Véronique Favre-Bonté
email: veronique.favre-bonte@univ-smb.fr

Marie Da Fonséca
email: marie.da-fonseca@univ-perp.fr

Benoît Régent
email: benoit.regent@univ-smb.fr

Entrepreneurship and Territorial Cultural Projects: Towards a Development of Territorial Effectuation Concept Entrepreneuriat et projets culturels territoriaux : Vers un développement du concept d'effectuation territoriale

Keywords: Projet culturel de territoire, effectuation, entrepreneuriat territorial, compétence entrepreneuriale territoriale, parties prenantes Territorial cultural project, effectuation, territorial entrepreneurship, territorial entrepreneurial skills, stakeholders Entrepreneurship

Cette recherche s'inscrit dans les travaux, encore très peu nombreux, qui portent sur l'Entrepreneuriat Territorial. Le cadre de l'effectuation est utilisé pour appréhender les projets culturels de territoire positionnés ici comme de l'Entrepreneuriat Territorial. A travers l'étude de deux cas de Projets Culturels de Territoire nous montrons comment une dynamique territoriale entrepreneuriale peut s'instaurer. Ainsi ce papier contribue à l'état des connaissances sur l'entrepreneuriat territorial en cherchant à identifier d'une part le rôle des acteurs dans les dynamiques locales d'entrepreneuriat, et d'autre part l'émergence de ces dynamiques au sein du territoire.

Introduction

A territorial project is an "instrument" (Langeard, 2015, p. 65) that is used to unite agents around a common vision and operational objectives within a strategic space [START_REF] Lauriol | L'espace et le territoire dans l'agenda de recherche en stratégie[END_REF][START_REF] Emin | De la pertinence des approches par le projet pour analyser les processus entrepreneuriaux collectifs : une étude de cas sur le territoire de la Confédération Paysanne[END_REF]. With the introduction of entrepreneurial managerial practices in the public sector, territorial projects have become essential in the quest to increase the attractiveness of a region; at the same time, culture is increasingly central to these projects [START_REF] Canova | La culture territoriale en question[END_REF]. Since the late 1980s, public decision-makers have indeed seen the development of culture as an effective instrument for enhancing territorial attractiveness, economic development, and differentiation [START_REF] Boquet | La reconversion touristique des fronts d'eau de Baltimore[END_REF][START_REF] Giband | Les paysages du front d'eau à Philadelphie : du passéisme au post modernisme[END_REF][START_REF] Plaza | Evaluating the influence of a large cultural artifact in the attraction of tourism: the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao case[END_REF].

To achieve their objectives of increasing territorial attractiveness, these projects require the development of strategies and the coordination of a diverse set of players with diverse interests (Soldo, Arnaud and Kermidas, 2013;[START_REF] Lanciano | Comment articuler projets individuel, collectif et de territoire ? Le cas d'un collectif de transformation et commercialisation en circuits courts[END_REF]. It is therefore necessary to offer a guiding framework to public decision-makers and those in charge of implementing territorial cultural projects. The question that arises is how the development of cultural and creative activities in a territory can lead to the development of dynamics and how this dynamic can be pulled by entrepreneurship? Entrepreneurship no longer simply encompasses internal corporate organisational phenomena; territorial development involves users, private actors, and public authorities in charge of the revitalization of the territory [START_REF] Kustosz | Entrepreneuriat et projet de territoire : un défi pour le management territorial[END_REF]. In fact, regional projects are seen as a response to revitalization and therefore to the challenges of regional attractiveness and competitiveness.

The objectives of territorial projects are most often articulated around four orientationseconomic, environmental, social, and cultural-and define a long-term ambition. They are then linked to entrepreneurial processes for the overall revitalization of a region or territory [START_REF] Douence | Penser l'agriculture dans le projet de territoire d'une ville moyenne : l'exemple de l'agglomération de Pau[END_REF][START_REF] Feche R | Conception d'un projet de territoire agri-alimentaire pour une alimentation saine, locale, au service de la création d'emplois en milieu rural[END_REF][START_REF] Pouthier | Le Village de l'Illustration, un projet culturel de territoire en communs[END_REF].

Therefore, building on [START_REF] Kustosz | Entrepreneuriat et projet de territoire : un défi pour le management territorial[END_REF], we consider entrepreneurship to be the business of individuals for-or non-profit organizations and territories that must advance by developing projects. In fact, French public authorities encourage territories to move towards a project approach as opposed to a ticket-counter approach1 [START_REF] Behar | Entrepreneuriat en équipe : positionnement dans le champ de l'entrepreneuriat collectif[END_REF].

According to [START_REF] Kustosz | Entrepreneuriat et projet de territoire : un défi pour le management territorial[END_REF], the collective dimension of entrepreneurship can be understood within a dynamic territory, highlighting the area's capacity for innovation and the creativity of local actors in stimulating collective dynamics [START_REF] Dejardin | L'entrepreneuriat, le territoire et les conditions de leurs dynamiques cumulatives[END_REF][START_REF] Emin | De la pertinence des approches par le projet pour analyser les processus entrepreneuriaux collectifs : une étude de cas sur le territoire de la Confédération Paysanne[END_REF]. For their part, territorial projects structure local public action according to the territory's resources and challenges. Moreover, "territorial cultural projects are part of a period of experimentation with new ways of doing things that shake up" the various actors (Langeard, 2015, p.70). This points to the interest of studying territorial projects through entrepreneurship. The challenge for territories is to enable the spread of collective intelligence by promoting configurations of actors and resources, i.e., territorial entrepreneurship [START_REF] Bertacchini | Information et veille territoriales : représentation du complexe local et émergence d'un projet d'intelligence territoriale[END_REF]. Territorial entrepreneurship is a specific concept that designates how the entrepreneurial dynamic is built on and for a territory: "Territorial entrepreneurship emerges and is anchored within a territorial ecosystem that constitutes its original soil from which the dynamics of multi-actor and multi-partner cooperation will be able to take support and draw the essential resources to build and develop themselves" (Baudet, 2017, p. 21).

Thus, while territorial projects may now be seen as a collective process of revitalization that can transform territories over the long term [START_REF] Kustosz | Entrepreneuriat et projet de territoire : un défi pour le management territorial[END_REF] and be studied as an instrument of public action, there is still insufficient research on the links between the development of territorial cultural projects and territorial entrepreneurial dynamics.

The development of the cultural sector, often associated with the enhancement and promotion of local heritage, has indeed become a driving force behind the physical but also social renewal of many territories [START_REF] Bailoni | Culture et renouveau urbain dans les territoires post-industriels du Nord de l'Angleterre[END_REF]. Even though culture appears to be central in the reflections on the revitalization and development of territories, the specificities linked to the management of each territory will make the definition of a single model for the development of culture complex. Moreover, the many specificities of mountain areas (geomorphology, tourism, environment, etc.) imply establishing specific territorial management [START_REF] Achin | La gouvernance de la diversification comme enjeu de l'adaptation des stations de moyenne montagne[END_REF].

It is therefore important to understand the development of territorial cultural projects in mountain areas from the point of view of territorial entrepreneurship. The multiplicity of actors, resources and therefore territorial specificities mean that only a comprehensive approach capable of integrating a multitude of moving elements can capture this entrepreneurial complexity. To this end, we believe that the effectuation approach can help identify the emergence of local entrepreneurship dynamics within the territory [START_REF] Garud R | Theory evaluation, entrepreneurial processes, and performativity[END_REF].

Recent discussions of effectuation have further emphasized the need to study it as a process [START_REF] Gupta | A process perspective on evaluating and conducting effectual entrepreneurship research[END_REF]; the empirical study of effectuation processes has begun to play a prominent role in recent research (e.g., [START_REF] Berends | Product innovation processes in small firms: Combining entrepreneurial effectuation and managerial causation[END_REF][START_REF] Reymen | Understanding dynamics of strategic decision making in venture creation: a process study of effectuation and causation[END_REF][START_REF] Jiang | Opening the black box of effectuation processes: Characteristics and dominant types[END_REF]. It therefore seems relevant to us to use Sarasvathy's effectuation theory (2001,2003,2004,2008), which we see as an innovative integrative model. This effectual approach allows us to render intelligible the collaboration processes of the actors in the territory. Because of its innovative approach and the fact that it offers answers to a phenomenon for which the literature did not previously provide an explanation [START_REF] Silberzahn | L'effectuation, logique de pensée des entrepreneurs experts[END_REF], effectuation can be seen as a challenge to "mainstream" thinking on entrepreneurship. This is even more the case in territorial entrepreneurship, which, according to the scant research on the subject [START_REF] Henrion | Créer une dynamique de coopération entrepreneuriale dans un territoire de faible densité : le cas de la Petite Montagne dans le Jura[END_REF], seems to be a source of dynamism for rural areas.

We are interested in how rural territories undertake territorial projects through their actors, and innovate in a context strongly marked by the fragmentation of actors and highly intense competition that encourages them to visualize an innovation dynamic. We hope to shed light on the theory of effectuation by looking at a territory experiencing high uncertainty, given the territorial constraints and competition from more visible and attractive destinations.

We would like to contribute to the body of knowledge on territorial entrepreneurship with a particular focus on the development of territorial cultural projects that enable the creation and development of dynamic territorial entrepreneurship. Our research questions are: How do the actors establish an entrepreneurial dynamic? How does the effectual approach make it possible to understand the conditions that favour the development of a territorial entrepreneurship dynamic in the case of territorial cultural projects?

To do this, we will analyze two cultural projects based in mountainous areas. This case study was chosen because it enables us to analyze the mechanisms at work. Through semi-structured interviews with a diverse group of actors, we were able to highlight effectual decision-making processes and trace entrepreneurial stages. Our results show similarities in the stages of the effectual process of territorial cultural projects, but also reveal divergences.

In addition to undertaking the first effort to link the literature of effectuation and territorial entrepreneurship, this article offers a discussion that leads to the first contributions on territorial effectuation.

Territorial cultural projects and territorial entrepreneurship logic

This first part presents the overlapping notions of territorial cultural projects (TCPs) and territorial entrepreneurship. It appears that TCPs cover issues that are central to the territories and that they are linked to territorial entrepreneurship, whose operations remain understudied. For this reason, the following sections will focus not only on better defining territorial cultural projects (1.1) but also showing how effectuation can help in understanding the logics of territorial entrepreneurship (1.2).

Territorial cultural projects: definition and challenges for territories

Territory

A territory is akin to a social construct; it is made up of individuals who interact around shared resources. Territories are made up of companies and public, private, and community participants who interact and form a heterogeneous population of decision-makers [START_REF] Bertacchini | Information et veille territoriales : représentation du complexe local et émergence d'un projet d'intelligence territoriale[END_REF][START_REF] Zardet | Quelle contribution du management au développement de la dynamique territoriale ? Expérimentation d'outils de contractualisation sur trois territoires[END_REF]. These local participants, whether locally elected, private, public, or community stakeholders, develop multi-partner co-operations and create synergies aimed at implementing territorial projects in order to make the territory attractive or competitive.

The literature approaches territorial competitiveness from two perspectives: either it sees it only at the firm level and from a strictly commercial and economic perspective (Lengyel, 2010); or it understands competitiveness at the level of territories themselves [START_REF] Camagni R | Regional competitiveness: towards a concept of territorial capital Seminal studies, Regional and urban economics[END_REF]. Indeed, due to trade globalization, regions and territories need to compete for resources, talents, and capital on a global scale (Lengyel, 2010). A recent study even proposes considering territories as businesses [START_REF] Annoni | The EU Regional Competitiveness Index 2016[END_REF]. In this context, the development of projects occupies a central place in territorial thinking. Thus, the development of territorial competition encourages territories to strengthen their capacity for innovation [START_REF] Godet | Créativité et innovation dans les territoires, La documentation française[END_REF] and develop projects [START_REF] Landel | Les nouveaux territoires et leurs noms entre projet et compétitivité : le cas des pôles d'excellence rurale[END_REF][START_REF] Arezki | Le projet de territoire : une innovation managériale au service de l'action des organisations publiques territoriales[END_REF] that emphasize their specific features and their cultures [START_REF] Mrabet | La valorisation des actifs immatériels : facteur de compétitivité des territoires ?[END_REF][START_REF] Bertrand | La co-construction d'un projet culturel de territoire : L'exemple du schéma de développement culturel du Pays Pyrénées Méditerranée[END_REF].

Territorial projects & TCP

Territorial projects can be defined as a tool that enables coordinated participants to provide solutions to new productive problems at the sub-national level [START_REF] Pecqueur | Le développement local[END_REF]. For [START_REF] Landel | Patrimoine et territoire, les nouvelles ressources du développement, Développement durable et territoires[END_REF], they are an opportunity for new forms of public debate involving individuals, the state, local authorities, businesses, organizations, and services with differing views and objectives (p. 13). A territorial project can therefore be seen as a unique process akin to collective action, carried out by a diverse set of participants and aimed at solving new productive problems. It is characterized by a long-term horizon and a sustainable development approach.

There are generally four emphases of territorial projects: economic, environmental, social, and cultural. Various studies in economics and culture management have advanced the idea that the attractiveness of the territory is behind the political choices made in cultural matters [START_REF] Evard | Arts management: a new discipline entering the millennium?[END_REF][START_REF] Greffe | Le développement local[END_REF][START_REF] Greffe | Le développement local[END_REF][START_REF] Berneman | Culture et attractivité des territoires, Nouveaux enjeux, nouvelles perspectives[END_REF]. Often seen as a minor factor in territorial development, culture is now a key concept in land use planning [START_REF] Bellavance | Arts et territoires à l'ère du développement durable. Vers une nouvelle économie culturelle[END_REF] and is increasingly perceived as a driver of the attractiveness and competitiveness of territories. A TCP has been defined as an organization of collective action that goes beyond the institutional actors alone, formalized by one or more negotiated and deliberated strategic documents, having the territorial common good in perspective, beyond a simple equipment or device, which refers to a scale variable spatial, by combining artistic, cultural and territorial developments (Teillet and Négrier, 2019, p. 5) There is therefore a strong stake in better understanding TCPs and the impulses they can create to generate territorial entrepreneurial dynamics. The notion of territorial entrepreneurship has emerged as a major theme in entrepreneurship research. It is widely echoed in the professional literature, which has taken up this notion to understand how certain territories manage to foster a dynamic of entrepreneurship and innovation (Camagni, 2017).

There have been many calls to shed light on its origins and theoretical foundations [START_REF] Henrion | Créer une dynamique de coopération entrepreneuriale dans un territoire de faible densité : le cas de la Petite Montagne dans le Jura[END_REF]. This concept, at the crossroads of entrepreneurship and territorial projects, gives us a better understanding of the dynamics of territories that leads us to examine the role of the TCP, which is central to the notion of territorial entrepreneurship.

Understanding territorial entrepreneurship through the effectuation approach

Local authorities view entrepreneurship as a tool for territorial dynamics [START_REF] Messeghem | Entrepreneur et dynamiques territoriales : Mélanges en l'honneur de Colette Fourcade[END_REF] involving local participants [START_REF] Kustosz | Entrepreneuriat et projet de territoire : un défi pour le management territorial[END_REF]. It is therefore necessary to look more specifically at the conditions for the emergence of this form of entrepreneurship, which can be seen as a collective process of revitalization that may transform the territory over the long term [START_REF] Kustosz | Entrepreneuriat et projet de territoire : un défi pour le management territorial[END_REF]. [START_REF] Baudet | Accompagner l'essor d'un entrepreneuriat de territoire[END_REF] defines territorial entrepreneurship as emerging and anchored within an ecosystem that is its original breeding ground. Multi-actor and multi-partner co-operations will be able to draw on the resources they need from this ecosystem to build and develop. From the study of several cases, [START_REF] Baudet | Accompagner l'essor d'un entrepreneuriat de territoire[END_REF] shows that territorial entrepreneurship is protean. However, certain characteristics are shared, such as the need to define a collective interest, establish cooperation between different stakeholders, and draw upon endogenous territorial resources.

All entrepreneurial activity involves the ability to unearth and exploit the fortuitous [START_REF] Sarasvathy | Designing organizations that design environments: Lessons from entrepreneurial expertise[END_REF]: the ability to not only identify and assimilate ideas from the external environment but also initiate change from within. A key feature is reliance on a set of dynamic decisions that involve multiple interactions. Territorial entrepreneurship focuses on the ability to both combine existing resources and exploit the contingencies of the environment to achieve its objectives.

For these reasons, we believe that these modes of action in territories, the approach of creating opportunities through TCPs as well as the stakeholders' creation of territorial dynamics by relying on local resources, are akin to effectuation logic.

From a theoretical standpoint, effectuation is a sum of plans that are constructed, deconstructed, revised, and carried forward through daily actions and interactions. Goals then emerge as the entrepreneurial project progresses, depending on the founder's aspiration and knowledge, the encounters and networks they draw from, and various contingencies [START_REF] Sarasvathy | Causation and effectuation: Toward a theoretical shift from economic inevitability to entrepreneurial contingency[END_REF][START_REF] Sarasvathy | L'effectuation, une approche pragmatique et pragmatiste de l'entrepreneuriat[END_REF][START_REF] Silberzahn | L'effectuation, logique de pensée des entrepreneurs experts[END_REF].

Effectuation is defined by Grégoire and Cherchem (2020, p. 622) as a particular way of articulating one's actions, which also considers such things as the context in which these actions take place, the resources one has, the constraints one may face, and the aims, goals, and ends one might pursue given all this. What sets effectuation apart is that it centres squarely on those situations wherein formulating courses of action based on one's predictions about the future becomes fundamentally difficult -if not impossible altogether.

Effectuation is therefore particularly relevant for entrepreneurial efforts to create "ways of doing business" in the economy [START_REF] Mcmullen | Time and the entrepreneurial journey: The problems and promise of studying entrepreneurship as a process[END_REF][START_REF] Mcmullen | Entrepreneurial action and the role of uncertainty in the theory of the entrepreneur[END_REF].

Instead of trying to identify the optimal way to pursue a previously determined goal, acting effectually poses a different challenge to the actors. The question then becomes: what can I do with the means, resources, and skills at my disposal? Which ones could I easily draw upon?

Effectuation theory suggests two ways of understanding effectuation as a mode of entrepreneurial behaviour. First, the logic is based on four principles (plus a starting point) that will lead to decisions and actions during the development of the entrepreneurial project (see Table 1, [START_REF] Sarasvathy | Causation and effectuation: Toward a theoretical shift from economic inevitability to entrepreneurial contingency[END_REF]: affordable loss rather than expected return, strategic alliances rather than competitive analysis, exploitation of contingencies rather than of pre-existing knowledge, and controlling an unpredictable future rather than predicting an uncertain one.

Second, from the outset, effectuation should be considered from a process perspective as sequences of activities with different starting and ending points [START_REF] Fisher | Effectuation, causation, and bricolage: A behavioral comparison of emerging theories in entrepreneurship research[END_REF][START_REF] Sarasvathy | Causation and effectuation: Toward a theoretical shift from economic inevitability to entrepreneurial contingency[END_REF][START_REF] Sarasvathy | Entrepreneurial logics for a technology of foolishness[END_REF][START_REF] Wiltbank R | What to do next? The case for non-predictive strategy[END_REF]. Increasingly, entrepreneurship is seen as a phenomenon resulting from a collective effort and from interactions between a set of actors from different universes with diverse resources. This approach is at the core of the effectuation model [START_REF] Sarasvathy | Causation and effectuation: Toward a theoretical shift from economic inevitability to entrepreneurial contingency[END_REF] and is common to all the works that shared a processual approach to entrepreneurship. From this perspective, we will focus on understanding the complexity of entrepreneurship [START_REF] Verduyn | A critical understanding of entrepreneurship[END_REF], in other words, on the "entrepreneurship in the making" (Germain and [START_REF] Jacquemin | Voies et voix d'approches critiques en entrepreneuriat[END_REF]. Effectuation theory breaks away from the idea of a planned entrepreneurial behavior, and proposes to study entrepreneurship within a territorial framework by identifying entrepreneurial processes that can be characterized as emergent (in the sense of unintended) [START_REF] Emin | Complexité et auto-organisation en entrepreneuriat collectif : analyse d'une scène musicale locale[END_REF]. According to, [START_REF] Emin | Complexité et auto-organisation en entrepreneuriat collectif : analyse d'une scène musicale locale[END_REF], effectuation "makes it possible to explain the outcome of a collective action (here a context for entrepreneurial processes) without going through the intention of the actors, and thus leaves room for the creativity of action [START_REF] Joas | La créativité de l'agir[END_REF], for a possibilist relationship to reality (Bréchet, [START_REF] Emin | La recherche-accompagnement : une pratique légitime[END_REF] in the entrepreneurial in action" (2017, p.104). Thus, the pulse of the entrepreneurial phenomenon here does not result from intentional behavior; but from the actions and productive meeting/encounters of diverse actors (elected officials, citizens, artists, traders...).

When entrepreneurs implement a project (making choices based on the effects that can be achieved with the means at hand rather than a predetermined objective), stakeholders play a central role because their commitment to the project depends on whether the cycle of accumulation of resources necessary for the creation or development of a business can continue (Figure 1). Entrepreneurship is thus a dynamic and evolving learning process, combining and generating individual and collective skills. This allows us to understand the entrepreneur's behaviour as a process that is gradually constructed over time, as it evolves. By following this behavioural path, we focus on how entrepreneurs develop the skills required throughout the entrepreneurial process [START_REF] Omrane | Entrepreneurial competencies and entrepreneurial process: a dynamic approach[END_REF]. Territorial entrepreneurial skills are built and developed thanks to the quality of the territorial entrepreneurial network, the coordinated assistance of support structures through policies, and the relevance of the territorial network.

Territorial entrepreneurial skills are seen as special territorial competencies based on stakeholders' abilities to call upon the territorial entrepreneurial network.

For these reasons, we are convinced that effectuation logic could facilitate how to interpret the dynamics at play in a territorial project, and how it functions in particular; i.e. how resources are mobilized, which actors bring which skills, when partnerships are concluded, etc. And this is all the more important because in the case of TCP we do not even know the "form" of the offer or who the public will be as these take shape along the way. So, we think that effectuation logic will facilitate how to interpret the dynamics of the cultural offer system in the case of territory projects. This logic would also explain how a territory modifies its cultural offer and, in turn, its project overtime. The effectual approach therefore appears relevant both to understand the development of the territory's cultural project but also the evolution of the offer constituted within the framework of the project.

The effectual approach therefore appears relevant to deal with the case of territorial entrepreneurship in territorial cultural projects (Sarrouy-Watkins, 2019). On one hand effectual approach allows an analysis of dynamic and evolving processes and on the other hand it makes it possible to understand how certain territories manage to promote entrepreneurship and innovation.

Methodology

Research design & case selection

The aim of this article is to study how projects designed to increase cultural offerings in a mountain territory have been developed from an entrepreneurship point of view, drawing in particular on the discourse of the participants carrying out these projects. [START_REF] Reymen | Understanding dynamics of strategic decision making in venture creation: a process study of effectuation and causation[END_REF] and Grégoire and Cherchem (2020) have called for new means of observation to capture more directly the concrete manifestations of an effectual mode of action. Adopting a process research approach [START_REF] Langley | Strategies for theorizing from process data[END_REF], we analyzed two TCPs in-depth. We documented these TCPs' development processes as a sequence of decision events "that describe how things change over time" (Van de Ven, 2007: 197) with the aim of analyzing lists of these decision events for their use of effectual decision-making logic and their potential influencing conditions. Our multiple case study design enabled us to analyze both within-case variation over time and cross-case variation [START_REF] Gerring | The case study: what it is and what it does, The Oxford handbook of comparative politics[END_REF].

Our research aims at the in-depth study of a process and our research question includes the consideration of many actors. This is why case studies are considered the most relevant method of accessing data [START_REF] Yin | Case study research and applications: Design and methods[END_REF] as they make it possible to explore a phenomenon in depth in its context. Multiple case studies incorporate a replication logic [START_REF] Yin | Case study research and applications: Design and methods[END_REF] and therefore the objective is to identify results that are repeated from one case to another. The multiple case study then appears relevant. In view of the research objectives and challenges set out above, a qualitative approach has been adopted. The objective here is to study the specific way in which PCTs are constituted and developed by relying in particular on the discourse of the actors who have impacted or who have been impacted by this type of projects but also by collecting primary data from other actors (public, inhabitants, etc.) and secondary.

We selected the cases based on several criteria. The first criterion is the rural and mountainous characteristics of the territory. The second is that the projects should have been completed over 5 years ago so that we can observe the possible impacts of the TCP on the territory. With all this in mind, we selected VIAPAC and Horizons-Arts Nature (HAN) as our cases.

We chose to study mountain territories because, for one, these territories are often landlocked and far from cultural centres. On the one hand, it requires talent to attract cultural professionals or artists or take audiences to cities [START_REF] Sechi | Quand la montagne fait oeuvre d'art : Arte Sella et les transformations d'un espace alpin en déclin[END_REF]; on the other hand, this can lead to some local residents rejecting cultural activities considered specific to the urban world.

Second, it has been observed that the cultural offerings in these territories are not very diverse and often rely on a network of cultural organizations and therefore on the participation of the amateur actors within these structures [START_REF] Bourdeau | Les défis environnementaux et culturels des stations de montagne. Une approche à partir du cas français[END_REF]. Third, the mountainous territories are united around a strong identity: the mountains and mountain activities. As a result, environmental protection is at the heart of local considerations, and a large part of these territories are made up of protected natural areas. Therefore, natural heritage is a great attraction in these areas, but there are real legal difficulties in setting up businesses in them.

Fourth, the cultural offerings are often marked by low diversity and complementarity with "classic" structures and weak partnerships. In general, the cultural offerings are unevenly distributed, both geographically and demographically, throughout the mountain territories, resulting in unequal access to cultural activities that calls into question policies designed to spread culture.

Presentation of the two cases

Since 2011, the European VIAPAC project has been linking the cities of Digne-les-Bains, France, to Caraglio, Italy, using the works of twelve contemporary artists. The artworks on this road were all created specifically for the places where they are located (natural sites, heritage buildings). This project is presented as a way of promoting artistic creation, taking it out of privileged spaces like museums and galleries and making art a way to enhance and develop the territory. The VIAPAC project has its origins in the collaboration, begun in 1999, between the CAIRN (Centre for Informal Art for Research on Nature) of Digne-les-Bains and CESAC (Experimental Center for Contemporary Arts), of Caraglio. The aim of this collaboration was to "develop a shared project to promote contemporary art in the Alpine area, through the implementation of cultural mediation processes and by enhancing landscape elements and the environment" (VIAPAC). Today, this contemporary art route stretches over 200 km and currently includes 25 artistic works on 7 selected sites on the French side and 5 on the Italian side. This road is open all year round. It aims to be international, due to its background and its internationally renowned artists (English, Italian, French, American, Catalan, etc.). The VIAPAC project is supported by four Franco-Italian partners to the total amount of 1.8 million euros. The project is being underwritten by the General Council of the Haute-Provence Alps for a sum of 500,000 euros, the geological reserve of Haute-Provence for an amount of 400,000 euros, the Piedmont region for an amount of 500,000 euros, and the cultural organization Marcovaldo for an amount of 450,000 euros. Other partners are also involved in the project, including CAIRN and CESAC. The project has also generated strong interest in the cross-border mountain hosts and guides who have gradually become involved in the project. Finally, the artistic direction of the project was entrusted on the French side to Nadine Gomez, Curator of the Gassendi Museum in Digne-les-Bains, and on the Italian side by the Martin Art Association.

Since 2007, the Sancy Massif, located in the south of the Puy de Dome department (63), has hosted the Horizons -Arts Nature festival (HAN). This event is presented as "a meeting between contemporary art and natural landscapes" and consists of exhibiting several works, created in nature, by artists selected by a jury. During the data collection in 2018 the festival celebrated its tenth year. Since the festival's inception, 3,000 candidates from all over the world have applied to exhibit their works, but only 10 are selected for each edition. About forty finalist spots are offered to artists, who submit a project; the jury then makes its selection. In total, Horizons -Arts Nature has already hosted 118 "original and unpublished" works that have since been dismantled as they were ephemeral works, and more than 100 natural sites have been highlighted through the programme. The various works are meant to be discovered during short hikes on the trails of the Sancy massif during the summer period.

The festival operates as follows. First, a call for proposals is issued with a list of places (located on a GR/PR [major hiking trail] with a noteworthy landscape, with access to parking) and legends. The artists then write proposals explaining the work they want to do by justifying the relevance of the choice of location. Then the selection committee reviews each project and selects 10 that will be paid 8,000 euros each. Finally, the festival starts at the beginning of the summer period and ends in September. In 2016, it welcomed nearly 220,000 visitors. This programme came about following the creation of the Community of Commons of Sancy in 2000. In the 2003 statutes of the Intercommunal Tourism Office, it is written that each municipality is granted the authority to provide activities. On the other hand, the elected representatives required the OT to create and manage a unifying community event at an appropriate time; the event would need to attain at least national awareness and contribute to the tourism economy. The director of the Sancy OT, Luc Stelly, then came up with the idea of a Land Art Festival that would involve the temporary installation of artworks in each of the municipalities.

The Horizons -Arts Nature festival is managed by the Sancy Community of Commons Tourist Board (which includes 16 municipalities). The mayors and tourist offices of the 16 municipalities are heavily involved in the development of the festival. In addition, the French government, through the DRAC (Regional Directorate of Cultural Affairs) and the Departmental Council financially support the project. Other public actors such as the Auvergne New World Association and the PNR (Regional Natural Park) also support the project. Finally, some private partners are also involved in the development of this festival.

For example, the mountain biking company Sancy sports is a partner in the project and, in exchange for posting its offers on various public media, provides specific routes guided by GPS to access the festival.

Data collection

The interviews were conducted in the summer of 2018 using a pre-tested semi-structured interview guide with institutional and economic actors in charge of a TCP in a mountainous territory. Three themes are discussed: the people interviewed (their profile, objectives, resources and skills, modes of action); the projects (their motivations; the launch of the TCPs; the resources utilized; the skills developed; the organization, network, participation, and innovative aspects of the TCP); and the participants' perception of the territory (their descriptions of it, its specific features, how the project affected it).

The first step was a document analysis (regional report, studies conducted by tourism boards, brochures, press articles, websites, etc.). It identified the central themes associated with the TCP and identified key players in the project as well as all the stakeholders who might be directly affected by the project. The second stage consisted of a series of semi-structured interviews with a large number (65) and wide variety of participants (institutional actors, organizations, hoteliers, restaurateurs, tradespeople, residents, etc.) supplemented by secondary data (from a triangulation of sources). The interviews were recorded (36:50) and transcribed in full (390 pages) (see Table 2).

Data analysis

In line with our aim of identifying how effectuation processes unfold, our data coding and analysis consisted of three steps.

In the first step, we performed a thematic and manual lexical analysis and then coded and analyzed the interviews using NVIVO software. In this stage, the primary data come from the discussions conducted during the interviews. These were the subject of targeted coding with pre-established codes from the interview guide and then coded according to the themes identified in the first coding. Before coding, we read all the transcripts. This first action made it possible to apply the "floating attention" method (Dumez, 2013, p. 69) and to eventually identify possible emerging themes. Our coding was carried out around 8 major themes (activities, objectives, strategies, processes (Phases), resources, stakeholders, opportunity, maintenance). Thanks to this coding, two aggregate dimensions emerged: process of developing a TCP and the principles of effectuation toward TCP; the first dimension is composed of four second order concepts and the second is composed of six (see Appendix A).

For this study we did not really identify any emerging themes. Nevertheless, what is original in this research is the way the process takes place. Indeed, we find quite the same themes as on another ground linked more to 'classical' effectuation, but what is new here (in the case of the territorial project) is the weight of certain actors and the arrival and departure of other stakeholders throughout the process, etc. In fact, it is the way in which the execution is organized that is different. So, based on the prior process chart proposed by Fisher (2012), [START_REF] Sarasvathy | Entrepreneurial logics for a technology of foolishness[END_REF], and Wiltbank et al. ( 2006), we identified the core aspects of effectuation: triggering the idea, seizing the opportunity, and involving the stakeholders. For example, for triggering of the idea, we identified instances in our data that refer to "who I am (identity)", "what I can achieve (knowledge)" and "whom do I know (network)" (Wiltbank et al., 2006, p. 991). We then identified opportunities or interactions with stakeholders. Finally, we also tracked the establishment of new goals, which were shaped by these interactions with stakeholders.

In the second step, we analyzed how effectuation unfolds over time by observing the concrete activities carried out. Next, based on synthetic analytical strategies [START_REF] Eisenhardt | Theory building from cases: Opportunities and challenges[END_REF][START_REF] Langley | Strategies for theorizing from process data[END_REF], we inductively identified the characteristics of the effectuation process.

We finally compared our findings throughout the TCP in order to identify the overall effectuation process patterns.

The study focuses on two mountain-region TCPs initiated more than 10 years ago in order to identify the short-and medium-term impacts of TCPs on the territory. Although this may lead to hindsight bias, this has very little impact on our study because, as [START_REF] Blank | Cognitive process models of hindsight bias[END_REF] point out, recent information automatically updates basic knowledge.

Findings

First we present the implementation conditions necessary for a cultural project to contribute to the development of a territory's entrepreneurial dynamics (3.1) and then we focus on the principles of the TCP process (resources utilized, opportunities seized, stakeholders enlisted, etc.) (3.2).

The process of developing a TCP

To identify the effectuation mechanisms, we will discuss the progress of a TCP through the four stages of the entrepreneurial development of a project: triggering the idea, seizing the opportunity, involving the stakeholders, and maintaining the project.

Triggering the idea

The two projects, VIAPAC and HAN, are collective projects that started by bringing together public actors who had already collaborated and had similar views of the territory. In the case of VIAPAC, a previous collaboration allowed the founding partners to collectively identify the need for the territory to develop a cultural project. They launched a feasibility study on the UNESCO Geopark to validate their idea.

There was agreement on both approach and interest about the idea of contemporary art outside museums and even outside cities. Because art needs to be taken out of the The VIAPAC project has its origins in the collaboration, begun in 1999, between the CIARN The launch of the HAN also began with a study of the territory's attractiveness. The two festivals were the result of the collaboration of several partners, the realization of a need to develop the attractiveness of the territory, and a feasibility study carried out by an external body confirming this finding. The idea of a festival did not arise before a collective was created to manage its implementation; it emerged as a result of a process.

This process began following the 2000 creation of the Community of Municipalities of Sancy.

The 2003 statutes of the Intercommunal Tourist Board (OT) state that each municipality is granted the authority to provide activities. On the other hand, the elected officials required the OT to create and manage a unifying community event at an appropriate time; the event would need to attain at least national awareness and contribute to the tourism economy. The director of the Sancy OT, Luc Stelly, came up with the idea of a Land Art Festival that would involve the temporary installation of artworks in each of the municipalities.

Several objectives were pursued during the creation of this festival:

 Create a unifying event for the different municipalities,  Create an event to improve the image of the territory and combat stereotypes of resistance to change,  Create an event that helps to better distribute attractiveness throughout the territory,  Build an innovative event that attracts a new audience,  Create an event to play a promotional role for the territory.

Seizing Opportunity

Opportunity seizing occurred throughout the project. The founding partners knew the territory well and could quickly identify the territorial resources on which to rely; for example, they could identify where the artworks might best be installed. This active research led to serendipity; they seized opportunities they had not thought of (in effectuation theory, this is called exploitation of contingencies). In addition, these organizers identified financial resources and other partners at the European level, which contributed to the clarification and definition of the project's objectives.

I took part in a meeting on tourism in the Dordogne that talked about art, and it convinced me that this was the right thing to do here. I presented this to the board, and I was told, 'OK, try it' (Luc Stelly, Project Director and CTA of Sancy).

Originally, there was a line in the covenant when the Sancy Community of Municipalities was created that stated that a unifying event would be created. And then it was Luc who took the initiative and showed what Land Art could bring to our territory. (Olivier Rochon, operational manager of the festival).

The arrival of stakeholders

Stakeholders arrived at different moments, beginning in the design and realization stages and then later during the "exploitation" phase. They were not confined to one role; this enabled them to intervene at any time. Thus, in the development of a cultural project, it is important that residents and community organizations feel ownership in the project.

The creation of this committee allows everyone to feel involved (…) it's a way to get together and talk, but above all it allows all partners to have a role in decisions (…).

Thus

Project maintenance

Finally, maintaining the project over the long term requires thinking about the future well before the event launch. The founders of the HAN sought to highlight the benefits to stakeholders to motivate them to pursue the project. Unlike the HAN project, VIAPAC could not be maintained: in 2009 a private company drew up a balance sheet for the impacts of VIAPAC on the territories, but the founding partners gradually divested.

Well, it's very organized and very comprehensive: there is all the information on brochures, there is always a short walk, it is well signposted, you can stamp your voting cards for your favourite artworks--people are really involved. After that, it didn't work like this. Each year they have improved. [...] This festival was built around human intelligence, and this intelligence makes sure that the thing will continue because the project is anchored […] we can always do better. The innovation is in the management of the project today; it is the integration of the premises that is the issue.

Before that, we did not work like that and therefore this is all new […]

TCP understood through the principles of effectuation

In this section we will approach the development of a territorial cultural project from a process point of view to identify the emergence of these dynamics within the territory. We begin with a closer look at the common effectual principles behind these two TCPs.

First are the resources available. Creating an offer based on a triptych-natural resources, local history, and business activities in the territory-appears to be a decisive element in uniting the organizers. Thus, the public's ownership of the TCP is greatly facilitated if the project relies on territorial resources that have been previously identified collectively.

The primary resources, which are strategic in nature, are financial and human resources. The founding partners of the TCPs agree that financial resources influenced the development of the projects during their early phases and were the key to sustaining the offerings created through the project (VIAPAC had 900,000 euros / 2 years and HAN had 120,000 euros / 1 year). They also emphasized human resources and the importance of having a person dedicated entirely to the monitoring and management of the project at each stage of its development (VIAPAC had 4 part-time employees; HAN had one part-time employee and one full-time student worker). These resources (not necessarily from the territory) had a crucial role during the project: they centralized information and coordinated the PP according to the project phases. Without these human resources, managing the variety of PPs would have been difficult. These people become a cornerstone of the project since they put the PPs into action according to the need to access other specific resources over the course of the project. They needed knowledge in the artistic field in order to have legitimacy in the eyes of the founding partners and, even more so, of the territory's citizens.

There are also organizational resources involved, such as the previous collaborations of some of the participants (approximately 10 years for VIAPAC) or quarterly meetings (for HAN)

and reputational resources (bringing art to the area for 10 years for the HAN festival).

Regarding acceptable losses, the two projects obtained financing for a fixed and relatively short period of 2 years. The losses were low because the projects were publicly funded. Since these areas were rural, often with limited public finances, it was essential for TCPs to propose tight budgets. The vision of the acceptable losses in the public context seems to be a little different to a more classical entrepreneurial context. In the case of public money, at the beginning of a territorial project, costs are always much easier to estimate and control than revenues. The TCP actors know how much they can spend (allocated budget) without "upsetting" the taxpayer. This amount, although admittedly subjective, will serve as an acceptable loss.

The second problem with two-year European projects is that the credits of the national counterparts, the region, the state etc. are annualized credits or we start on a two-year program and you are never sure that you are going to have the continuation, there is no contract of objective, so you are never sure if you will have your credit over two years or over one year. So you "dedicate" this money to this project and then you say

this is what we are willing to lose (N. Gomès, Curator of the Gassendi museum)

The community of municipalities has given us two years to experiment with the festival. After that, it decides whether to renew the funding. (L. Stelly, Founder and Director of the HAN Festival)

In the context of HAN, acceptable losses were linked to the objectives of the funders, so two indicators were particularly monitored: variation in attendance and the value of media coverage.

We have done satisfaction studies, surveys of metrics, surveys with hoteliers. All this is evidence that proves everything this festival can bring to our territory […] it all costs € 120,000 […] so we made an explanatory magazine, with a figure of € 700,000 in press coverage. (L. Stelly, Founder and Director of the HAN Festival)

However, beyond acceptable financial losses, we can identify acceptable symbolic losses.

The problem of contemporary art is that it needs to be explained, unlike the paintings you can do if you are a painter and, if it is a bit figurative, people will get right away.

Contemporary art needs to be explained. (R Pagès, Geopark Director, VIAPAC)

We have identified three types of strategic partnerships in these cases.

The first is the residents. Residents' sense of ownership of the project frequently comes up in the interviews with the partners as a way to give visibility to the project. Residents can become the primary ambassadors of the project, and their participation is then essential in spreading the word about the projects.

You have to rely on what exists, and on the local community organizations, the

associations, the people who work there, the people who organize activities in the whole village or almost, throughout the valleys or parts of them, these are the people we need to meet and work with. (VIAPAC)

Regarding the role of companies in HAN, there are farmers who help build the artworks and that is central [...] and everything else needs to be invented [...] the goal is to stop the top-down proposals and work with the locals. Now how we achieve it is another kettle of fish, but for a few years now we realize that we can do more things than before. (Ivan Karvaix, Director of Territorial Support and Cultural Development,

Puy de Dome General Council, HAN)

The second strategic partnership is with the managers of the nature reserves. Their role is crucial, as they have a great knowledge of the territory, heritage, and regulations related to the reserves and have the opportunity to enhance the tourism aspect of the project by, for example, combining the educational objectives of the park with artistic creations.

Finally, institutional actors also occupy a central place, especially town halls and nature reserves, which can contribute the financial and human resources vital to the development of the project and have a strong utilitarian power. Community organizations and private actors, who have only a low level of power in the project, are dependent on the founding partners and institutional actors even though they have strategic resources.

We continue to be in contact with the actors on the ground in the territories where the artworks are located and you also know who has developed an organization of mountain guides, called Art on the Way, who are therefore partners. So yes, the links that were created on this occasion, as far as I know about the part that concerns us, yes, they persist today because that is what keeps the project going. (VIAPAC)

We set up a training programme (with the local art school) for the guides and restaurateurs in the area so that they could be mediators of contemporary art. [...] They became ambassadors, specialized messengers, and it had a tremendous impact.

(Head of the culture department of the city of Cunéo, VIAPAC)

In short, the partnerships were very diverse and took place at different times of the TCPs:

upstream to conceive and accomplish the idea, but also downstream as with schools of art, local organizations (sports or other), and the farmers who were called upon for the construction and installation of the works. Finally, partners that were called upon further downstream included schools to involve children in the project and attract families.

Another principle of effectuation is the exploitation of unexpected events and contingencies, which is strongly linked to partnerships. Thus, regarding the exploitation of contingencies, some resources proved to be strategic over the course of the projects and needed to be recognized and exploited to differentiate the territory and its specific features: physical resources such as fauna, flora, landscapes, and the heritage of these resources.

Moreover, in some cases, the project changed the perception of some resources initially perceived as negative, so that a landscape viewed under a different prism could acquire new value.

The mountain is a huge obstacle for artistic creation, it's very complicated to create here with the weather, protected areas, transport costs etc. [...] There is a real natural and historical wealth, but above all topographical, the landscapes are magnificent! For me the greatest strength is the mountain itself. The last effectual principle is control of the future. Many actions to this end were implemented by VIAPAC and HAN. We focus here on four of them.

First, public ownership and the "ambassador" system are ideas that emerged in both projects.

Dialogue and public ownership are absolutely fundamental for the project to thrive and continue. They seem to me to be essential things, it is a very, very big job with both elected officials and the locals. You know, the tourist office here is going to develop a strategy called ambassadors for the territory. In the same vein as this "acceptance" by local residents, we identify a desire to allow as many stakeholders as possible to take ownership of the project. Thus, HAN offered a role to all partners in decision-making:

The creation of this committee (joint decision-making committee for the selection of artwork) allows everyone to feel involved [...] Secondly, both TCPs were aware that the maintenance and therefore the future control of the project requires the establishment of a self-financing system, which only HAN has managed to do.

Gradually we are trying to set up a self-financing system (…). in the end, I think we will always need the support of the Community of Municipalities for a festival of this magnitude [...] For example, we sell small booklets that present the works with photos and short descriptions, and that works pretty well. (O. Rochon, Operational Director of the HAN Festival)

Finally, the study of and messaging about the benefits of the projects seems to be an action both the TCPs identified as important to give the projects a future: Of course, to control this future and perpetuate the project, other avenues have been explored: partnerships with guides, certification of the route, organizing activities around the works, etc.

Now
Table 3 shows the effectuation principles of the two TCPs.

Discussion

Our discussion will focus on showing that the TCP can be seen as territorial entrepreneurship

and that an entrepreneurial territorial dynamic can be established through available resources, strategic partnerships, and the exploitation of contingencies: an effectual logic. Our analysis of two territorial cultural thus provides lessons that both confirm the effectual theory in a new context, territorial entrepreneurship, and reveals related specific features (Figure 4).

Unexpected Events

Seen as an opportunity

New Goals

Controlling rather than predicting the future

TCP maintenance

Let new actors take ownership of the Project and redesign it… to allow the TCP to evolve

Cooperation / statement / Shared vision

Identification

Strategic Partnership

Converging cycles of constraints on goals & expanding cycle of resources.

New local actors New Resources

NewGo als TCP definition

Appropriation

First, the TCP's beginning is akin to an entrepreneurial territorial dynamic since in the logic of its creation, it is not the idea that comes first but the individual or group; the context is a medium that promotes the emergence of the project. The two cases studied clearly show this logic of action (Arend, Sarooghi, Burkemper, 2015;Grégoire and Cherchem, 2020). On the one hand, upstream collaborations allowed the participants to get to know each other and identify or trust in the emergence of similar needs for the territory; on the other hand, a factual elementhere a study commissioned from an external providerconfirmed the territory's lack of attractiveness. This observation and synergy led the founding partners to draw the outlines of a cultural project. Thus, the question that guides the TCP-creation approach is related to the effectuation method [START_REF] Sarasvathy | Entrepreneurial logics for a technology of foolishness[END_REF]: What could be done with the means, resources, and skills available, or that could easily be drawn upon, to increase the attractiveness of the territory? So, the construction of TCPs follows the spirit of the effectual approach in its patchwork construction, assembling as best as possible the pieces at hand, rather than looking for the ideal piece as with a puzzle [START_REF] Sarasvathy | Entrepreneurial logics for a technology of foolishness[END_REF]. The effectual approach gradually decides on its offering; it is iterative and cumulative as new stakeholders become involved.

The second lesson is related to maintenance. The results show that the success and viability of a TCP are strongly linked to the commitment and support of local stakeholders throughout the project. Using international stakeholders is possible to provide more visibility, for example, but they must not supplant or overshadow local dynamics, as was the case for VIAPAC, where the use of outside (European) funding has somewhat externalized responsibility for the maintenance of the project. This willingness to draw upon international resources has led the TCP to establish a system that is too rigid and binding and thus has not allowed the process to be fully implemented (Krupricka andCoussi, 2017, Akrich et al., 1988). The very local anchoring of the HAN has, on the contrary, allowed the development of a self-financing system, the production of related products, and the promotion of the TCP by local residents, highlighting its local identity. It would also appear that the maintenance of the TCP depends on the definition of new objectives before the end of the project development process [START_REF] Jiang | Opening the black box of effectuation processes: Characteristics and dominant types[END_REF]. This is consistent with recent suggestions that effectual and causation activities are not mutually exclusive [START_REF] Berends | Product innovation processes in small firms: Combining entrepreneurial effectuation and managerial causation[END_REF][START_REF] Reymen | Understanding dynamics of strategic decision making in venture creation: a process study of effectuation and causation[END_REF]. Our work is in line with recent research by [START_REF] Hubner | Narratives in entrepreneurial ecosystems: drivers of effectuation versus causation[END_REF], which has shown that different factors will strengthen or on the contrary counterbalance each other in a complementary logic of effectuation and causation. Effectuation represents exploration in the face of uncertainty. Any effectual process results in a multitude of decisions and this is ultimately a learning of the entrepreneurial decision. Causation is required as soon as uncertainty is brought under control. The project construction process must be managed by allowing trial and error and feedback. This is what we find in territorial projects.

The third point of discussion is related to territorial entrepreneurship and its possible links to collective entrepreneurship. Our study shows the construction of collective values of sharing and mutual aid through these TCPs that go beyond simple coordination [START_REF] Peyrat-Guillard D | La compétence collective : une approche par l'analyse de ses traces textuelles, 20ème congrès AGRH[END_REF][START_REF] Emin | De la pertinence des approches par le projet pour analyser les processus entrepreneuriaux collectifs : une étude de cas sur le territoire de la Confédération Paysanne[END_REF] and are inherent in territorial entrepreneurship [START_REF] Baudet | Accompagner l'essor d'un entrepreneuriat de territoire[END_REF]. They do not seek collaboration at all costs but rather a sense of ownership of the project by the actors of the territory. Indeed, the territorial links that existed before the launching of the projects and the involvement of a variety of stakeholders (organizations, residents, tradespeople) enabled the development of common goals which, along the way, have shaped a collective project.

Territorial entrepreneurship is to be conceived as a process rooted in the discovery and exploitation of opportunities [START_REF] Venkataraman | The Distinctive Domain of Entrepreneurship Research, Advances in Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence and Growth[END_REF][START_REF] Venkataraman | The Promise of Entrepreneurship as a Field of Research[END_REF][START_REF]A General Theory of Entrepreneurship, The Individual-Opportunity Nexus[END_REF]. Entrepreneurial action helps create value without compromising the collective vision of the TCP and the territory [START_REF] Chabaud | Le paradigme de l'opportunité : Des fondements à la refondation[END_REF]. The proper development of the TCP depends on not only how the players will exploit the pre-existing opportunities but also how they turn unexpected events into opportunities. Indeed, opportunity is created along the way [START_REF] Sarasvathy | Effectuation. Elements of Entrepreneurial Expertise[END_REF] and results from discussions between the participants about how they view their context. This means that the various individuals who are cooperating within the framework of the TCP share their vision of the territory and their knowledge.

In the French academic literature, the notion of collective entrepreneurship is often mobilized in the context of terroir strategies (Ben-Hafaïedh, 2006). Territorial entrepreneurship could be considered as collective entrepreneurship, but we think that they are different. Indeed, for Mourdoukoutas (1999: 90), "collective entrepreneurship concerns structures that provide the opportunity and motivation for individuals both inside and outside these structures to share and combine information for the discovery and exploitation of new business opportunities".

One of the specific characteristics of territorial entrepreneurship is therefore the fact that it is based on multi-partner, multi-actor projects. Two elements seem interesting to us at this level: first, the fact that, from the start, the different actors share the same ambition of creating a new dynamic in their territory (whereas cases of collective entrepreneurship may require a whole process beforehand to move from the divergent expectations of the stakeholders to an initial common goal) and second, the importance of the local anchoring of the actors (which is not necessarily the case for collective entrepreneurship). These two elements seem to us to contribute to a better definition of territorial entrepreneurship and its distinction from certain cases of collective entrepreneurship.

Finally, we note some specific links between effectuation and what we might call 'territorial effectuation'. First, at the beginning there is not only one actor but several. They can come from the public or private sector, and all arrive with different objectives and for different reasons but are motivated by the same ambition: to create a new dynamic in their territory. This is contrary to the theory of effectuation, which takes as its starting point entrepreneurs and their individual values, motivations, etc. Here we have several actors who must share a common vision without it being artificially constructed. The vision emerges from shared values and a common history: the vision is collectively imposed on the participants rather than the other way around. Second, when new actors arrive during the development of the project, the origin of the actors and their strong links with the territory are more important than who they are: it is essential that the stakeholders in a TCP be local. Thus, in the context of the development of a TCP, it is necessary to be part of the local ecosystem and identify and draw upon nearby resources [START_REF] Asselineau | L'écosystème local, ressource clé du développement d'une entreprise[END_REF]. Finally, the actors at the origin of the project do not necessarily want to set objectives that are too distant; they do not necessarily want to be in charge of the project all their lives. On the contrary, they hope that new actors will take ownership of the project and that the TCP will evolve with unexpected events and live its own life (Grégoire and Cherchem, 2020). In the effectuation, the creation process often starts in radical uncertainty, without the entrepreneur having any certainty about the existence of an offer or demand. But if there is uncertainty in a TCP about the nature of the demand, the actors rely on reports, studies and a shared vision of the need to act. This therefore makes it possible to establish the project more sustainably. In addition, unlike the classic effectuation, the acceptable level of loss does not increase with the arrival of new actors, on the contrary in the context of a TCP it decreases since each actor will feed expectations. This is surely the secret to the success of any TCP.

Conclusion

Territorial entrepreneurship is a source of dynamism for rural areas [START_REF] Kustosz | Entrepreneuriat et projet de territoire : un défi pour le management territorial[END_REF]; however, very little research has been dedicated to the topic [START_REF] Henrion | Créer une dynamique de coopération entrepreneuriale dans un territoire de faible densité : le cas de la Petite Montagne dans le Jura[END_REF], which is why we wanted a better understanding of the conditions that promote its development. We identified the role of participants in local entrepreneurship dynamics and the emergence of these dynamics within the territory. Using the effectuation approach has allowed us to identify key elements for the construction, development, and maintenance of the TCP.

By studying the development of two territorial cultural projects, we show that the creation of these TCPs is first and foremost the result of prior alliances and shared understanding of issues based on established relationships between the founding partners, rather than competitive analyses. Second, the development of these TCPs is the result of the exploitation of contingencies rather than of pre-existing knowledge. Finally, the TCPs, which seek longterm sustainability, aim to control an unpredictable future, i.e., co-construct tools or follow-up actions rather than predicting an uncertain future, i.e., proposing an identical repetition of past successes.

In terms of managerial implications, developing a foundational cultural project for a territory requires encouraging cooperation between the various participants from the outset, so that they engage in strategic thinking about the complementarity of the propositions and create an entrepreneurial dynamic. The need to increase the participation of civil society and local actors in these projects thus clearly appears to ensure their legitimacy [START_REF] Leloup | Mons, capitale européenne de la culture en 2015 : deux modèles de développement par la culture[END_REF] and can be facilitated by a good knowledge of the economic and social impacts of the project.

Of course, this research is not without limitations. To deepen the results, it would be appropriate to confirm them by carrying out a study on a larger number of cultural projects in mountain areas; we could then identify whether the recurrences and divergences are the same.

It would also be interesting to adopt a more longitudinal approach (than the retrospective study used here) in order to capture the dynamics at work as they occur. Such a study could provide insight into dynamic capabilities through the application of the dynamic resourcebased view.

In their metanalysis on effectuation theory, [START_REF] Markova | Entrepreneurial Effectuation: a review and suggestions for future research[END_REF] found that few researchers have attempted to approach the effectuation model empirically. They point to the need for more

Figure

  Figure 1: Effectuation process diagram

(

  Informal Art Centre for Research on Nature) in Digne-les-Bains and ECCA (Experimental Centre for Contemporary Arts) in Caraglio. The aim of this collaboration was to develop a shared project to promote contemporary art in the Alpine area, through cultural mediation processes and the enhancement of landscape and environmental elements (VIAPAC). As a result of this collaboration, two cross-border cooperation projects were created as part of the ALCOTRA Programme: "LARC -Permanent Laboratory for the Promotion of Contemporary Art in the Alps" (2000-2006) and "VIAPAC -Route for Contemporary Art" (2007-2013). The main objective of the LARC programme was the restoration and upgrading of museum centres and exhibition spaces. The launch of the VIAPAC programme was the beginning of an artistic journey. The objectives of this contemporary art route revolved around five axes:  The enhancement of built and natural heritage through current creations,  The promotion of contemporary art and culture in the territory,  The development of links between participants in the cross-border territory,  The sense of ownership of contemporary art in local citizens,  The development of cultural tourism in the cross-border area.

Figure 2

 2 Figure 2 below illustrates the dynamic of the VIAPAC cultural project's development through the seizing of opportunities and the arrival of new actors.

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: VIAPAC Cultural Project Development

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Horizons-Arts Nature (HAN) Cultural Project Development

  It's similar to the system in Lyon, where people get trained, learn about, and share what they know about the territory with people they meet. And that is absolutely fundamental. (R. Pagès, Director of the Geopark. VIAPAC)

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Entrepreneurial territorial dynamics through effectual logic

Table 1 : Effectuation Principles Principles Decision / Action Available resources (starting point) Set goals from available resources

 1

	Acceptable loss	Decide on an acceptable level of loss or risk
	Strategic partners	Create a network of strategic partners
	Exploitation of contingencies	Exploit unexpected events seen as opportunities
	Controlling the future	Control an unpredictable future
		Source: adapted from Sarasvathy (2001)
	In the model of the "effectual entrepreneur" in Sarasvathy, Dew, Read and Wiltbank (2008),
	entrepreneurs have many coexisting abilities: their identity (who they are) and knowledge
	(what they know and how they know it). All these distinct but interdependent capabilities
	determine their power of action (what they can do).

Table 2 : Participants interviewed for the VIAPAC and Horizons-Arts Nature project Participants interviewed Number of interviews Average time in minutes per

 2

	interview
	VIAPAC

  , we have a great diversity of artwork that is more or less technical.(Luc Stelly, Founders and Director of the Festival, HAN Founding Partner).

	Developing a network around the project is kind of our role (…) and it requires
	questioning the roles of each person ... what is interesting here is that diversifying the
	members of the juries allowed everyone to meet and discuss and thus create a network
	(Guillaume Rochon, Operational Director of the OT of Sancy, HAN Founding
	Partner).

  that the Festival is well established in the territory, the whole issue is to keep the funding going, and for that we have no choice, we have to know what it brings in and promote it. Every year, for example, we look at the value of the media coverage, and that is a central element in being able to repeat the festival.(L. Stelly, Founder and Director of the HAN Festival)

Table 3 : The specific features of effectuation applied to the territory

 3

	Effectuation principles	HAN	VIAPAC
	Key actors & set goals	 Human resources (1 person	 Human resources (4 people
	from available resources	dedicated to the project)	dedicated to the project)
	(starting point)	 Financial resources	 Financial resources
		 Organizational resources	 Organizational resources
		(previous collaborations)	(meetings)
		 Natural resources (places)	 Natural resources (locations)
		 Reputational resources	 Feasibility study
		 Outdoor activities	 Stakeholders
		 Stakeholders (residents,	 Local know-how
		ambassadors, etc.)
	Decide on an acceptable	The financing plan is for 2 years	The renewal of funding is
	level of loss or risk	only	conditioned by attendance and
			media coverage (no threshold)
	Create a network of	Private actors are called upon:	An international expert committee
	strategic partners & create	 Residents	is selected:
	an atmosphere so that	 The managers of the nature	 Residents
	actors feel ownership of the	reserves	 The managers of the nature
	project	 Institutional players	reserves
		 Artwork selection	 European funds
		committee	 International partners
			 Private actors (art schools...)
	Exploit unexpected events Cross-fertilization of cultural Develop pedagogical activities

Starting point: Triggering the idea & seizing the opportunity

		Territorial stakeholders' commitments & new territorial resources
		What new territorial resources can we call upon to manage unexpected
	How can we promote the territory? Make it more attractive?	events? Who can help us manage the risks & losses? Who can help us turn this unexpected event into an opportunity?
	Acceptable
	Loss & Risk
	Key Actors
	(public or
	private)
	Common
	Goals
	Available
	ressources

The notion of ticket-counter approach refers to a system of management of public action and practices characteristic of the local politico-administrative system described in the 1970s. This change in denomination reflects the government's desire to reverse the direction of territorial regulation in favor of a bottom-up approach.

work exploring the relationship between effectuation and other established constructs in order to extend the development of effectuation theory [START_REF] Sarasvathy | L'effectuation, une approche pragmatique et pragmatiste de l'entrepreneuriat[END_REF]. This research is thus a first attempt to explore the concept of territorial effectuation. Since the literature considers entrepreneurship to be one of the major axes of local territorialized development [START_REF] Huggins | Visually Modelling Collaborative Research into Innovative Community Disaster Resilience Practice, Strategy, and Governance[END_REF], further studies are needed to supplement these initial results in order to advance our theoretical knowledge of the territorial dynamics at work and thus guide the leaders of territories and territorial public policies. Acceptable losses Experimentation for a defined period Survey on variation in attendance and the value of media coverage Residents as primary ambassadors of the project Strategic partnerships Involve managers of the nature reserves Emerging public leadership Changes on perception of the value of some resources Exploitation of unexpected events and contingencies Offer a role to all partners in decision-making Self-financing system Control of the future Messaging about the benefits of the projects Offer a role to all partners in decision-making