Fabio Carella¹

Folco Soffietti¹

Federico Fabbri¹

Tecla Maggioni²

Anastasia Charitou³

Delphine Thibaud⁴

Joan Gonzalvo⁵

Simone Panigada⁵

Elena Politi⁵

Dimitra Katsada³

Antonios Mazaris⁶

Georgia Pozoukidou⁶

Marilena Papageorgiou⁶

Jordi Sánchez²

Andreu Dalmau²

Francesco Musco¹

KEY CONCEPTS OF INTEGRATED OCEAN MANAGEMENT

In September 2021, members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature met in France for the World Conservation Congress and approved a much-anticipated motion to support the target of effectively and equitably conserving and protecting at least 30% of land and ocean by 2030, known as 30x30. This motion calls on all components of IUCN to support the conservation target, with a focus on sites of particular importance for biodiversity, in well-connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) by 2030, in the post-2020 global biodiversity framework. In 2015, an area-based ocean conservation target was included amongst the UN Sustainable Development Goals, recognizing the pivotal role of IOM. Sustainable Development Goal 14 Life Below Water reasserted the need to "conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development". Specifically, Target 14.5 states: "by 2020, conserve at least 10% of coastal and marine areas, consistent with national and international law and based on the best available scientific information which will be measured by 'coverage of protected The Mediterranean Sea, yet occupying just a small portion of the global ocean, hosts approximately 7% of the marine biodiversity and it is considered a hotspot for economic development. In the Mediterranean, there is a complex socioeconomic framework including a diversified pool of maritime activities that depend on and interact with the coastal and marine ecosystems. The use of ecosystem services and resources by society plays a fundamental role in the Mediterranean economy and the livelihood of coastal populations. In this context, Integrated Ocean Management (IOM) is recognized to be crucial to sustainable development in the Mediterranean and more in general, worldwide. Managing our common ocean with an Integrated Approach has been front and centre of many initiatives at the global level. In 2010, Contracting Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted the so-called 'Aichi targets' to achieve global biodiversity conservation. Target 11 specifically provides that "by 2020, at least 17 percent of terrestrial and inland water, and 10 percent of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well-connected systems of protected areas and FOREWORD Foreword 11 areas in relation to marine areas" 2 . The increasing need for a holistic, ecosystem-based, and knowledge-based overarching approach that ensures the sustainability and resilience of marine ecosystems has reached the top of the international agenda thanks to the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021-2030. This initiative (hereafter, the 'Ocean Decade') was proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in December 2017, and it seeks a revolution in the way we do ocean science. Boosting the generation of qualitative and quantitative ocean knowledge, it is aimed at informing the development of solutions to achieve the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, with a focus on SDG 14. This initiative envisages a mobilization of the scientific community, governments, private sectors, and civil society around a common research and technological innovation agenda. The Ocean Decade vision is captured in the motto "the Science we need for the ocean we want", providing a "once in a lifetime" opportunity for nations to work together to create the global ocean science needed to support sustainable development and management of our shared ocean. In doing so, the Ocean Decade shall transition us from the 'ocean we have' to the 'ocean we want', that is clean, healthy, safe, resilient, productive, predicted, accessible, inspirational and engaging. In parallel, a transformative change in the way society values the ocean is envisaged. To do so, the Ocean Literacy approach will be a key tool to incite behavior change, towards having by 2030 a society that is fully aware of the importance of the ocean for our life. This publication was built in the context of the MARINE_ECOMED Erasmus + European Project through the collaboration of experts from different Mediterranean regions. This Handbook is intended to provide an overview of the IOM topic, its development in the Mediterranean and it includes a description of some of the most representative projects in the form of replicable good practices. By gathering an inclusive look at the challenges and achievements of IOM in the Mediterranean context, the Handbook is meant to support its understanding and implementation in the future. The knowledge provided seeks to boost the replication and adaptation of IOM, despite the different geographical contexts in which it will be planned and established.

What is the purpose of this Handbook?

This Handbook aims to provide an overview of the Integrated Ocean Management (IOM) topic and its state of implementation in the Mediterranean, through an ecosystem approach and targeted communication strategies. To complement the knowledge and understanding of IOM, a series of good practices relevant to the subject are presented. Several case studies have been collected from research and environmental conservation organizations, to provide a comprehensive overview of different approaches that can be adapted and replicated in different geographical contexts.

Who should be interested in this Handbook?

This Handbook is addressed primarily to experts, early-career professionals, and students involved in ocean management-related fields. It is thought both as a source of replicable good practices and successful case studies for experts, as well as an educational tool for early-career practitioners and students in the multidisciplinary subject of IOM.

ABOUT THIS HANDBOOK

How was this Handbook developed?

This Handbook was developed in the context of the MARINE_ECOMED Project supported by the Erasmus + European Programme over a three years duration, from late 2018 until the end of 2021. The MARINE_ECOMED Project was framed to enhance research and cooperation within the Mediterranean region in the field of sustainable management of marine and coastal areas, through the development of innovative communication and education strategies. The project has been implemented by a strategic partnership of academic institutions and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), coordinated by the University Iuav of Venice (Fig. 1). The present Handbook integrates the professional experiences, knowledge, and approaches from the project partner organizations, that are located in different Mediterranean coastal countries: University Iuav of Venice and Tethys Research Institute from Italy, Environmental Organization iSea and the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTh) from Greece, SUBMON Environmental Organization from Spain, and the Aix-Marseille University (AMU) from France.

How is this Handbook organized?

This Handbook is organized into three main parts.

The first part provides a general introduction to the topic of IOM, the ecosystem approach, and communication strategies to support IOM. Here the definition of tools and strategies for IOM is included. In the second part an overview of the Mediterranean Basin from a natural and socioeconomic point perspective is provided, followed by a summary on the state of implementation of IOM in the Mediterranean. In the third part, a number of selected good practices, on the application of the ecosystem approach and communication strategies to support IOM, are described.

How to use this Handbook

This Handbook can be used in three different ways: 1) as a reference document including most relevant terms and definitions related to the ecosystem approach and communication strategies to support IOM; 2) as a source of summarized information on the state of the art of IOM in the Mediterranean basin; 3) as a source of good practices that can be consulted individually. The following section provides the definitions of the main topics that are the focus of this Handbook. Furthermore, main related approaches and terminology are also presented.

What is the Integrated Ocean Management

Integrated Ocean Management (IOM) has been defined as "a holistic, ecosystem-based and knowledge-based approach that aims to ensure the sustainability and resilience of marine ecosystems while integrating and balancing different ocean uses to optimize the overall ocean economy." 1 In a scenario of an increasing trend of human pressures on the marine environment, IOM in the Mediterranean is fundamental to allow the sustainable development of maritime activities, while preserving the natural environment and cultural heritage on which they depend. Its achievement represents a common goal and challenge for all Mediterranean countries and it should be accomplished across borders and extensively across the entire Mediterranean basin. Indeed, marine natural resources and activities are highly dynamic in space and time and their distribution commonly overcomes political borders, therefore

KEY CONCEPTS OF INTEGRATED OCEAN MANAGEMENT

the coordination between neighboring countries and regions is imperative to ensure their effective and sustainable management.

To achieve IOM both the implementation of the Ecosystem Approach and effective communication strategies are required. The Ecosystem Approach is considered crucial to attaining, at the same time, the sustainable management and conservation of the natural environment and its resources. On the other hand, effective communication strategies play a key role to foster sustainable exploitation of the Mediterranean values and resources. The enhanced knowledge and awareness of the marine environment and the use of marine space and resources will support a wider understanding of its complexity and related issues by our society, including non-specialist public and policy makers, and ultimately foster its sustainable management.

Main approaches and terminology relevant to IOM

Ecosystem Approach (EA) was at first defined and adopted at the fifth Conference of the Parties to the Convention of Biological Diversity in 2000 (COP 6). Its adoption seeks to develop an approach to ensure integrated management of land, water, and living resources that could promote their conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way.

For this Handbook it is adopted the definition issued in 2003 by the Regional Seas Conventions of OSPAR & HELCOM (2003), which specifically refers to the marine context and define the EA as: "the comprehensive integrated management of human activities based on the best available scientific knowledge about the ecosystem and its dynamics, in order to identify and take action on influences which are critical to the health of marine ecosystems, thereby achieving sustainable use of ecosystem goods and services and maintenance of ecosystem integrity" 2 . It is worth noting that the term "Ecosystem-Based Approach (EBA)" is also used, as within the terminology adopted within the European legal framework, with equivalent meaning to "Ecosystem Approach (EA)".

Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) is a public process of analyzing and allocating the spatial and temporal distribution of human activities in marine areas to achieve ecological, economic and social objectives that have been specified through a political process 3 . MSP is not an end in itself but a practical way to create and establish a more rational use of marine space and the interactions among its uses, to balance demands for development with the need to protect the environment, and to deliver social and economic outcomes in an open and planned way 4 .

Land-Sea Interactions (LSI) are interactions in which land-based natural phenomena or human activities have an influence or an impact on the marine environment, resources and activities and interactions in which marine natural phenomena or human activities have an influence or an impact on the terrestrial environment, resources and activities 5 .

Blue Economy is the sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods and jobs while preserving the health of ocean ecosystems 6 . Blue Economy encompasses all sectoral and cross-sectoral economic activities based on or related to the seas and coasts Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is a dynamic, multidisciplinary and iterative process to promote sustainable management of coastal zones. It covers the full cycle of information collection, planning (in its broadest sense), decision making, management and monitoring of implementation.

ICZM uses the informed participation and cooperation of all stakeholders to assess the societal goals in a given coastal area, and to take actions towards meeting these objectives. ICZM seeks, over the long-term, to balance environmental, economic, social, cultural and recreational objectives, all within the limits set by natural dynamics. 'Integrated' in ICZM refers to the integration of objectives and also to the integration of the many instruments needed to meet these objectives. It means integration of all relevant policy areas, sectors, and levels of administration. It means integration of the terrestrial and marine components of the target territory, in both time and space 7 .

Marine Protected Area (MPA) A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values 8 . Designed to conserve marine life, MPAs are a globally recognized tool for managing and enhancing the marine ecosystems and to promote a sustainable use of marine resources. They help protect important habitats and representative samples of marine life and can assist in restoring the productivity of the oceans and avoid further degradation. MPAs can play a vital role in providing ecosystem services, by protecting important, unique, and productive areas from human impacts.

Important Marine Mammal Areas (IMMAs) IMMAs, are "discrete portions of habitat, important to marine mammal species, that have the potential to be delineated and managed for conservation", and are an initiative of the Joint IUCN Species Survival Committee/World Commission on Protected Areas (SSC/WCPA) Task Force on Marine Mammal Protected Areas (the "Task Force").

Identification is achieved through the application of IMMA criteria covering key biological and ecological considerations for marine mammal species. These criteria were created through an expert process with additional public consultation with the wider marine mammal science and conservation community.

The Convention on Migratory Species, with Resolution 12.13 adopted at COP12 in Manila in October 2017, acknowledged the IMMA process, and inter alia requested Parties and invited Range States to identify specific areas where the identification of IMMAs could be beneficial. Citizen science is the practice of involving citizens in scientific research by providing important information that contributes to the increase of scientific knowledge 14 . Citizen Science projects are related to many different areas and scientific disciplines, namely Biodiversity, Physics, Medicine, Ecology, Biology and other fields and their success depends on several aspects. Thus, there are key principles and guidelines to promote good practices in Citizen Science. UNESCO points that "at its most inclusive and most innovative, citizen science involves citizen volunteers as partners in the entire scientific process, including determining research themes, questions, methodologies, and means of disseminating results" 15 . Environmental related citizen science projects in particular, have the potential to 1) provide massive data spatio-temporally that can contribute to the rapid and science-based decision-making for the management of natural resources, 2) enhance environmental awareness and the environmental literacy of the participants, through the continuous information they receive and the relationship they develop with the natural environment, 3) provide information that will be used for the creation of problem-solving strategies 16 .

Ocean Literacy (OL) has been defined as "understanding of the ocean's influence on people and their influence on the ocean" 17 . Ocean Literacy is not only about increasing awareness of the state of the ocean, it is also about providing tools to transform ocean knowledge into action. Ocean knowledge should serve as the engine to drive a change in the human behaviours to achieve ocean sustainability. Many people are not fully aware of the intrinsic connection to the ocean, or there is a misconception that the ocean only affects those that are living near the coastal areas. Ocean Literacy is intended as a tool to counteract this lack of awareness, and to promote the use of ocean knowledge in day-to-day actions, with the final aim of supporting informed decisions.

Ocean Literacy started as a movement in the United States at the beginning of 2000 when a group of scientists and educators realized there was very little ocean knowledge in school curricula.

They developed an Ocean Literacy framework that is made of 7 essential principles, and they created some tools that could be used by educators in formal and non-formal education to encourage ocean science inclusion in the classroom. Principle 7: The ocean is largely unexplored. In 2015, Unesco started to work on Ocean Literacy, and in the Ocean Conference held in 2017 Ocean Literacy was brought to the stage for the first time in the international agenda. Since its initial formulation, the Ocean Literacy concept has evolved, and from being only used in school it is now contemplated as an educational approach for the whole society, from citizens, to the private sectors to the policy makers. In the framework of the Ocean Decade, Ocean Literacy is intended as a key approach to reach the objectives set, and to tackle the challenges identified.

Geography

The Mediterranean Sea (Fig. 2) is the largest semienclosed sea, covering an area of approximately 2,500,000 km2. The length of its coastline is about 46,000 km long and includes the shore of 21 countries from Europe, Africa and Asia. It is connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Strait of Gibraltar, to the Black Sea through the Bosphorus Strait, and to the Red Sea by the artificial waterway of the Suez Canal. The Mediterranean Sea is classified as a temperate sea, its mean depth is 1,370 m and its deepest point is the Calypso Deep located in the Hellenic trench (Greece) at -5,267 m. The Mediterranean Sea name originates from Latin, meaning "middle of the land", because of its position between Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. It mainly consists of narrow continental terraces and includes more than 3,000 islands. Mediterranean coastlines are mostly rimmed by mountain ranges, coastal plains and deltaic zones of large rivers. Being a semi-enclosed sea, it is characterized by high salinities, evaporation rate, temperatures and densities, but rather low nutrient concentrations and limited tides. The Mediterranean coastline "hosts" major cities and areas. Approximately one third of the Mediterranean population is concentrated along its coastal regions 1 .

SHORT OVERVIEW OF THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN

Natural heritage

The Mediterranean Sea encloses a very unique natural value. It is included among the 36 main Biodiversity Hotspots and the 64 Large Marine Ecosystems of the world 2 , indeed its specific climate together with the fact that it is a semi-enclosed basin have created the right conditions for the establishment of rich biodiversity, including several endemic species in its waters and along its coastline. While its surface corresponds to less than 1% of the world's oceans it contains approximately 7.5% of the world's marine fauna and 18% of its marine flora 3 . It includes 17,000 marine species of which more than 20% are endemic 4,5 . The Mediterranean comprises several ecosystems with a high ecological value representative of its marine and coastal environment, namely: seagrass meadows, coralligenous beds, seamounts, lagoons, estuaries, wetlands, sandy and rocky shores. Among the marine ecosystems, seagrass meadows composed of Posidonia oceanica (Fig. 3), a species endemic of the Mediterranean, are widely distributed through most of its coast. Posidonia oceanica is considered an ecosystem engineer, and it provides many different ecological functions: meadows serve as nursery areas, providing shelter for many different vertebrate and invertebrate species, they regenerate and fix the sediment, counteracting coastal erosion, 0 250 500 1.000 1.500 Km In view of climate change, Posidonia oceanica meadows, annoverated among the Blue Carbon ecosystems, would serve as a key habitat due to their ability to fix carbon dioxide (CO2) and store organic carbon in their canopy. Some Mediterranean species are a focus for conservation due to their key role in the ecosystem and their vulnerability to anthropogenic threats. Among the most representative are found: 41 shark species 6 , 23 cetacean species 7 , 3 sea turtle species 8 , and one seal species (the monk seal, Monachus monachus) 9 .

Cultural heritage

The Mediterranean region is home to some of the oldest human settlements in the world due to its unique cultural heritage and cultural landscapes. The long history of human settlements on the Mediterranean coasts and waters is witnessed by the presence of an uncountable number of archeological findings and sites both on the coast landward and at sea, among which 191 Unesco World Heritage Sites are counted.

The first human settlements on the Mediterranean Despite their diversity, the regional identity of the Mediterranean countries has been strengthened by centuries of commerce and communication. Many maritime traditions are maintained and practiced in present days. Among these, traditional fishing still plays a very significant cultural, social, and economic role for the coastal territories of the entire basin. The Mediterranean diet which is strongly connected with the traditional consumption of seafood was included in 2010 in the UNESCO List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity 11 .

Socio-economic context

The Mediterranean basin is a highly complex multinational context, indeed it includes the coastlines and jurisdictional waters of twenty-one riparian countries from three continents (Fig. 4).

Over 150 million people live in coastal areas 12 and depend on the use of marine space and resources. On the Mediterranean shores, a considerable number of big cities are found in which 70% of the riparian countries' population live 13 . Thanks to its unique combination of mild climate, rich history, culture and unique natural resources and proximity to major trade hotspots, the Mediterranean is the world's leading tourism destination in terms of both international and domestic tourism. In addition to the resident population, its coasts are visited by an additional number of over 300 million tourists per year 14 (about one-quarter of the entire global tourism) of which 26 million are part of cruise tourism 15,16 The lines drown at sea correspond to the marine jurisdictional limits defined among riparian countries based on the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea.

often substantial access to food, as part of the "Mediterranean diet". The professional fisheries sector plays a fundamental role in the economy of Mediterranean countries providing around 250,000 jobs of which more than half are in the Small-scale artisanal fisheries 20 . Recreational fishing in the Mediterranean is estimated to account for more than 10% of the total fish catch and it has a strong impact on the economy of the region 21 . Aquaculture production has quadrupled in the last 20 years with an actual product that exceeds 2 million tonnes per year, accounting for more than 50% of today's total fishery output at the Mediterranean scale and providing 120,000 direct jobs 22 . Dredging of sand is also common in shallow areas of the Mediterranean Sea bottom 23 as well as oil and gas exploration and extraction from offshore areas in particular in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, and in the Adriatic Sea 24 . Regardless of its relatively early stage compared to other global oceans, marine renewable energy offers interesting development potentials for the Mediterranean. Two technologies seem to be the most promising for the region: offshore wind and waves. Further seabed mining is expected to be developed in the coming years to supply the increasing demand for minerals from the ocean floor 25 .

Ecological status

The marine and coastal ecosystems of the Mediterranean have undergone a considerable change over the last century. Intense and poorly regulated exploitation of its marine and coastal resources has caused the worsening of the ecological status of its waters, bottoms and coasts, with negative consequences on its biodiversity and the ecosystem (Fig. 5). This trend has led to a consistent loss of the services provided by the ecosystem to society. Several pressures are generated by human activities on the coast and at sea while in parallel climate change is weakening the resilience of Mediterranean ecosystems, making them more vulnerable to anthropogenic stressors. Industrial fishing has severely reduced the population of several fish species and at the moment 78% of assessed fish stocks are exploited besides the sustainable level. Fisheries and in particular bottom trawlers play a substantial role in the ongoing biodiversity crisis, indeed the amount of discards is estimated at around 230,000 tonnes of marine species per year (around 18 % of total catch considering all types of fisheries and over 40% for bottom trawlers) 26 . Furthermore, maritime tourism is adding a burden to coastal and marine environments, and pressures are mainly related to the construction and use of tourism infrastructures and unregulated recreational activities.

Underwater noise from marine traffic and other activities is also intense 27 .

In the Mediterranean, organic pollution, from coastal activities (e.g. agriculture and farming), waste from urban agglomerations, and the input of marine litter (mainly plastic) are particularly intense. The presence of a large and growing number of non-indigenous species (over 900) is also altering the ecosystem and threatening Mediterranean biodiversity 28 . Looking to the near future, there is great concern from the scientific community on the potential effects of the sea bed mining activities that might be developed, in particular in the deep sea, where they can drastically affect the ecosystem 29 .

The interaction of all these stress factors, acting simultaneously on the marine ecosystem can influence the ability of species and habitats to respond to individual pressures, and can sometimes compromise the entire balance.

A complex suite of interacting factors could limit the identification of conservation priorities, implementation of mitigation strategies, and accomplishment of effective restoration plans for marine habitats. To tackle this context, ocean management can not focus on individual stressors and disturbances resulting from human activities but must take into consideration the consequences of their combined action.

INTEGRATED OCEAN MANAGEMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN

The coordinative framework

The Mediterranean space and resources are managed at the upper level, through a few institutions and programmes that coordinate a complex framework of organizations operating at the international, national, and regional levels. These main coordinative institutions set common guidelines and goals to achieve IOM, fostering the ecosystem approach.

The Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP)-Barcelona Convention System is the main pan Mediterranean international programme established for the protection of the Mediterranean Sea and its ecosystem. Through this multilateral environmental agreement the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), 21 Mediterranean countries, and the European Union, have developed a common institutional, legal, and implementing framework to foster sustainability in the Mediterranean. The MedPAN association coordinates the network of Mediterranean marine protected areas (MPAs).

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is responsible for the sustainable management of marine traffic and the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) of FAO regulates the management of the fishery.

INTEGRATED OCEAN MANAGEMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN

The coastal and marine policies of the European Union

The The Integrated Maritime Policy (IMP) seeks to provide a coherent approach to maritime issues, with increased coordination between different policy areas, mainly concerning Blue Growth, marine data and knowledge, maritime spatial planning, integrated maritime surveillance, and sea basin strategies.

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

The process of implementing ICZM in the Mediterranean has been developed through several projects at local, regional, national and international level over the last decades.

Maritime Spatial Planning (MSP)

The establishment of MSP in the Mediterranean basin is still at its initial stage. An international legal framework is being developed to foster and harmonize the implementation of MSP among Mediterranean riparian countries. On the other hand, most MSP plans at a local scale have been developed in the form of pilot projects which are not legally enforced.

In this context, the MSP-MED project was launched at the beginning of 2020, with the overall objective to favour the MSP process in the Mediterranean Sea, by supporting the establishment of coherent and coordinated plans across the Mediterranean marine regions and between the Member States, in line with the MSP European Directive objectives.

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and Other Effective Conservation Measures (OECMs)

The Mediterranean includes a network of 1215 MPAs and OECMs (Fig. 6) which cover a total of 171,362 km2, corresponding to 6.81% of the surface of the entire basin of which only the 0.04% is managed under strict protection (i.e. no-go, no-take or nofishing zones). Apart from MPAs and OECMs a number of areas with high ecological value and no specific management tools in place are found (fig. 6). They include the following types:

Ecologically and Biologically significant Areas (EBSAs), special areas in the ocean that serve important purposes to support the healthy functioning of oceans and the many services that it provides 19 .

Critical Cetacean Habitats (CCH), potential manageable area where attention has to be drown/focused because there exists a threat for cetaceans 20 .

Important Bird Areas (IBAs) ,sites of international significance for the conservation of the world's birds and other biodiversity, also providing essential benefits to people, like food, materials, water, climate regulation, flood protection and opportunities for recreation 21 .

Important Marine Mammals Areas (IMMAs), discrete portions of habitat, important to marine mammal species, that have the potential to be delineated and managed for conservation 22 .

Blue Economy

Among the initiatives in the basin the WestMED, Blue Economy initiative 24 has been triggered by the Union for the Mediterranean with the support of the European Commission to help achieve a safer and more secure maritime space, create a smarter

Introduction

The Gulf of Venice is found on the North-Western Adriatic and includes some emblematic singularities of great ecological, cultural and socio-economic value such as the Venice lagoon and the Po River Delta. Several human activities are developed on its coasts and waters. Among these fishing, tourism, marine transport and fossil fuel extraction are the most representative. Through the present work an overview is provided on the Gulf of Venice natural and socio-economic setting, its governance framework and the existing management challenges for the area. Finally, the planning and management framework in place is described with specific attention to its integration into the national maritime spatial plan which has recently been defined by Italy.

Natural context

The Gulf of Venice (Fig. 8) is characterized by shallow sandy and muddy bottoms, while the coastal area landscape is typically composed of sandy beaches. Geographically located in the Northeastern part of the Adriatic, one of the most productive seas of the Mediterranean basin, the Gulf of Venice's coastal and marine area includes hotspots of great ecological value. The most representative ecosystems include estuaries, lagoons, salt marshes, seagrass meadows, coralligenous beds, and dunal systems. Among the most emblematic sites on the coast, are found the Venice Lagoon and the Po River Delta. They represent two coastal environments typical of the Mediterranean that include a large variety of habitats and a rich biodiversity. Concerning the offshore marine area, the coralligenous beds locally known as "Tegnue" are considered having a great ecological importance due to their role as nursery habitats with a key role for the regeneration of species commercially relevant within the fish market (Fig. 9).

Socio-economic context

The Gulf of Venice traditions and economy are highly connected with the marine resources and the use of the marine space. The area includes one of the main industrial and touristic ports (the Venice Port) in Italy. Further it is a hotspot for national and international tourism, in particular due to the presence of the City of Venice, one of the most touristic coastal cities of the world. Indeed, cruise passengers amounts to over 1 million every year (Port Venice). Marine traffic in the region is intense and it is particularly dense through the traffic routes that connect towards the Venice port. Specific offshore areas for mooring of large commercial boats have also been designated. In the territorial waters and near the offshore areas have been adopted separation schemes for maritime traffic, Rule 10 of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, better known as Colreg, which allow to regularize, channel and monitor the traffic of ships leaving and entering the ports and the related coastal traffic zones (InshoreTraffic Zone), suitable both for navigation of pleasure boats, and anchorage and for merchant ships. The fishing sector is very developed: the fishing fleet of the Region is composed by more than 500 boats of which around half are from the Chioggia port, the main fishing port of Italy. The highest fishing effort is registered both in the area facing the mouth of the port up to the territorial waters and in the southern part, close to the Po Delta.

In the same area the aquaculture activity is strongly present, in particular in relation to the production of shellfish which is farmed extensively on dedicated areas of the shallow coastal waters. Three nautical miles from the coastline there are also three biological protection zones that are protected sea areas established to safeguard and repopulate fish resources.Non-living resources are also extracted in the area, in particular sand for beach nourishment and fossil fuel (i.e. gas) from offshore reserves.

Governance framework

The Gulf of Venice, hierarchically subordinated to the Italian government, has the responsibility to ensure the integrated development of its economic activities and the protection of coastal and marine ecosystems. It is also responsible for the coastal and marine areas ascribed within the Natura 2000 network. The Port Authority of the Northern Adriatic Sea (Autorità di Sistema Portuale del Mare Adriatico Settentrionale), is responsible for the administration of the main ports and related facilities. The coast guard is the main authority responsible for the monitoring of marine traffic. Concerning the maritime spatial planning of the area, while the Gulf of Venice is addressed with responsibility to design its marine spatial plan within its waters, the Italian Ministry of Transport is the national authority responsible to approve it.

Management challenges

The maritime sector represents for Veneto one of the essential elements for regional economic development, but at the same time also a fundamental feature of its landscape and cultural identity. The complex production configuration makes the region a main maritime hub, and for this reason it is a priority to develop policies for the nautical efficiency of its ports, with particular reference to the management of the seabed. Further priorities are to ensure the monitoring of the marine routes, to relaunch the commercial functions of the terminals in close connection to the railway and road network, to resolve the issue of the accessibility of cruise traffic. The latter is closely connected with the sustainable development of tourism on the cities of the coast and its beaches. Tourism represents a main economic revenue on the coast and there is great potential for its future sustainable development in synergy with the culture of the sea (such as fishing tourism, eco-tourism, eco-friendly coastal navigation and underwater tourism). In this perspective, the maintenance of the quality of the coastal landscape remains relevant, with particular attention to the landsea interface, both for tourism purposes but also for integrated management, ensuring continuity of planning and consequent management of the activities. This aspect is strictly connected to the development and experimentation of policies to increase the resilience of the coastal strip to climate change, but also guaranteeing fishermen and fish farmers the maintenance of an adequate income for professional consolidation and the development of their activities, favoring their generational change by reconciling the needs for the protection of marine flora and fauna.

Spatializing the available data of the maritime activities present in the Venetian waters, it is evident how many of these insist in the same spaces, thus creating numerous conflicts between different interests and putting both environmental and social safety at risk.

Planning and management framework in place

Historically the planning and management of the area has been made with a sector specific approach (Fig. 10).

Sectoral planning has been developed separately for nature conservation, marine traffic, aquaculture and extraction of fossil fuel. Among the 11 areas included in the Natura 2000 network, 4 of them are managed by a specific entity responsible for nature protection, in line with a site specific management plan. The mooring areas were defined by the Port Authority and are monitored by the service of the Coast Guard.

The ministry of energy has issued the permits for fossil fuel exploration and extraction in specific areas previously defined. Finally, the ministry of Agriculture has approved the concessions for aquaculture in specific delimited areas. Within the framework of the MSP Directive implementation, the Gulf of Venice has designed a maritime spatial plan following the national guidelines, through a transboundary approach in regard to the neighboring regions and the ecosystems and human activities found in their waters. The plan has been submitted to the European commission and it is expected to be implemented by the year 2022.

Introduction

France's marine heritage is one of the most important in the world, representing the second-largest maritime space worldwide. To protect this heritage, France is pursuing a proactive policy of creating and managing Marine Protected Areas in all of its waters. During the last IUCN congress (International Union for the Conservation of Nature: the world largest conservation organization), Emmanuelle Macron, the French President, announced an extension of highly protected areas in the Mediterranean Sea, which currently only cover 0.2% of the waters, to 5% by 2027 and 10% in 2030. In line with the work carried out by the Marine Protected Areas Agency from 2006 to 2016, the policy of creating and managing marine protected areas is now implemented by the French Agency for Biodiversity, a public institution under the supervision of the Ministry in charge of the Environment. 546 Marine Protected Areas have been created in metropolitan France and overseas, including 9 marine national parks. These parks aim to protect marine ecosystems and enable the sustainable development of maritime activities. Marine Protected Areas are organized into connected networks and must be effectively managed to keep the oceans healthy and ensure their resilience, i.e. their ability to regain their functions after a disturbance.

Natural context

The Calanques are made of a specific geological formation consisting of limestone rocks, forming deep and narrow coves, with 26 Calanques within the Marseille-Cassis area. The entire domain covers 5,000 hectares, 25 kilometers of coastline between Marseille and Cassis, and 145 km of marked trails. Out of 900 plant species that have been cataloged, 38 are protected and 43 recognised as noteworthy. This rich biodiversity (Fig. 11) is linked to the large numbers of landscape and habitats (i.e. cliffs, screes, limestones, Lapiaz, seashore, forests, scrubs, wind-exposed areas, no shade areas). Vegetation contains evergreen broad-leaved and aciformed trees (i.e. Holm oaks, arbutuses, olive trees, laurels, carob trees, pine trees, junipers, cypresses), as well as shrubs (rock roses, mastic trees, myrtle, and rosemary), several being halotolerant withstanding drought and sea spray. The area is home to hundreds of animals with ~100 being protected species, including birds, bats, and reptiles. Nesting, or potentially nesting, birds are commonly observed with 67 species protected, such as Bonelli's Eagle. Seabirds include the Yellowlegged gull, Cory's Shearwaters, European Shags, and Cormorants. Thirteen species of bats, such as the European Free-Tailed bat (the largest bats in Europe); a great diversity of reptiles (i.e. ocellated lizard, European Leaf-toed gecko), as well as the Mediterranean Tree frog, and the bush cricket, the largest cricket in Europe, are very common. The Calanques displays also a variety of seascapes (14 habitats) often considered rare and fragile (Posidonia oceanica seagrass meadows, lithophyllum corridors, infralittoral reefs, coralligenous reefs, soft seabeds, rocky areas, and sea caves and underwater canyons). The marine biome of the Calanques hosts a high biodiversity of flora and fauna often described as an underwater garden. In the sea grass meadows, several fish species (i.e. sars, wrasses) and invertebrates (seastars, urchins, nudibranchs). Over the coralligenous area, and rocky ecosystem, large number of benthic and pelagic fish forming large shoals are often observed. Colonies of red corals and yellow gorgonians are also reported. Dusky groupers have been more often reported within the past few years, as well as different species of cetaceans. In total, 140 terrestrial animal and plant protected species and 60 marine heritage species are reported. Within the marine core area, protection is stricter and human activities are regulated to ensure the efficient conservation of fauna, flora, natural environment, and landscape. The marine core area extends 10 nautical miles from the coast and includes seven No-Take Zones, accounting for almost 11% of its surface (46.5 km²). The "adjacent marine area", which is the part of the park territory where activities are not subjected to specific regulations (although they must be referenced in terms of sustainable development), extends over a marine surface of 977 km². The heart of the park is the most protected part through a specific regulation.

The coastal zone of Marseille is a perfect illustration of the complex interactions between ecological and socio-economic aspects and has been since the Antiquity. Located on the northwestern Mediterranean seafront of France, its coastline has been highly impacted by anthropic activities (Fig. 13).

Artisanal fishing activities (in decline) are using mainly fishing nets and longlines, while recreational fishermen are using angling, trolling, jig fishing and spearfishing.

The intensive urbanization led to the artificialization of the coastline and the discharges from the city in particular the runoff of urban wastewater (1.8 million inhabitants) and occasionally bypass sewage water after a severe thunderstorm were increased.

Other industrial activities include industrial plants close to the shore which are sources of pollution both for marine and terrestrial ecosystems. The commercial and industrial Port of Marseille-Fos records ~10,000 ship calls, handles ~80 million metric tons of goods and over 3 million passengers per year, leisure boating is also significant in the use of the shore. Along the shore and within the NPC large local and visiting populations (>2 million visitors per year), diving and other recreational activities are adding pressures on the ecosystems, both terrestrial and marine.

Management challenges

The context of the Marseille coastal area is

Figure 13. Some of the anthropic pressures reported in the CNP @Sandrine Ruitton representative of a big city which has been developed at the expense of the environment, and which must now initiate management measures to reconcile its economic activities, the well-being of the population and the need to implement sustainable development for the future. Conservation efforts have been put in place but are coming with and heartfelt objections from fishers, boaters, cyclists, and pedestrians.

Outside of the no-take zones, fish assemblages are quite poor, characterized by low biomass, predominantly small individuals and some species that have become rare. The professional fisheries are mainly artisanal fishing (small-scale fishing) using passive and selective fishing gear. Trawling, which has been a common practice in the past, has been gradually abandoned due to regulations. Currently, except for poaching, trawling is no longer practiced. The recreational fishing activities are intense in the area, with a large panel of fishing gear (angling, trolling, jig fishing, spearfishing). The bad state of the fish assemblages jeopardizes the future of artisanal fishing. Besides, in recent years the number of artisanal fishermen has been decreasing regularly.

Planning and management framework in place

Management and conservation of the marine environment includes a good understanding of scope and intensity of human activities, which is a prerequisite for linking ecological status and anthropogenic pressures. Current planning and management framework are conducted within the scope of the DCE, DCSMM and Natura 2000 networks. Social actors' contribution to public environmental protection policies has been also established through the environmental effort. This effort will impact differently the different users of this Protected Area, making its management more challenging as restrictions on access (i.e. boating, access to the calanques by sea), regulations (deployment of ecologic buoys for anchoring, number of visitors limited) or banning of certain practices (cycling in certain sectors) have already been implemented, starting in 2021.

PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF MARINE AND COASTAL AREAS OF THERMAIKOS GULF, GREECE

PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF MARINE AND COASTAL AREAS OF THERMAIKOS GULF, GREECE Introduction

Study area (Fig. 14): Thermaikos Gulf (central); including the Metropolitan Area of Thessaloniki and the Thermaikos Gulf Protected Areas Management Authority.

The Thermaic Gulf, hosted in the northern Aegean Sea, is a closed, relatively shallow gulf of a major environmental, economic, and societal value. The second largest city in Greece, Thessaloniki, is hosted at the northeastern tip of the Gulf, with all the metropolitan area and relevant activities being expanded along a large portion of the coastal zone of the inner part of the Gulf. A number of large rivers and several streams are flowing into the Gulf. As these riparian systems transfer materials from distant sources, increased nutrient loads often lead to the degradation of the sensitive ecosystems of Thermaikos Gulf. Similarly, the Gulf receives a large amount of nutrient pollution originating from point sources distributed across the watershed and often close to the metropolitan area. The key objective of the work was to develop a comprehensive, multidimensional framework that consists of a set of methodological tools, databases, policy recommendations, and background information, towards improving our planning capacity. In this work we made an effort to advance and integrate our understanding of natural and anthropogenic processes and their effects upon key aspects related to a sustainable growth, at different scales, by applying recent methodological advances to new and existing data. We further assessed and modeled the socio-economic driving forces (e.g. EU policies, large scale economic and demographic trends, etc) and the resulting environmental pressures (e.g. habitat loss) affecting biodiversity under present and projected future conditions across the coastal and marine areas of Thermaikos Gulf.

Natural context

The Thermaicos Gulf is characterized by an even bed with low declivities and depths ranging from 2 to 200 m, at its southern side. It receives fresh water from three great rivers (Axios, Loudias, Aliakmon), which are estimated to jointly drain a region of about 3,500,000 hectares, where the accumulation of sediment from the three rivers has shaped the bed as well as the morphology of the western and northern coastline. There, the heterogeneous mosaic of the coastal sites of the Gulf, a number of rivers, lagoons, salt marshes, and fertile fields provide habitats for numerous species. This is also the case for the marine part of the Gulf, which hosts among others, extended meadows of Posidonia oceanica, an endemic habitat type for the Mediterranean which is considered as of conservation priority for the European Union.

Socio-economic context

Thessaloniki is the second largest city in Greece with more than 1,1 million inhabitants, representing approximately 1/10 of the country's population (2011 Census Count). It is located in the Southern part of Europe and the Northern part of Greece, very close to the National and European borders. According to the National Spatial Planning Framework, along with Athens it is a metropolis -pole of national magnitude.

Thessaloniki is the seat of the Region of Central Macedonia and has more than half of the region's population.

Thessaloniki is a transport node. It is connected to the two major motorways of the country, PATHE and Egnatia Motorway, and is a node of all major national rail lines. The rail station is located right in the outer part of the historic city center. Rail lines cross part of the western neighborhoods and the west suburbs. The Thessaloniki Airport Makedonia (classified as international) is located between the compact part of the city and the southern suburban neighborhoods. The Thessaloniki Port is the second largest port in the country and serves mostly commercial transport.

It is located within the compact part of the city, next to the historic center, and is served by rail lines for commercial purposes. In terms of the economic activities and the way Gross Domestic Product is distributed among the three main economic sectors; the Primary sector accounts for 1,7%, the Secondary for 16,1% and the Tertiary for 82,3%. The fishing sector in the area is well developed while the areas support more than 80%of the national mussel culture production. At the NW part of the gulf, extensive rice fields cover almost 70% of the national rice production. It should also be noted that, in the western part of the Gulf, the second largest salt production unit in Greece is located, with saltpans occupying approximately 400 hectares and yield annually more than 25,000 tons of salt.

Governance framework

The coastal and marine habitats at the NW part of the Gulf are enclosed within the Natura2000 network and further protected under the Ramsar International Convention on wetlands. The first Joint Ministerial Decree of the Hellenic state was published in 1998, on the protection and preservation of the region in the Delta of the rivers Axios, Loudias, Aliakmon and at Alykes Kitrous, while the National Park was established in 2009 (JMD 12966/2009).

In 2018, following the addition of new protected sites, the former Axios Delta Management Authority was renamed to Thermaikos Gulf Protected Areas Management Authority. Based on the national legislation, the basic objectives of the authority, as a legal entity of private law acting for the public benefit and overseen by the Ministry of Environment and Energy, are: to manage the protected area and preserve its flora and fauna, to promote eco-tourism and sustainable development, to inform and raise the awareness of the local community and visitors alike. The protected area belongs to the Region of Central Macedonia and more specifically, it expands into areas of the regional units of Thessaloniki, Kilkis, Pella, Imathia and Pieria. At a municipal level, it extends over the municipalities of Delta, Chalkidona, Oraiokastro, Paionia, Pella, Alexandria, Pydna -Kolindros and Katerini.

In terms of the urban environment, the Official Master Plan of Thessaloniki defines three main urban zones which cover part of the Country of Thessaloniki (Fig. 15). These -planning-zones are: the urban agglomeration that consists of dense urban

Management challenges

The key challenge in terms of marine spatial planning in the study area arises from the fact that Thermaikos Gulf is a marine area under protection status (Axios Delta National Park), which is put under great pressure because of the existence of the international port and the Metropolis of Thessaloniki.

Given the nature of the study area, it is highly important that Thermaikos Marine Spatial Plan, fully considers the Ecosystem Approach, as well as the Land-Sea Interactions while planning for such a heterogeneous and complex area and attention needs to be given to land-sea interaction. As the study area encloses several important Natura 2000 sites and many species and habitats of conservation interest, measures concerning these sites should be carefully addressed and incorporated in the Marine Spatial Plan. Against this background, the general objective of this project is to provide the most appropriate assessment tools and policy instruments to foster our capacity for a balanced development and the conservation of the ecosystems services across spatial and temporal scales, and to disseminate them to a wide range of users.

Planning and management framework in place

Planning and management of the area is realized through a series of spatial plans at the strategic level that are sectoral based, like tourism, aquaculture, energy etc. Region wide plan also known as the Regional Framework for Spatial Planning and Sustainable Development of Central Macedonia is setting the strategic framework for planning and development in the area. Furthermore, the area is regulated at a local level by the corresponding spatial plans at the municipal administrative level. These plans define the spatial organization and development of urban functions, land uses, building regulations, and any other measure, conditions, or restrictions required for the integrated spatial development and organization of an area at the municipal level.

In addition, due to the complexity of the urban environment and the metropolitan role of the city of Thessaloniki a Master Plan for the metropolitan area is institutionalized. Particularly in the Mediterranean Sea, which was considered a hotspot, chondrichthyan species now face the threat of extinction and population decline. In contrast to their ecological value, research on chondrichthyans is deficient in several areas worldwide. In the Mediterranean, the limited financial resources, the difficulties in species identification and their low population densities are the main reasons why many of the chondrichtyan species are still listed as "Data Deficient" according to the Red List of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). In response to these long-lasting knowledge gaps, the Citizen Science project "Mediterranean Elasmobranch Citizen Observations" (M.E.C.O. project) was launched, which uses social media to create a regional database of elasmobranch observations (Fig. 16).

Citizen Science projects are grounded in the active involvement of citizens in scientific research. More specifically, citizens contribute to the increase of scientific knowledge by providing important information and data to researchers. Advances in social media and mobile-phone applications have strengthened citizen science, rendering the sharing of information even more effective. Citizen Science projects related to biodiversity and the natural environment have the potential to provide massive data spatiotemporally that can contribute to the rapid and science-based decision-making for the management of natural resources, as well as to provide information that will be used for the creation of problem-solving strategies. In addition, citizen science enhances environmental awareness and the environmental literacy of the participants through the continuous information citizens receive and the relationship they develop with the natural environment. The aim of the M.E.C.O project is to collate knowledge on chondrichthyan occurrence, seasonality, and distribution using citizen science and social media. From its beginning, in 2014, the project gradually expanded operation to nineteen countries. In MECO, participants report their sightings with photographic evidence (Fig. 17). Scientific experts request further information, when needed, such as date, location, specimen length and weight, number of individuals observed, and depth of the observation (if applicable). The experts then check pictures for authenticity and identify all original pictures to the lowest possible taxonomic level. Whenever possible, experts also record data such as maturity, gestation, and sex. Finally, there is also a two-way dialogue between citizen participants and scientific experts to retrieve historical records based on old pictures and social media posts.

Target audience

Being a Citizen Science project, M.E.C.O. participants, both scientists and non-scientists, are connected and share information. The stakeholders that mainly report their observations are the ones regularly interacting with the ocean i.e. divers, snorkelers, fishers and sailors. As result, more than 27,000 Citizen Scientist are involved in the project throughout

Media and communication strategy adopted

The results of M.E.C.O. project, as a Citizen Science project in general, is based on well boosted social networks. The project's main tool of data reporting are twelve relevant Facebook groups (www.facebook. com/pg/). The data referring to the Greek and Cypriot seas are reported to the corresponding Facebook group: Sharks and rays in Greece and Cyprus (Fig. 18). Apart from the procedure followed in order to obtain validated data, there is also the need of disseminating the results of the project, as well as of expanding the network of the participant citizen scientists. One step towards this goal, is including the project as part of global crowdsourcing and citizen science platforms, like iNaturalist or facilitating public participation and data analysis through the "recruitment" of other tools, like the SEAlly mobile application. The results of the project with important scientific input are published in peer reviewed magazines or presented in relevant conferences. In order to inform, not only the already involved citizen scientists, but also the broader public and targeted stakeholder groups, the M.E.C.O. project sets the baseline for designing and implementing awareness raising campaigns. In particular, through "Sharks and rays in Greece and Cyprus" became obvious that there is a lack of knowledge among both the general public, but also among the fisheries stakeholders, including Port authorities, auction markets, Fisheries authorities, professional and recreational fishers. As a result, part of the project "Alliance for Survival" aims to empower them regarding the legislation regulating the protection of sharks and rays in Greek waters, to train them on identifying vulnerable shark and ray species (Fig. 19) and safely release them when incidentally caught and guide the consumers on how they can contribute to the imposition of the legal framework. Furthermore, the project and all its data collection tools, also works as a communication channel with the public involved in order to distribute useful information and materials created based on their interest and needs on different topics, like Conservation Status and the Protection Measures for Sharks species in different areas.

Results achieved

The way that M.E.C.O. project and the valuable collaboration it develops between researchers and non-scientists crucially promotes marine conservation can be interpreted by the updated checklist of chondrichtyans in Cyprus. Based on the projects results, it now includes 15 more species, three of which were first recorded in the area through citizen science. It is also important to note that up to 13% of the species reported from recreational fishers through M.E.C.O. project was Data Deficient, so the evaluation of their status was not able. In addition, particular characteristics of the observations, like pregnant specimens, different observations of the same specimens and size of specimens in different areas and seasons led to further conclusions for next conservation steps, like nursing and spawning grounds of the area, fidelity sites by species and possible migration routes. Apart from being a crucial source of data regarding the species itself, 8 illegal activities were traced through M.E.C.O. project which led to legal procedures. M.E.C.O. project and its contribution to the updated Cypriot Chondrichtyan list, confirms the importance of citizen science approaches to promote science based policy decisions. Barash, A., Salingre, S., Grosmark, Y., Rothman, S., Stoilas, V.S., Maximiadi, M., Tuncer, S., Lapinski, M., Nuez, I., Bakiu, R., Kleitou, P., Giovos, I. (2018). The MECO project (Mediterranean Elasmobranch Citizen Observations): creating a large-scale database of elasmobranchs observations using social media. 22nd Annual European Elasmobranch Association Meeting, Peniche, Portugal.

TRAINING OF DIVING INSTRUCTORS FOR THE CONSERVATION OF MARINE HABITATS AND COASTAL SPECIES OF INTEREST TO FISHERY

TECLA MAGGIONI, JORDI SÁNCHEZ, ANDREU DALMAU SUBMON, AWARENESS, STUDY AND CONSERVATION OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT, SPAIN

Training of diving instructors for the conservation of marine habitats and coastal species of interest to fishery

Summary

The diving tourism industry is a driving sector for the economy of Catalunya. Diving activities attract approximately 250.000 national and international tourists each year. Direct income to diving centers is about 25 million € and the total income from the economic activities that revolve around diving tourism -including accommodation, food, transportation -reaches up to 100 million € (Triadó et al., 2014). Diving spots along the Costa Brava are studded with extended coralligenous hard bottoms and submerged caves, Maërl beds and Posidonia oceanica meadows that host great marine biodiversity and hold great attraction. If on the one hand diving tourism brings benefits to the local communities, on the other, it poses a relevant threat to the marine environment. Benthic habitats and slow-growing species are known to be very fragile, and unintentional hits, disturbance, and trampling could cause their degradation and loss. SUBMON has been involved in public awareness activities and training, targeting all the diving centers of the Costa Brava, to introduce a model for sustainable tourism that includes the delivering of an eco-briefing before diving sessions, coupled with the active role of eco-instructors. Such measures are proven to be successful in limiting the impacts of diving on the marine environment, with the final aim of maintaining the long-term viability of the tourism industry in the area.

Introduction

Scuba diving has been considered a potential ecotourism activity: it gets visitors close to the natural resources, it may offer financial support to expedite marine subsistence and can support the local economy, and it possibly promotes the engagement of society toward marine conservation. This premise can be quite controversial, given the extensive impacts that diving tourism has on underwater communities [START_REF] Franco | Scuba diver behaviour and its effects on the biota of a Mediterranean marine protected area[END_REF][START_REF] Luna | Benthic impacts of recreational divers in a Mediterranean Marine Protected Area[END_REF][START_REF] Betti | On the effects of recreational SCUBA diving on fragile benthic species: The Portofino MPA (NW Mediterranean Sea) case study[END_REF]. Until recently, diving in protected areas was generally considered a non-destructive activity [START_REF] Milazzo | The impact of human activities in marine protected areas: What lessons should be learnt in the Mediterranean Sea? P[END_REF], but new evidence of intentional or accidental behaviors of divers that cause great impacts are well documented [START_REF] Franco | Scuba diver behaviour and its effects on the biota of a Mediterranean marine protected area[END_REF][START_REF] Luna | Benthic impacts of recreational divers in a Mediterranean Marine Protected Area[END_REF][START_REF] Betti | On the effects of recreational SCUBA diving on fragile benthic species: The Portofino MPA (NW Mediterranean Sea) case study[END_REF]. SCUBA diving is not immune to some side-effects, the most evident of whom are easily detectable, in the Mediterranean Sea, in the hard substrate communities formed by sessile erected, calcified organisms, particularly within the coralligenous habitat (Ballestreros, 2006[START_REF] Linares | Assessing the impact of diving in coralligenous communities: the usefulness of demographic studies of red gorgonian populations[END_REF]. Those negative effects are derived from the physical contacts by fins, body, hands, or diving equipment with the bottom as well as when divers kick, hold, stand on or kneel on the seafloor [START_REF] Luna | Benthic impacts of recreational divers in a Mediterranean Marine Protected Area[END_REF]. The physical and biological characteristics of the bottoms reflect the susceptibility of benthic communities to impacts, and therefore, the number of visitors that can be accommodated at them [START_REF] Lloret | An alternative approach for managing scuba diving in small marine protected areas[END_REF].

In Catalonia, the diving tourism industry is a driving sector for the tourism economy, attracting approximately 250.000 national and international tourists each year and bringing a total income of 25 million € to the diving centers located along the coast. On average, the total income of diving tourism and related facilities and business -including accommodation, food, transport -is about 100 million € in the Catalan region (Triadó et al., 2014). Costa Brava, located north of Barcelona is a coastal belt of approximately 216 km, and alone attracts approximately 140.000 divers/year. The most visited diving spot of Costa Brava is the Medes Islands archipelago, located in the municipality of l'Estartit, designated as a Marine Protected Area and included in the territory of the Montgrí-Illes Medes-Baix Ter Natural Park. Currently, 12 certified diving centers operate in the Medes Islands, and data from the l'Estartit Tourist Office showed that diving activity has an economic impact of almost 10 million euros/year on the small tourist destination of l'Estartit-Medes Islands, directly employing around 7% of the total registered inhabitants of the territory. In this area, approximately 75.000 dives are registered each year, during the summer season.

The shores of the Costa Brava are a hotspot of marine biodiversity (Fig. 20). The wild, rugged profile of the coastline conceals hidden caves and secluded coves, that host coralligenous, a hard substratum of biogenic origin that is mainly produced by the accumulation of calcareous encrusting algae (such as Lithophyllum, Mesophyllum, and Peyssonnelia) growing in dim light conditions [START_REF] Ballesteros | Mediterranean coralligenous assemblages: a synthesis of present knowledge[END_REF]. Coralligenous assemblages can be found between 25 up to 200 meters depth and are one of the preferred diving spots for tourists due to the great diversity of organisms. In terms of biodiversity, the coralligenous reef formations are considered as the second benthic habitat in the Mediterranean Sea after the Posidonia oceanica meadows [START_REF] Boudouresque | Marine biodiversity in the Mediterranean: Status of species, populations and communities[END_REF]. Divers are astonished by the high number of species belonging to taxonomic groups as diverse as sponges (Crambe crambe), gorgonians (Paramuricea clavata, Eunicella singularis), corals (Corallium rubrum), molluscs, bryozoans (Myriapora truncata, Pentapora fascialis), tunicates, crustaceans, or fishes (Epinephelus marginatus). Being one of the habitats most frequented by scuba divers, they are also most vulnerable to impact and degradation especially because of the slow-growing nature of species. The second habitat of interest for the Costa Brava region is the Maërl bed, characterized by coralline red algae, also known as rhodoliths, which grow approximately 1 mm/year. Rhodoliths have a purple-pink color and form reef-like carpets in the infralittoral zone until 120-150 meters depth. In terms of ecological functions, they play a major role in biogeochemical cycles as significant carbon and nitrogen sinks [START_REF] Foster | Rhodoliths and rhodolith beds[END_REF]. Such habitat is quite threatened by trawling, climate change, and eutrophication, and unregulated diving activities could pose a further burden (Salomidi et al., 2014). Another habitat that provides valuable ecosystem services is the Posidonia meadows that serve as a nursery for many species, providing shelter, food, and protection. Given the high biodiversity hosted, this habitat can be an attractive pole for recreational SCUBA diving activities. SUBMON carried out a study in the Medes Islands (Sánchez et al., 2010) to monitor divers' behavior underwater in relation to the underwater communities visited (Fig. 21). A total of 166 divers were followed, of which 88 (53% of the total) made contact with the substrate or marine species. Specifically, these 88 divers hit the bottom an average of 7 times per 10 minutes of diving, with these contacts being mainly made with the fins (46.96% of the total) and hands (29.89% of the total). These contacts may have an impact on some fragile species, and may even lead to their uprooting or breakage, or raise sediment, which may affect filter-feeding species. The long-term viability of the diving tourism industry of Costa Brava strictly depends on how the marine habitats are managed: to maintain the activity of diving as a tourist attraction, it must be compatible with the conservation of the habitat and species. The diving activity is often carried out in a protected area, that is designated specifically to maintain or restore the biological communities found, and any harm related to diving should be limited. Moreover, it is precisely the conservation of the natural heritage of the area that will ensure its attractiveness for the thousands of divers who visit it. The degradation of coralligenous reefs, Maërl beds, and Posidonia oceanica meadows would reduce the value of the underwater environment and would lead to a decreased scuba divers' satisfaction as well as a drop in the rate of return visits, thus resulting in a dramatic loss in terms of monetary income. Given the strict relation between divers' behavior and the health of the marine ecosystem, it is crucial to put efforts in spreading awareness to achieve a full understanding of what are the threats posed on the marine environment by diving, coupled with the The training had as main objectives:

-Spread awareness on the marine habitats and species of fishing interest of the Costa Brava -Boost good practices for diving activities -Train diving instructors and guides to limit impacts related to diving activities

The table on the left (Table 1) summarizes the topics covered during the three days course:

The concept of sustainable diving could be defined, in a simple way, as the practice of this activity in a form that does not impact the marine environment or the species that inhabit it. In this sense, it encompasses all the actions involved in this activity. The proposed model for sustainable diving is characterized by three elements, distributed in time over the diving session:

-Before the dive: an eco-briefing should always be delivered by the instructors to the group of divers and it should cover not only technical aspects of the dive but also environmental features of the area that will be visited. The explanation should include the natural value of the area, biological and ecological information on the type of seabed and habitat visited, tourism in Catalunya and Costa Brava d areas ion for marine habitats t for fishing e role of the eco-instructor s and sustainable diving: ion for marine species ore sensible to diving impacts tainable diving

Table 1. Topics covered during the course notions on the impacts of diving on fragile marine habitats and species. It would also be important to define some concrete signal to be able to indicate the presence of sensitive communities underwater. The eco-briefing should also include some good practices to limit the impacts such as: control the buoyancy, avoid contacts produced by any part of the body or scuba gear, limit the interactions with flora and fauna.

The main objective of eco-briefing is to encourage a change in the behavior and attitude of the divers. The success of many diving centers depends not only on the diving experience but also on the role and attitude of the guides. Therefore, they must be able to summarize the speech and explain the concepts in a clear, catchy, and even playful way, without losing the importance and significance of the message. Thus, to capture the interest of divers, the message and contents must be clear and be presented in a way that motivates the audience to contribute to the prevention, protection, and conservation of the marine environment.

-During the dive: the role of the guide could significantly influence the behavior of divers and it is acknowledged that during guided dives, the number of interactions with the bottom decreases (Sánchez et al., 2010). For this reason, all dives should be guided, with a proper ratio between guide/number of divers.

The eco-guides should stand as a role model for the group of divers and his role should go beyond simply guiding the clients. The eco-guides should have an active role in monitoring and rectifying misbehaviors to limit impacts. During the training, conflict resolution strategies were explained to support ecoguides in the process of rectifying harmful behaviors of clients while diving.

-After the dive, it is time to discuss different aspects that can help to add value to the diving activity. Clients may have questions about species and habitats, and the guide should always be available for answering and giving further information. If anything unexpected was observed during the dive (e.g. mortality events or occurrence of invasive species), the guide should encourage divers to report it, acting as sentinels. In this way, a successful collaboration between divers and the scientific community could be established through citizen science activities and the collection of data. Once the dive is over, the eco-guides should remind customers of the importance of good diving practices. It is important to highlight that the conservation of the marine environment, in general, depends on our actions. If a diving company wishes to offer environmentally responsible services, it is essential that its working procedures and systems are geared towards sustainable management. The training program also covered aspects to improve the sustainability of diving centers facilities (eg. management of waste, carbon footprint reduction), boat operations and anchoring (eg. protocols for accidental oil spill, management of bilge water, eco-friendly anti-fouling paints, cetacean approach regulations, eco-anchoring etc.).

Media and communication strategy

The training program was open both to diving centers affiliated to the Association of Diving Centers in Costa Brava as well as to centers that have their headquarters in a municipality that is part of the GALP. A database was created comprising 71 diving centers that respond to one of the two requirements and are officially recognized by the Generalitat de Catalunya.

A first communication document was shared by email with the diving centers, together with a presentation of the main objectives and contents of the project. Once defined the schedule for the training program, a call for enrollment was opened and shared among interested parties.

To disseminate the call, SUBMON designed some leaflets (Fig. 22) explaining basic concepts about sustainable diving and highlighting the imperative need to introduce a transformative change in how diving activities are carried out to ensure the longterm viability of diving tourism. Other communication actions included a press release at the beginning of the project and an advertising teaser on the official website of the Association of Diving Centers in Costa Brava.

Project achievements:

The training program was held in 9 towns on the Costa Brava (Blanes, Cadaqués, L'Escala, L'Estartit, Palamós, Port de la Selva, Roses, Tossa and Vallllobrega) the course was repeated 13 times and 201 diving instructors and guides actively participated.

A printed manual, with the theory and the good practices, was provided to all participants after the completion of the course. This project offered a unified and homogeneous training program to the diving centers of the Costa Brava, which are working together in the same area. The contents of the training were adapted specifically to the coastal and protected areas where the diving centers are operating, offering the opportunity to learn more about the natural value.

Diving centers operating in the Medes Islands MPA had the opportunity to get trained in compliance with the new Master Plan adopted in 2017 that requires the delivery of the eco-briefing prior to each diving session. The eco-briefing and the eco-guides are now adopted as conservation measures in the MPA, to preserve the marine habitats and reduce the impacts of the diving tourism industry. As it concerns Medes Islands MPA, SUBMON carried out a scientific study in the summer 2021 to monitor the divers and assess if the efforts put in the awareness and education projects are improving how divers and instructors behave underwater. Indirectly, this course highlighted the importance of considering diving activities under the umbrella of

Summary

The common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), hereafter bottlenose dolphin, in the Gulf Ambracia, Western Greece (Fig. 23), constitutes a geographically distinct and genetically differentiated unit, with little demographic exchange with the Ionian Sea. Further, these dolphins are exposed to high levels of pollution, mostly derived from local agriculture (i.e., pesticides). Bottlenose dolphins occur in the Gulf in high densities (mean: 0.37 animals km-2), one of the highest observed densities in the Mediterranean for this species (Bearzi et al. 2008, Gonzalvo et al. 2016). Photo-identification-based population estimates over a 10-year period (2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015) were between 127 and 174 individuals, with Coefficients of Variations (CV) averaging about 10%. The estimated trend in population size over those ten years indicated a decline of 1.6% per year but was not significant, as there is insufficient power in the data to detect a decline of this magnitude over ten years (Gonzalvo et al. 2016). While local density of dolphins is among the highest recorded anywhere in the Mediterranean Sea, this is not indicative of favourable conservation status or pristine habitat. On the contrary, the viability of bottlenose dolphins in the Gulf of Ambracia may be at risk due to their likely reproductive isolation, small population size and small extent of occurrence, as well as to the increasing acute anthropogenic impacts in their semi-enclosed shallow habitat.

Background info

In 2001, the Tethys Research Institute started a study in the Gulf of Ambracia, western Greece, where bottlenose dolphins are the only cetacean species encountered.

Ongoing research showed that roughly 150 dolphins inhabit the Gulf. These dolphins are members of a highly 'resident' community, displaying unique behaviour and ecology. A few individuals photoidentified in the Gulf of Ambracia were subsequently observed in the Inner Ionian Sea archipelago and in the Gulf of Corinth, but no immigration into the Gulf was recorded so far.

Research carried out by Tethys is documenting how the local dolphin community interacts with its environment and how human activities may influence its conservation status. The Gulf -which is part of a larger National Park -is also inhabited by loggerhead sea turtles and has a rich bird fauna including rare species. The Gulf's biodiversity, however, is threatened by high and increasing eutrophication and pollution. Ferentinos et al., 2010). Moreover, it is the final receptor of freshwater and nutrient loads from the surrounding catchment area and its water quality is influenced by the runoff of two rivers (Louros and Arachthos), located on the northern shore [START_REF] Kountoura | Trophic state and oceanographic conditions of Amvrakikos Gulf: evaluation and monitoring[END_REF], which form a complex ecosystem consisting of a double delta with its marshes and lagoons. In addition to intensive fish farming, the Gulf is also affected by agriculture, livestock farming and discharges of domestic sewage from coastal towns and villages (Bearzi et al., 2008;Ferentinos et al., 2010;Gonzalvo et al., 2014). Local commercial fisheries include only small-scale fisheries working mainly with set nets (i.e., trammel and gill nets), consisting of a fleet of 300 fishing boats (Gonzalvo et al., 2014). The Gulf of Ambracia is a Natura 2000 site (code GR2110001 https://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/ Natura2000/SDF.aspx?site=GR2110001) and it is also part of the network of Ramsar Sites. In 2006, it was confirmed as a Site of Community Importance (SCI) and in 2011 it was designated as a Special Area for Conservation (SAC) according to Law 3937/29-3-11 (OJ 60 A). In 2008, it was designated as a 'National Park' in accordance with Greek national legislation (11989/08 KYA). Nevertheless, despite being protected by national, European, and international legislation, the Gulf has undergone severe changes resulting in the degradation of the entire ecosystem. In the past decades, the deeper layers of the water column have become seasonally hypoxic/anoxic, with the western side seasonally hypoxic and the eastern seasonally anoxic [START_REF] Kountoura | Trophic state and oceanographic conditions of Amvrakikos Gulf: evaluation and monitoring[END_REF]. The Gulf of Ambracia was declared in 2017 as an Important Marine Mammal Area (IMMA) by the IUCN Joint Species Survival Committee/World Commission on Protected Areas (SSC/WCPA) Marine Mammal Protected Areas Task Force.

The bottlenose dolphin population in the Gulf of Ambracia Bottlenose dolphins occur in the Gulf in high densities (mean: 0.37 animals km-2), one of the highest observed densities in the Mediterranean for this species (Bearzi et al. 2008, Gonzalvo et al. 2016). Photo-ID-based population estimates over a 10-year period (2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015) were between 127 and 174, with Coefficients of Variations (CV) ranging between 5.4-16.7%. The estimated trend in population size over those ten years indicated a decline of 1.6% per year but was not significant, as there is insufficient power in the data to detect a decline of this magnitude over ten years (Gonzalvo et al. 2016).

The Gulf of Ambracia subpopulation of bottlenose dolphins is genetically differentiated from the surrounding Mediterranean subpopulations, and the observed genetic diversity suggests that the Gulf of Ambracia subpopulation is highly isolated (Gonzalvo et al. 2016, Curry 1997[START_REF] Natoli | Habitat structure and the dispersal of male and female bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus)[END_REF][START_REF] Viaud-Martinez | Genetic isolation and morphological divergence of Black Sea bottlenose dolphins[END_REF].

Threats

The main threat to the survival of the bottlenose dolphin subpopulation in the Gulf of Ambracia is the increasingly degraded condition of the Gulf's water quality. As the final receptor of freshwater and nutrient loads from surrounding areas through runoff and the contribution from rivers Louros and Arachthos [START_REF] Kountoura | Trophic state and oceanographic conditions of Amvrakikos Gulf: evaluation and monitoring[END_REF], the Gulf's water is affected by agriculture, livestock and discharges of domestic sewage from coastal towns and villages (Bearzi et al. 2008, Ferentinos et al. 2010, Gonzalvo et al. 2015). In addition, considering that fish farm waste could cause a 1% increase in nutrient concentrations in the Mediterranean (Karakassis et al. 2005), the intensive fish farming operations in the Gulf can be expected to contribute significantly to nutrient load. With respect to toxicological status, the organochlorine levels found in Ambracian bottlenose dolphins were similar to those reported by Fossi et al. (2003) for the same species in the neighbouring waters of the Ionian Sea as far as HCB and PCBs were concerned; however, DDTs levels were four times higher in the Gulf than in neighbouring waters, indicating the existence of a real toxicological problem for these dolphins (Gonzalvo et al. 2016). Lipid content in the bottlenose dolphins' subcutaneous blubber (represented by extracted organic matter, EOM%), indicative of health condition, resulted in 28.6% (n=14); a value much lower than what was reported for bottlenose dolphins from other areas (the Sea of Cortez (n=11; 43.5%), the Strait of Gibraltar (N=3; 48.9%), the Strait of Sicily (n=4; 60.8%), and a single specimen from the Ionian Sea with 74%, but similar to EOM% from specimens in the Croatian Adriatic Sea (n=14; 24.5%) (L. Marsili, unpublished data;[START_REF] Marsili | Organochlorine levels and mixed function oxidase activity in skin biopsy specimens from Mediterranean cetaceans[END_REF]. A mean value as low as that detected in the Gulf of Ambracia is indication of a generalized poor health condition (Gonzalvo et al. 2016). About one in three bottlenose dolphins in the Gulf of Ambracia was found to be suffering from some kind of skin condition (Gonzalvo et al. 2015). Numerous cumulative factors may be influencing the epidermal integrity and immune response of the skin of Ambracian dolphins or cause them physiological stress, thereby rendering this highly resident community more prone to natural infections or to impact by anthropogenic activities. Human disturbance is also a potential threat to bottlenose dolphins in the Gulf of Ambracia, considering the development of dolphin-watching activities in the Gulf in recent years by operators who have not been applying consistently the ACCOBAMS Guidelines of respectful whale-watching operations (J. Gonzalvo, unpublished).

Communication and awareness

In April 2021 a brand-new Ionian Dolphin Project (IDP) website was officially released https://www. ioniandolphinproject.org, after the first IDP website was produced in 2012. In addition to provide education material such as basic information on marine mammal species present in Greek waters (Fig. 24), as well as guidelines for boaters and sea users on how to behave when coming across cetaceans and monk seals, this website offers a digital platform to report marine mammal sightings (i.e., citizen science programme) through a very user-friendly interface.

Nowadays, the use of digital cameras, cell phones and other devices capable of easily recording several minutes of video, or to capture high quality digital images is widespread among boaters. Using the on-line sighting form videos and images can be sent to us to facilitate additional information and to allow us to confirm the identification of the species reported. It also includes essential information about the cetacean species found in the Greek seas and identification tips.

The number of charter boats and flotilla sailing holiday companies operating around the Ionian Islands has steadily increased during the last decade. Together they pose a fleet of several hundred boats, regularly navigating the waters between the islands of Zakynthos and Corfu. The resulting regular activity of this large fleet not only offers a huge potential for the recording of opportunistic marine mammal sightings but also calls for the design of adequate education and awareness initiatives addressed to boat users. This increase in boat traffic and the potential disturbance it generates may pose a threat to marine mammal populations by causing unnecessary stress by disrupting their natural behaviours. Such threats can be minimised by applying a basic code of conduct when coming across a group of cetaceans or monk seals. Mini posters with marine mammal species and species guides and code of conduct guidelines (Fig. 25) when encountering marine mammals made available for download at the IDP website https:// www.ioniandolphinproject.org/download/ Key outcomes -Until 2016 the Gulf of Ambracia Natura 2000 Area was exclusively including the marshes and lagoons of the northern side of the Gulf, which were also included in the Ramsar Site EU network because of their importance as nesting sites for seabirds.

In December 2016, the the Gulf of Ambracia Natura 2000 site GR2110001 was significantly expanded to cover the totality of the waters of the Gulf as a result of the evidence provided by Tethys Research Institute on its importance as a key area for the conservation of bottlenose dolphins.

-The Gulf of Ambracia was declared in 2017 as an Important Marine Mammal Area (IMMA) by the IUCN Joint Species Survival Committee/World Commission on Protected Areas (SSC/WCPA) Marine Mammal Protected Areas Task Force 1 . (Fig. 26) IMMA Area size: 401 km2 Qualifying species: common bottlenose dolphin EBSAs, KBAs, etc.) is then presented and evaluated at regional expert workshops. The supply information about pAoIs is included in a regional Inventory of Knowledge (IoK) using a standardised Data Appraisal Form (DAF).

Stage 2 -Development of 'candidate IMMAs' -It is a multi-step process guided by the Task Force during regional workshops publicly announced with 'calls for information ' 4-6 months and Ecology, 463, 32-38. Gonzalvo, J., Lauriano, G., Hammond, P.S., Viaud-Martinez, K.A., Fossi, M.C., Natoli, A. et al. 2016 and participate together in the course. Collaboration between participants was enhanced to promote knowledge exchange and networking. Participation in the workshop was supported through the award of Erasmus + grants available for students of the project partner universities in order to entirely cover their mobility expenses. Subscriptions of students from institutions external to the partnership were also considered.

Contents

The entire ISP was designed to provide participants with: -fundamental knowledge to understand how terrestrial planning deeply influences marine and coastal areas and vice-versa; -understanding on the main aspects of marine and coastal planning and management and the main challenges and potential solutions for its effective implementation; -knowledge of the main aspects and strategies adopted in citizens science and how these can support the implementation of spatial planning and management; -detailed insight on good practices in the context of planning and management of marine and coastal areas through interactive classes delivered by the experts of the project partner institutions;

Learning outcomes

The learning outcomes were developed based on the Dublin Descriptors 1 as follow: -Knowledge and understanding: Acquire knowledge on main relevant aspects of coastal and marine planning and management and the main challenges and potential solutions for its effective implementation; acquire an overview of citizens science and communication strategies and approaches and their relevance to support spatial planning and management; -Applied knowledge and understanding: Depict the key steps typical of a coastal-marine planning and management process and apply it to a specific geographical context; -Making judgements: Select the best tools and approaches for the development of a coastal-marine planning and management project concerning site-specific conditions of different scenarios/case studies; -Communication skills: Communicate effectively with other students and teachers from different backgrounds; communicate their working results to specialist and non-specialist audiences; be able to work in teams around common problems; -Learning skills: Describe main tools and methods available to effectively approach planning and management of coastal-marine systems; acquire an overall knowledge of marine-coastal planning and management adequate to orient their future study, research, and work within the framework of this multidisciplinary field.

Teaching methodology

The entire course was developed through three complementary modules: two Long Distance Learning (LDL) online modules and a two weeks workshop. The two LDL modules provided the background knowledge to prepare for the workshop. An online platform (Canvas Learning Management System) was used to support the implementation of an innovative, interactive learning approach. The platform was made available for teachers and for students from different backgrounds and institutions to provide them with a virtual space to interact. In particular, through the online forum, they were enabled to share experiences and discuss the course aspects and topics. Anonymous questionnaires were submitted to the students to provide feedback to teachers on the different aspects of the course and collect their opinions and qualitative evaluation of the course.

More in detail the three main modules of the course were organized as follow:

The LDL 1 was based on Open Education Resources (OERs) made available by the project partners from the 3 academic institutions (Aix-Marseille University, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, and University Iuav of Venice) and shared through the project web platform. This module focused on: the terrestrialmarine continuum; the planning process (key steps: visioning, problem scoping, analysis, elaboration of planning measures and implementation program); monitoring and planning implementation evaluation;

The LDL 2 was based on Open Education Resources (OERs) made available by the project partners from the 3 non-academic institutions (iSea Environmental Organization, SUBMON Association, Tethys Research Institute) and shared through the project web platform. This module focused on: survey strategies to support monitoring and planning implementation evaluation; stakeholder engagement strategies; communication and public awareness strategies; To capitalize the knowledge acquired from the LDL modules, each student was asked to undertake an individual problem-based exercise related to the subject of innovative strategies for planning, engagement, and communication to support the sustainable management of marine and coastal areas. During both LDL modules interactive tutoring and examination were delivered through the project web platform.

The workshop was delivered in presence, with all the students from the different universities involved and the experts from the different organizations of the MARINE_ECOMED partnership as lecturers. Each edition of the workshop was hosted in one of the partner universities: the first by Aix-Marseille University, the second by Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, and the third by University Iuav of Venice. Students with different backgrounds worked in groups on a real case study on the local marine and coastal area of the workshop site (Fig. 27,28). Through the workshop participants got the opportunity to apply the knowledge acquired during the two previous LDL modules and to benefit from frontal classes taught by the experts involved in the program, who shared their professional experiences and provided support to students in the development of their work. The workshop aimed to provide participants with a clear understanding of planning and management strategies, available communication strategies, and related challenges, enhancing them to work on existing issues on a real case, with real data, in a real political and administrative context, with real stakeholders and workers. Participants of different nationalities, backgrounds (planning and oceanography), skills (e.g. GIS, graphic tools) work in groups to simulate real-life multidisciplinary teamwork. Research and campaign experiences selected by the partnership members were presented to students by the experts involved in the mobility program. The case studies selected were located in the coastal-marine geographical context of the hosting university. Students were provided with data and information on the case study to support the development of their work. A field trip was organized on the coastal area adopted as a case study to foster understanding of main specificities and challenges to the planning and management of the case study local context. The workshop was also an occasion to foster students' understanding of ecosystem services by involving them in a role-playing simulation, the Marine Ecosystem Services Game. To allow students to get a better understanding of real dynamics in planning and management, their work was presented at a public event organized within the project framework (one for every edition) where local experts and stakeholders were invited to give very important feedback to workshop results. The evaluation of the students was based on the active participation in the workshop (30%), problem-based activities consisting in the oral presentation of a potential strategy developed for the "marine planning, management, and communication" of the case study (30%), writing of a report on a potential strategy developed for the "marine planning, management, and communication" of the case study (40%). At the end of the workshop a joint certificate was issued to participants by the three universities involved.

in Thessaloniki

Results achieved A total of 63 students from 8 different European and non-European countries participated over the three editions of the ISP. Most of the students participating in the course come from master courses in the subjects of Oceanography, Territorial Planning, Ecology, Biological Sciences, Architecture and Visual Arts. Students from Undergraduate (Bachelor) and Ph.D. courses were also involved. The average feedback from the questionnaire submitted to students was positive and specific observations collected in it allowed to adapt and improve several aspects of the course over the three years of its implementation. The teachers involved amounted to a total of 25 from the partner organizations and other local experts invited during the workshop to share their experience and knowledge about the case studies in which the workshop was focused each time. A total of 13 planning proposals were realized by students for the coastal and marine areas in which each case study was focused. The planning proposals were presented by the students through an oral presentation and a poster session during the public event organized at the end of each workshop. At each public event, approximately 40 participants were present including local stakeholders that provided feedback to students' work. The mobility grants assigned to students amounted to a total of 33 over the three editions of the ISP.

  area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes" 1 .

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. MARINE_ECOMED Project strategic partnership involved in the creation of this handbook

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Satellite image of the Mediterranean basin

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Posidonia oceanica meadows. Source: SUBMON

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Geopolitical overview of the Mediterranean Sea.

Figure 7 .

 7 Figure 7. Areas of high ecological importance in the Mediterranean 23

57Figure 8 .Figure 9 .

 89 Figure 8. The Gulf of Venice and its bathymetry

Figure 10 .

 10 Figure 10. Distribution of the main human uses and activities in the Gulf of Venice

Figure 11 .

 11 Figure 11. Some of the seascapes and marine biodiversity found in the Calanques of Marseille (@Sandrine Ruitton)

  67

Figure 12 .

 12 Figure 12. Map of the Calanques National Park and different areas. For more details in the regulation see: http.www.calanques-parcnational.fr

Figure 14 .

 14 Figure 14. The spatial pattern of the main land uses and protected areas. Source: Corine Land Cover/Copernicus)

Figure 15 .

 15 Figure 15. The three main urban zones of the County of Thessaloniki Source: Thessaloniki Master Plan

Figure 16 .

 16 Figure 16. Blue shark (Prionace glauca). Critically Endangered shark species in the Mediterranean, according to the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Red List of Threatened Species. Photo Credit: Alessandro De Maddalena.

Figure 17

 17 Figure 17. A Gymnura Altavela record reported from a citizen scientist through social media. Photo Credit: Kos Divers.

Figure 18 .

 18 Figure 18. Sharks and rays in Greece and Cyprus facebook group.

Figure 19

 19 Figure 19. S(A) Aggregation of Mobula mobular observed in 2020 in Cyprus. Photo credit: Marios Chisophorout. (B) A Carcharhinus plumbeus juvenile caught and released by a recreational fisher in 2018 in Cyprus. (C) A Squatina aculeate individual caught by a recreational fisher in 2020 in Cyprus. Photo credit: Stelios Kotzikas. (D) A female Glaucostegus cemiculus caught and released by a recreational fisher in 2010 in Cyprus. Photo Credit: Pampos Stavrou (E) A possible record of Dasyatis marmorata reported by Marine and Environmental Research Lab in 2020 from Cavo Greco, Cyprus. Photo Credit: Demetris Kleitou (F) A Taeniurops grabatus individual reported from a photo record that dates back in 1977 from Cyprus. Photo Credit: George Karamanos.

Figure 20 .

 20 Figure 20. From left to right: Coralligenous assemblages, Maerl beds and Posidonia oceanica meadows Figure 21. Group of divers in the Medes Islands MPA

Figure 23 .

 23 Figure 23. Gulf of Ambracia

  Concerning fisheries interactions, in the Gulf of Ambracia, purse-seine and trawl fishing have been prohibited by law since 1953 and 1966, respectively (No A81 Royal Decree 23.3/8-4-53 and No 8 Royal Decree 917/66). Local commercial fisheries are limited to about 300 small-scale artisanal vessels, working mainly with trammel and gill nets (Gonzalvo et al. 2014). Fishermen working in the Gulf unanimously report predation and damage to their nets by bottlenose dolphins; nevertheless, they describe dolphins as 'special' animals, defining them as intelligent and beautiful. Accordingly, the occurrence of intentional killing of dolphins by fishermen as a form of retaliation or culling was never reported in recent years; however, about half of the fishermen community has declared to be aware of occasional dolphin incidental captures (Gonzalvo et al. 2014).

Figure 24 .

 24 Figure 24. Cetacean identification guide

Figure 26 .

 26 Figure 26. Gulf of Ambracia IMMA

Figure 27 .

 27 Figure 27. Field excursions during the second edition of the workshop.in Thessaloniki

Figure 28 .

 28 Figure 28. Field excursions during the first edition of the workshop. in Marseille

  Fig.1 and Fig.2. Localisation des zones d'intérêts prioritaire. Identification des conflits et synergies (SWOT)Pour la partie terrestre, les agrandissements montrent des zones de conflit (Fig.1,2,3,4,5) et de synergie (Fig.1,4,5). Idem pour la partie marine qui ne montre uniquement des zones contenant des conflits et synergies. Park and enlarge the boundaries of the protected area, improve the environmental status in order to make the Calanques Park a prototype preservation area. Préserver le Parc des Calanques, agrandir les zones protégées et améliorer le statut écologique au sein du Parc dans l'optique d'en faire un modèle en tant que zone de préservation. Frioul Islands and the artificial reef into the core of the MPA and creation of the buffer zone along the landpark Ajout des îles du Frioul et des récifs artificiels au sein de la zone marine protégée et création d'une zone tampon aux limites terrestres du parc.

  Fig.1 and Fig.2. Localisation des zones d'intérêts prioritaire. Identification des conflits et synergies (SWOT)Pour la partie terrestre, les agrandissements montrent des zones de conflit (Fig.1,2,3,4,5) et de synergie (Fig.1,4,5). Idem pour la partie marine qui ne montre uniquement des zones contenant des conflits et synergies. of the Frioul Islands and the artificial reef into the core of the MPA and creation of the buffer zone along the landpark Ajout des îles du Frioul et des récifs artificiels au sein de la zone marine protégée et création d'une zone tampon aux limites terrestres du parc.

Fig

  SPATIAL MEASURE ESTABLISHMENT OF NO-MINING AREA SPATIAL MEASURE ESTABLISHMENT OF NO-TAKE AND FISHERIES RESTRICTED AREAS TRENDS FOR THE NORTHERN AND CENTRAL ADRIATIC TRAWLER FLEET FUTURE TRENDS MARINE AND BRACKISH AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN FISHERIES & AQUACULTURE DATA SYNERGIES & CONFLICTS SPATIAL CONFLICT OVERLAP OF SHIPPING ROUTES VS MPA&AQUACULTURE SPATIAL CONFLICT OVERLAP OF MPA&AQUACULTURE VS HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION ZONE SPATIAL CONFLICT FISHING ZONES VS REEFS to fishing activities in areas with high ecological relevance (i.e. reefs).

.000 1.500 Km

				.
				The Mediterranean encloses the trade routes of its
				riparian countries with the rest of the world. It is one
				of the main hubs for marine transport worldwide,
				including over 600 ports and terminals, several of
				which are listed among the 100 world top ports 17 .
				Intra-Mediterranean maritime trade flows account
				for 25% of global traffic 18 and the total revenues of
				maritime transport amount to more than 70 billion
				Euros in the Mediterranean Sea, equivalent to 5% of
				the total revenues worldwide 19 .
				Fisheries and aquaculture are essential drivers
	0	250 500	1	for the blue economy in the Mediterranean. They
				provide essential coastal livelihoods as well as

  MPAs and OECMs are mostly coastal and European; indeed over 72.77% of the surface covered is located in the Western Mediterranean while 90.05% of the total surface is in European waters. However 9.79% of European waters are protected as part of the Natura 2000 at sea network, which includes 882 sites6 , many of which have no management plan, nor restrictive measures established for their management.

	within the jurisdictional waters of a country Mediterranean, listed according to the provisions
	which are established through national legislation. of the Specially Protected Areas and Biological
	Diversity in the Mediterranean (SPA/BD Protocol) 15 ,
	Natura 2000 sites is the largest coordinated under the auspices of the Barcelona Convention.
	network of natural protected areas in the world. It
	includes core breeding and resting sites for rare Parc Marin International des Bouches de Bonifacio
	and threatened species, and some rare natural (PMIBB), established by the European Grouping of
	habitat types which are listed under two European Territorial Cooperation, is the international maritime
	Directives, namely the Birds Directive and the park linking Corsica and Sardinia and constituting a	World heritage sites are landmarks or areas with
	Habitats Directive 7 . natural heritage area under the legal responsibility	legal protection by the World Heritage Convention 12
	of the two states and two regions 16 .	administered by the United Nations Educational,
	Fisheries Restricted Areas (FRA) are geographically	Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), for
	defined areas in which some specific fishing Areas of high ecological value (HEV) are natural	having cultural, historical, scientific or other forms
	activities are temporarily or permanently banned habitats, which are of outstanding significance or	of significance; The selected sites must be "cultural
	or restricted in order to improve the exploitation critical importance due to their high biological,	and natural heritage around the world, considered to
	patterns and conservation of specific stocks as well ecological, social or cultural values at a national,	be of outstanding value to humanity" 13 .
	as of habitats and deep-sea ecosystems 8 . regional or global level 17 .
		Biosphere reserves are 'learning places for
	Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA) is an area	sustainable development' under diverse ecological,
	that needs special protection through action by	social and economic contexts, where solutions
	International Maritime Organization because of	reconciling the conservation of biodiversity with its
	its significance for recognized ecological or socio-	sustainable use are promoted 14 .
	economic or scientific reasons and which may be
	vulnerable to damage by international maritime	Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean
	activities 9 .	Importance (SPAMIs) are marine protected
		and coastal areas of importance for conserving
	Pelagos Sanctuary is a marine area of 87,500 sq.	the components of biological diversity in the

There are 46 different types of MPAs and OECMs in the Mediterranean with highly variable levels of protection. Main categories include: National designated MPAs. Are MPAs impleted Figure 6. MPAs and OECMs in the Mediterranean 18 0 250 500 1.000 1.500 Km km, subject to an international agreement between Italy, Monaco and France for the protection of marine mammals which live in it 10 . Ramsar sites are wetland sites designated as Wetlands of International Importance, according to Ramsar International Convention on Wetlands 11 .

https://www.westmed-initiative.eu/westmed-initiative/

https://www.bluemed-initiative.eu/about-the-bluemed-initiative/ Integrated ocean management in the Mediterranean

Collection of good practices

project Consortium and, in addition to this, it may contain some information gaps. Neither the European Commission or the INDIRE Italian National agency for the Erasmus +

eco-tourism opportunities, to get visitors close to the marine environment and encouraging them to be active player in the conservation of marine habitat of fishing interest. Localisation des zones d'intérêts prioritaire. Identification des conflits et synergies (SWOT)Pour la partie terrestre, les agrandissements montrent des zones de conflit (Fig. 1,2,3,4,5) et de synergie (Fig.1,[START_REF] Ramieri | Linking Integrated Coastal Zone Management to Maritime Spatial Planning: The Mediterranean Experience[END_REF]5). Idem pour la partie marine qui ne montre uniquement des zones contenant des conflits et synergies. [START_REF] Ramieri | Linking Integrated Coastal Zone Management to Maritime Spatial Planning: The Mediterranean Experience[END_REF]5). Idem pour la partie marine qui ne montre uniquement des zones contenant des conflits et synergies. 1,2,3,4,5) et de synergie (Fig. 1,4,5). Idem pour la partie marine qui ne montre uniquement des zones contenant des conflits et synergies.

CETACEANS AND MARITIME TRANSPORT

CETACEANS AND MARITIME TRANSPORT

CETACEANS AND MARITIME T

Energy production

Ecology and industries

Spatial overlap of existing uses

Conceptual strategy some of the main issues in the area, namely: organic pollution from land-based activities, potential conflicts between marine traffic and other activities (e.g. fishery), anthropogenic pressures on coastal marine ecosystems. Speed limit areas for shipping, areas of temporal restriction for aquaculture and fishery as well as the allocation of spots for environmental monitoring, were suggested.