Miriam A Kolar

Carole Fritz

Gilles Tosello

Acoustics in Music Archaeology: Re-Sounding the Marsoulas Conch and Its Cave

Keywords: Music Archaeology's Premise: Instruments, People, and Places Make Context

), extends from its small opening like a long narrow corridor with a triangular cross section, proportions distinct from the voluminous caves typically known for Upper Paleolithic art.

. Other finds in the cave include hematite rocks and tools that may have been used to produce the red pigment adorning both the cave and the interior of the seashell. This is a rare archaeological assemblage of materials that directly link expressive visual culture with human soundmaking in the Upper Paleolithic.

Music archaeology grapples with the challenge of recovering clues about purposeful soundmaking by humans in contexts distinct from those today. Thousands of years before written language, although at the same time as graphical artworks such as wall paintings, engravings, and sculptures, humans made music as evinced by the discovery of 35,000-year-old bone flutes discovered in caves of the Swabian Jura from the Aurignacian period (see bit.ly/3ITVDQC). Musical instruments are considered the most specific form of archaeological evidence for humans' nonverbal sonic expression. Therefore, musical acoustics research can aid in evaluating sounds that archaeologically evidenced instruments could make. However, explorations of instrument acoustics alone cannot reconstruct ancient music; the places where music was made are indicators about many aspects of musical behaviors as well as experiences that can be related to spatial acoustics. Instruments, people, Archaeology must produce inferences regarding past human lives via remnant materials (see tinyurl.com/2a6te2m2), whereas acoustical science provides a physical basis for exploring those materials in terms of their production and transformation of sound. Acoustics and auditory science can be joined with archaeological methods to reconstruct aspects of sonic communication by humans in past settings [START_REF] Kolar | Archaeoacoustics: Re-sounding material culture[END_REF]. Although musical instrument acoustics have been applied in many archaeological studies, less attention has been given to spatial acoustics of archaeological sites that are not known as musical or theatrical venues, such as the decorated cave where the Marsoulas conch was recovered in 1931. At that point, the conch was catalogued as a drinking vessel or ritual cup.

As an example of the utility of acoustical methods in exploring an archaeological context with musical evidence, this article highlights the study of the Marsoulas conch horn and its cave. The antiquity of Upper Paleolithic sites such as the Marsoulas cave, many of which are noted for their wall art, requires the broadest definition of music as nonverbal soundmaking by humans. The comparison of the visual artworks in this cave with techniques used to decorate the sound-producing conch that was found inside the cave demonstrate a symbolical connection between the instrument and place. In both the wall art and the shell modifications, there is pattern replication, evidence of compositional strategies, and exploration of forms from nature. To decorate the cave and the conch, humans were using visual expressive techniques that parallel those employed in historical and present-day art making; whether Paleolithic people also extended such media manipulation strategies to sonic expression is unknowable, yet is a topic to be approached through a cognitive archaeological framework. However, there is much information about past music making that can be explored through acoustical science, which provides the tools for evaluating instrument performance features, contextual manipulation, and physical interactions between sound producers and performance settings.

Music Archaeology's Acoustical Expansion

A field once focused on the identification of soundproducing instruments from archaeological materials [START_REF] Eichmann | Music archaeology[END_REF], music archaeology now employs acoustics, following a larger trend in archaeology to integrate scientific methods from fields appropriate to the materials or topics being investigated [START_REF] Johnson | Archaeological Theory: An Introduction[END_REF]. Musical acoustics has gained recognition as the archaeometrical approach to characterizing ancient and historical soundproducing instruments, such as techniques employed to reconstruct the Deskford carnyx, a 2,000-year-old [START_REF] Fritz | Reconstructing Paleolithic cave art: The examples of Marsoulas Cave (France)[END_REF]. Note the cave's triangular cross-section (top left), and the location of its central bison panel, the site of preliminary acoustical measurements. Figure 2 previously published in Fritz et al. (2016, Figure 1).

Acoustics Today • Summer 2022

Celtic brass sculpture as well as a lip-reed aerophone (see tinyurl.com/2adkpap3) [START_REF] Campbell | Acoustical and musical properties of the Deskford carnyx reconstruction[END_REF].

Beyond musical instrument acoustics, a variety of acoustical research areas are being pursued in music archaeology. Spatial and architectural acoustical methods enable the exploration of interconnections between instruments and sites of their excavation or documented use, such as in the musical instrument-supported acoustical survey of the central platform and plaza at the Inca administrative city Huánco Pampa (see rogeratwood.com/article/incapower-politics) [START_REF] Kolar | The Huánuco Pampa acoustical field survey: An efficient, comparative archaeoacoustical method for studying sonic communication dynamics[END_REF]. Along with a standard spatial acoustics test signal, that study employed humanproduced sounds with archaeologically appropriate instruments (a conch shell horn, a whistle, and human voice) repeated to account for performance variations. Although necessary in connecting physical acoustics with their human perceptual implications, the auditory sciences are infrequently applied, with notable exceptions such as a recent multimodal study of flintknapping [START_REF] Smith | Rock Music: The Sounds of Flintknapping[END_REF] in which acoustic feedback was considered a feature in the crafting of stone tools.

Studies of performance mechanics further refine archaeological interpretations about sound-producing instruments. Much attention has been given to the contentious topic of whether certain bones found in Paleolithic archaeological contexts may have been flutes; biologist and flautist Jelle Atema has conducted detailed experiments in both instrument production and performance to recommend nuanced criteria for the evaluation of proposed sound-producing instruments [START_REF] Atema | Musical origins and the Stone Age evolution of flutes[END_REF]. When performance explorations are connected anthropologically, as in the archaeo-ethnomusicological study of Andean music by [START_REF] Olsen | Music of El Dorado: The Ethnomusicology of Ancient South American Cultures[END_REF], reconstructive hypotheses can be evaluated in terms of known practices across cultures. Musical acoustics methods enable the reevaluation of archaeological classifications previously made without physical explorations to revise functional hypotheses, as in the study of sucked trumpets across prehistoric Europe and North America [START_REF] Rainio | Sucked trumpets in prehistoric Europe and North America? A technological, acoustical and experimental study[END_REF]. Thus, it becomes clear that acoustics and auditory science offer a range of theoretical and experimental tools to inform music archaeology's expanding terrain (Stöckli and Howell, 2020).

Whereas research in musical instrument acoustics (see newt.phys.unsw.edu.au/music) aids in the mechanical evaluation and description of archaeological objects that can produce sound [START_REF] Wolfe | The acoustics of woodwind musical instruments[END_REF][START_REF] Campbell | The Science of Brass Instruments[END_REF], research on spatial acoustics is equally important in characterizing the settings for past music making and musical perception. Architecture can be sound enhancing, such as the temple of Kukulkán (ca 1050-1300 CE) at Chichén Itzá (see tinyurl.com/2s3pynke) [START_REF] Lubman | Archaeological acoustic study of chirped echo from the Mayan pyramid at Chichén Itzá[END_REF]. Buildings and structures can also be sound producing, such as the pre-Hispanic "sprung dance floor" in the site of Viejo Sangayaico (ca 1000-1615 CE) in southeastern Perú (Lane, In Press). Reconstructions of place-based musical practices present opportunities to study soundmakers in context, such as research on conch shell horns at Chaco Canyon (see whc.unesco.org/en/list/353) in the North American southwest [START_REF] Loose | That old music: A reproduction of a shell trumpet from Pueblo Bonito[END_REF] and in recent aerophone reconstructions from the first-millennium metropolis of Teotihuacan near Mexico City (see whc.unesco.org/en/list/414) [START_REF] Both | Sonic artefacts of Teotihuacan, Mexico (horns, trumpets and pipes)[END_REF].

Acoustic interactions between sound-producing instruments and both built and natural structures provide clues to identify and characterize past human musical activities and experiences of particular places. For example, the study of two early-twentieth century carillons in Toronto, Ontario, Canada (see acousticstoday.org/heritage-carillons) explored "the instrument and its context...holistically, more accurately reflecting the musical sensitivity of a carillonist" by "spectral analysis of audio samples of each bell at different musical dynamic levels [that] enabled the analysis of the acoustic qualities of the bells and the mechanical action of the instruments" (Orr, 2021, p. 1). Orr's in situ research detailed the instrument-building interactions that influence performance practices as well as audience perceptions. The cross-comparison of spatial and instrument acoustics can suggest ritual functions, as in the study of conch shell horns in the enigmatic first millennium BCE stone architecture of Chavín de Huántar, Perú (see whc.unesco.org/en/list/330), where parallel ducts filter and project the fundamental tones of these instruments between a hidden carved monolith and a countersunk plaza that is decorated with relief carvings of conch shell horn performers (see tinyurl.com/yacxey3d) [START_REF] Kolar | Ancient pututus contextualized: Integrative archaeoacoustics at Chavín de Huántar, Perú[END_REF].

Acoustical Music Archaeology: Investigating the Marsoulas Conch and Its Cave

Studying how the Marsoulas conch sounds and the ways its sound can be transformed within the painted cave where it was discovered reveals physical parameters about ancient music in a site that was previously only renowned for its elaborate visual artwork. In the cave, around 500 motifs, including geometric markings and more than 340 paintings of animal and human figures both engraved and painted in red (hematite) and black (charcoal), cover the short walls of a limestone corridor long ago carved out by water. "The art of Marsoulas is of profound stylistic originality with few equivalents in the region from the same period" including naturalistic horses, bison, and other horned animals [START_REF] Fritz | Reconstructing Paleolithic cave art: The examples of Marsoulas Cave (France)[END_REF]. Marsoulas cave's small cross section is a physical constraint for both visual and musical expressive activities within the cave that guides hypotheses about possible social configurations, limiting where and how many people could have engaged with the art and acoustics. For example, it could be practical to project the sound of the powerful conch shell along the median axis of 100 meters (328 feet), yet even a few people within the cave could dampen the sound, as demonstrated in performance tests.

The first step in a music archaeological investigation is questioning the musical premise. Only recently was the Marsoulas conch identified as a possible sound-producing instrument, nearly a century after its archaeological recovery. Initial research on the seashell documented its physical and acoustical features and presented physical evidence for its modification and use as a tool for sonic expression [START_REF] Fritz | First record of the sound produced by the oldest Upper Paleolithic seashell horn[END_REF]. The investigators' approach to the Marsoulas conch included characterizing human modifications to the shell that include strike marks around its lip, an opened spire, and a mysterious circular perforation that may have pierced the external spire and extends through two turns of the horn inside [START_REF] Fritz | First record of the sound produced by the oldest Upper Paleolithic seashell horn[END_REF]. Performance acoustics were explored at the Maison des Sciences de l'Homme in Toulouse, France (MSHS-T) where a musicologist and horn player performed the seashell as a lip-valve "natural horn. " The performance of the artifact shell produced sounding tones of fundamental frequencies at 256, 265, and 285 Hz, with harmonics typical of such instruments having a conical bore (interior cavity) [START_REF] Wolfe | Brass instrument (lip reed) acoustics: An introduction[END_REF].

To corroborate their experimental verification of the seashell as a sound-producing instrument, the investigators sought ethnographical analogies for similarly modified shells, which sometimes have external mouthpiece modifications and additions, as shown in Figure 3, right panel, 6-10.

Despite the Marsoulas conch's compliance in tonal sound production, its researcher-performer noted its jagged and uncomfortable mouthpiece, which bears evidence of prior application of "a thin layer of a brownish colored material preserved on the outside and inside of the apex" (Fritz et al., 2021, p. 1) that is hypothesized as a substance used either to smooth the mouthpiece or to affix an attachment. Curiously, even with its pointy spire removed as required to create a natural mouthpiece, the Marsoulas conch was perforated by a 1-centimeter-diameter circular hole bored through two turns of its coiled conical interior, enabling the insertion of a narrow tube as illustrated in Figure 3. Although these aligned circular perforations can function to stabilize an inserted tube, their diameter is much smaller than would be appropriate for an externally affixed mouthpiece, a consideration not explored in the initial study.

Due to the age and fragility of the Marsoulas conch, two resin replicas were commissioned, including the application of pigments to replicate those inside the archaeological shell. In September 2021, we compared the Marsoulas conch with its resin replicas in the Museum of Toulouse. The two resin replica horns produced tones with central frequencies comparable to those of the ancient seashell, verifying their suitability as experimental proxies. We then traveled to several caves in southern France for performance tests using one of the replica conch horns in associated archaeological settings, including a brief visit to the Marsoulas Cave where we made spatial acoustical impulse-response measurements and documented performance tests with the replica instrument. The long and narrow cave has been laser scanned and its extensive artworks investigated using customized image-processing techniques that allow production analyses and multimedia reconstructions [START_REF] Fritz | Marsoulas: Renaissance d'une Grotte Ornée[END_REF], as shown in Figure 2 [START_REF] Fritz | Reconstructing Paleolithic cave art: The examples of Marsoulas Cave (France)[END_REF].

The reunion of the Marsoulas conch, in the form of its functionally equal resin replica within its excavation context, the Marsoulas Cave, enabled observations about musical plausibilities in a site of the shell horn's likely ancient sounding. Performance experiments can identify contextual sound effects, and they enable the description of site acoustical features that can be measured and expressed according to standard procedures and metrics. Both outside and inside Marsoulas cave, the sounding tone of the replica conch horn was measured from 258 to 260 Hz, within expected range of variation around the 256-Hz fundamental frequency documented in the shell horn's acoustical study [START_REF] Fritz | First record of the sound produced by the oldest Upper Paleolithic seashell horn[END_REF]. We first performed the replica horn on the edge of the ravine outside the opening of the cave into the adjacent valley below (Figure 4), from where we heard and recorded converging echoes that prolonged the instrument's sounding tone for almost four seconds. In performance tests inside the cave, we documented frequencies produced using the downward pitch-bending technique in which the player's hand is partially inserted into the shell lip, or musical instrument bell, effectively lengthening its bore [START_REF] Campbell | The Science of Brass Instruments[END_REF]. With the replica conch, the performer could "bend the tone down" to 234 Hz, extending the shell horn's frequency range. Although to observers, sounds from the replica conch horn did seem to "fill the cave," its performance did not notably excite spatial acoustical modes as we have observed in archaeoacoustics research with shell horns in architectural settings of similar dimensions, such as the stone galleries of Chavín de Huántar, Perú (see tinyurl.com/yckmef63) [START_REF] Kolar | Conch calls into the Anthropocene: Pututus as instruments of human-environmental relations at monumental Chavín[END_REF]. Characterization of how the Marsoulas Cave modifies sounds produced within was done using portable audio electronics (Figure 5) to make spatial impulse-response measurements. This is the standard procedure for room acoustics, where a known signal is produced from a source and recorded by microphone receivers for analysis. The sound source and receiver were located at approximate human head heights in various positions within the central section of the cave. Due to prior excavations and the presence of a few metal support structures, there cannot be perfect correspondence between the extant cave interior and its conditions during Magdalenian times. However, the overall dimensions and cross-sectional geometries of the cave have not been modified (as evinced by the intact paintings); therefore, measured acoustical parameters and noted structural features would have been similar during the Upper Paleolithic.

Impulse-response measurements are the standard technique for documenting how an enclosed space reflects and absorbs acoustic energy throughout the frequency spectrum of human audition and bodily sensing. One of the most common acoustical metrics for enclosed spaces that has strong perceptual implications is reverberation time. In the Marsoulas Cave, an analysis of spatial impulse responses collected in locations near the wall art indicate short reverberation times across most of the range of human hearing, around 300 milliseconds for octave bands centered at 250 Hz (near the Marsoulas conch's sounding tone) and above. The standard RT30 metric for reverberation time (Figure 6) shows an increase in the prolongation of sound with decreasing frequency, reaching about a half-second duration in the 63-Hz centered band, below that produced by the conch and consistent with the cave's length. Measured acoustics enable the tuning and verification of computational acoustical models, a new research direction that will be used to produce auralization demonstrations of the conch in its cave.

Musical Acoustics for Archaeological Interpretation

Archaeological interpretations are based on inferences from converging material evidence of past human activities. One way to deal with mysteries in the archaeological record is to evaluate functionalities of assembled materials according to what can be known about where, how, and by whom they were used. Musical acoustics offers methodologies for these investigations, such as that of the small perforation through the spire of the Marsoulas conch (Figure 3). From a functional point of view, a hole of this size was not required to make the conch sound. If somewhat larger, the aligned holes through two internal turns would be expected to disrupt sound propagation and reflections within the conical bore [START_REF] Wolfe | Brass instrument (lip reed) acoustics: An introduction[END_REF][START_REF] Campbell | The Science of Brass Instruments[END_REF]. However, because of their small diameter, these two internal holes neither improve nor prevent the horn's sounding. Although such a small perforation would not enable the attachment of an external mouthpiece, tests demonstrated that a small bone, like the bones from birds that have been used to produce some Paleolithic flutes [START_REF] Atema | Musical origins and the Stone Age evolution of flutes[END_REF], can be fit through the Marsoulas conch's open spire and the two aligned holes. Whereas a small-diameter tube is not optimized as a mouthpiece extension, one hypothesis is that the interconnection of a bone flute with a conch shell horn would constitute an amalgamation of sound-producing instruments used during the Upper Paleolithic, a feature that could be seen as evidence for human experimentation in joining together different musical tools. Analogous to a visual expressive culture that appears to mix features of species in some cave paintings, musical instruments created from parts of different animals could be likewise formally combined. This anthropological hypothesis about craft production is supported by the musical acoustics research that shows that the bone-conch amalgamation, although not optimal for sounding, does not prevent the conch from being used as a lip-valve instrument/natural horn.

Archaeology and acoustics can be interrelated to explore the visual-expressive connection between the Marsoulas conch and the cave from which it was excavated. It is notable that the curved interior of the shell's lip and the walls of the cave where the shell was recovered were treated with a similar pigment application technique [START_REF] Fritz | First record of the sound produced by the oldest Upper Paleolithic seashell horn[END_REF]. The similar painting of the shell's interior and its cave's interior suggests a deliberate human linkage of multisensory materials. Acoustical science can be used to explore the physical interaction potentials of the shell horn in relationship to the cave from which it was excavated and to evaluate and demonstrate multimodal interrelationships. The preliminary acoustical study of the Marsoulas Cave provided an initial documentation of its spatial acoustics as well as insights regarding sonic features at the location of its central bison panel, whose red-dot painting technique parallels the markings inside the lip of the Marsoulas conch. Acoustics, archaeometrics, and anthropology together inform a developing archaeological narrative about a place where music and visual art seem to have been made together 18,000 years ago. Further research will enable interpretations that can be experientially demonstrated by virtually joining visual art and music reconstructions in spatial context.

Musical Directions for Rock-Art Acoustics

Acoustical explorations between musical instruments and the proposed locations of their sounding offer exciting possibilities for new archaeological investigations, as detailed in this overview of the Marsoulas conch and cave study. By documenting the acoustical features of the associated conch and cave, this study takes an approach distinct from precedents in rock-art acoustics, including studies of open-air sites and caves, that can be summarized according to a dominant premise. Following the initiation of research on sound in decorated caves that employed human vocalizations to evaluate resonance effects [START_REF] Reznikoff | La dimension sonore des grottes ornées[END_REF], acoustical measurements in rock-art sites have been conducted to search for patterns of similar acoustical features across locations of artworks [START_REF] Fazenda | Cave acoustics in prehistory: Exploring the association of palaeolithic visual motifs and acoustic response[END_REF]. More recent research has sought to relate the acoustics of a painted cave facsimile to the acoustics of an actual cave, the well-known Lascaux Cave, with similar attention to noted sound effects (see archeologie.culture.fr/lascaux/en).

"Early visitors of the original Lascaux cave were impressed by some unusual acoustical effects. They observed the relative silence in the cave, which led everyone to instinctively reduce voice levels while entering. Then the soundscape gives the impression that some animals are shouting, running, talking..." (Commins et al., 2020, p. 919).

Similarly, leading research in rock-art acoustics continues to focus on the documentation of human-observed sound effects in acoustical and auditory perceptual terms to connect spaces with human experience (Mattioli and Diaz-Andreu, 2017). The study of rock-art site acoustics has been positioned as a problem for methodological development (Diaz-Andreu and Mattioli, 2017), and the Marsoulas study calls attention to a new research domain for both open-air and enclosed rock-art sites, considering the interrelationships of distinct modes of expressive cultural production without an emphasis on particular sound effects and instead proposing multimodal explorations of acoustical context and interaction features. Music archaeology, despite its ephemeral topic, can be studied by relating sound-producing instruments to plausible sites of their use that are better known for visual-expressive culture.

Exploring the mechanics of archaeological materials, objects, and structures was once only a possibility through direct testing and experimental reconstructions of instruments using archaeologically substantiated materials and techniques. Now, in addition to physical experimental methods, computational acoustical models enable virtual testing and reconstructions beyond the creation of three-dimensional (3D)-printed replicas that can be produced for aerophones in particular [START_REF] Katz | The Maya Music Project: Analysis and documentation of Ancient Maya musical artifacts[END_REF]. Acoustical measurements of sound-producing instruments and associated spaces provide data to drive computational models and verify these archaeological reconstructions, with direct applications in auralization simulations. Acoustics research opportunities abound in both fieldwork and virtual domains!

Music Archaeology into the Future

Although musical content cannot be recovered from most material remnants of past life, except in the case of materials with musical notation and, more recently, audio recordings, new approaches to music archaeology leverage physics. How instruments work and how their acoustics interact with performance settings can be tested experimentally [START_REF] Kolar | Situating Inca sonics: Experimental music archaeology at Huánuco Pampa, Peru[END_REF], related to performance-setting acoustics [START_REF] Boren | Acoustic simulation of J. S. Bach's Thomaskirche in 1723 and 1539[END_REF], and, for landscape contexts, estimated using geographical information system (GIS) tools [START_REF] Witt | Performance space, political theater, and audibility[END_REF]. These reconstructive explorations can be shared with public audiences via both data visualizations and auralizations, combining cultural heritage spatial acoustics [START_REF] Katz | Exploring cultural heritage through acoustic digital reconstructions[END_REF] with anthropological treatments of sonic communication in the form of music. Cross-disciplinary collaborations unite the distinct areas of expertise required in relating materials and mechanics to human expressive culture. For example, the pioneering European Music Archaeology Project (see emaproject.eu) produced novel explorations of archaeological sites, including caves [START_REF] Till | Sound archaeology: Terminology, Paleolithic cave art and the soundscape[END_REF], with a musical focus, featuring creative reconstructions of music performed in archaeological acoustical simulations.

The Marsoulas conch and its Magdalenian resting place in the Marsoulas Cave in southern France offer unprecedented physical evidence of the interconnectedness of visual art making and music. Acoustical science has enabled a functional evaluation of this proposed ancient musical instrument and provided empirical means for characterizing the sounding relationship of the shell horn with a likely context for its performance, despite 18,000 years of silence. Around the world, recent integrations of acoustics and auditory science research in music archaeology are revealing new evidence about sonic expressive culture throughout time. Acoustical methodologies hone the re-sounding of materials and places of importance in past societies, enabling physics-based explorations of music archaeology for audiences today.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Archaeologically excavated marine shell of Charonia lampas from the Marsoulas Cave (Haute-Garonne, France). 1 (Top left): side view. 2 (Bottom left): front view with the anatomical areas indicated. 3 (Bottom center): vestiges of red pigment (image enhanced with Dstretch software). 4 (Bottom right): tracing of the red dots and lines that are visible on the enhanced photo. Very similar red dots, produced with the fingertips, are present on the walls of the Marsoulas Cave. 5 (Top center): set of red dots forming a bison silhouette (length, 1.10 m). 6 (Top right): geometric sign formed by a double line of dots (shown with a centimeter scale). Photos 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 from C. Fritz; drawing 4 from G. Tosello. Figure 1 previously published in Fritz et al. (2021, Figure 1).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Three-dimensional (3D) profile of the Marsoulas Cave from the entrance to the end (gray area). The decorated sections known as panels G35-G38 are presented as examples of the visual reconstructive methodology[START_REF] Fritz | Reconstructing Paleolithic cave art: The examples of Marsoulas Cave (France)[END_REF]. Note the cave's triangular cross-section (top left), and the location of its central bison panel, the site of preliminary acoustical measurements. Figure2previously published inFritz et al. (2016, Figure 1).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. The Charonia wind instrument. Left panel: 1 (left): sagittal section of the 3D model of the shell that makes it possible to visualize the hole drilled at the level of the sixth spire. 2 (Top right): detail of the circular perforation drilled from the apex. The streaks on the edge are due to a skidding tool. 3 (Middle right): top view of the 3D model showing the perforation. 4 (Bottom right): 3D cross section at the level of the seventh spire. 5: (Bottom right): the conch of Marsoulas in its Magdalenian context (hypothetical restitution). 6: (Top left): conch from Southeast Asia, the mouth of which is covered with a black coating, intended to protect the lips of the blower. 7 and 8: Conch from Syria (left middle) and detail of its chipped mouth (top middle), close to that of Marsoulas. 9 and 10: Conch from New Zealand (middle right) and its mouthpiece made of a decorated bone tube (top right). 3D model captures 1 to 4 from C. Fritz; drawing 5 from G. Tosello; photos 6 to 10 from E. Kasarhérou, Musée du Quai Branly-Jacques Chirac, Paris, France.Figure 3 previously published in Fritz et al. (2021, Figure 3).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. A music archaeology experimental study just outside the Marsoulas Cave using a 3D-printed and hand-painted replica of the Marsoulas conch. Performed here by auralization researcher Romain Michon. Photo by Barbara Nerness.

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5. Experimental setup for acoustical impulse-response measurements in the central section of the Marsoulas Cave, adjacent to its iconic, red-dotted bison image (right). A portable omnidirectional loudspeaker and spatial audio recorder were used in this fieldwork conducted by Kolar, Nerness and Valentin in September 2021. Photo by Barbara Nerness.

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6. ISO-3382 room acoustics metrics (analyzed using RØDE Fuzzmeasure software) applied to impulse-response data collected at human head height in front of the central bison painting in the Marsoulas Cave as shown in Figure 5. Reverberation time ( T30) is shown, with good agreement across the four channels of the first-order Ambisonics (FOA) microphone (Zoom H3VR) that recorded the impulse responses that were generated via exponential sinusoidal sweeps through a portable omnidirectional loudspeaker (Bose Soundlink Revolve+). Values from the four cardioid outputs of the FOA microphone are plotted (colored lines) along with their average values (black line).

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Acknowledgments

We thank colleagues in the French Ministry of Culture, and at the Museum of Toulouse, France, for research support and for access to the cultural heritage materials and sites relevant to our studies. We highlight the contributions to the Marsoulas conch study (Fritz et al., 2021) from Pascal Gaillard, Julien Tardieu, and Jean-Michel Court (Plateau d'Etudes Techniques et de Recherches en Audition [PETRA], University of Toulouse, France); Emmanuel Kasarhérou (Musée du Quai Branly-Jacques Chirac, Paris, France); Francis Duranthon (Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France); and Philippe Walter (Laboratoire d' Archéologie Moléculaire et Structurale [LAMS], Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique [CNRS], Sorbonne Université, Paris, France). Barbara Nerness and Luna Valentin collaborated on acoustical measurements of the Marsoulas Cave.


Patricia Cabredo Hofherr
email: patricia.cabredo-hofherr@cnrs.fr

Denis Creissels
email: denis.creissels@univ-lyon2.fr

Morphology-syntax mismatches in agreement systems: the case of Jóola Fóoñi

The present study examines the agreement system of Jóola Fóoñi, an Atlantic language of Senegal with a developed noun class system of the Niger-Congo type. In these systems noun forms divide into subsets, each of them characterized by a distinct agreement pattern. The morphological paradigm of agreement targets in noun class languages is generally treated as reflex of the division of noun forms into subsets. However, the data from Jóola Fóoñi show that the values structuring the inflectional paradigm of agreement targets cannot be reduced to agreement values triggered by nominal controllers for two reasons: (i) the range of subsets of noun forms and the range of values on the agreement targets do not match and (ii) inflection for a subset of class values is associated with its own semantic and syntactic properties that are independent of agreement configurations with nouns. This implies that the grammar of the Jóola Fóoñi noun-class system has two related but independent components: the classification of noun forms into subsets based on their agreement properties and the cells of the inflectional paradigm of adnominal and pronominal agreement targets. Out of the 15 class-values that structure the inflectional paradigm of adnominals and pronouns involved in the expression of agreement with heads or antecedents, only 13 class-values function as agreement value with a set of potential nominal controllers. The remaining 2 class-values only appear on agreement targets. Furthermore, we show that synchronically, the inflectional paradigm characterising agreeing adnominals and pronouns is syntactically heterogeneous in several respects. Of the 15 class-values in the inflectional paradigm, 12 allow uses without a nominal controller (NON-CONTEXTUAL USES). In the absence of a nominal controller these 12 class-values are each

associated with a particular meaning. The class value CLÑ only has marginal non-contextual uses. The non-contextual uses of the other 11 class-values fall into two groups: the 5 classvalues expressing time, manner, and different conceptualizations of location have the syntax of adverbials, while the other 7 class-values give rise to pronominal syntax. The 5 classvalues associated with adverbial syntax do not form a homogeneous class. In particular, in the non-contextual uses of the relative linker, the 3 locative classes display a different syntax from classes associated with time and manner with respect to relativisation. The semantic and syntactic contrasts between class-values in non-contextual uses suggests that this information has to be attached to the class-values of the inflectional paradigm in the lexicon. We propose to analyse these differences as the reflex of a reorganisation of the system: the forms inflected for class that express place, time or manner in their non-contextual use have become adverbs, and the locative relativisers have been reanalysed as locative relative pronouns.

Outline

The present study examines the syntactic behaviour of the cells that constitute the inflectional paradigm of adnominals and pronouns in Jóola Fóoñi. 1 Jóola Fóoñi has a noun-class system of the Niger-Congo type.

(1) a. e-suk y-ajakɛ ɛ-kañɔkañɔ 'The good homes were destroyed.'

In traditional descriptions of the Niger-Congo languages that have a gender system of the same kind as Jóola Fóoñi, the term "NOUN CLASS" is used to cover three domains:

(2) (i) the division of noun lexemes depending on their pattern of singular and plural marking, (ii) the division of noun forms depending on their agreement pattern and (iii) the values of the inflectional paradigm of agreeing adnominals and pronouns Applied to the examples in (1) the distinctions in (2) appear as follows:

(3) (i) the noun lexeme e-suk/si-suk 'village' belongs to the inflectional type marking singular and plural by e-/si-(ii) the plural noun forms si-suk 'villages' and si-sindo 'homes' are associated with the same agreement pattern in (1): s-for -ajake 'good'/-kañɔkañɔ 'was.destroyed'.

The singular noun form e-suk 'village' is associated with a different agreement pattern.

(iii) in the inflectional paradigm of the agreeing adjective -ajake `good' the prefixes y-/s-in y-ajakɛ/s-ajake mark agreement with two different subsets of potential controllers Diachronically, these three systems have a common origin, and synchronically, they are still closely intertwined. Note that (2i) and (2ii) divide noun forms and noun lexemes into subsets.

It has been shown in the literature that (i) and (ii) should not be amalgamated and a clear distinction between INFLECTIONAL TYPE of a noun lexeme (2i) and the AGREEMENT CLASS of a noun lexeme/form (2ii) is necessary (Corbett 1991, Creissels to appear, Creissels et al. to appear, Güldemann & Fiedler 2017). In Jóola Fóoñi, singular and plural noun forms have distinctive agreement patterns that may recombine, in what follows we therefore reason primarily in terms of AGREEMENT CLASSES OF NOUN FORMS that are sets of noun forms sharing the same agreement pattern. For lack of an unambiguous and commonly accepted term for this notion, we will use the abbreviation ACNF (AGREEMENT CLASSES OF NOUN FORMS). AGREEMENT CLASSES OF NOUN LEXEMES (i.e., 'controller genders' in the sense of Corbett 1991: 151) will be simply designated as GENDERS. In Jóola Fóoñi, the singular noun form e-suk 'village.SG' belongs to the ACNF associated with E-agreement and the plural noun form si-suk 'village.PL' belongs to the ACNF associated with S-agreement, while the noun lexeme e-suk/si-suk 'village' belongs to the set of noun lexemes triggering E-agreement in the singular and S-agreement in the plural (the agreement class of noun lexemes defined by E-/Sagreement, or gender E/S).

The present study focuses on (2iii), the values of the inflectional paradigms of potential agreement targets. In contrast with the domains in (2i) and (2ii) that concern subsets of nouns sharing the same inflectional forms (inflectional types) and subsets of noun lexemes or noun forms sharing the same agreement patterns (genders/ ACNFs), (2iii) structures the values of the inflectional paradigm of agreeing adnominals and pronouns and therefore concerns subsets of forms of agreement targets. Under a view of agreement as an asymmetrical relationship between a controller and a target, the paradigm of agreement targets is expected to mirror the classification of the nominal controllers, possibly with an additional default agreement form (cf. Corbett & Fedden 2016).

The present study shows that the role of the inflectional paradigm of potential agreement targets is not limited to marking agreement with nouns. Consequently, the values of the inflectional paradigm of agreeing targets have to be studied in their own right, not just as a reflex and diagnostic of a division among nominal controllers. We therefore distinguish the division of nouns based on their agreement properties from the values marked in the inflectional paradigm of agreeing modifiers. We will refer to the cells of the inflectional paradigms of agreeing modifiers and pronouns as CLASSES.2

We begin with an overview of the properties of nouns in Jóola Fóoñi, with the division of noun lexemes into inflectional types, the division of noun forms into subsets sharing a given agreement pattern (ACNFs), and of noun lexemes into genders in Jóola Fóoñi (section 2).

Section 3 examines the relationship between genders and the inflectional paradigm of agreement targets. We show that the inflectional paradigm of modifiers, predicates and pronouns cannot be understood straightforwardly as an agreement-paradigm as two classes do not have corresponding nominal controllers and one class cannot be used as agreement. We proceed to examine noun-less uses of class-inflected adnominal modifiers and pronouns,

showing that two types have to be distinguished: contextual uses of class-inflection that function as pronominals and non-contextual uses of class-inflection, that have their own distinctive semantic and syntactic properties. In particular, non-contextual uses display pronominal or adverbial syntax, depending on the class-value (section 4). Section 5 focuses on non-contextual uses of the relative linker showing that the class-values with adverbial noncontextual syntax have to be further differentiated: the relative linker marked for the 3 locative class-values displays a different syntax from the relative linker marked for the temporal and manner class-values. Section 6 summarises the analysis.

Nouns in Jóola Fóoñi: inflectional types, ACNFs and genders

The present section briefly summarises the facts regarding number marking and agreement behaviour of nouns in Jóola Fóoñi. Nouns in Jóola Fóoñi are associated with two properties often subsumed under the single label NOUN-CLASS: (i) the division of noun lexemes into INFLECTIONAL TYPES 3 depending on the singular/plural marking pattern (secton 2.1), and (ii) the division of noun forms according to the AGREEMENT PATTERNS associated with them in the syntax (AGREEMENT CLASS OF NOUN FORMS, ACNF, section 2.2).

As discussed in Creissels (to appear), Creissels et al. (to appear) and Güldemann & Fiedler (2017) for Niger-Congo "noun-class systems" more generally, the prefixal marking of number and the agreement patterns of noun forms are interrelated but distinct aspects of the grammatical system.

Inflectional types of nouns

In Jóola Fóoñi the paradigm of noun lexemes has 2 cells: the singular noun form and the plural noun form. The prefixes of the singular and plural noun forms are not predictable from the noun stem and have to be specified for the lexeme. Nouns divide into inflectional types according to the way they express the singular vs. plural distinction (for a full list see Creissels et al. to appear). The inflectional type will be referred to by the pair of prefixes that are the morphological exponents of the singular and plural form of the noun as exemplified in (4). As there is only a partial match between the inflectional types of nouns and the inflectional paradigm of agreement targets examined here, we will gloss the nominal prefixes as SG/PL only. Jóola Fóoñi also has a sizeable minority of nouns that do not have contrasting singular and plural forms. For example, sambʊn 'fire' and sɐuut 'dream' resemble pluralia tantum, in the sense that they behave in all respects like the plural of nouns belonging to the inflectional types ε-/ sι-or Ø-/-sι-, except for the fact that there is no corresponding singular form. 5

Agreement patterns of nouns in Jóola Fóoñi

As shown in 2.1, noun lexemes in Jóola Fóoñi differ with respect to the exponents marking their singular and plural forms. In addition to this, the singular and plural noun forms differ with respect to the agreement they trigger on predicates, modifiers, pronouns and pronominal indices. Based on their agreement patterns, noun forms fall into 13 subsets (ACNFs). The labels of the agreement patterns (A, BK, E, S, B, U, F, K, J, M, Ñ, T, D´)6 evoke the phonological form of the corresponding agreement markers. 7 In what follows, the agreement pattern of each noun-form is included as part of the gloss: e.g. Ø-sindo '[SG-home] E '/ si-sindo 5 Note that the nouns without a dedicated singular form do not form a homogeneous class. While sɐuut 'dream' combines with numerals, including the numeral one (i), sambʊn 'fire' is incompatible with numerals and behaves as a mass noun; for example, 'He lit two fires' can only be rendered as ''He lit fire in two places' (ii).

(i) sɐuut s-ɐkon sɐuut sι-gaba dream(S) CLS-one dream(S) CLS-two 'one dream' 'two dreams' (ii) na-yabεnε sambʊn-as tιn tι-gaba. The examples in (5) illustrate agreement as displayed on the vowel-initial adjectival stem -ajakε 'good' (for more detailed examples of agreeing modifiers and pronouns see section 3 below.)

(5) Agreement patterns of noun forms 8 8 Throughout this article, we use a simplified system of segmentation and glossing in which formatives that play no direct role in the aspects of Jóola Fóoñi grammar we analyse are neither segmented nor glossed separately. For example, the stem -ajake 'good' is in fact -a-jak-ε, where -jak is the verb root 'be good', -a-is a participial prefix, and -ε is an 'actualizer', i.e. one of three suffixes that, in Jóola Fóoñi, constitute the characteristic inflection of relative verb forms and participles (Creissels et al. to appear). 9 The distinction between the agreement pattern triggered by bʊk-an and kʊ-sɛɛk, labeled BK, and another pattern for which we use the label K, is neutralized in some paradigms, as for example with qualifying modifiers such as -ajakɛ 'good ' (cf. ex (7b)

Gender in Jóola Fóoñi

The division of noun forms into ACNFs should not be confused with gender, although it constitutes the basis on which genders can be established. Gender is a property of noun lexemes reflected in to the agreement pattern of all their inflected forms (Corbett 2006:126).

In contrast, agreement patterns in Jóola Fóoñi as illustrated in (5) above subdivide singular or plural noun forms (not noun lexemes) into subsets. In Jóola Fóoñi, the noun lexemes for 'roof' and 'day' belong to distinct genders, but the singular form of ka-sɔnd / ʊ-sɔnd 'roof sg/pl' is associated with the same agreement pattern K as the plural form of fʊ-nak / kʊ-nak

'days' (8a/b). (

CLB-good

'a good roof(K)' 'a good road(B)'

Given the complex relationship between the agreement patterns of singular and plural noun forms, in the Niger-Congo languages that have gender systems of the same type as Jóola Fóoñi, gender as a property of the lexeme can be defined as a derived notion corresponding to a pair of agreement patterns: the singular and plural agreement patterns of a noun-lexeme. The genders of Jóola Fóoñi are listed in ( 9): Some genders coincide with inflectional types (9d/e/f/i/j), while others conflate 2 or 3 distinct inflectional types (9a/b/c/g).

(9) Gender (pair of agreement patterns for sg/pl)

Gender Inflectional type 11 Example a. A/BK Ø-/ bʊk- Ø-an / bʊk-an 'person SG/PL' a-/ k- a-sɛɛk / kʊ-sɛɛk 'woman SG/PL' b. E/S ε-/ s- e-suk / si-suk 'village SG/PL' Ø-/ s- Ø-sindo / si-sindo 'home SG/PL' c. B/U b-/ ʊ- bʊ-rʊŋ / ʊ-rʊŋ ' 'road SG/PL' ba-/ ʊ- ba-caac / ʊ-caac 'bed SG/PL' d. F/K f-/ k- fʊ-nak / kʊ-nak 'day SG/PL' e. K/U ka-/ ʊ- ka-sɔnd /ʊ-sɔnd 'roof SG/PL' f. J/M j-/ m- jɩ-bɛcɛl / mʊ-bɛcɛl 'palm tree SG/PL' g. A/S 12 a-/ s- a-mpa / sʊ-mpa 'father SG/PL' Ø-/ s- Ø-ɩñaay / s-ɩñaay 'mother SG/PL' i. J/K j-/ k- ji-cil / ku-cil 'eye SG/PL' j. Ñ/U ñ-/ʊ- ñɩ-wʊj / ʊ-wʊj 'chain SG/PL'
The inflectional type of a noun -i.e. the prefixal marking of its singular and plural noun forms -is not part of the agreement pattern associated with the noun but a separate (although closely related) system. Inflectional type is correlated with gender: gender is predictable from inflectional type but inflectional type is not predictable from gender as shown by the genders 11 In this column, the number prefixes whose pairing defines the inflectional types of nouns are given in the form that can be analysed as their basic (or underlying) form. As can be seen in the column 'Examples', depending on a purely phonological conditioning, phonologically predictable epenthetic vowels may be inserted, vowels may alternate with the corresponding semi-vowels, and the prefix a-may have a phonologically null variant.

12 The two nouns that constitute this gender ('father' and 'mother') show fluctuation in their plural prefix (k(ʊ)or s(ʊ)-) and in their plural agreement pattern (S or BK). In other words, they may alternatively behave as gender A/BK nouns.

A/BK, E/S, B/U and A/S in (6a/b/c/g). Inflectional type and gender are lexical properties of each noun lexeme, as shown in (10) for the lexemes in example (4).

Class-morphology and agreement in Jóola Fóoñi

In the previous section we have seen that in Jóola Fóoñi nouns are associated lexically with an inflectional class and agreement patterns for the singular and plural noun forms.

In this section we examine the relationship between these nominal properties and the inflectional paradigm of agreement targets in Jóola Fóoñi: adnominal modifiers, subject and non-subject indices and pronouns. We provide evidence that given the synchronic grammar of Jóola Fóoñi, the inflectional paradigm of agreement targets cannot be reduced to a reflex of the agreement properties associated with nouns.

The inflectional paradigm of modifiers and pronouns in Jóola Fóoñi has 15 cells, exemplified in (11) by the inflectional paradigm of the modifier -cɛɛn 13 'some'. 14

(11)

We refer to the cells of the inflectional paradigm of modifiers as CLASSES (class morphology is glossed CLX in what follows.)

In traditional descriptions of the Niger-Congo languages that have a gender system of the same kind as Jóola Fóoñi, the cells of the inflectional paradigm of modifiers are referred to under the cover term "NOUN CLASS" that also subsumes the patterns of inflectional numbermarking on nouns (see INFLECTIONAL TYPES of nouns section 2.1) and the division of noun forms into ACNFs, section 2.2.). However, given the synchronic grammar of Jóola Fóoñi, the term "noun class" is particularly misleading for the values of the inflectional paradigm of modifiers as in (8). In fact, in Jóola Fóoñi the cells of the paradigm do not uniformly reflect a categorization of nouns: there are no noun forms that control agreement of the classes D and N. Out of the 15 classes marked on modifiers, only 13 classes can be used adnominally.

For these reasons, as already discussed above, we avoid the cover term "NOUN CLASS" in the present discussion, distinguishing INFLECTIONAL TYPES of number marking on nouns and AGREEMENT PATTERNS associated with noun forms. We reserve the term CLASS (glossed CLX)

for the cells in the inflectional paradigm of adnominals and pronouns that show a set of inflected forms as in (11) above.

It has to be stressed that the relationship between the cells of the inflectional paradigm and syntactic agreement is complex, as observed by Creissels et al to appear.

13 In Jóola Fóoñi final consonants are unstable. In particular, the stem -cɛɛn alternates with -cɛɛ without any discernible syntactic or semantic differences. It is not possible to formulate strict rules predicting the deletion of final consonants, but an important factor in the weakening of final consonants seems to be the speed of speech.

14 In this paradigm, as in many others, the distinction between class BK and class K is neutralised. However, the distinction between the object indexes -ɩɩl (agreement pattern BK) and -kɔ (agreement pattern K) shows that the agreement patterns BK and K have to be distinguished.

CLASS -cɛɛn 'some'

CLASS CLASS A a-cɛɛn U ʊ-cɛɛn Ñ ñɩ-cɛɛn BK kʊ-cɛɛn F fʊ-cɛɛn T tɩ-cɛɛn E ɛ-cɛɛn K kʊ-cɛɛn D´ di-ceen S sɩ-cɛɛn J jɩ-cɛɛn D dɩ-cɛɛn B bʊ-cɛɛn M mʊ-cɛɛn N nɩ-cɛɛn
Firstly, while inflection for class of adnominals and pronouns marks agreement with a controller in some uses (that we call CONTEXTUAL USES), 12 of the 15 classes also allow NON-CONTEXTUAL USES that cannot be analysed as agreement (see section 4 below for details).

Secondly 'The road in question, it's it that was destroyed.' (strong 3rd person pronoun -ɔɔ) 15

15 Jóola Fóoñi is a pro-drop language. The independent lexical pronouns are only used in contrastive contexts (topicalisation or focalisation). For simple anaphoric uses, the subject and non-subject indices are used. Focalisation requires a specific form of the verb also used in wh-questions and relativisation.

The words that are inflected for class maximally have a paradigm of 15 cells as in (11).

Certain paradigms lack a form for CLN. As shown below, for some paradigms this can be given an explanation (see section 4.2. for the lack of a subject index for CLN) but this is not always the case. For example, the lack of a CLN form for demonstratives, as opposed to the existence of a CLN form for the 3rd person pronouns is probably accidental.

In the next section, we show that a subset of the class-inflection values is associated with intrinsic semantic content.

Noun-less class-inflection

In what follows we examine noun-less uses of class-inflection. We show that class-values expressed in the agreement paradigms of potential agreement targets are associated with semantic and syntactic properties that cannot be reduced to agreement with an abstract elided noun. In what follows we show that the class value and the type of host impose restrictions on noncontextual uses. Firstly, the semantic and syntactic properties of the non-contextual uses depend on the class-value (section 4.2.1). And secondly, agreement targets differ with respect to the range of class-values that allow non-contextual uses (section 4.2.2).

Jóola

Class-values and the syntax and semantics of non-contextual class inflection

Of the 15 class-values marked in the inflectional paradigm of adnominals and pronouns, only 12 classes allow non-contextual uses, including the orphan classes D and N, that only have this use. The noun-less uses of classes F, K and J do not allow a non-contextual interpretation and are only felicitous in contexts with an explicit or implicit controller.

Each of the 12 classes that allow non-contextual uses is associated with an inherent semantic value. In non-contextual uses the values marked by class-inflection are associated with notions such as 'person', 'thing', 'place', 'time' or 'manner' independently of any contextual conditioning, as illustrated in (26). As apparent in (26), class-values that allow non-contextual uses do not necessarily appear with all inflecting modifiers: the relative linker CLX-an does not permit a non-contextual use for the CLÑ form ñ-an (that appears in contextual uses with nouns that trigger agreement pattern CLÑ).

(26) a. The meanings expressed by the relative linker CLX-an in its non-contextual uses As many noun-less inflected adnominals allow contextual and non-contextual uses, noun-less constructions may be ambiguous. For example, as a headed relative clause, w-an ɩnɔɔmʊm 'CLU-REL I bought' can combine with any head noun associated with agreement pattern U, as in (27a). As a free relative, if a noun belonging to gender B/U or K/U is present in the context or simply suggested by the context, it can be interpreted as 'the ones I bought' ('one' referring to the noun in question 27-b-i). However, it is always possible to interpret w-an ɩnɔɔmʊm simply as 'what I bought' (27b-ii), and this is the only possibility in contexts that do not suggest a particular noun form associated with agreement pattern U as an understood controller.

(27) a. ʊ-samata-w w-an ɩnɔɔmʊm [PL-shoe] U -DET.CLU CLU-REL I bought 17 Non-contextual uses of class D imply vague reference to things, situations, or events, cf. to French ça. 18 ClT implies a more precise delimitation of space than CLB; CLD´ implies reference to the interior of a space. 19 The only possible controllers of T and D´ agreement are t-ɩn ~ t-an 'place (delimited with precision)', and d-in ~ d-ɐn 'interior of a place'. Interestingly, this syntactic distinction has some morphological correlates. The classes lending themselves to adverbial non-contextual uses are for example the only ones in which the class prefix of some adnominals or pronouns may show a reduplicated form CɔC-in free variation with the regular C-form (as e.g. n-ɛy ~ nɔn-ɛy 'when?', class N form of the interrogative -εy 'which').

The distinction between nominal and adverbial semantics is visible in the syntax.

Pronominal non-contextual uses have the distribution of noun phrases triggering subject agreement of the relevant class (32). The non-contextual uses of the classes B, D´, T, M and N, in contrast, are adverbial: they cannot function as arguments and in particular, they cannot trigger subject agreement. They appear as adverbs occupying the topic position, with default CLD agreement as in (33a/b/c). 20 20 CLD agreement acts as default agreement for phrases that occupy the topic position at the left periphery of the clause but lack a status in the agreement system, in a way comparable to the subject clitic ça in French. Consider (i), where the subject index of class D of the verb -lεt 'not to be' resumes the nominalised clause man kʊñɩɩlak kʊkañɔ '(the fact) that children are spoilt'.

(i) Man kʊ-ñɩɩl-a-k kʊ-kañɔ, Ø-lɛt bʊk-anɔɔsan.

CLS-DEM-CLS SI:CLS-be.good-NEG

'Those ones (e.g. dogs, CLS) are not good.'

The classes involved in adverbial non-contextual uses (CLB, CLM, CLT, CLD´, CLN) do not form a homogeneous group with respect to the availability of anaphoric uses. The agreement pattern CLB and CLM have corresponding noun forms and can be found in agreement chains with a nominal form in the role of controller, while CLN has no nouns and consequently cannot be found in such a configuration. The agreement patterns CLT and CLD´ only have one noun corresponding to the class but show a particular behaviour in head-modifier constructions.

In Jóola Fóoñi when the role of subject is fulfilled by a head-modifier construction (35a), if the head noun can be retrieved from the context, it is possible to delete it without any change in the subject index prefixed to the verb, as in (35b). 'There (CLT), it is not far (CLD).' (non-contextual CLT)

Consequently, ʊ-tʊ can act as a modifier of t-ɩn-a-t ~ t-an-a-t, but contrary to other forms that have the same morphological structure (such as ʊ-yʊ 'this one (CLE)' in (35b)), the CLT form does not license the ellipsis of its head. The explanation is that, by itself, ʊ-tʊ is always an adverb ('there') and cannot fulfill the role of subject. As an adverb, the CLT form of the demonstrative can only occupy the topic position, the subject role is taken over by the index of class D expressing vague reference to things.

Class-inflected hosts and non-contextual class marking

In the previous section we have shown that both the availability and the syntactic category of non-contextual uses depend on the class-value. Here we show that non-contextual uses also depend on the type of class-inflected host.

In general, non-contextual uses concern determiner-like elements such as CLX-cεεn 'some', the 3rd person pronoun CLX-ɔɔ and the relativizer CLX-an. The non-contextual uses of the relativizer CLX-an are given in ( 26). The same range of non-contextual uses is found with the demonstratives, the 3rd person pronoun CLX-ɔɔ, and determiner-like elements such as CLXcεεn 'some' (37), CLX-anɔɔsan 'any', or CLX-acιla 'aforementioned'.

(37) There are also non-contextual uses of classes limited to a particular type of hosts. In particular, class Ñ departs from the other classes that have non-contextual uses in that it only has non-contextual uses with quantitative modifiers (38a), not e.g. with the relativiser (38b) or the determiners (38c). In their non-contextual uses, the CLÑ forms of quantitative modifiers act as iterative adverbs. Note that, in the present state of the language, none of the nouns that govern agreement pattern Ñ has a lexical meaning that could be related to this use of class Ñ. In Jóola Fóoñi all the words or phrases that can fill the modifier slot in a noun-modifier construction and express gender-number agreement with their head can also constitute contextual class-inflected headless noun phrases that are deictic or anaphoric to a noun. Noncontextual uses are neither anaphoric nor deictic and they are the only configurations possible for the orphan classes that do not have any nouns that trigger the corresponding agreement.

This situation gives rise to three cases, exemplified here with the stem -ajakɛ 'good' (< -jak 'be good'). First, with the classes F/K/J that only admit contextual construals, the headless use implies the possibility of retrieving an understood singular controller controlling agreement pattern F, K or J, as in (43). Secondly, the orphan classes D and N only admit a noncontextual construal: the form r-ajakɛ "CLD-good" can only have a headless use in which it is interpreted as 'something good' (44). With class values that admit both contextual and non-

Class-values and the relative linker

We have seen in section 4. CLN and CLM for the temporal and manner adjuncts. We examine non-contexual uses of the relative linker and headed relatives separately (sections 5.1 and 5.2).

Non-contexual uses of the relative linker

The contrast between pronominal and adverbial non-contextual uses is also found with noncontextual uses of the relative linker, reflected in the range of free relatives available in Jóola Fóoñi.

The non-contextual uses of the relative linker inflected for classes CLA, CLBK, CLE, CLS, CLU and CLD are pronominal and the constituent introduced by the relative linker corresponding to these classes behaves like a free relative: formally these constituents look like relative clauses but distributionally they behave like noun phrases.

(47) a.

[s-an uŋɐrulom] si-suumɐnsuum. Non-contextual uses of the relativiser inflected for the locative classes can be taken up by a locative non-subject index on the verb. This locative index can correspond to a subcategorised locative argument (49a) or to a locative adjunct 490b). The locative non-contextual use of the relativiser commutes with locative PPs (49b/c). and CLM synchronically behave like complementisers introducing circumstantial clauses.

Class-inflection of the relative linker in headed relative clauses

As a rule, in headed relative clauses, the relativiser obligatorily agrees with the head noun and does not mark the function of the relativised constituent in the relative clause, which makes it possible to analyse it as a mere linker in a head-modifier construction. (56) ε-mιt-εy y-an ι-wɔlιm [SG-year] E -DET.CLE CLE-REL SI:1SG-was.born 'the year that I was born'

Conclusion

Jóola Fóoñi has a morphologically transparent system of class-inflection that appears as agreement-marking on a wide range of modifiers, adnominal elements and pronouns.

Synchronically, in Jóola Fóoñi the values of the inflectional paradigm have a grammatical status independent of their use as markers of agreement with nouns.

Firstly, the paradigm of class-inflection in Jóola Fóoñi shows that inflectional systems can preserve inflectional values that no longer operate as agreement markers synchronically (CLN) in addition to a default agreement form (CLD). Secondly, non-contextual uses are not generated by a uniform process in the syntax: certain classes do not have non-contextual uses.

And finally, strikingly, the non-contextual uses of the different class values are syntactically heterogeneous: some class-values yield pronominal elements while other class-values result in adverbial elements.

In addition to these syntactic mismatches between the class-values on agreeing targets and the noun classes in the nominal domain, a subset of the class-values of the inflectional paradigm is also semantically independent from the nominal domain in that the class-values that allow non-contextual uses are associated with intrinsic semantic content such as person, thing, time, manner, and different conceptualisations of place.

( 4 )

 4 Examples of inflectional types of nouns a. Inflectional type Ø-/ bʊk-SINGULAR NOUN FORM PLURAL NOUN FORM Ø-an 'person' bʊk-an 'persons'

  DET.CLS place(T) CLT-two lit. 'He lit fire in two places.' > 'He lit two fires.' '[PL-home] S '. Note that the agreement pattern is associated with the prefix+stem combination, not with the stem or the prefix individually.

  / si-sindo 'home/homes' In sum, noun-lexemes in Jóola Fóoñi are associated with two types of information: Gender information (a pair of agreement patterns) and inflectional type (the pair of prefixes marking singular and plural for the noun). Contrary to many treatments of noun-class in Niger-Congo languages in the literature, inflectional type should not be treated as part of the agreement system (cf. Corbett 1991, Creissels to appear for Atlantic languages, Güldemann & Fiedler 2017 for Niger-Congo). As inflectional type is not part of the agreement system, in the following discussion of agreement only the agreement patterns associated with noun forms are marked (using upper-case letters) while the nominal prefixes that vary between inflectional types are only glossed as SG/PL.

'

  the village was destroyed' b. bʊ-ruŋ-ab bʊ-kañɔkañɔ [SG-road] B -DET.CLB SI:CLB-was.destroyed 'the road was destroyed' (subject indices) (22) a. pan iyiseni-yɔ FUT I.show.you-I:CLE 'I'll show it to you (the village)' b. pan iyiseni-bɔ FUT I.show.you-I:CLB 'I'll show it to you (the road)' (non-subject indices) (23) a. e-suk ε-cιla, y-ɔɔ ε-kañom [SG-village] E CLE-aforementioned CLE-PRON CLE-was.destroyed.FOC 'The village in question, it's it that was destroyed.

  Fóoñi allows class-inflection in the absence of a lexical noun in two syntactically distinct configurations. In the first configuration, class-inflection without a noun is used pronominally to refer anaphorically or deictically to a nominal of the respective class. We refer to such a use of forms inflected for class as their CONTEXTUAL use, as the content of the missing noun can be contextually recovered. The contextual uses of class-inflection are all pronominal in nature and linked to a noun of the relevant gender.In the second noun-less configuration, class marking without a noun is used in the absence of any explicit or implicit nominal controller (the NON-CONTEXTUAL USE of the class-value). In the absence of a controller, class-marking is associated with a meaning that constitutes an inherent property of each of the classes that allow such a use.We first present the contextual uses of class-inflection (section 4.1). In stark contrast with the contextual uses, non-contextual uses of class-inflection show a number of properties intrinsic to the class-values: only a subset of class-values allows non-contextual uses, non-contextual uses are associated with their own semantic content and finally, depending on the class-value, non-contextual uses result in adverbial or pronominal syntax of the inflected agreement target (section 4.2).4.1. Noun-less class-inflection: anaphoric and deictic usesIn contextual uses of class-agreement, noun-less agreement is used pronominally: either anaphorically referring back or deictically referring to a referent designated by a nominal governing agreement in the relevant class. This use is available for the classes that have associated noun forms, except the classes CLT and CLD´ that are peculiar in that they are each associated with a unique noun t-ɩn / t-an 'place' and d-in / d-ɐn 'place delimited with precision' respectively (see(36) below for discussion). Class inflection of CLA, BK, E, S, B, U, F, K, J, M, Ñ can be used anaphorically and deictically with all adnominal agreeing modifiers 't.want [SG-machete] E -DET.CLE CLE-small-DET.CLE CLE-big-DET.CLE I.want 'I don't want the small machete(E), it's the big one(E) that I want.' b. Numeral Nιsɔfεnsɔf matι a-ñιιl ɐ-kon nabajε, barε kama ku-feeji nabajε. I.thought that [SG-child] A CLA-one she.had but in.fact clBK-three she.has 'I thought that she has one child(A) but in fact she has three (children(BK)house] E -DET.CLE CLE-of my.father and CLE-OF his.friend time one sι-tεεpι SI:CLS.were.built 'My father's house(E) and his friend's (E) were built at the same time.' d. Relative linker and possessive bicycle] E CLE-your and CLE-REL SI:1SG-bought SI:CLS-be.different 'Your bicycle(E) and the one(E) I bought are different.' -showed.you CLS-which CLS-please.you 'The cows(S) that I showed you, which ones(S) do you like?' Noun-less anaphoric and deictic uses display the same distribution and agreement behavior as noun-phrases with a lexical noun of the same class, exemplified in (25) with subject agreement indices. (25) a. e-rɐp-ey ε-jajak [SG-machete] E -DET.CLE SI:CLE-be.good 'The machete is good.' b. y-umbɐɐm / y-ɐɐmɐk-ey / y-an ιnɔɔmʊm ε-jajak. CLE-POSS.1SG / CLE-big-DET.CLE / CLE-REL I.bought SI:CLE-be.good 'My one/ the big one / the one I bought is good(E).' (one = machete) 4.2 Noun-less class-inflection: non-contextual uses In addition to the anaphoric and deictic uses of inflected modifiers discussed in the previous section, in which the class-inflection marks agreement with a nominal controller, there are noun-less uses of class-inflected elements without an implicit nominal controller (NON-CONTEXTUAL CLASS INFLECTION). This phenomenon is described for Jóola Fóoñi as AUTONOMOUS NOUN CLASSES in Sapir (1965:80-83) and for Tswana (Bantu) in Creissels (1996) (taken up in Grinevald 2000). Non-contextual (or autonomous) class-inflection has also been described for Joola Kujireray (Watson 2015: 269-270) and for Baïnounk Gubëeher (Atlantic, Cobbinah 2013: 351-55). 16

(

  35) a. E-suk-e-y ʊ-yʊ e-loi-ut [SG-village] E -DET.CLE DEM-CLE SI:CLE-be.far-NEG 'This village (CLE) is not far (CLE).' b. Ʊ-yʊ e-loi-ut DEM-CLE SI:CLE-be.far-NEG 'This one (CLE) is not far (CLE).' By contrast, with subject noun phrases consisting of b-ɩn / b-an, t-ɩn / t-an or d-in / d-ɐn and a modifier, if the head noun is deleted, the verb can only express CLD agreement (marked by a zero-prefix). This is illustrated in (36) for t-ɩn / t-an, but noun phrases consisting of b-ɩn / b-an or d-in / d-ɐn with a CLB or CLD´ modifier behave exactly in the same way. (36) a. Tɩn-at ʊ-tʊ *Ø / ok ti-loi-ut [place] T -DET.CLT DEM-CLT *SI:CLD/SI:CLT-be.far-NEG 'This place (CLT) is not far (CLT).' (head noun CLT)

(

  38) a. ñ-amɛɛŋɛ 'several times, often' < amɛɛŋɛ 'numerous' b. ñ-an CLÑ-relativiser: contextual uses only 'the one which' (anaphoric to N Ñ ) c. ñ-oo / ñ-ey CLÑ-PRON / CLÑ-WH-contextual uses only: 'that N/ which N' (anaphoric to N Ñ ) Class M is another case of interaction between host and non-contextual uses of classinflection. Class M have an adverbial non-contextual use with the usual range of hosts (CLX-cεεn 'some', the 3rd person pronoun CLX-ɔɔ and the relativizer CLX-an), but they also have a pronominal non-contextual use, limited to the genitival linker and the possessive, in which they can be glossed 'what concerns X' or 'what makes the particularity of X' (see examples (31)/(39)). Here again, none of the nouns governing agreement pattern M has a lexical meaning corresponding exactly to either of these non-contextual uses of CLM forms. -has.finished. lit. 'Theirs (CLM) has finished > 'It's over for them.' Class-inflection is also found on NON-SUBJECT INDICES in Jóola Fóoñi that are bound pronominal elements used as arguments on predicates and as possessives in noun phrases. CLD´, CLT), thus (CLM) and then (CLN), the CLÑ non-subject index only has argumental uses that are anaphoric to a noun triggering clÑ agreement. 4.3 Comparing contextual and non-contextual uses of class marking As shown in sections 4.1. and 4.2, noun-less uses of class-inflection in Jóola Fóoñi do not present a uniform picture. (41) a. Some class-values do not have non-contextual uses (classes F/K/J cf (7)). b. Some class-values do not have contextual uses (the orphan classes D and N). c. Class Ñ has non-contextual uses only with quantitative modifiers. (42) Syntactic properties a. Contextual noun-less uses are possible for 11 of the 13 class-values that have corresponding nouns (A, BK, E, S, B, U, F, K, J, M, and Ñ), but not for the two classes T and D´, i.e., the two classes that have a unique potential controller (t-ɩn / t-an and d-in / d-ɐn respectively) b. Non-contextual uses fall into two groups: i. classes A, BK, E, S, U and D give rise to pronominal non-contextual uses ii. classes B, D´, T, and N give rise to adverbial non-contextual uses iii. class M is the only class that has both pronominal and adverbial non-contextual uses (but with different meanings, and different hosts cf. (30)/(31))

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  49) a. [t-an a-wɔlιm], nι-jajaw-tɔ CLT-REL SI:CLA-was.born SI:1SG-went-I:CLT 'Where s/he was born, I went there.' b. [t-an ι-nεnʊm ba-gaas-ab], bʊk-an-ak CLT-REL sI:1SG-put [SG-luggage] B -DET.CLB [PL-person] BK -DET.CLBK kʊ-bembeŋ-to SI:CLBK-gathered-I:CLT 'Where I put the luggage, the people gathered there.' c. balamʊk ε-lʊʊp-εy, bʊk-an-ak kʊ-bembeŋ-to behind [SG-house] E -DET.CLE [PL-person] BK -DET.CLBK SI:CLBK-gathered-I:CLT 'Behind the house, the people gathered there.' The non-subject index on the predicate can only be used as an argument if a head-noun triggering the matching agreement pattern is present (50a/b). The strictly adverbial nature of relative clauses with CLT/CLD´ explains why the cognate nouns t-ιn/ d-ιn have been preserved even though they are the only nouns triggering CLT/CLD´ agreement: the nominal heads are necessary to turn the CLT and CLD´ relative clauses into noun phrases corresponding to light--was.born SI:1SG -know-I:CLT 'Where he was born, I know *there.' b. t-ιn-at t-an a-wɔlιm, nι-mammanj-tɔ [SG-place] T -DET.CLT CLT-REL SI:CLA-was.born SI:1SG-know-I:clT 'The place(T) where he was born, I know it(CLT).'The contrast between the non-contextual uses of the relative linker with different classinflection values suggests that the relative linkers inflected for classes CLB, CLT, CLD´, CLN

  , in which the head noun corresponds to the subject of an embedded clause, illustrates the fact that the relativizer remains the same whatever the function of the head noun within the relative clause.(52) kʊ-sεεk-ak k-an a-mansa-aw a-maŋeriitum [PL-women] BK -DET.CLBK CLBK-REL [SG-king] A -DET.CLA SI:CLA-does.not.want man ku-pur that SI:CLBK-go.out lit. 'the women that the king doesn't want that they go out.' The examples (51/52) show that in headed relative clauses, the linker agrees in class with the head noun. In contrast, relative clauses introduced by the relativisers t-an, d-ɐn or the locative use of b-an can modify nouns of any gender, as in (53).

  house] E -DET-CLE CLD´-REL SI:2SG-go.ICPL-ACT towards SI:CLE-be.far-NEG 'The house(CLE) where you are going is not far(CLE).' While the relativisers of the other classes function like agreeing linkers that do not mark the function of the relativized element, the locative relativisers function like locative pronominals, relativizing a subcategorised (55a) or circumstantial (55b) locative in the relative clause. (54) a. e-suk-ey t-an ι-jawʊm [SG-village] E -DET.CLE CLT-REL SI:1SG-went 'the village where I went' b. e-suk-ey t-an ι-nɔɔmʊm si-bɐ-ɐs [SG-village] E -DET.CLE CLT-REL SI:1SG-bought [PL-cow] S -DET.CLS 'the village where I bought the cows'6 AnalysisIn Jóola Fóoñi the formally homogeneous system of class-inflection markers shows heterogeneity in the syntactic and semantic behaviour of the different class-values.Firstly, the inflectional paradigm of adnominals and pronouns contains two orphan classes CLD and CLN that lack any potential nominal controllers in the present state of the language.As the non-contextual uses marked for CLN are adverbial in nature, forms inflected for CLN never appear in a canonical controller-target agreement configuration and CLN does not have corresponding subject agreement indices.Secondly, while Spanish (56) has non-contextual uses for all available gender-number values, Jóola Fóoñi shows that this need not be the case: only a sub-set of inflectional values allows non-contextual uses and agreement targets vary in the range of non-contextual class-marking they admit.(55) a. el inteligente -los inteligentes the intelligent one.MS/ones.MPL b. la inteligente -las inteligentes the intelligent one.FS/ones.FPLIn Spanish, the non-contextual uses of gender have a nominal distribution. Jóola Fóoñi shows that the syntactic properties of the non-contextual use can depend on the class-value of the noun (57). The configuration of a noun meaning 'manner' with the manner form of the relativiser does not arise in Jóola Fóoñi either, since the nouns expressing such meanings trigger agreement in a different class value.

  ).

	In Jóola Fóoñi, the exponents of number agreement cannot be decomposed into exponents for
	gender and number as e.g. in the Spanish example (6). 10 The plural forms of ka-sɔnd / ʊ-sɔnd
	'roof sg/pl' and bʊ-rʊŋ / ʊ-rʊŋ 'road sg/pl' trigger identical U agreement (7a/a') even though
	the corresponding singular forms are associated to different agreement patterns K and B
	(7b/b')
	(6)	(Spanish)
		alt-o	alt-o-s	alt-a	alt-a-s
		high-MASC	high-MASC-PL high-FEM	high-FEM-PL
		AGREEMENT	NOUN FORM	MODIFIER
		PATTERN
	(7)	a. A	Ø-an	Ø-ajakɛ	'a good.CLA person(A)'
			[SG-person] A	CLA-good
		b.	a-sɛɛk	Ø-ajakɛ	'a good.CLA woman(A)'
			[SG-woman] A	CLA-good
		c. E	e-suk	y-ajakɛ	'a good.CLE village(E)'
			[SG-village] E	CLE-good
		d.	Ø-sindo	y-ajakɛ	'a good.CLE home(E)'
			[SG-home] E	CLE-good
		e. BK	bʊk-an	k-ajakɛ 9	'good.CLBK persons(BK)'
			[PL-person] BK	CLBK-good
		f.	kʊ-sɛɛk	k-ajakɛ	'good.CLBK women(BK)'
			[PL-woman] BK	CLBK-good
		g. S	si-suk	s-ajakɛ	'good.CLS villages(S)'
			[PL-village] S	CLS-good
		h.	si-sindo	s-ajakɛ	'good.CLS good homes(S)'
			[PL-home] S	CLS-good

  , as already mentioned, in addition to 13 class values that have corresponding noun forms, the paradigm includes two 'orphan classes' (D and N) that have no corresponding noun forms. The forms inflected for CLD and CLN are therefore never used to express agreement with a noun (Creissels et al. to appear, see section 4.2 for details)).

	Class morphology appears on most adnominal modifiers, e.g. the enclitic definite article (12), determiners (13-17), the genitive linker (18), adjectives (19), relative linker (20), and numerals (21) as well as on subject predicate agreement (22), indexes (bound pronouns) (23) 'this village' 'this road' (demonstrative DET) (14) a. e-suk y-ɛy? b. bʊ-rʊŋ b-ɛy? [SG-village] E CLE-WH [SG-road] B CLB-WH 'which village' 'which road?' (wh-DET) (15) a. e-suk ɛ-cɛɛn b. bʊ-rʊŋ bʊ-cɛɛn [SG-village] E CLE-some [SG-road] B CLB-some 'some village' 'some road' (indefinite DET) (16) a. e-suk y-anoosan b. bʊ-rʊŋ b-anoosan [SG-village] E CLE-any [SG-road] B CLB-any 'any village' 'any road' (free choice DET) (17) a. e-suk-ey y-atι ampaɔm [SG-village] E -DET.CLE CLE-of my father 'the village of my father' b. bʊ-rʊŋ-ab b-atι e-suk-ey 'good road' (adjective) (19) a. e-suk-ey y-an iyisenim [SG-village] E -DET.CLE CLE-REL I.showed.you 'the village that I showed you' b. bʊ-rʊŋ-ab b-an iyisenim [SG-road] B -DET.CLB CLB-REL I.showed.you 'the road that I showed you' (relative linker) (20) a. e-suk y-ɐkon / si-suk sι-gaba [SG-village] E CLE-one / [PL-villages] S CLS-two 'one village' / 'two villages' b. bʊ-rʊŋ b-ɐkon / ʊ-rʊŋ ʊ-gaba [SG-road] B CLB-one / [PL-roads] U CLU-two 'one road' / 'two roads' (numerals) (21) a. e-suk-ey ɛ-kañɔkañɔ [SG-road] 'good village' [SG-village]

and pronouns (24). The examples illustrate the agreement forms of e-suk '[SG-village] E ' (agreement in class E) and bʊ-rʊŋ '[SG-road] B ' (agreement in class B). (12) a. e-suk-ey b. bʊ-rʊŋ-ab [SG-village] E -DET.CLE [SG-road] B -DET.CLB 'the village' 'the road' (definite DET) (13) a. e-suk-ey ʊ-yʊ b. bʊ-rʊŋ-ab ʊ-bʊ [SG-village] E -DET.CLE DEM-CLE [SG-road] B -DET.CLB DEM-CLB B -DET.CLB CLB-of [SG-village] E -DET.CLE 'the road of the village' (genitive linker) (18) a. e-suk y-ajakɛ b. bʊ-rʊŋ b-ajakɛ [SG-village] E CLE-good [SG-road] B CLB-good E -DET.CLE SI:CLE-was.destroyed

  In the particular case of class U, the non-contextual use of class U forms can be explained by positing that one of the noun forms that trigger agreement pattern U has a special status. The noun w-aaf 'thing' is a plurale tantum associated with agreement pattern U, and consequently the use of class U forms illustrated in (27b-ii) can be explained by positing that this noun is not subject to the retrievability conditions that normally regulate the possibility of eliding nouns, and consequently acts as a default controller of class U forms in contexts that do not suggest any other controller. However, this kind of explanation cannot be extended to all the classes that have non-contextual uses (seeCreissels et al. to appear for a detailed discussion).The non-contextual use of the classes B, T, D´, Ñ and N concerns forms that cannot be used as subjects or objects, and can be deemed adverbial, since they typically occur as adjuncts with a meaning entirely determined by the class marker: Class M has the particularity of having non-contextual uses of both pronominal and adverbial type, but with different meanings. Class M forms are particularly frequent in a noncontextual use of adverbial type in which they act as manner adverbs as in (30), whereas CLM forms of possessives and of the genitival linker have a non-contextual use of pronominal type in which they can be glossed 'what concerns X' exemplified in (31).

	c. m-an	'the shoes that I bought' ɩrɛgɩm
	CLASS w-an CLM-REL I.told.you 'as I told you' CLX-an b. ɩnɔɔmʊm	NON-CONTEXTUAL USE
		'relative linker' CLU-REL I bought	TRANSLATION
	class A i. 'the ones (CLU) that I bought' (e.g. ʊ-samata '[PL-shoe] U ') (contextual use) Ø-an (29) a. forms of class B used as spatial adverbs referring to vaguely delimited places: (31) Pronominal uses of clM 'the person that ...' class BK k-an bʊ-cɛɛn 'somewhere' b-anɔɔsan 'everywhere' a. possessive ii. 'what I bought' (non-contextual use) 'the persons that ...' CLB-some CLB-any M-ɔɔl-ιιl mu-suumɐnsuum.
	class E b. forms of class T used as spatial adverbs referring to places delimited with precision: y-an 'the thing that ...' 17 CLM-POSS-I:CLBK SI:CLM-pleases.me.
	class S t-aa-t-ɛ 'here' '[What concerns them](CLM) pleases me.' s-an 'the things that ...' t-an anɛnʊm kɔɔraay 'where he left the herd'
	class B CLT-DEM-CLT-PROX b-an lit. 'Theirs (CLM) pleases me' > 'I like them.' 'at the place that ...' 18 CLT-REL s/he.left herd
	class U c. forms of class D´ used as spatial adverbs referring to the interior of something: w-an 'the thing that ...' b. genitival linker
	class F d-ɐɐ-r-e M-atι apaalι 'herein' f-an	-no non-contextual uses kʊnɔkɛnʊm 'where they entered' mu-suumɐnsuum. d-ɐn
		class K	k-an		-no non-contextual uses
		class J	j-an		-no non-contextual uses
		class M	m-an		'in the manner how ...'
		class Ñ	ñ-an		-no non-contextual use with target clX-an
		class T	t-an		'at the place where ...' 19
	class D´ contextual use:	d-ɐn		'at the place where ...'
	class D (28) a. forms of class A or BK: non-anaphoric nominals referring to human beings (sg/pl) d-an 'the thing that ...'
	class N a-cιla /	n-an	kʊ-cιla	'at the time when ...'
	CLA-aforementioned/ CLBK-aforementioned
	the aforementioned person / persons
	b. forms of class E or S: non-anaphoric nominals referring to countable things
	y-anɔɔsan 'everything'	s-an	kʊŋarʊlɔm	'what they brought'
	CLE-any		CLS-REL they.bring.PST
	c. forms of class U and D: non-anaphoric pronouns with inanimate uncountable
	reference including reference to propositions
	CLU: w-anɔɔsan 'everything', w-an	akaanʊm 'what (s)he did';
		CLU-any			CLU-REL s/he.did
	CLD: dɩ-cɛɛn 'something',	d-an ɩwɔnɔɔrɛ 'what I think'.
	(30) Adverbial uses of CLM
	a. m-ɔɔ-mʊ
	CLM-ANY 'in any way'

The non-contextual use of the classes cl A, BK, E, S, U, D concerns forms that occur in typically nominal syntactic positions (e.g. as subject or object), and can consequently be analysed as pronominal. Each class-value is associated with a particular meaning in its non-CLD-some CLD-REL I.think Notice that class D forms (as in 28c) only have non-contextual pronominal uses, since class D has no corresponding nouns, and class D forms are not used adverbially. CLD´-DEM-CLD´-PROX CLD´-REL they.entered d. forms of class Ñ used as iterative adverbs, such as ñɩ-gaba CLÑ-two 'twice'; e. forms of class N used as temporal adverbs: nɩ-cɛɛ 'sometimes' n-anɔɔsan 'always' CLN-some CLN-any Notice that all uses of class N forms are non-contextual adverbial uses: since class N is an orphan class there are no corresponding nouns with agreement pattern CLN, and noun-less class N forms are never used pronominally. A particularly clear manifestation of the contrast between the non-contextual uses of CLD and CLN is that the paradigm of subject indexes includes a phonologically empty subject index of CLD expressing agreement with pronominal CLD forms in subject function, but includes no CLN subject index. CLM-ƆƆ-CLM 'thus, in this way' b. m-anɔɔsan CLM-GEN your.friend SI:CLM-pleases.me. '[What concerns your friend](CLM) pleases me.' lit. 'That of (CLM) your friend pleases me' > 'I like your friend.' It is striking that the non-contextual uses of the orphan classes CLD (22d) and CLN (23e) do not pattern together with respect to their syntactic status: non-contextual uses of CLD are pronominal while non-contextual uses of CLN are adverbial.

  Not all agreement targets allow the same range of non-contextual uses. For example, noncontextual uses of classes with the same meanings illustrated in (37) are found with CLX-ɐkon 'one, same', but not with the other numerals like CLX-gaba 'two'. For adjectives and the genitival linker CLX-atι, we have examples for classes A, BK, and D (for example r-ajakε 'CLD-good, something good', k-atι Dakaar 'CLBK-genitive Dakar, the people of Dakar'), but not for the other classes.21

	CLASS	CLX-cɛɛn	NON-CONTEXTUAL USE
		'some'	TRANSLATION
	class A	a-cεεn	'someone'
	class BK	kʊ-cεεn	'some persons'
	class E	ε-cεεn	'something' (concrete, countable)
	class S	sι-cεεn	'some things' (concrete, countable)
	class B	bʊ-cεεn	'somewhere'
	class U	ʊ-cεεn	'something'
	class F	fʊ-cεεn	-no non-contextual uses
	class K	kʊ-cεεn	-no non-contextual uses
	class J	jι-cεεn	-no non-contextual uses
	class M	mʊ-cεεn	'somehow'
	class Ñ	ñι-cεεn	-no non-contextual use with target -cεεn
	class T	tι-cεεn	'somewhere'
	class D´	di-ceen	'somewhere'

  2 that the non-contextual values for the different class-values fall into three groups: classes CLA, CLBK, CLE, CLS, CLU and CLD yield pronominal noncontextual uses while classes CLB, CLD´, CLT and CLN yield adverbial non-contextual uses and CLM has pronominal and adverbial uses, depending on the agreement target it combines with. Here we present evidence that the adverbial non-contextual uses do not form a homogeneous class. More specifically, we show that non-contextual class-inflection on the relative linker with the locative classes CLB, CLD´ and CLT contrasts with the class inflection

:CLD.be.pleasant.for.me / SI:CLM.be.pleasant.for.me

  CLS-REL 2SG.brought SI:CLS-be.pleasant.for.me 'The things you brought are pleasant for me.'In contrast, the non-contextual uses of the relative linker inflected for the classes CLB, CLT, CLD´, CLN and CLM -while morphologically entirely parallel to the other class values -do not introduce free relatives: these constituents only have an adverbial distribution (see (48)) and cannot function as arguments: subject agreement with non-contextual uses of the relative linker inflected for CLB, CLT, CLD´, CLN and CLM is excluded (see also (33)). 'How she sings, it(CLD) pleases me.'

	b.	nɩjʊjʊk [y-an / w-an / d-an ɩkaanʊm.]
		I.saw CLE/CLU/CLD-REL youSG.did
		'I saw what you did.'
	(48) [m-an	ɐcimem,]	suumɐnsuum /	*mu-suumɐnsuum
		CLM-REL SI:CLA.sings SI

The main references on Jóola Fóoñi areWeiss (1938),[START_REF] Sapir | A Grammar of Diola-Fogny[END_REF][START_REF] Hopkins | Contribution à une étude de la syntaxe diola-fogny[END_REF].

In the terminology traditionally used in Niger-Congo studies, this is one of the meanings carried by the term 'class'. In order to avoid any confusion, we use it exclusively with this meaning. For the other meanings commonly attached to 'class' in the description of so-called 'noun-class systems', we use the transparent terms 'inflectional type', 'agreement pattern' and 'agreement class of noun forms' (abbreviated as ACNF).

Note that Jóola Fóoñi has ATR vowel harmony. The underlying form of the inflectional prefixes is the [-ATR] pair (ε-/ sι in this example), the realisation as [+ATR] (e-/si-in this example) is phonologically predictable(Hopkins 1995: 18-20).

In contrast with Bantu, there is no generally accepted nomenclature for different agreement patterns in Atlantic. We will therefore use mnemonic labels that take up a characteristic form of the agreement morphology.

The choice of the label D´ for one of the agreement patterns is motivated by the fact that the current orthography of Jóola Fóoñi marks the +ATR feature by means of the acute accent, and the agreement marks characteristic of the D´ pattern are underlyingly +ATR, and impose the +ATR feature to the stems to which they attach.

For other examples of non-contextual uses of classes in Atlantic languages, see Creissels (to appear) and references therein.

Note that CLM has non-contextual uses with the genitive linker, but not with the meaning of "manner" illustrated in (30) -see the example (31b).

The reduplicative suffix does not carry any particular TAM value, and is best analyzed as a finiteness marker, since it occurs obligatorily in some independent tenses but not in the corresponding relative tenses.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Matthew Baerman and Grev Corbett for their comments, questions and suggestions on this work and Alain Christian Bassène and Boubacar Sambou for their help in completing the data. All remaining errors are the responsibility of the authors.

(32) a.

A-sεεk a-cεεn a-jaalɔjaw. [SG-woman] A CLA-indef SI:CLA-came 'A woman came.' b.

A-cεεn a-jaalɔjaw. The following table summarises the properties of noun-less class-marking discussed. Furthermore, in their non-contextual uses the time/location/manner classes have a corresponding adverbial non-subject index (see ex 40). In this respect the behaviour of the adjunct classes is parallel to the systems found with locatives in some Romance languages where locative PPs have relative and adverbial non-subject forms integrated into pronominal paradigms as e.g. French où "REL.where" and y "there" but no subject pronouns and no verbal subject agreement forms. The system of Jóola Fóoñi circumstantial non-subject indices is richer than the oblique clitic system in French, in that the weak pronominal system of Jóola Fóoñi includes forms for time and manner in addition to a range of locatives.

With respect to the inflected relativiser the classes yielding adverbial non-contextual uses do not pattern together, however.