging to the City Council. Sheikh Mansour has his country's airline sponsor his own personal club. Manchester City's business model, according to the Chairman, is on target and will break even by 2014, and be making a profit by 2015 because the investment is sustainable. The Council also entered into a deal with Mansour's Abu Dhabi United Group to build 6,000 new homes in a £1 billion deal. This is taking football to a new level as the Sheikh enters into a social redevelopment beyond sport. Sir Richard Leesen, the Manchester City Council leader said, "The planned transformation of the eastern edge of the City Centre is the single biggest residential investment Manchester has seen for a generation" [START_REF] Jupp | City owner and council to build 6,000 new homes in £1bn deal[END_REF] 28 . As David Conn points out, all this investment from an Abu Dhabi based multibillionaire prince is set against a backdrop of a city where rate capping, cuts and a huge public spending decrease have decimated the city and its services over the past 10 years.

The English Indices of Deprivation published by the government in 2010 and due to be updated for the summer of 2015, ranks Manchester as the fourth most deprived local authority in England. So as the Commonwealth pool remains open, and the City Academy sets to flourish, local parks and pools are left unattended and closed (Conn, 2015: 321-2). The area of East Manchester has been a difficult area to invest in -even after the 2002 Games. The areas are poor, and with the recent recession, employment high. Thirty-two per cent of the population receives a welfare benefit of some kind, which is double the national average (for Manchester, as a whole, the figure is 22 per cent) (Conn, 2015: 323). The Abu Dhabi United Group investment really is welcome news for the city; and the revival package proposed by the Abu Dhabi United Group would appear much more savoury than the Super Casino project applied for and sanctioned by the City Council in 2008, which was thought better of by the then Labour government. The Sheikh, an extremely rare visitor to Manchester, has decided to pump £1 billion of his own personal wealth, whatever his motives, into one of the most deprived areas of England (Conn, 2013: 93) 29 . Information taken from the website of the Urban Planning Council of Abu Dhabi certainly reads like the template for the transformation of Manchester City FC. The key word is sustainability -social, economic, social and cultural, with a plan of action to 2030 30 .

Mansour confirmed he had a long-term vision for the club 31 . From a business perspective, in Mansour's and Al Marabek's world, everything is planned. The aim when taking over was to turn City into a successful team capable of regularly challenging for football's biggest prizes. This required an initial investment of millions to refurbish the training facilities, set up a real business-like organisation, a professional company. Al Marabek was astounded at the lack of a human resources department or a financial officer, though the club employed 130 staff. The 2014 Annual Report 32 states that City now employs 112 playing staff and 202 commercial and administration staff. City is also a global company today and worldwide employs 412 employees, with offices in New York, Melbourne and Kuala Lumpur. The business model by definition, therefore, is one of sustainability. It is an organic organisation and people-oriented, in typical Arab management style [START_REF] Lewis | The Cultural Imperative: Global Trends in the 21st Century[END_REF]. In his book, Lewis claimed that in order for the Western style management model to continue to succeed economically, it needed to adapt and adopt some of the values of the Arab, and Asian world 29 Al Mubarak says quite clearly that the City investment is "telling a lot to the world about how we are…the true essence of who Abu Dhabi is and what Abu Dhabi is about. There is almost a personification of the values we hold as Abu Dhabi, with the values of the club and the values we would like to stick to. This is something new, something we didn't really plan for, but is becoming an important part of this. The values are loyalty, commitment, discipline, long-term thinking…look at everything we do in Abu Dhabi; the respect side of it, the appreciation of history, understatement." 30 The UPC has developed the Abu Dhabi 2030 Urban Structure Framework Plan to optimize the city's development through a 25-year program of urban evolution. In doing so, it is laying the foundations for a socially cohesive and economically sustainable community that preserves the Emirate's unique cultural heritage. This foresight to plan for infrastructure ahead of time is a key example of visionary governance. See QGSDP (Qatar General Secretariat for Development Planning (2011), www.gsdp.gov.qa. 31 "[Chairman] Khaldoon [al-Mubarak] has spoken publicly about a 10-year horizon for the development of the club," he said. "That kind of horizon has to be based on solid foundations and has to contribute to the soul of the club. The kind of investments we are making today will pay their own dividends over time through the club's performances.

That in particular, with growing feminine values in masculine oriented societies 33 . He probably never anticipated the arrival of the actual ownership of Western institutions and companies and football clubs to the extent we are seeing. Today everyone at City is involved, and has a deep sense of loyalty to the club. The old staff members were kept on and the fan-base harnessed into feeling a part of the project when Mansour took over. The fans have been involved via Twitter in voting for the man of the match in real time, to voting for the player of the month and contributing to the website. The fans were treated as valued members -first time ticket buyers were called up by an after-sales service to ask how the experience had been. Mansour and Al Marabek, and the then heads of football development (Cook and Marwood), certainly understood that without the fan base there is no football club [START_REF] Conn | Sheikh Mansour convinced of potential of 'sleeping giant[END_REF] 34 .

CONCLUSION

The relationship between Qatar and Paris Saint Germain [START_REF] Dietschy | Le Paris-Saint-Germain dans le football français et européen[END_REF] is not studied is this paper as the deal between the royal family and this Parisian sports organisation is more recent (Deloitte, 2015). It will be necessary to wait a few years to see how the very recent responsible actions of this new French football brand will have become more international and whether there is an increase in the number of global supporters. The idea of linking the PSG with the city of Paris is at the heart of the Qatar royal family's business strategy to expand in Europe [START_REF] Kuypers | Winners and Losers: The Business Strategy of Football[END_REF]. The Qatar royal family not only has the interest of investing in European sports, but also in recruiting coaches and players from European teams for their national sports competitions and the national team 35 . This kind of strategy has allowed Qatar's sports and national teams to gain world recognition as well as international coverage, which reinforces the country's brand image in the Middle East and around the world.

Once the activities and commitments of the royal families from the United Arab Emirates and Qatar have been referred to as responsible corporate actions and behaviours, it is important to keep in mind the original purpose of this work, which is to try to determine whether the activities of the Qatar and Emirates 33 See Geert Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions, http://geert-hofstede.com, and refer to Middle East Countries. 34 "(The vision for the club) has to be based on solid foundations and has to contribute to the soul of the club. The kind of investments we are making today will pay their own dividends over time through the club's performances. That will be its own reward" 35 It is the case of most of the players and the coach, Valerio Ribera (former coach of FC Barcelona and the Spanish national handball teams) defending Qatar's colours in the last world handball championship held in Qatar in 2015. The same is true of Raul González, the most emblematic player of Real Madrid, and Xavi Hernández, the greatest national FC Barcelona player in history, both hired by Al Sadd team for the 2015-2016 season.

royal families are honestly related to becoming responsible global leaders in countries with a long history of injustice, inequality and lack of democratic principles (Human Rights Watch, 2015) 36 . The practice of global responsibility from the Qatar and Emirates elites would anticipate the emergence of an economy of "well-being" in the Middle East and not simply an economy of production and consumption of manufactured goods and "consent" (in reference to Noam Chomsky's findings about the role of the media in developing a kind of thought control over the masses as the democratic systems do not prioritise the needy, with the expectation of voting for irresponsible leaders unconcerned with others) 37 . If "green washing" has become a trade mark of many corporations dealing with corporate social responsibility, it is important to keep in mind the amount of control mechanisms and access to information we have today. This is a crucial factor considering the "true" social behaviour of many corporations, as media and the organised civil society (NGOs for instance) put strong pressure for accountability and ethical behaviour on these very same organisations Qatar and the Emirates operate. The fact that FC Barcelona is not renewing its sponsorship deal with Qatar in 2016 reflects the need for these two countries to make rapid change as the world media highlights immediately any wrong movement. If the oil industry is in a progressive recession, the only alternative for these countries is to clear the bad reputation related to CSR they have accumulated over the past decades with actions that make a clear statement about an emerging caring economy and solidarity. From this perspective, "green washing" does not seem an alternative for the royal families of Qatar and the Emirates to obtain sympathy from international public opinion (Advance Agenda, 2014). The responsible practices of sports organisations like FC Barcelona and Manchester City are factors to consider for the implementation of radical change in these societies in transition today.

36

The regulations governing the kafala (sponsorship) system, which operates in all of the states of the Gulf Cooperative Council, ties a foreign worker's residence and work permit to his or her employer, or "sponsor," and restricts a worker's ability to change employers, on penalty of deportation. The initial purpose of the kafala system was to make Gulf nationals responsible for the conduct of the foreign workers they employed.17 Although it is not codified into the UAE's 1980 Labour Law, various Ministry of Labour resolutions outline the process for obtaining and transferring work permits for migrant workers (Human Rights Watch, 2015, pp.21-22) 37 Mark Achbar, a Canadian filmmaker, analyses Chomskys' ideas in Manufacturing Consent. Noam Chomsky and the Media (1992).

  14 "Workplace injuries are the third highest cause of accidental deaths in Qatar."(Human Rights Watch, 2012, p.4) Royal Family Business in Qatar and The Emirates through Sports Club Management: "Green Washing" on a Sustainable Model? The Case of FC Barcelona and Manchester City

2015 IJES VOL 23 NO 2

Page 11

  that has come to materialise the prophecies of dystopian writers like Aldous Huxley (Brave New World), GeorgeOrwell (1984) and RayBradbury (Fahrenheit 451). this apocalyptic global environment, a growing concern for sustainability and honest responsible behaviour from managers and corporations had become a demand from responsible consumers and civil society through NGOs and alternative media. The education of children through sports, with ethical values Royal Family Business in Qatar and The Emirates through Sports Club Management: "Green Washing" on a Sustainable Model? The Case of FC Barcelona and Manchester City

	Before 2015 IJES VOL 23 NO 2	Page 13

  18 Following the Blackwell Encyclopedia of Management, www.blackwellreference.com, a caring organisation is one whose values and practices are consistent with, and supportive of, an ethic of care. An ethic of care focuses on the self as connected to others, as Carol Gilligan points out in In a DifferentVoice (1982).

19

In the season

[START_REF] Conn | Richer Than God[END_REF]-2014, FC Barcelona had 153,458 members. 113,981 men (74,27%)

and 39,477 women (25,73%). 59.948 lived in

Barcelona and 80.130 in Catalonia. 13,380 lived outside Catalonia (ref. Memoria FC Barcelona, 2013-2014)

.

  Chairman interview appeared on City TV 19 May 2014 at 7.11pm http://www.mcfc.co.uk/citytv/interviews/2014/may/khaldoon-interview-i/ http://www.mcfc.co.uk/citytv/Interviews/2014/May/Khaldoon-Interview-II Royal Family Business in Qatar and The Emirates through Sports Club Management: "Green Washing" on a Sustainable Model? The Case of FC Barcelona and Manchester City

	2015 IJES VOL 23 NO 2	Page 17

  It is suggested that City have gained 72.5m more fans in China, 34.6m in Indonesia, 24.5m in Mexico and 10.1m in United Kingdom."

	Sheikh	Mansour's	« Letter	of	Introduction »	available	online :
	http://www.mcfc.co.uk/news/club-	news/archive/2008/september/a-letter-from-
	sheikh-mansour (September 2008)
	27 "

See the Qatar's Fouth National Development Report. Realising Qatar National Vision 2030. The Right to Development published in June 2015.

The International Labour Office Governing Body, in the 324 th Session in Geneva, on June 13 2015, presented a report of the Director General about discrimination at the work place in Qatar (GB.324/INS/7/9).

Staff writer, 'Qatar said to agree changes to kafala system for foreign workers', arabianbusiness.com, Friday, September

2015. http://www.arabianbusiness.com/qatar-said-agree-changes-kafala-system-for-foreignworkers-605876.html 11 See www.forbes.com for the list of the 20 top richest football team owners in the world.

"A business model depicts the content, structure, and governance of transactions designed so as to create value through the exploitation of business opportunities"(Amit & Zott, 2001, p.515)

"Green washing" is understood as the act of misleading consumers regarding the environmental practices of a company or the environmental benefits of a product or service.

More than 2,000 workers have died because of the heavy and unhealthy working conditions in the last few years building the infrastructures for the 2022 World Cup.

Colin Shindler, Manchester City Ruined My Life, Ch1.

'The Soccer Tribe' by Desmond Morris, an analysis of the psychology and behaviour of sports fans.

"Building thousands of quality new homes will be a fundamental part of our growth story and will deliver significant socioeconomic impact. We look forward to working with Abu Dhabi United Group to create a world-class exemplar of regeneration. ADUG, through Manchester City Football Club, has come to know Manchester City Council's vision for regeneration and its ability to deliver major initiatives effectively"[START_REF] Jupp | City owner and council to build 6,000 new homes in £1bn deal[END_REF].