Feraille Charlotte

Meyer Claudie

Bourret Christian

INNOVATIVE SERVICES AND CREATION OF NEW ECOSYSTEMS: THE CASE OF TWO TOURISM PLATFORMS AND THEIR IMPACTS ON WORKFORCES

Digital innovation is disrupting the tourism sector, generating processes of disintermediation or the construction of new intermediation, particularly through platforms. We propose here to study these processes from the perspective of the ecosystem approach, highlighting the stakeholders and the interactions between them, including the entity that provides the innovative service. Two case studies will be used for the analysis. These are two responsible ecosystems, BEEMY and AUX BERGES, designed as part of the UPEM students' supervised work, involving researchers in participating observation situations. Intersections between stakeholders in the two ecosystems show a positive impact on local, diffuse employment.

Introduction

Tourism today represents a major challenge for economic development, prosperity and wellbeing. International tourism revenues from destinations around the world have grown and now represent $1.246 trillion in 2025 according to the WTO (B. Duthion, C. Mandou, 2016).

France is the world's leading tourist destination. In 2018, it welcomed more than 90 million tourists and Paris is the most visited site in France1 .

The WTO defines tourism as "a social, cultural and economic phenomenon that involves the movement of people to countries or places outside their usual environment for personal, professional or business purposes. These people are called visitors (and may be tourists or excursionists, residents or non-residents) and tourism refers to their activities, some of which involve tourism spending.

Tourism therefore has repercussions on the economy, on the natural and built environment, on the local population of the destination and on the tourists themselves" (WTO)2 . While tourism is developing over the years (WTO barometer of world tourism), the mass tourism characteristic of the post-war period is evolving under the influence of fashions, population growth, but also digital innovation which, thanks in particular to online platforms, allows tourists to become actors in their consumption (consumer actors). Indeed, as indicated in the parliamentary report on the impact of digital technology on the French tourism sector (D. Pasquelle, P.Got, 2015), the tourism offer is "easy to dematerialise because its distribution is a process separate from the consumption of the service. The process of disintermediation or, if necessary, the implementation of new intermediation logics through the Net actors is then amplified". The authors argue that the Internet and web platforms provide producers with multiple distribution channels that can be used simultaneously. The same producer can reference his offer on several platforms. They are thus observing the emergence of new and sometimes more specialized product and service offerings. Advertising of the commercial offer is facilitated, which is not without consequences since traditional actors, including territorial tourism bodies, are challenged by new market intermediaries, offering greater flexibility for both consumers and producers. Indeed, the above-mentionned report by these parliamentarians highlights the difficulty of local tourism organisations (LTOs), which are very present in the territories, to transpose their reservation centres dedicated to the marketing of local tourism products to the Internet. However, the costs of digital infrastructure are high and mainly borne by LTOs, to the benefit of private actors in the sector.

Putting the visitor back at the centre of the debate to design new intermediation tools adapted between supply and demand therefore appears to be a solution for the actors concerned. [START_REF] Brown | Design de services[END_REF], qui permet, entre autre d'adresser des problèmes épineux ou "Wicked problems" (Pavie et Carty, 2014) est pleinement mobilisée.

The Master expects its students to innovate by questioning the responsibility of the ecosystems that the new services imagined and prototyped create in the context of the city of tomorrow and its territory. The approach chosen to design and implement sustainable services shifts thinking from the simple production of innovative services to a system for thinking about new responsible services. The ambition of this new system of thought is to imagine the value that the emerging ecosystem will derive from the service created.

It is through this prism that we propose to study the impact of innovation in the tourism sector on the labour market at the territorial level, on the specific terrain of the Seine et Marne. Without claiming to provide general results, we wish to analyse two case studies: 1) project at the level of the Seine et Marne department, 2) project on the agglomeration of the Val d'Europe. We propose to test a reading grid for the creation of innovative responsible ecosystems in the case of these two projects. Consequently, and as part of a prospective approach in the sense of H. de Jouvenel (1999), we are reflecting on the crucial issues raised by the creation of services, in a logic of anchored data (Glaser and Strauss, 2017).

2.

The impact of innovation on the job market in the tourism sector -Overview

The tourism market represents an important part of economic activity in France, so that the evolution of the tourism market, particularly in relation to e-tourism or m-tourism, has been studied. B. Duthion and C. Mandou (2016) observed the impact of the digital transition on the French tourism sector, among others, describing the upheaval of traditional actors while drawing up the state of the art of innovative tourism services and new professions created. [START_REF] Vellas | L'impact indirect du tourisme : une analyse économique, Rapport pour la 3e réunion des ministres du Tourisme du T20[END_REF], as well as [START_REF] Frechtling | Estimating the Multiplier Effects of Tourism Expenditures on a Local Economy through a Regional Input-Output Model[END_REF] studied the multiplier effects of tourism expenditure on economic development and therefore employment at the scale of a territory, highlighting the existence of direct, indirect and induced effects. N. [START_REF] Fabry | Tourism and local development: an application to tourism clusters[END_REF] focus on the development of tourism clusters that offer "coherent support for the emergence of a value chain", particularly through linkage effects (intra and extra clusters). The issue of stakeholders and governance is a cross-cutting issue in their respective work. Mr. [START_REF] Debabi | Local and ecological products as a vector of innovation in responsible tourism[END_REF] focused on the impact of territorial marketing oriented "local product" as a vector of environmental innovation for responsible tourism and its impact on other sectors of activity, promoting economic (sustainable) development and job creation at the scale of a territory.

In the continuation of these studies, particularly on the development of employment resulting from responsible innovation in the tourism sector, we propose to mobilize the notion of ecosystem with an emphasis on the study of relations between stakeholders. The use of the ecosystem broadens awareness of the impacts of what is created and ensures its relevance at the local, economic and societal levels in fields as diverse as sustainable development, citizens' well-being, social inclusion, situations of disability, training for all, sharing, etc. We hope to identify the positive and negative impacts of tourism platforms through the two case studies that will be presented in this communication.

3.

The ecosystem approach as a framework for prospective analysis

The acceleration of the changes brought about by the massive diffusion of digital technology in our society, combined with the ever more demanding expectations of individuals, is giving way to formidable sources of innovation.

No human organization escapes it: neither the city, this community of men anchored in a space, nor companies, associations, public organizations etc. These organizations are questioning and trying to organize themselves around the value promise of emerging innovations.

Companies, for example, are reconsidering their value chain by working in a network and refocusing on the customer and his needs. They are reconsidering the concept of performance by adding to the traditional economic dimension other more global dimensions such as sustainable development or well-being that are reflected in the CSR approach, as evidenced by the recent communiqué of the Business Roundtable, a lobby grouping the bosses of major American companies such as Apple, General Electrics, Pepsi or Amazon in the economic newspaper Les Echos3 in 2019 or the work on creating shared value by [START_REF] Porter | Strategy and society: the link between corporate social responsibility and competitive advantage[END_REF]. There are many definitions of CSR, which according to the work of Caroll (1999) all refer, however, "both to the obligations of companies that extend beyond purely technical, financial, legal and economic dimensions and to the actions of companies that potentially or concretely affect groups that are in contact with the company".

The concept of responsible innovation dear to Xavier Pavie (2012) reinforces this observation since it calls on innovative companies to question their model around a principle of responsibility defined according to 3 axes:

• question the answers to be given to the needs of individuals,

• measure the direct impacts of innovations,

• consider the indirect impacts of innovations. The entire life cycle must be taken into account, including questioning the relationships between the company and the groups that are in contact with them, to varying degrees. To address a complex problem related to responsible innovation, the innovation driver must therefore apply, at the scale of the entire organization, the five steps of a process highlighted by Pavie (2012) "1. comply with the law; 2. anticipate future legal requirements; 3. treat the value chain as an ecosystem; 4. innovate responsibly; 5. lead the change. " Any service innovation project carried out by a company or organisation can therefore no longer be thought of as a single project but as part of a larger whole. The company must be attentive to all the actors/stakeholders [START_REF] Parmar | Stakeholder Theory: The State of the Art[END_REF] with whom it is in contact. Moreover, to take action, it must consider stakeholders as actors to be convinced, persuaded and engaged according to the theory of engaging communication [START_REF] Joule | How can people be induced to willingly change their behavior? The path from persuasive communication to binding communication[END_REF]).

Territories, including cities through the concept of smart city / smart territories, are trying to understand and respond to environmental, societal and economic challenges. More specifically, they are looking for value in the management of energy (including water and waste) in their buildings and neighbourhoods, in mobility and safety solutions, but also and more generally in the design of sustainable models with solidarity, inclusion, training, employment, etc. at the centre [START_REF] Girardi | A. Sustainability and smartness of innovative technologies in smart cities[END_REF][START_REF] Toppeta | The Smart City Vision: How Innovation and ICT Can Build Smart[END_REF]. The complexity of administrative systems and the specificities of the territories in which they operate lead them to design and produce services that take into account a multiplicity of voices (Ghorra-Gobin, 2018). The state (or even states) is (are) not absent from this dialogue by using legislative and legal incentives to remind us of the minimum levels of economic, ecological and societal challenges to which not only communities must respond but also companies as incentives or constraints. Thus companies, cities and states must remain attentive to each other.

The production of new value is therefore part of a complex environment for all in several ways: an environment marked by the diversity and multiplicity of actors who can interfere, an environment that changes at the very sustained pace of technological innovations (digital, energy, genetic or other) and at the pace of new laws, regulations, an environment that aims to be more responsible and that expects a commitment to the major human causes reviewed in the light of sustainable and responsible development (Brundtland Report, 1987) 4 .

This observation is all the more important when it applies to the notion of a digital platform as defined by [START_REF] Courmont | The data dissemination platform, a model of urban government?[END_REF] as an instrument that modifies the intermediary relationship between actors and can affect the governance of territories (cities and metropolitan areas in particular), with the entry of new stakeholders (web providers), particularly in the context of the implementation of Open Data policies, often accompanying Smart Cities or Smart Territories.

To embrace all this complexity on which value production depends at all scales (individuals, groups, companies, neighbourhoods, cities & territories...), and because the questions to apprehend value, and understand its distribution, are no longer only economic, it is necessary to rely on a comprehensive model. The notion of value is understood as the condition for the survival and life of an organization, thus mobilizing one of the key elements of the systemic observation of biologist Von [START_REF] Bertanlanffy | Das biologische Weltbild, Literatur über die organismische Ansicht, Bern[END_REF].

The concept of ecosystem comes from the life sciences. If the botanist [START_REF] Tansley | The use and abuse of vegetational concepts and terms[END_REF] was the first to propose this term, this unit of analysis was present in the work of some zoologists from the end of the 18th century. Much of the initial work focused on the study of lakes and component elements. The lake provides a meaningful support image of the ecosystem. This may explain the very intuitive use that we see today. However, the concept does not stop at metaphors.

The notion of ecosystem is well defined in strategic analysis and managerial literature since Moore (1996) as a business ecosystem. A "business ecosystem" is "an economic community supported by the interaction between companies and individuals -the organizations of the business world. This economic community will produce goods and services by providing value to customers who will themselves be part of this ecosystem. Member organizations will also include suppliers, producers, competitors and other stakeholders. Over time, they will co-evolve their skills and roles and will tend to align themselves with the management of one or more central companies. This definition, which is well adapted to the company, may become limited in order to understand the territory, which, in addition to a human organization, also includes a spatial notion.

By allowing the complexity of life to be understood from the study of an ecological unit (or ecosystem), the ecosystem approach is likely to capture the behaviour and constitution of the organized, structured set of interdependent elements [START_REF] Drouin | L'innovation dans le tourisme: Culture numérique et nouveaux modes de vie[END_REF] within which value is produced. She invites us according to the many disciplinary approaches that have mobilized her 1) To identify and understand the perimeter of the ecosystem 2) To specify the ecosystem by inventorying its components 3) To understand the dynamics of ecosystem functioning between components, particularly around the dual issue of sustainability/precarity.

The relationships between actors within the ecosystem can thus be understood through the concept of shared value developed by [START_REF] Porter | The Big Idea Creating Shared Value[END_REF]. According to them, this new conception of the offer can allow the actors, in this case companies, to reduce their energy to set up a better allocation of resources. It is within this framework of analysis that Schmitt and Bayad (in [START_REF] Gautier | Les PME : un contexte pertinent pour l'étude des leviers de la création de valeur partagée[END_REF] propose a dialectical model of value that takes into account design. This approach changes the very way of understanding value because "the interest of design lies in the fact that it is defined, not on the basis of the separation between internal and external environments, but at an early stage at the interface between internal and external environments". The value in this model is dynamic, and is created around three relationships. The first includes the vision and anticipation that the company's stakeholders will have on customer expectations and judgment. The second relationship corresponds to the transition from design to implementation. Finally, it is during the third relationship that clients will judge the achievement proposed by the company [START_REF] Gautier | Les PME : un contexte pertinent pour l'étude des leviers de la création de valeur partagée[END_REF].

This notion seems particularly relevant to us in the case of the study of the ecosystem of the Beemy and Aux Berges projects, because, as we explain below, the very design of these innovative services early integrates the stakeholders concerned. The theory of engaging communication [START_REF] Joule | Promoting ecocitizenship : in favor of binding communication[END_REF] can also help to understand how early relationships can lead to value creation. Indeed, it considers the importance of preparatory acts, which are inexpensive for the actors, as necessary elements to trigger action by stakeholders in favour of sustainable development in particular, which could provide explanatory elements as to the sustainability of the ecosystems generated by the solutions thus designed.

4.

Beemy and Aux Berges, two responsible ecosystems likely to have an impact on land development and employment

The Beemy and Aux Berges services are designed by students of the Master 2 Management of Service Innovation (MIS) at the University of Paris Est Marne La Vallée (UPEM) as part of a supervised project called TIPI. A benevolent client agrees to submit to a group of students a real problem to which the parties will co-construct an innovative solution, integrating a digital and real estate dimension, in six months. Where applicable, the benevolent customers of the groups concerned are respectively Val d'Europe Agglomération5 -intermunicipality -and Seine et Marne Attractivité -agency in charge of the attractiveness and influence of the Seine et Marne, of which tourism is an integral part -, the two actors wishing to co-create innovative solutions, involving for seine et Marne Attractivité, the concept of slow tourism which, in their view, could contribute to enhancing the activity of the territories concerned (local products, accommodation offers, restaurants, local crafts, etc.).) and thus strengthen economic development and job creation at the local level, integrating the notion of sustainable development.

Students are supervised by the teachers/researchers in the department concerned. Teachers / researchers are thus immersed in the context of project creation in the same way as students and participate in interactions with caring clients, thus placing them in a situation of participating observation as defined by Bogdan and Taylor, among others (Peretz, 1998).

The creation of two ecosystems generated by the construction of two innovative solutions in the tourism sector, represented by the elements that interact directly or indirectly with each other to define and produce the service, is thus observed. In the case of the above-mentioned projects, it should be pointed out that they are developing ecosystems that initially include at least the benevolent client and its target.

A great deal of attention must be paid to the components of the ecosystem because the difficulty is to be able to identify the elements that appear during the design of the service. The centrality of the ecosystem changes from that of the customer -the user of the service -to that of the innovative service. Service is understood as an experience, a "slice of life" (Eiglier and Langeard, 1994). It is a result of interactions between a customer -a service user -who has an explicit need or not and a service provider who will take charge of the response. Client -service user -and service provider co-produce and participate in the service by being present, providing information in a partially designed process. The value of the service (which directly questions the relevance of the service beyond its quality) lies in the satisfaction that the client finds in the help that the service provider provides, in the recognition that he gives to the service provider and in the satisfaction of the service provider.

At the end of the process, the student groups propose a business model and a prototype of the innovative responsible solution. They materialize the ecosystem in which the innovative service is part of at this moment.

In this paper, we study the design of responsible ecosystems, resulting from innovative solutions in the local tourism sector in Seine et Marne, Beemy and Aux Berges at two stages of the project design: before and after the prototyping of the service offer. In addition to the data collected as part of the observation, we thus have data produced by the students, formalized in a graphical representation that meets at least the shared characteristics (actors and types of relationships labelled), to facilitate their analysis.

We propose to identify for each of the ecosystems studied, the stakeholders and the interactions developed between them in order to establish a typology. As these are ecosystems that correspond more to prototypes of solutions than to even partial implementation in a given territory, the work will consist in assessing the potential impact of tourism innovations on employment with reference to the report of the Employment Guidance Council (WCC) on the opportunities generated by responsible consumption on employment (2018) 6 .

First, we will identify the stakeholders and constitutive relationships of the emerging ecosystem that are identified in the design phase of the innovative service. We will analyse how these elements change and enrich themselves within the project and then discuss the responsibility of the innovative solutions Beemy and Aux Berges. In a second step, we will assess their impact on employment in the tourism sector in comparison with the data compiled and produced, in particular in the context of the above-mentioned report on responsible consumption.

5.

Identification of ecosystem stakeholders and theoretical impact on employment

The Seine et Marne is a Paris Region department of the Greater Paris Region, outside the economic activity of the Parisian centre, but nevertheless a pilot in the development of new cities, designed on the principle of the smart city. Agriculture is a segment of the economy that is very present in the region. The Seine et Marne also attracts tourists to some of the most emblematic places in history, such as the Château de Fontainebleau, or Disneyland Paris, a European-scale amusement park that has welcomed nearly 10 million visitors each year since its opening7 . On the strength of this dynamic, the Seine et Marne wishes to diversify the tourist offer with the objective of making people discover the richness of its territories (history, local products, agriculture, landscape, etc...) in order to benefit from the presence of many visitors to strengthen the economic development of the area.

Thus, the Beemy project, developed on the scale of the Val d'Europe urban area, proposes a tourism office of the future capable of producing in a few seconds personalised and "gamified" tourist routes for visitors, as well as a mobile reception area, accessible to all and allowing tourists to better locate themselves in the space and in the available offer. The concept can be transposed to other territories.

The Aux Berges project, designed on a departmental scale, welcomes visitors to the area on a barge offering the possibility of staying in inns on board or dockside, eating, attending conferences or concerts, but also stopping along the way to visit the area on foot or by bike and discover the region, its products and services.

Both services can be considered as meeting the definition of innovation in local services (Maman et al. 2009) and define as "any product or process change that has a decisive impact on one of the dimensions of local service performance". Thus, the authors define the performance of the local service, from an innovation management perspective, around three axes: "the characterization of innovation, the understanding of the actors, their skills and their relationships throughout the innovation process and finally the innovation performance". They thus define innovation as "any modification of a product or process that has a decisive impact on one of the dimensions of local service performance".

In this case, the teams were asked to produce 2 representations of the ecosystem of their service: one at the time of scoping the service (V1) and the other after prototyping (V2). Two months separate the performances. Each team interpreted the notion of ecosystem with the task/constraint of placing the innovative service at the centre of their representation, identifying stakeholders and relationships and trying to qualify them. The interest of the exercise is to collect original representations, each in its own way asking questions about the emergence of the ecosystem. It allows you to observe what is important to the group. One of the biases of the approach is certainly that questions about the emergence of the ecosystem overlap with the difficulty of representing it.

First, the representations show the identification of different stakeholders involved in the ecosystem. When they are compared, questions arise about their displayed/supposed/actual roles, but also about the moment(s) at which they are involved in value creation.

The census is an essential step in understanding the roles of stakeholders, their objectives, and their importance/power of influence. However, when refining our analysis, we may face various problems: problems of aggregation, role definition, etc. [START_REF] Alemano | Innovative ecosystems in the territory: from digital micro-actions to macro-changes[END_REF].

Then, the links materialized by the traits between the stakeholders, signal the interactions at work to constitute the ecosystem of the innovative service, which at the scale of a territory could no longer be qualified as a micro-ecosystem. Thus it is interesting to observe how exchanges and cooperation between the parties are gradually being conceived? Other questions remain to be explored: those of the nature of the interactions, the maturity of the service because the whole of designing and producing an innovative service is not a process that runs smoothly. There are acceleration moments, for example, that are not neutral on the constitution of interactions.

Finally, the services provided on the same administrative territory constitute micro-ecosystems that can in turn be connected and interlinked. The difficulty is the possible gap between the ambitions that may diverge from the stakeholders and the elements that will bring them closer together. These include a shared minimum objective, a history in relationships that build trust, external legal or professional rules to be respected or standards shared by a profession to be applied. The identification of stakeholders, the understanding of their needs but also of their constraints and the characterization of the relationships between them lead to the modelling of the following ecosystems (figures 1, 2, 3, 4). We note 2 types of bias in the representations that can have an impact on the analysis. The first is linked to the maturity of the reflection on the innovative service and the second to the difficulty of appropriating the concept.

The comparison of the V1 and V2 of the BEEMY and AUX BERGES ecosystems shows the difficulty of bringing out the service with, for example, in the second case, an ecosystem proposal in which the innovative service is not represented insofar as the proposal is not stabilized. Thus, we prefer to focus on representations of V2 ecosystems, which are comparable and more complete.

In addition, there are two types of ecosystem emergence -BEEMY is built as an ecosystem defined on the basis of orthogonal criteria (e. g. stakeholders are defined by their activity, interest, importance, proximity to the service) while the AUX BERGES ecosystem proposes to be based on a "Russian doll" model (e. g. stakeholders are presented using the same activity criteria but at least 3 levels of detail). However, this different appropriation of the notion of ecosystem does not prevent stakeholders from qualifying, on the one hand, the interactions between them and, on the other hand, finally analysing the intersections between ecosystems and assessing the impact of innovative solutions on employment.

Table 1 provides a comparison of ecosystems based on the identification of stakeholders on the one hand, and their interactions on the other. Table 1 shows two ecosystems that, when prototyping the service, have many actors and interactions. Concerning the actors, however, the detailed description of Beemy, which could make it possible to better consider interactions, in particular via the criterion of the interests expressed, the importance of the actors and proximity to the service, is not present in Aux Berges. There are also many common actors between these two ecosystems. Concerning interactions, the nature of the links is at least partnership or competitive links. In Beemy, the links are more finely qualified because they also use 6 other relationship modalities. These two characteristics could make it possible to better understand the relationship to job creation (more or less strong, more or less subject to competition).

The analysis of the intersection between the two ecosystems helps to identify the activities of the actors that would be likely to be impacted by job creation. The method used to do this uses the notion of sector of activity, which reflects an ad hoc grouping of actors. The consolidation of links between sectors of activity by aggregating the nature of the links identified in the interactions of each ecosystem cannot be done on these cases because the interactions are centred on the new service and only the Aux Berges case presents some transversal interactions between stakeholders.

We present the intersections in Table 2 and analyze them using three rules:

• Substitution effects -defined as the variation in the requested quantity of goods with Px/Py changing in such a way that the agent's level of well-being remains equal (Alfred Marshall). When a good becomes more expensive, the consumer substitutes it with another equivalent good.

If the consumption of one local good replaces that of another local good, the effect on employment can be positive if the good or the newly consumed good requires more local labour to produce it; a neutral effect in the case where its production requires identical human resources. • In addition to the substitution effect, there may be an income effect, especially if the goods are normal goods, i.e. goods whose consumption increases as income increases. In this case, the impact on employment may be positive, especially if the so-called normal good (or service) requires more human resources than the substituted good. • To the substitution effect accompanied by an income effect that can have a negative impact on employment in the case of consumption of lower goods, i.e. whose consumption decreases with the increase in income.

Cultural offer including museum

The proposed solutions can help to distribute tourist flows more equitably between the different places.

Substitution effects can lead to a neutral impact on employment at the departmental and even more regional level insofar as interest in new forms of consumption could contribute to reducing the consumption of more traditional tourist services (Disney Parks, etc.).

It should be noted that, in the case of public cultural tourism offers, few jobs are created due to the need to reduce public budgets.

Disney village

Transportation

The proposed solutions can lead to more travel in the IDF region, to the benefit of the Seine et Marne and therefore a higher consumption of public transport and VTC.

IDF Mobilités WFP Greater Paris

However, in the case of public transport, the amount of employment tends to stagnate regardless of the number of people using the facilities.

In addition, it should be noted that some actors who can benefit positively from the development of innovative solutions and their ecosystems are not part of responsible consumption (VTC, Cruise ships, etc.) and contribute to reducing employment in more traditional sectors (taxi, etc.)

Thus, it can be considered that in this sector, the impact on employment can be neutral.

Accommodation structures

There may be a better distribution of the flows that could benefit VSE/SME hosting solutions, which are less employment-friendly in principle.

The impact could therefore be positive.

Tourism operators and networks

Meta-engine actors can have a positive impact in that they promote the offers of local or neutral actors on employment (pure players replace traditional operators).

Hosting service platforms such as AirBnB, which represent a significant part of the market (creative destruction but overall more destruction than creation).

These PPs can help to serve some ecosystem stakeholders.

Depending on the consumption pattern of tourists brought by innovative solutions, the impact on employment may be neutral or even negative.

Business clusters

If tourism creates activity and there are more people on the territory, it may be easier for these companies to recruit.

And if communities are larger, the need for service can also become larger, generating a positive effect on employment in startups, for example.

River stakeholders act as regulators of the activity.

It seems reasonable at this stage to consider that the impact on employment is neutral.

Others

The inhabitants of the agglomeration, except if they are traders or craftsmen, benefit from additional services but can also be generated by tourist flows.

Green spaces and lakes can be more visited and craftsmen / traders (coffee, ice cream, pancakes, etc.) may want to settle there.

Visitors are seeking the service and contribute to job creation through demand.

The tourism cluster is not impacted in terms of employment a priori but an in situ in vivo test space for the companies it aggregates can be conducive to the development of structures.

Overall neutral effect.

Table 2: Analysis of the impacts on employment of the emerging services Beemy and AuxBerges Legend :

• in red, the sectors of activity tending to destroy local jobs • in green, the sectors of activity tending to create local employment • in blue, the sectors of activity with a neutral impact on local employment.

(As a reminder, the impact on employment in the sectors is assessed by comparison with the data compiled and produced as part of the WCC report on the impact of responsible consumption on employment.

Discussion

Comparing ecosystems over time makes it possible, on the one hand, to observe the evolution of ecosystems, which can only be dynamic (Moore, 1996). And on the other hand, to observe the relationships that are built between the actors, the awareness of project leaders of the impact of the innovative solution on the global ecosystem and the construction of an economic model that uses social and environmental responsibility as a source of profit through the creation of shared value [START_REF] Parmar | Stakeholder Theory: The State of the Art[END_REF][START_REF] Porter | The Big Idea Creating Shared Value[END_REF].

Indeed, in the interval between the design of the solution and the development of the latter's economic model, we observe in both cases a consideration of new actors, and the qualification of the relationships between them and with the innovative solution (emergence of strong and weak links; phenomenon of cooperation, cooperation or competition). Table 2 summarizes the impact of the creation of the innovative solution on stakeholders, in order to assess its impact on the economic development of the territory and job creation, compared to the data produced and compiled in the WCC report.

Through the ecosystems thus designed, it can be observed that the proposed solutions can have direct effects of varying degrees on certain sectors. As they are solutions designed in conjunction with local tourism organisations, they strengthen their capacity to promote the territory's public and private offers, without positioning themselves as a new entrant on the market, likely to create or destroy existing jobs. Thanks to the innovations proposed, the local tourism organisations (OLTs) of Seine et Marne Attractivité and Val d'Europe Agglomération are adapting their offer to the requirements of increasingly connected users.

It can be deduced, without this being measurable, that since these are prospective studies, the impact on responsible consumption (local, organic, local products, etc.) and therefore on local employment can be positive since, according to the WCC report ( 2018), responsible companies "consume" more human resources than traditional companies. As the report points out, indirect effects can occur at the local level because if responsible economic areas in the consumer sector are formed, the territory may develop and consequently welcome a supply of products and services (schools, doctors, shops, etc.) that generate jobs -a multiplier effect. However, the report points out that it remains difficult to determine the exact impact of responsible consumption on employment at national level due to the possible substitution effects on the consumer market, partly due to the fact that responsible consumer goods are more expensive and can contribute to reducing the purchasing power of consumers, in this case tourists, who could consume "better" but less.

In addition, the impact on the use of innovative platforms such as Beemy and Aux Berges are designed to have a positive impact on local crafts and production more than on mass consumption. It is a diffuse, often independent job, held by an average of more qualified staff. It is therefore becoming more difficult to measure the real impact of these solutions on the labour market, which is also due to the dynamics of innovation in the tourism sector, as well as the evolution of an ecosystem in a state of permanent adaptation.

Conclusion

The study of two innovative solutions, Beemy and Aux Berges, co-designed with caring clients, stakeholders in a responsible ecosystem in the tourism sector and designed as platforms, recompose intermediation phenomena. The LTOs of Seine et Marne Développement and Val d'Europe Agglomération, are repositioning themselves in a space previously occupied by these same players, offering central reservation centres to facilitate intermediation between suppliers and demand. Within the framework of the proposed models, digital tools, as well as the mobile physical spaces characterising the new LTOs, play this role of mediator by becoming real platforms with their own business model, based on links with all the actors in the ecosystem (commission on the purchase of products and services offered by private providers).

The co-design process of the solution makes it possible to think about the creation of shared value (Kramer and Porter, 2010), with the benevolent customer but also with the actors of the ecosystem generated as a whole, previously. This phase, which is inexpensive (in time, HR and finance) for the caring client, can constitute a preparatory act (Joule and all) which, according to the theory of engaging communication, could lead ecosystem stakeholders to modify their development policy as part of the implementation of CSR, thus giving the ecosystem a responsible character.

The latter can directly or indirectly generate local job creation, considering that responsible consumption, according to the WCC report (2018), could generate jobs since the production of associated goods requires a larger workforce (about one and a half times more).

However, the employment generated in this way is diffuse and it is difficult to assess the impact on the labour market, particularly on a larger scale, of these new forms of consumption, made possible by the innovative Beemy and Aux Berges platforms, since small craft structures could at least initially or even emerge, and could themselves have a negative impact on employment in traditional structures, due in particular to substitution effects.

Nevertheless, with the phenomena of mass employment automation that we are also observing, mechanically reducing the number of jobs offered, in low-skilled sectors but in the future in the skilled jobs sector, some authors, like Laetitia Vitaud in her recent publication "Du labeur à l'ouvrage" (2019), highlight a paradigm shift "at the end of which, the traditional logic would once again dominate our vision of the world of work.

Bibliography :

Abramovici M., Jougleux M.,. Maman C., (2009): Innovation in local services: challenges, analytical framework and initial results, 18th AIMS Conference.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: BEEMY V1 ecosystem

Table 1 :

 1 Comparative table of stakeholders and interactions between the Beemy and Aux Berges cases

		Beemy	At the riverbanks
		39 actants counted including pp (!!)	21 pp identified that are distinguished by
	Stake-	which differ according to 4 criteria	4 activities: territorial partners, pro of land accommo-
	holders	Their global activity with a level of de-
		tail: major service actors, commercial
		and tourist activities, local activities,
		transport activities, territorial policy,
		territorial companies

dation, pro of river accommodation, actors of tourism Several types of actors for each activity for example among professionals of land accommodation are found, tour operators, campsites.... Specific actors as an example of each actor status -in hotel professionals, Accor Hotels, first class, Marriott

Table 2

 2 presents the impact on employment by sector of future service innovations based on the study of intersections

	Beemy stake-	Aux Berges' stake-	emerging	Comments on the report
	holders	holders	business
			sectors
	Traders and	Living spaces -res-	Local mer-	The proposed solutions can help to bring tourist
	craftsmen	taurants -bar -work-	chants,	flows to these actors and thus generate new de-
	local shops and	shops -stages (fluc-	craftsmen	mand, which could encourage a growth in supply
	restaurants	tuar, the bubbler, the	and restau-	and therefore employment at the local level.
		opera houseboat)	rants	A multiplier effect could also occur if the reloca-
		Cruise ships and Pa-		tion of tourism-related employment leads to the
		risian fly boats (bato-		settlement of new inhabitants on a territorial scale,
		bus)		who are themselves consumers of goods and ser-
				vices.
	VTC,	Campsite	Local sports	The proposed solutions can help to bring tourist
	Cultural and		facilities	flows to these actors and thus generate new de-
	sports associa-			mand, which could encourage growth in supply
	tions,			and therefore employment.
	Val d'Europe
	aquatic centre,
	Nature village
	Paris
	Cultural and	Cruise ships and Pa-
	sports associa-	risian fly boats (bato-
	tions	bus)
	Disney parks	Living spaces -res-
	and resort	taurants -bar -work-
	Louis Braille	shops -stages (fluc-
	Museum	tuar, the bubbler, the
	Five Val	opera houseboat)
	d'Europe Me-	Attractiveness clus-
	dia Library	ters (Disneyland, Val-
	Green spaces	lée Village, Domaine
	and lakes	Village Nature, Châ-
		teaux)

https://www.latribune.fr/supplement/la-france-reste-une-destination-touristique-de-premierplan-825478.html)

https://media.unwto.org/fr/content/comprende-le-tourisme-glossaire-de-base

https://business.lesechos.fr/directions-generales/gouvernance/rse/0601742406651-les-pdg-americains-revendiquent-leur-responsabilite-sociale-331130.php#xtor=CS1-35

https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/sites/odyssee-developpement-durable/files/5/rapport_brundtland.pdf

https://www.valdeuropeagglo.fr/

http://www.coe.gouv.fr/Rapport_VD_site-30b04.pdf?file_url=IMG/pdf/Rapport_VD_site-3.pdf

source: https://fr.statista.com/statistiques/490838/parc-disneyland-frequentation-touristique-france/

Author(s):

First name, surname, title(s): Charlotte Feraille, doctoral student; Claudie Meyer, Senior Lecturer and Christian Bourret, Professor of UniversitiesInstitution : Université Paris Est Marne La Valléedepartment : IFISfull address : 8 cours du Danube, 77 700 SerrisE-mail : charlotte.feraille@pactedeperformance.org ; Claudie.Meyer@u-pem.fr


Charlotte Veron
email: charlotte.veron@univ-brest.fr

Morgane Innocent
email: morgane.innocent@univ-brest.fr

Bertrand Urien
email: bertrand.urien@univ-brest.fr

COMMENT REDONNER DE LA VALEUR AUX FRUITS ET LÉGUMES ALTÉRÉS ?

Keywords: Gaspillage alimentaire, Culpabilité, Comestibilité, Valeur perçue Food waste, Guilt, Edibility, Perceived value

come

How to give back value to damages fruits and vegetables ? A study on the waster'strategies to removing guilt

Charlotte Veron, Morgane Innocent, Bertrand Urien

Introduction

Prenez une pomme et coupez-là en trois quartiers. Prenez l'un de ces quartiers, et jetezle, tout simplement. Drôle de recette, n'est-ce pas ? C'est pourtant celle que nous pratiquons à l'échelle planétaire en gaspillant un tiers de la production alimentaire. En France, on estime à 10 millions de tonnes la quantité annuelle de nourriture gaspillée, dont 33% en phase de consommation (ADEME, 2016). En moyenne, 29% des fruits et légumes achetés par les ménages de l'Union Européenne seraient jetés avant d'être consommés [START_REF] De Laurentiis | Quantifying household waste of fresh fruit and vegetables in the EU[END_REF]. Les fruits et légumes frais (notés F&L dans l'article), contrairement à de nombreux aliments, ne présentent pas de date limite de consommation, qui offrent un indicateur plus ou moins objectif aux consommateurs. Lorsque l'on demande aux individus « pourquoi jetez-vous vos fruits et légumes ? », une grande majorité répond « parce qu'ils sont moisis » [START_REF] Wrap | 2. The food we waste[END_REF] et qu'ils ne sont plus comestibles. Mais qu'est-ce que cela signifie ? Comment les consommateurs décident-ils qu'un F&L comestible devient non-comestible ? Le fait de jeter le produit signifie-t-il pour autant qu'il n'a plus de valeur ? Si tel est le cas, pourquoi culpabilisons-nous au moment de s'en débarrasser ? [START_REF] Quested | Food and drink waste from households in the UK[END_REF][START_REF] Graham-Rowe | Identifying motivations and barriers to minimising household food waste[END_REF][START_REF] Jagau | Behavioral approach to food waste: an experiment[END_REF][START_REF] Richter | Knowledge and perception of food waste among German consumers[END_REF].

A partir du cadre théorique de la valeur perçue [START_REF] Aurier | Comprendre et mesurer la valeur du point de vue du consommateur[END_REF]) appliqué à la consommation des fruits et légumes [START_REF] Gurviez | La consommation des fruits et légumes : de l'étude des déterminants de la consommation à celle de la valeur de consommation[END_REF][START_REF] Graciot | Étude expérimentale de la disponibilité à payer des consommateurs: Une application aux fruits et légumes[END_REF], et d'une étude qualitative exploratoire portant sur 15 individus, notre analyse identifie tout d'abord le caractère multidimensionnel, bivalent et subjectif de la valeur perçue des F&L. Elle montre également, dans une approche dynamique, comment les stratégies de revalorisation des produits permettent de diminuer la culpabilité du gaspilleur. Cette émotion négative a une influence directe sur la volonté de réduire le gaspillage alimentaire [START_REF] Quested | Spaghetti soup: the complex world of food waste behaviours[END_REF]Russel et al., 2017). Pour autant, à notre connaissance, il n'existe pas de recherche qui appréhende ce qui sous-tend cette culpabilité au moment de jeter un produit, ni les stratégies qui tendent à la réduire.

Cadre théorique : comestibilité, culpabilité et dynamique de la valeur perçue

La comestibilité : entre règles biologiques et culturelles

Est défini comme comestible, ce « qui peut être mangé par l'Homme » (CNRL). S'il existe des aliments comestibles, alors il en existe d'autres, jugés non-comestibles. La qualification de ces aliments immangeables provient-elle d'une « simple affaire de toxicité, ou peut-on déclarer non-comestible une substance qui n'a pour seul défaut que son goût ? L'immangeable répond-il toujours à une définition objective ou s'agit-il d'autre chose, de l'ordre, par exemple de l'imaginaire ? ». La question que pose ici Fischler (2001, p.25) invite à nous interroger sur le caractère subjectif et culturel de la comestibilité. Nous avons beau connaître le caractère comestible de certains aliments, ce n'est pas pour autant que nous acceptons de les manger. La culpabilité pourrait alors survenir lorsque nous jetons un produit dont nous connaissons la comestibilité.

La culpabilité : une émotion négative et un état de tension

La culpabilité est une émotion négative [START_REF] Izard | Human Emotions[END_REF] qui apparaît lorsque l'individu prend conscience qu'il a commis une faute ou une transgression d'un principe moral internalisé [START_REF] Tangney | Moral affect: the good, the bad and the ugly[END_REF]. Elle est déclenchée par la violation, réelle ou anticipée, de nos valeurs morales et sociales [START_REF] Chédotal | L'utilisation de la culpabilité en communication[END_REF]. Lorsque les circonstances amènent une personne à agir en désaccord avec ses croyances, elle éprouvera un état de tension inconfortable, qu'elle tentera par la suite de réduire, soit en changeant son comportement, soit en le justifiant. On peut dès lors s'interroger sur les stratégies misent en place par les consommateurs pour réduire la culpabilité qui survient au moment de gaspiller. L'analyse de l'évolution de la valeur des F&L au cours de leur vie « au sein du foyer » apporte un cadre à cette réflexion.

Les caractéristiques de la valeur perçue : dynamisme et bivalence

La valeur globale d'un produit correspond à son évaluation au travers des bénéfices reçus par rapport aux coûts engendrés. Elle provient des coûts (ou sacrifices) et de la valeur perçue, concepts tous deux multidimensionnels [START_REF] Aurier | Comprendre et mesurer la valeur du point de vue du consommateur[END_REF]. Du fait qu'elle soit dépendante du contexte situationnel et social dans lequel elle se produit, la valeur perçue (et globale) est susceptible de changer, notamment au fil des expériences et des interactions de l'individu à l'objet [START_REF] Rivière | Vers une clarification théorique de la notion de valeur perçue en marketing[END_REF]. Par exemple, la littérature consacrée au processus de séparation et d'élimination d'un objet montre que les individus accordent encore une forme de valeur à leurs objets après usage [START_REF] Kreziak | Destinée des produits technologiques remplacés : l'influence de la valeur résiduelle perçue[END_REF]. [START_REF] Türe | Value-in-disposition : exploring how consumers derive value from disposition of possessions[END_REF] analyse la pratique du « don caritatif » comme étant une façon ultime de retirer le maximum de valeur d'une possession. De récentes recherches [START_REF] Innocent | La valeur pour le consommateur d'une pratique de maîtrise de consommation : le cas de l'électricité[END_REF][START_REF] Mani | Creation and destruction of the perceived value of a smart service: application to banking[END_REF] mettent en avant le caractère bivalent, positif et négatif, des différentes composantes de la valeur, comme par exemple la composante hédonique, instrumentale, de communication, ou de partage. Ainsi, les bénéfices ne seraient pas nécessairement associés à des dimensions spécifiques, mais à leur valence positive. Dans cette conceptualisation de la valeur, les coûts seraient quant à eux relatifs à la valence négative de ces dimensions. Ainsi, une même composante peut être positive pour un individu et négative pour un autre.

Depuis 2012, les recherches sur le gaspillage alimentaire se multiplient (Porpino, 2016) et montrent la pluralité des facteurs entrainant l'augmentation ou la réduction des quantités jetées. Stangherlin et de Barcellos ( 2018) ont résumé l'ensemble de ces facteurs dans un schéma présenté en Annexe 1. Notre étude a pour ambition de comprendre la transformation des fruits et légumes, du comestible au non-comestible à travers l'évolution de leur valeur perçue par les consommateurs. C'est également dans cette approche que nous souhaitons appréhender l'anticipation du sentiment de culpabilité au moment de jeter un produit. Observer l'apparition de cette émotion négative nous permettra de découvrir les différentes stratégies élaborées par les individus pour diminuer cet état de tension inconfortable.

Méthodologie

Pour appréhender ces phénomènes, nous avons mené une étude qualitative exploratoire en réalisant 15 entretiens individuels semi-directifs, d'une durée d'environ une heure, au domicile des participants dont les différentes caractéristiques sont présentées en Annexe 2. Nous avons analysé les entretiens jusqu'à atteindre une saturation théorique, obtenue à partir de 12, puis nous avons réalisé 3 entretiens supplémentaires. Le guide d'entretien a été construit de manière à faire émerger la dynamique et la transformation de la valeur des F&L, à travers le parcours de vie du produit au sein du foyer (de l'approvisionnement au débarras). Afin d'appréhender l'éventuelle culpabilité, une dernière partie était consacrée aux représentations du gaspillage alimentaire. Les retranscriptions complètes des discours ont été analysées à l'aide du logiciel d'analyse NVivo. A partir de la typologie de la valeur globale des fruits et légumes (Annexe 3) proposée par [START_REF] Graciot | Étude expérimentale de la disponibilité à payer des consommateurs: Une application aux fruits et légumes[END_REF], nous avons effectué un codage a prio steriori (Allard-Poesi, 2003) qui a notamment conduit à intégrer, pour chaque dimension de la valeur perçue (hédonique, instrumentale (utilitaire), communication et partage) et pour chaque sacrifice perçu (monétaire et non-monétaire) une valence positive, une valence négative ainsi qu'un état transitoire témoignant de la transformation de la valeur.

Résultats

Les composantes positives de la valeur perçue

Nos premiers résultats tendent à confirmer les travaux antérieurs, à savoir que la valeur hédonique est la dimension la plus saillante. Autrement dit, c'est bien le plaisir lié au goût, qui est le premier critère de consommation des fruits et légumes [START_REF] Krebs-Smith | Psychological Factors Associated with Fruit and Vegetable Consumption[END_REF] ou bien le caractère juteux, rafraîchissant (Roty, 2001) « Ce que j'aime bien, c'est la fraîcheur et le goût » (E5) ainsi que toute émotion sensorielle plaisante telle que la texture, l'odeur ou encore le visuel « Il est rond, pulpeux, rouge, rouge foncé » (E10) ; « Il est sensuel, ce fruit… De par la douceur de sa peau. » (E11) ; « J'aime bien l'odeur (E8) ». Vient ensuite la valeur instrumentale des F&L, liée à tous les apports nutritifs de ces derniers. Pour la grande majorité des interviewés, cet intérêt utilitaire des F&L n'est évoqué que dans un second temps : « Ça doit bien m'apporter des vitamines comme tous les fruits, mais c'est pas ma préoccupation première ! (rires) (E3) ». La praticité et l'accessibilité sont aussi des éléments fondamentaux dans la construction de la valeur des F&L. En effet, les personnes interrogées semblent apprécier qu'un F&L soit simple à transporter, conserver, préparer, accommoder et manger : « c'est pratique à emmener partout (E8) » ; « alors que celui-là, il se mange facilement comme une pomme en fait. (E11) » Par ailleurs, tous les participants ont évoqué à un moment donné de l'entretien, l'accessibilité financière des F&L : « Et l'avantage à l'automne, et l'hiver avec les pommes et les clémentines, c'est que ça coûte pas très cher aussi. » (E8).

Les composantes négatives de la valeur perçue

La praticité et l'accessibilité, lorsqu'elles sont jugées négatives, semblent parfois primer sur la valeur utilitaire voire sur la valeur hédonique : « La mangue je trouve ça chiant à manger (rires), j'aime bien le goût (…) mais la mangue, je sais pas, c'est plein de fibres…, ça coule partout.» (E12) ; « J'aime beaucoup les fruits rouges en été... Sauf que ça coûte très cher donc j'en achète moins » (E8). Ainsi, les coûts sont une composante essentielle pour appréhender la valeur des F&L. Cependant, ces coûts, tout comme les autres dimensions de la valeur, varient d'un F&L à l'autre et d'un individu à un autre. Si pour certaines personnes, la carotte est un légume qui se conserve facilement, d'autres déplorent son altération rapide. L'analyse montre que toutes les dimensions de la valeur possèdent une valence positive et négative. Pour certaines personnes la pêche a une valeur hédonique forte de par la douceur et la sensualité de sa peau, alors que pour d'autres, cette texture velue déclenchera une aversion. La personne qui doit alors éplucher la pêche lui attribuera une valeur globale plus faible : elle aime le goût mais il lui faut éplucher le fruit ce qui le rend moins pratique. L'équilibre entre composantes positives et négatives qui constituent la valeur globale issue de la consommation pourra donc évoluer en fonction de la situation (saison appropriée ou occasion de consommation par exemple), de caractéristiques individuelles ou culturelles (gout/dégout) et de caractéristiques liées au produit (praticité de consommation, prix…).

Du comestible au non comestible : transformation de la valeur, du positif vers le négatif

De manière prévisible, les individus interrogés ont tous déclaré jeter un F&L lorsque celui-ci était « pourri » ou « moisi ». Cependant, on perçoit des variabilités dans les représentations de l'altération : « j'ai tendance à jeter pas mal parce que dès qu'une partie à l'intérieur est un peu grise, je vais la couper » (E8) ; « la partie que je ne consomme pas, c'est qu'elle est vraiment abîmée, gâtée, pourrie quoi. » (E7). Lorsque l'on interroge les individus sur la manière dont ils déterminent cet état, on constate que ce sont les sens qui vont mesurer la comestibilité du F&L : « A l'odeur ou au touché. » (E2) ; « après il y a un caractère esthétique. » (E1) ; « En fonction du goût ou de l'état, je vais les jeter si... ça me semble pas bon à manger. » (E7). La composante hédonique, façonnée par les sens et identifiée précédemment comme la dimension saillante de la valence positive de la valeur perçue du F&L, devient l'indicateur de la non-comestibilité. L'évolution de la perception de la comestibilité s'effectue donc d'après nos représentations et en parallèle de la transformation de la valeur hédonique. Au départ positive, la dimension hédonique du

F&L se transforme pour devenir négative : « Je vais prendre l'exemple où ça a changé le goût et dans ces cas-là ouais... C'est du dégout quoi. » (E1) ; « Oui, parce que la nature de départ n'est plus au rendezvous. C'est à dire le goût, la texture ne sont plus là. Ils ont été complètement transformés par les bactéries. Je crois. » (E11) et le plaisir disparaît : « Va plus y avoir aucun plaisir à manger et ben' c'est pas drôle de le manger sans plaisir (rire). C'est important quand même le plaisir dans les repas. » (E14).

Pour certaines personnes, la valeur utilitaire s'est également transformée, le F&L à l'origine bénéfique pour la santé devient potentiellement un danger : « L'organisme disons qui a fait pourrir le fruit, peut être aussi dangereux pour nous » (E7) ; « J'ai peur que ça me rende malade. » (E8). Néanmoins, pour d'autres cet argument n'est pas valable : « Ce serait faux de dire que c'est pas consommable. Enfin voilà, une pomme même quand elle est devenue rance et tout, elle est consommable. (…) Elle va avoir un petit goût d'alcool, ça va être très mauvais mais c'est pas impropre à la consommation quoi » (E14) , et pourrait alors être une forme de justification du comportement, utilisé comme stratégie pour diminuer l'état de tension provoqué par l'acte de jeter. La diminution de la valeur globale perçue par le consommateur semble provenir essentiellement de la perte de ses composantes premières, à savoir sa valeur hédonique voire sa valeur instrumentale. Cependant, le F&L a-t-il perdu sa valeur de façon irrémédiable ?

Diminuer le sentiment de culpabilité en redonnant de la valeur aux F&L

Si un produit est dénué de toute valeur, alors on suppose qu'il n'y a aucun remord à s'en débarrasser. Pourtant, toutes les personnes ont évoqué un sentiment de culpabilité plus ou moins fort au moment de jeter : « on est quand même sensible au gaspillage alimentaire (…) Le sentiment ? Euh… de la culpabilité un petit peu je pense. De la culpabilité de jeter de la nourriture ». (E12). Le gaspillage alimentaire est associé à des pertes : monétaire « C'est une perte d'argent » (E4), sociale « ces plats auraient pu être réutilisées par d'autres personnes, des gens plus démunis » (E9), humaine « mon marchand de fruits et légumes (…), je respecte son travail, le fait qu'il se lève à pas -d'heure » (E11) ou encore environnementale « c'est du carburant pour transporter ces aliments, pour les produire (…) Les litres d'eau… » (E3). Pour éviter ces pertes, et ainsi diminuer le sentiment de culpabilité, certaines personnes vont mettre en place des stratégies comme celle de redonner de la valeur hédonique au F&L délaissé, en le détournant, transformant, autrement dit en le cuisinant différemment. Cette pratique s'opère notamment dans la bascule du cru vers le cuit : une pomme transformée en compote ou bien « La carotte qui est un peu défraîchie dans la soupe, ça va le faire. » (E11). Une autre stratégie est de redonner de la valeur instrumentale en utilisant les F&L abîmés pour nourrir les animaux domestiques et/ou le potager à travers le compost : « je fais mon compost avec donc ça repart dans mon potager donc bon… Et puis je me dis il y a bien d'autres animaux qui viennent grignoter ça, donc je culpabilise moins ! (rires) » (E3).

Les stratégies de nouvelle conservation ou les stratégies de la dernière chance

Lorsqu'un produit se transforme, certaines personnes vont modifier son mode de conservation afin de maintenir sa valeur, soit sur le long terme, « on va transformer, on va faire des bocaux (…) ratatouille en bocal ça tient deux ans. » (E14) ; « une banane un peu trop mûre, je la coupe et je la congèle » (E13) soit sur le court terme, « les radis pareil quand ils commencent à devenir vraiment vraiment tout mous ils passent leur dernière journée au frigo (…) avant d'être mangés sur le champ. » (E14). Dans la même idée, il existe des stratégies de conservation qui ont pour objectif de redonner de la valeur hédonique, juste avant de les consommer : « Quand (le radis) devient tout mou un peu flétrie là, une demi heure dans l'eau, et puis il redevient… Il reprend un peu de sa forme, il redevient croquant. C'est pareil c'est pour reconsommer tout de suite. » (E14). La personne interrogée souligne ici l'importance de consommer immédiatement le produit. Dans le cas contraire, cette méthode entraînerait du gaspillage alimentaire à travers une autre stratégie de déculpabilisation : la procrastination : « En disant tiens plutôt que de le perdre, (…) je le mets au congélateur. Puis, au final, si je l'ai pas bouffé au bout de 6 mois il va peut-être partir à la poubelle, c'est du gaspillage alimentaire. » (E11). Attendre que le F&L soit dans un état de décomposition très avancé, permettrait de justifier, de façon plus ou moins consciente, l'acte de s'en débarrasser : le produit ne peut plus bénéficier d'une revalorisation hédonique voire utilitaire, alors je ne peux que le jeter. [START_REF] Graham-Rowe | Identifying motivations and barriers to minimising household food waste[END_REF] ont mentionné que la réduction du gaspillage alimentaire pourrait être atteint si les campagnes d'information utilisaient le levier de la culpabilité [START_REF] Richter | Knowledge and perception of food waste among German consumers[END_REF] Tableau 1 : stratégies de déculpabilisation Si on entend par gaspillage alimentaire « toute nourriture destinée à la consommation humaine qui, à une étape de la chaîne alimentaire, est perdue, jetée, dégradée » (PNLGA, 2013), alors seules les stratégies visant une revalorisation de la valeur hédonique (en gras dans le tableau 1) permettent de réduire les quantités jetées. En effet, procrastiner et recycler, sont des stratégies de déculpabilisation qui n'évitent pas pour autant le gaspillage. Cela pourrait expliquer pourquoi l'anticipation de la culpabilité influence positivement l'intention de réduire le gaspillage alimentaire sans pour autant diminuer effectivement la quantité de nourriture gaspillée [START_REF] Graham-Rowe | Identifying motivations and barriers to minimising household food waste[END_REF].

Discussion et conclusion

Graham

L'intention de réduire le gaspillage alimentaire est motivée principalement par une économie d'argent, devant la conscience sociale et écologique [START_REF] Stefan | Avoiding food waste by Romanian consumers: the importance of planning and shopping routines[END_REF]. Pour autant, il n'est pas question d'envisager l'inflation du prix des F&L pour encourager les personnes à limiter leurs déchets, d'autant plus que les enjeux écologiques tendent à préoccuper de plus en plus les consommateurs. Dès lors, un travail permettant la mise en évidence de la valeur des

  . Dans ce contexte, notre étude avait pour objectif d'une part, de connaître le moment où les consommateurs estiment qu'un F&L n'est plus comestible à travers la valeur perçue des F&L, et d'une autre part, d'appréhender les antécédents de la culpabilité et les stratégies employées pour l'éviter ou la diminuer. Notre analyse révèle que la perte de la valeur des F&L est mesurée par nos sens à travers le prisme de nos représentations de la comestibilité. Les composantes de la valeur, notamment hédonique et instrumentale, positives à l'achat deviennent négatives au fur et à mesure que le F&L s'altère. Cette évaluation psychologique dépend d'un ensemble de facteurs individuels, culturels et situationnels, tout comme elle dépend du produit en lui-même. Ce sont des mesures personnelles et non objectives qui vont amener le consommateur à jeter ses F&L. Affirmer que les individus jettent leur F&L parce qu'il est « moisi » semble alors insuffisant. Par ailleurs, l'anticipation de la culpabilité peut varier d'intensité en fonction des individus et de leur façon d'appréhender le F&L au moment de le jeter. Nos résultats invitent à considérer l'existence d'une valeur intrinsèque du F&L, liée aux ressources qu'il a mobilisées pour être produit et au potentiel qu'il recèle : l'argent dépensé pour l'acquérir, la personne démunie qu'il aurait pu nourrir, le travail du producteur vain, et enfin les ressources planétaires gâchées. Plus cette valeur intrinsèque est forte pour l'individu, plus la culpabilité ressentie est importante. Pour éviter d'éprouver cette émotion négative, plusieurs stratégies sont élaborées (cf tableau 1) :

	Stratégies	Comportements	Evolutions de la valeur
			Retarder la perte de la valeur
	Modifier	Modifier la conservation	Revaloriser la composante hédonique
		Modifier la préparation
	Recycler	Nourrir des animaux Composter	Revaloriser la composante utilitaire
	Procrastiner	Laisser le produit s'altérer	Attendre la perte totale de la valeur

Annexe 3 -Composantes de la valeur globale des fruits et légumes (Graciot, 2017, p. 99)


Philippe Grandcolas

Romain Nattier

Frédéric Legendre

Roseli Pellens

Fre´ De´

Ric Legendre

Mapping extrinsic traits such as extinction risks or modelled bioclimatic niches on phylogenies: does it

teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers.

Phylogenetic approaches to extinction risk [START_REF] Cardillo | Multiple causes of high extinction risk in large mammal species[END_REF] have recently generated a controversy. [START_REF] Putland | Problems of studying extinction risks[END_REF] and [START_REF] Harcourt | Problems of studying extinction risks[END_REF] have justly remarked that a phylogenetic analysis of such an extrinsic trait does not make sense: the evolution of a trait that does not evolve cannot be reconstructed. This is not the only case of traits inappropriately analysed in a phylogenetic context, and we submit that there is a recurrent and misleading trend of analysing extrinsic, and therefore non-heritable, traits. We try to understand why this problem has occurred repeatedly, and how these studies could be carried out in a more appropriate way.

Many evolutionary studies consider trait changes on previously reconstructed phylogenetic trees [START_REF] Brooks | Phylogeny, Ecology, and Behavior: A Research Program in Comparative Biology[END_REF]Eggleton and Vane-Wright, 1994;[START_REF] Grandcolas | Why to use phylogeny in evolutionary ecology[END_REF]. Because these traits of interest are most often defined in ecological or evolutionary studies, independently of any phylogenetic analysis, they do not necessarily fit the basic requirements for phylogenetic characters. They can be too vaguely defined, and may merely represent general classes rather than accurate descriptions of organisms. For example, this is often the case for broad categories used for ecological or behavioural classifications, but which do not describe properly the details of the behaviours of different species, as criticized by many authors [START_REF] Mickevich | Evolutionary character analysis: tracing character change on a cladogram[END_REF][START_REF] Wenzel | Behavioral homology and phylogeny[END_REF][START_REF] Deleporte | Characters, attributes and tests of evolutionary scenarios[END_REF][START_REF] Grandcolas | Why to use phylogeny in evolutionary ecology[END_REF][START_REF] Grandcolas | Phylogenetics and ecology: as many characters as possible should be included in the cladistic analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Proctor | Behavioral characters and homoplasy: perception versus practice[END_REF][START_REF] Luckow | Circularity and independence in phylogenetic tests of ecological hypotheses[END_REF]. A vague definition is, however, not such a big problem. More specific studies can simply be carried out to document the details of the trait occurrences in different taxa. Sometimes these details are already known and just need to be taken into account, with an appropriate methodology, to build the phylogenetic analysis of trait evolution (e.g. [START_REF] Coddington | Giant female or dwarf male spiders?[END_REF][START_REF] Desutter-Grandcolas | Phylogeny and the evolution of calling songs in Gryllus (Insecta, Orthoptera, Gryllidae)[END_REF]Grandcolas and DÕHaese, 2004).

A more serious problem occurs when the traits of interest are defined in such a way that they are not really ''heritable'' sensu lato (not referring specifically to the statistical heritability in population genetics); or, more generally, when the traits are defined as extrinsic to the taxa, as criticized by [START_REF] Grandcolas | Phylogenetics and ecology: as many characters as possible should be included in the cladistic analysis[END_REF] and [START_REF] Grandcolas | Testing adaptation with phylogeny: how to account for phylogenetic pattern and selective value together?[END_REF]. There are many different cases of this kind in the literature, and their comparison is informative. Among such extrinsic traits, we will survey first, those that appear not to be phenotypic, and therefore deserve to be analysed with a procedure other than optimization on the tree; and second, those that appear to be questionable surrogates for phenotypic traits.

We found four kinds of extrinsic trait that are non-phenotypic: taxon age, geographical distribution, associates (parasites, symbionts, etc.), and bioclimatic modelled niches.

The first-taxon age-involves stratocladistics, which includes ages and stratigraphic distributions of taxa in the phylogenetic analysis [START_REF] Vermeij | A serious matter with character-taxon matrices[END_REF], a practice that has been criticized (e.g. [START_REF] Geiger | Timeless characters: a response to Vermeij (1999)[END_REF], but is still regarded as valuable [START_REF] Fisher | Stratocladistics: Integrating temporal data and character data in phylogenetic inference[END_REF]. Fisher (2008, p. 376) recognizes that the age of a taxon is not heritable, but he maintains that it can be used as a character because, in his own words, ''The apple falls not far from the tree''-age not descending with modification per se, but modifying continuously. Fisher also accepts that age cannot be interpreted in terms of homology, but again holds that ''temporal order carries information'' (ibid.). These statements show that stratigraphic ages do not fit requirements for phylogenetic analysis of evolutionary changes, even if they have sometimes been analysed that way for operational reasons. On one hand, stratocladistics makes the assumption that temporal order provides operational information complementing the actual evolutionary information residing within the phenotypic traits of the organisms. On the other hand, this information is irrelevant for establishing phylogenetic relationships, as ages carry no homology information, so that we could change the saying for a deceptive ''apples fall not far from many different trees.'' Therefore taxon age cannot be a phylogenetic character.

Distributional data have sometimes been considered as better studied if included in the phylogenetic analysis [START_REF] Zrzavy´ | Phylogenetics and ecology: all characters should be included in the cladistic analysis[END_REF], a practice difficult to accept, given that areas do not evolve as phenotypic traits and are not heritable [START_REF] Nelson | Systematics and Biogeography: Cladistics and Vicariance[END_REF][START_REF] Kluge | A concern for evidence and a phylogenetic hypothesis for relationships among Epicrates (Boidae, Serpentes)[END_REF][START_REF] Grandcolas | Phylogenetics and ecology: as many characters as possible should be included in the cladistic analysis[END_REF]. As clearly summarized by [START_REF] Hovenkamp | Vicariance events, not areas, should be used in biogeographical analysis[END_REF], areas evolve by themselves and are not expected to differentiate strictly by divergence.

In another line of reasoning, [START_REF] Freudenstein | From basepairs to birdsongs: phylogenetic data in the age of genomics[END_REF] have argued that among extrinsic traits, some are indispensable to organisms, such as gut symbionts of termites; and some are not, such as specific habitats from which species could be extirpated and still survive (their own examples). According to this rationale, the former traits should be considered in a phylogenetic analysis, while the latter ones should not. This is a strange way to discriminate among extrinsic traits in evolutionary studies because it does not rely on any descent criterion, and rather makes a very risky evolutionary guess about the significance of indispensability.

Termite symbionts can evolve on their own despite their tight association with termites (some termites have lost their symbionts; [START_REF] Legendre | The phylogeny of termites (Dictyoptera: Isoptera) based on mitochondrial and nuclear genes: implications for and the evolution of the worker and pseudergate castes, and foraging behaviors[END_REF], while specific habitats are directly related to species preferenda (behavioural or physiological responses to the environment), which are phenotypic heritable traits. Phylogenies of symbionts can be inferred and compared with host phylogenies. Habitats and preferenda are simply in need of careful definition.

Finally, the so-called modelled bioclimatic niches are often optimized on phylogenetic trees to assess the evolution of species preferenda (e.g. [START_REF] Graham | Integrating phylogenetics and environmental niche models to explore speciation mechanisms in dendrobatid frogs[END_REF][START_REF] Martı´nez-Meyer | Evolution of seasonal ecological niches in the Passerina buntings (Aves: Cardinalidae)[END_REF][START_REF] Yesson | Phyloclimatic modeling: combining phylogenetics and bioclimatic modeling[END_REF]. Theoretically, the ecological niche (the way the environment is used) is an intrinsic property of the species and is very close to phenotypic traits (the behavioural or physiological responses to the environment). However, practically, the so-called modelled bioclimatic ''niches'' are merely climatic domains corresponding to the locations where one species has been found [START_REF] Sobero´n | Interpretation of models of fundamental ecological niches and speciesÕ distributional areas[END_REF][START_REF] Peterson | Uses and requirements of ecological niche models and related distributional models[END_REF]. These domains depend directly on the distributional areas of species, and their definition can be biased by geographical sampling problems (e.g. the truncated response curve, different factors operating at different spatial scales: [START_REF] Austin | Current problems of environmental gradients and species response curves in relation to continuum theory[END_REF][START_REF] Mackey | Towards a hierarchical framework for modelling the spatial distribution of animals[END_REF]. Despite the appealing reference to the phenotype in the term ''niche'', and because of the way they are defined, these bioclimatic domains are not plainly heritable and intrinsic features of species. To our knowledge, no-one has yet objected to the phylogenetic analysis of bioclimatic modelled niches, but some more reasonable approaches have been proposed without assuming that bioclimatic domains evolve as phenotypic traits. Bioclimatic modelled niches can be compared among sister-groups [START_REF] Knouft | Phylogenetic analysis of the evolution of the niche in lizards of the Anolis sagrei group[END_REF][START_REF] Murienne | Species diversity in the New Caledonian endemic genera Cephalidiosus and Nobarnus (Insecta: Heteroptera: Tingidae), an approach using phylogeny and species distribution modeling[END_REF] or used as an ecological control for historical biogeographical inferences [START_REF] Carstens | Integrating coalescent and ecological niche modeling in comparative phylogeography[END_REF], instead of being optimized on the tree, which would mean that bioclimatic domains are inherited as such by descent with modification. Certainly, niches can be studied differently at a more accurate scale, and heritable behavioural responses can be described that could be optimized on a tree. But this is another matter that the so-called modelled niches based on species distributions.

We now deal with extrinsic traits identified as surrogates for phenotypic traits. Classically, a phylogenetic and comparative study involves sampling character states in every taxon concerned. This is a hard job, especially for traits that cannot be sampled from collection specimens (unlike morphology or DNA), or from their record of, for example, distribution and its ecological correlates. Therefore many studies take a short-cut by replacing observations on the phenotype with some more available proxies. Then, the surrogate is not only a broad and poorly defined substitute for a phenotypic trait, but rather a different trait, definitely extrinsic. This is the case of the analysis of adaptation based on the phylogenetic patterns of both the trait and its selective regime [START_REF] Baum | Adaptation reviewed: a phylogenetic methodology for studying character macroevolution[END_REF]. Generally, selective regime-''all such environmental and organismic factors that combine to determine how natural selection will act'' (Baum and Larson, 1991, p. 2)-is not studied, but assumed according to a function associated with the trait of interest and used as a surrogate for selective pressure (e.g. function ''way of life, terrestrial versus scansorial'' and trait ''leg morphology'' in salamanders; [START_REF] Baum | Adaptation reviewed: a phylogenetic methodology for studying character macroevolution[END_REF]. [START_REF] Grandcolas | Testing adaptation with phylogeny: how to account for phylogenetic pattern and selective value together?[END_REF] and [START_REF] Grandcolas | Notion: adaptation[END_REF] criticized this approach, arguing that selective pressure is not heritable and that trait functions are misleading surrogates for natural selection. Yet this adaptationist protocol is still widely used (e.g. [START_REF] Scales | Running for your life or running for your dinner: what drives fiber-type evolution in lizard locomotor muscles?[END_REF]. Adaptation would be better studied by a combination of phylogenetic and population approaches, focusing, respectively, on the phylogenetic patterns of the trait and its function, and their selective value in various populations [START_REF] Carpenter | Testing scenarios: wasp social behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Grandcolas | Phylogenetics and ecology: as many characters as possible should be included in the cladistic analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Grandcolas | Testing adaptation with phylogeny: how to account for phylogenetic pattern and selective value together?[END_REF].

As already mentioned, surrogates for extinction risks have been mapped on phylogenetic trees to detect any correlation with taxonomic belonging or history [START_REF] Fisher | The comparative method in conservation biology[END_REF][START_REF] Cardillo | Multiple causes of high extinction risk in large mammal species[END_REF]. [START_REF] Putland | Problems of studying extinction risks[END_REF] criticized this approach, remarking that extinction risk is not a phenotypic trait; [START_REF] Harcourt | Problems of studying extinction risks[END_REF] argued that these studies poorly assessed extinction risks by using International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Red Lists as surrogates. Purvis (2008, p. 310) maintained that the approach makes sense for detecting both taxonomic biases and extinction proneness. He emphasized on the so-called phylogenetic confusing effect in taxonomic comparisons. The real problem is that there is no way to know which kind of bias will be introduced if an extrinsic surrogate (extinction risk instead of body size, life histories, etc.) is used in a phylogenetic perspective, and the results are simply not interpretable. The question therefore is not about biasing or neglecting possible phylogenetic effects concerning extinction risks [START_REF] Purvis | Phylogenetic approaches to the study of extinction[END_REF], but about studying those risks by considering the appropriate phenotypic heritable traits in a phylogenetic perspective.

This rapid overview of the literature has shown that many different research fields have a tendency to use non-heritable and extrinsic traits in a phylogenetic context. These approaches are, however, not all the same, and they clearly imply three different kinds of problem.

As a first problem, comparative studies, like others, are sometimes done quickly at the cost of data quality. Some studies are based on a procedure where actual phenotypic traits are replaced by approximate surrogates already available in the literature. This is the most disputed approach as it is plagued not only by poor definition of the trait of interest, but also by a substitution, which can be misleading. This is the case for selective regimes or extinction risks. One could use proper words by replacing ''selective regime'' by ''trait function'' (definitely not a selective value); and, instead of Red Lists, use the phenotypic traits that are already known to influence extinction risks. There is no originality in using a fast and possibly misleading surrogate procedure for large-scale scientific studies, and the remedy is simply to encourage critical examination of any phylogenetic approach.

A second and more specific problem is implied by the ''phylogenetic correction'' (e.g. independent contrasts method, [START_REF] Felsenstein | Phylogenies and the comparative method[END_REF] mainly used in the framework of the so-called ''comparative method'' [START_REF] Harvey | The Comparative Method in Evolutionary Biology[END_REF]. This practice, consisting of extracting a phylogenetic effect (as nicely characterized by [START_REF] Coddington | The roles of homology and convergence in studies of adaptation[END_REF], was originally conceived in a pre-phylogenetic epoch to remove pseudoreplication biases in taxonomic comparisons (Clutton-Brock and [START_REF] Clutton-Brock | Comparison and adaptation[END_REF]. We are now able to build large and detailed trees on which ancestral changes in character states can be reconstructed within the nested subsets of taxa, and therefore pseudoreplication biases cannot be generated any more. In addition, these phylogenetic analyses of evolution do not obscure the precise pattern of trait evolution by hiding local correlations and associations or character-change polarities, as did the ''phylogenetic correction''. ''Phylogenetic correction'' must therefore be abandoned as an outdated perspective and we should turn toward phylogenetic analyses of trait of interest.

A third problem is that some traits can be especially relevant in some evolutionary studies, but too extrinsic to be mapped on phylogenies. They cannot be better defined and replaced by more intrinsic and actually phenotypic traits. Distributional areas, or their associated bioclimatic niches and strata of fossil taxa, deal with the physical environment and the spatial or temporal distribution of taxa, a property that the taxa conserve mainly through inertia (because of dispersal limitations or geographical constraints), and only partly because of their physiological responses to the environment. We submit that these traits should be better analysed within the careful framework defined by biogeography. In biogeographical approaches aimed at understanding the distribution of one clade [START_REF] Hovenkamp | Vicariance events, not areas, should be used in biogeographical analysis[END_REF], the phylogeny of the clade is compared with a tree of areas through a reconciliation procedure to identify vicariance, dispersal, and extinction events [START_REF] Nelson | Systematics and Biogeography: Cladistics and Vicariance[END_REF][START_REF] Page | Parallel phylogenies: reconstructing the history of host-parasite assemblages[END_REF][START_REF] Charleston | Jungles: a new solution to the host ⁄ parasite phylogeny reconciliation problem[END_REF]. Areas are therefore treated adequately as nonphenotypic traits that evolve on their own (mountains or rivers can move; climates can change), the evolution of which can be compared with that of taxa. Associated taxa, such as symbionts or parasites, are in the same case with respect to their hosts and, actually, are already most often studied with the same reconciliation procedure.

In conclusion, the growing and beneficial involvement of phylogenetics in any branch of evolutionary biology will certainly cause recurrent interest in traits that are not orthodox phylogenetic characters. By distinguishing between surrogates to be defined more accurately, and truly extrinsic traits to be studied in a specific way, such evolutionary studies will have more opportunities to carry out adequate and powerful analyses.

Acknowledgements

We gratefully thank Marianne Elias, Amandine Gasc, Eric Guilbert, Ste´phane Peigne´, Je´roˆme Sueur and anonymous referees for their useful comments on the manuscript.