Julien E Bois

Ph.D Philippe G Sarrazin
email: philippe.sarrazin@ujf-grenoble.fr

Robert J Brustad

Mothers' Expectancy Effects 1 Running head: MOTHERS' EXPECTANCY EFFECTS Mothers' Expectancies and Young Adolescents Perceived Physical Competence : A Year-long Study

Keywords: expectancy effects, perceived competence, physical activity, parental socialization, motivation

Perceived physical competence can be an important predictor of the physical activity behavior of children and adolescents. Investigated in this study was the role of mothers' expectancies effects in shaping their child's perceived physical competence. Data were obtained from 156 French children and young adolescents and their mothers. Structural equation modeling revealed that mothers' perceptions of their child's physical competence predicted their child's own perceived physical competence one year later, independent of the child's previously demonstrated physical ability and the child's initial level of perceived competence. Child's gender moderated the relation in that mothers' perceptions of their daughters' competence were related significantly to their child's perceived competence but that relation was not present between mothers and sons.

Mothers' Expectancies and Young Adolescents Perceived Physical Competence: A Year-long Study Over the past two decades, a number of theoretical models have been developed for the purpose of assisting researchers in understanding and explaining differences among individuals regarding their motivation, performance, and behavior in achievement contexts (e.g., [START_REF] Bandura | Self-efficacy: The exercise of control[END_REF][START_REF] Deci | Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Dweck | A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality[END_REF][START_REF] Eccles | Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors[END_REF][START_REF] Harter | A model of mastery motivation in children: Individual differences and developmental change[END_REF][START_REF] Nicholls | The competitive ethos and democratic education[END_REF][START_REF] Vallerand | Toward a hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation[END_REF]. Although those theories differ from each other in a number of important ways, all of them stress the importance of self-perceptions of ability (e.g., perceived competence, self-concept of ability, self-efficacy) as antecedents of, and contributors to, motivational and affective outcomes. Within the domain of sport and physical activity, self-perception characteristics have been fundamental components of theoretical and empirical work and perceived physical competence has been the most commonly studied self-perception.

The knowledge base on children's and adolescents' sport participation and physical activity involvement has been grounded similarly in the role of young people's selfperception characteristics as such appraisals are anticipated to influence motivational patterns, affective experiences, and behavioral outcomes. Because physical activity and sport involvement typically are 'free choice' leisure-time activities, young people's motivation to be involved in the physical domain are likely to reflect strongly on their domain-specific competence appraisals [START_REF] Eccles | Gender differences in sport involvement: Applying the Eccles' expectancy-value model[END_REF].

The current knowledge base strongly indicates that young people's perceptions of their own physical abilities are instrumental in shaping their choices to participate in physical activity and sport as well as on the affective characteristics of that involvement. Specifically, higher levels of perceived physical competence have been linked to young people's interest and desire to engage in physical activity and sport (e.g., [START_REF] Brustad | Who will go out and play? Parental and psychological influences on children's attraction to physical activity[END_REF][START_REF] Brustad | Attraction to physical activity in urban schoolchildren: Parental socialization and gender influences[END_REF][START_REF] Feltz | Perceived competence among interscholastic sport participants and dropouts[END_REF]) and appears to contribute to higher levels of enjoyment [START_REF] Scanlan | An in-depth study of former elite figure skaters: II. Sources of enjoyment[END_REF] and lower levels of anxiety while involved [START_REF] Passer | Fear of failure, fear of evaluation, perceived competence, and selfesteem in competitive trait-anxious children[END_REF][START_REF] Scanlan | Social psychological aspects of competition for male youth sport participants: IV. Predictors of enjoyment[END_REF]. Thus, physical competence has been instrumental particularly in understanding the participatory characteristics of children and adolescents in this achievement context (see also [START_REF] Roberts | Motivation in sport and exercise: Conceptual constraints and convergence[END_REF][START_REF] Weiss | Motivational orientations in sport[END_REF] for reviews).

Children's socialization into physical activity and sport is a particularly worthy area of interest because the knowledge base indicates that physical activity and sport involvement can affect young people's physical and psychological health, as well as the quality of their social relationships. For example, children's involvement in physical activity affects their current health status and tendency toward obesity, as well their predisposition to a variety of potential health risks during adolescence and adulthood [START_REF] Clark | Physical activity and prevention of obesity in childhood[END_REF][START_REF] Durrant | The relationship between habitual physical activity and serum lipoproteins in white male adolescents[END_REF]. With regard to psychological and social outcomes, physical activity and sport participation affect children's self-concept, self-esteem, friendship formation and maintenance, and peer acceptance, among other outcomes (for more complete reviews see [START_REF] Brustad | Youth in sport: Psychological considerations[END_REF][START_REF] Martinsen | Exercise and mental health in clinical and freeliving populations[END_REF]. Given the multiple benefits that accrue from the regular practice of physical activity, it is important to identify the factors that are related to the development of children's perceptions of competence, given its role in affecting physical activity and sport involvement.

Researchers have identified a variety of contributors to perceived physical competence for children and adolescents (see [START_REF] Horn | Sources of competence information[END_REF] for a review). Among those, social influences appear to constitute a crucial source of information for children to estimate their competence. Significant others, including teachers, coaches, parents, siblings, and peers assume that important socialization role by providing feedback, support, and opportunities for young people in this domain [START_REF] Brustad | Integrating socialization influences into the study of children's motivation in sport[END_REF][START_REF] Brustad | Who will go out and play? Parental and psychological influences on children's attraction to physical activity[END_REF][START_REF] Brustad | Attraction to physical activity in urban schoolchildren: Parental socialization and gender influences[END_REF][START_REF] Brustad | Youth in sport: Psychological considerations[END_REF][START_REF] Horn | A developmental analysis of children's self-ability judgments in the physical domain[END_REF][START_REF] Jacobs | The impact of mothers' gender role stereotypic beliefs on mothers' and children's ability perceptions[END_REF][START_REF] Weiss | Children's self-perceptions and sources of competence information: A cluster analysis[END_REF]. When considering social influences, parents, particularly, seem to be fundamental contributors to perceived physical competence for children and young adolescents [START_REF] Brustad | Integrating socialization influences into the study of children's motivation in sport[END_REF][START_REF] Eccles | Gender role stereotypes, expectancy effects, and parents' socialization of gender differences[END_REF][START_REF] Greendorfer | Sport socialization[END_REF][START_REF] Harter | A model of mastery motivation in children: Individual differences and developmental change[END_REF][START_REF] Horn | Informational components influencing children's perceptions of their physical competence[END_REF][START_REF] Woolger | Parent and sport socialization: Views from the achievement literature[END_REF]. That influence might be even greater in the sport domain than in other domains because parents are likely to be the ones who provide and structure initial sport opportunities for their sons and daughters [START_REF] Greendorfer | Family and gender-based influences in sport socialization of children and adolescents[END_REF] and frequently are engaged more actively in their children's sport experiences than in other achievement areas [START_REF] Brustad | Youth in sport: Psychological considerations[END_REF]. Unfortunately, only a limited amount of research to date has examined the ways in which parents influence children's sport-related self-perceptions.

The relative socialization influence of parents in sport is related also to the developmental status of their children. Research indicates that the particular sources of competence information to which individuals most closely attend varies in relation to the individual's developmental status (e.g., [START_REF] Frieze | Developmental trends in cue utilization for attributional judgments[END_REF][START_REF] Horn | Informational components influencing children's perceptions of their physical competence[END_REF]. Research on preferred sources of competence information has indicated that children and young adolescents have a preference for using adult sources of feedback in forming perceptions of competence across achievement areas [START_REF] Frieze | Developmental trends in cue utilization for attributional judgments[END_REF][START_REF] Horn | Informational components influencing children's perceptions of their physical competence[END_REF][START_REF] Horn | A developmental analysis of children's self-ability judgments in the physical domain[END_REF]. Parents are particularly important sources of information for young people in forming self-perceptions of ability, because it is during late childhood and early adolescence that many young people engage in certain achievement domains, such as sport, for the first time. A developmental shift in utilization of competence information sources begins to occur around 12 to 14 years of age in that adolescents in this age range begin to rely more heavily on peer-based informational sources. Specifically, adolescents in this age range typically actively compare their abilities to their peers and are more attentive to the feedback and appraisals provided by peers than at other phases of the lifecycle. During later adolescence, individuals use a variety of information sources, including peer comparison, peer evaluation, and internal sources of information [START_REF] Horn | Informational components influencing children's perceptions of their physical competence[END_REF][START_REF] Horn | A developmental analysis of children's self-ability judgments in the physical domain[END_REF]. Although those developmental tendencies occur, the importance of parental feedback about competence during childhood and early adolescence cannot be underestimated due to the central role of parental socialization influence on their children in various achievement areas during those developmental phases A number of forms of parental influence have been identified in the literature. First, modeling or identification with the parents (e.g., [START_REF] Bandura | Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory[END_REF][START_REF] Crandall | Achievement[END_REF], has been proposed as a primary form of parental influence. In relation to the parental modeling hypothesis, it is anticipated that children will reproduce the behaviors of their parents and adopt their parents' system of beliefs. Those outcomes are anticipated to occur primarily as a result of observational and social learning processes. Although the modeling hypothesis has received some support in the sport context (e.g., Gregson & Colley, 1996;[START_REF] Freedson | Familial aggregation in physical activity[END_REF][START_REF] Moore | Influence of parents' physical activity levels on activity levels of young children[END_REF], other researchers have failed to find adequate support for that explanation in academic contexts (e.g., [START_REF] Parsons | Socialization of achievement attitudes and perceptions: Parental influences[END_REF] or in sport (e.g., [START_REF] Brustad | Attraction to physical activity in urban schoolchildren: Parental socialization and gender influences[END_REF][START_REF] Dempsey | Parental influence on children's moderate to vigorous physical activity participation: An expectancy-value approach[END_REF]. Thus, it has been suggested that parental modeling might be an important form of parental influence but that, at minimum, modeling needs to be considered in conjunction with other forms of influence [START_REF] Brustad | Attraction to physical activity in urban schoolchildren: Parental socialization and gender influences[END_REF][START_REF] Parsons | Socialization of achievement attitudes and perceptions: Parental influences[END_REF].

A second general category of parental influence on children's perceived physical competence has been proposed to occur as a result of parental acceptance and support. The results of various studies have revealed a significant, positive link to children's perceived physical competence through parental encouragement (e.g., [START_REF] Brustad | Who will go out and play? Parental and psychological influences on children's attraction to physical activity[END_REF][START_REF] Brustad | Attraction to physical activity in urban schoolchildren: Parental socialization and gender influences[END_REF], parental satisfaction with the child's performance (e.g., [START_REF] Scanlan | Social psychological aspects of competition for male youth sport participants: IV. Predictors of enjoyment[END_REF], and active parental involvement in the child's sport activities (e.g., [START_REF] Babkes | Parental influence on children's cognitive and affective responses to competitive soccer participation[END_REF][START_REF] Dempsey | Parental influence on children's moderate to vigorous physical activity participation: An expectancy-value approach[END_REF]. Through those positive affective responses, parents implicitly convey the idea to the child that he or she has sufficient competence to benefit from continued participation.

A third crucial dimension of parental influence on children's sport-related selfperceptions can occur as the consequence of parental belief systems [START_REF] Eccles | Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors[END_REF][START_REF] Eccles | Gender differences in sport involvement: Applying the Eccles' expectancy-value model[END_REF]. From a socialization perspective, important components of parental belief systems include parents' perceptions of the child's competencies in various achievement domains, parents' beliefs about the relative value or importance of varying achievement domains (e.g., academics, art, music, sports, etc.), and parents' expectations that their child will attain success in a given domain. Parental beliefs can contribute to actual outcomes through expectancy effects. An "expectancy effect" designates the phenomenon through which the expectancy that one person (the perceiver) holds concerning another person (the other) affects (a) the other's perception of himself or herself, (b) the other's behavior, and (c) the interpretation of the other's behavior by the perceiver (see [START_REF] Jussim | Self-fulfilling prophecies: A theoretical and integrative review[END_REF][START_REF] Miller | Expectancies and interpersonal processes[END_REF][START_REF] Snyder | Interpersonal processes: The interplay of cognitive, motivational, and behavioral activities in social interaction[END_REF]. Several theoretical models have been used to explain the phenomenon (e.g., [START_REF] Cooper | Pygmalion grows up: Studies in the expectation communication process[END_REF][START_REF] Jussim | Self-fulfilling prophecies: A theoretical and integrative review[END_REF]. With regard to influences on young people's self-perceptions those models usually consist of three stages: (a) the perceiver develops expectations for the other's future achievement, (b) the other is treated differently than other children in relation to those expectations, and (c) the differential treatment influences the specific socialization experiences that the other person receives, and eventually shapes the other's own behavior and self-perceptions.

The relation between parental belief systems and children's self-perceptions of ability has been the focus of several empirical investigations (e.g., [START_REF] Frome | Parents' influence on children's achievement-related perceptions[END_REF][START_REF] Parsons | Socialization of achievement attitudes and perceptions: Parental influences[END_REF][START_REF] Phillips | Socialization of perceived academic competence among highly competent children[END_REF]. Those studies have revealed that children's perceptions of their academic ability are linked strongly to their parents' beliefs about the child's capacity and that parental belief systems typically supersede in importance the actual ability information available to the child (as measured by standardized achievement tests or academic grades) in contributing to the child's perceived competence. In other words, children's perceived ability typically is consistent more with their parents' expectations than with their own previous and current academic performance. In the sport domain, studies have revealed a correspondence between parents' perceptions of their child's competence and the child's perceived physical competence [START_REF] Babkes | Parental influence on children's cognitive and affective responses to competitive soccer participation[END_REF][START_REF] Dempsey | Parental influence on children's moderate to vigorous physical activity participation: An expectancy-value approach[END_REF][START_REF] Kimiecik | Relationships among children's beliefs, perceptions of their parents' beliefs and their moderate to vigorous physical activity[END_REF][START_REF] Mccullagh | Motivation for participation in physical activity: Comparison of parent-child perceived competence and perceived motives[END_REF], even in cases in which actual levels of physical ability were controlled statistically [START_REF] Eccles | Gender role stereotypes, expectancy effects, and parents' socialization of gender differences[END_REF][START_REF] Felson | The effect of parents on the self-appraisals of children[END_REF][START_REF] Jacobs | The impact of mothers' gender role stereotypic beliefs on mothers' and children's ability perceptions[END_REF]. Studies by Eccles and colleagues [START_REF] Eccles | Gender differences in sport involvement: Applying the Eccles' expectancy-value model[END_REF][START_REF] Eccles | Gender role stereotypes, expectancy effects, and parents' socialization of gender differences[END_REF]) also have revealed that parents' perceptions of their children's competence in sport are gender differentiated, in that, parents typically rate their sons as having more competence and interest in sports than they do their daughters. In line with those parental belief systems, boys rate themselves as more competent in sports than do girls (e.g., [START_REF] Eccles | Gender differences in sport involvement: Applying the Eccles' expectancy-value model[END_REF][START_REF] Eccles | Gender role stereotypes, expectancy effects, and parents' socialization of gender differences[END_REF][START_REF] Felson | The effect of parents on the self-appraisals of children[END_REF]. Although evidence exists that boys generally are advanced more than girls are in some sport-related skills during childhood, those "actual" differences are much smaller than the gender-of-child effects on either parent's perceptions or children's self-ratings [START_REF] Eccles | Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors[END_REF][START_REF] Eccles | Gender differences in sport involvement: Applying the Eccles' expectancy-value model[END_REF].

The means by which expectational effects occur can be explained by the Eccles theoretical model of parental socialization [START_REF] Eccles | Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors[END_REF][START_REF] Eccles | Gender differences in sport involvement: Applying the Eccles' expectancy-value model[END_REF]. That theory uses an expectancy-value framework to explain the relation between parental belief systems and psychological outcomes for children. In accordance with the theory, parents form expectancies about their children's abilities in various domains in relation to perceptions of their children's attitudes, temperaments, interests, talents, and history of success. Similarly, parents value certain achievement domains (e.g., mathematics, athletics, music) more so than they do for other domains. As a consequence of parental expectancies and values, and due to parental interest in providing their children with success experiences in the most desirable achievement domains, parents provide greater encouragement and participatory opportunities for their children in those achievement areas in which the parents hold higher expectancies and stronger values. In turn, the expectations that parents communicate to children can shape children's own success expectancies. Furthermore, greater opportunities and encouragement in particular domains can foster children's abilities in those domains, thus affirming the parents' initial expectancies.

Overall, the Eccles expectancy-value theory has received consistent support both in academic and sport settings. Various studies have indicated that parental perceptions of their children's abilities are strong predictors of their children's own self-perceptions of abilities (e.g., [START_REF] Eccles | Gender differences in sport involvement: Applying the Eccles' expectancy-value model[END_REF][START_REF] Felson | The effect of parents on the self-appraisals of children[END_REF][START_REF] Phillips | Socialization of perceived academic competence among highly competent children[END_REF]. However, some limitations to those conclusions have to be acknowledged. As Frome and Eccles (1998) have noted, a major problem with most previous work in this area is that investigations have relied on data collected at a single point in time, making causal interpretation problematic. Indeed, it seems obvious that parental influence requires some amount of time to operate. Consequently, interpretation of such effects in cross-sectional designs might be problematic because concurrent measurement of variables precludes such effects from occurring [START_REF] Gollob | Interpreting and estimating indirect effects assuming time lags really matter[END_REF]. In this case, longitudinal designs including autoregressive influence are preferred [START_REF] Maccallum | Applications of structural equation modeling in psychological research[END_REF]. That is, if it is hypothesized that variable A at time 1 (A1; e.g., parent's perception of child's ability) influences variable B at time 2 (B2; e.g., child's self-perception of ability), the child's initial perceived competence (B1) also should be measured and included in the model to understand the relation between B1 on B2 as well as the relation between A1 and B1 [START_REF] Gollob | Interpreting and estimating indirect effects assuming time lags really matter[END_REF][START_REF] Maccallum | Applications of structural equation modeling in psychological research[END_REF].

Another limitation with previous correlational designs has been the omitted-variable problem, or the possibility that a relevant predictor was excluded from the analysis [START_REF] Judd | Data analysis model comparison approach[END_REF]. In that regard, parental perceptions can appear to affect directly children's ability perceptions when, in fact, both parental perceptions and children's selfperceptions are influenced by an unmeasured third factor. Among the relevant factors likely to influence parents' and children's perceptions could be the child's actual current achievement level, and to truly test for an "expectancy effect" this variable should be controlled statistically. Such is rarely the case. Only one study [START_REF] Felson | The effect of parents on the self-appraisals of children[END_REF] was identified in which objective tests were used to control statistically for the child's actual performance. In two other studies [START_REF] Eccles | Gender role stereotypes, expectancy effects, and parents' socialization of gender differences[END_REF][START_REF] Jacobs | The impact of mothers' gender role stereotypic beliefs on mothers' and children's ability perceptions[END_REF]) researchers used teachers' estimation of the child's ability to assess actual ability, but there might be limitations in the accuracy of teacher's estimations (Jussim, 1991a[START_REF] Jussim | Grades may reflect more than performance: Comment on Wentzel (1989)[END_REF].

A third limitation of previous studies has been that children's perceptions of parental beliefs have been relied on rather than parents' own self-reports (e.g., [START_REF] Babkes | Parental influence on children's cognitive and affective responses to competitive soccer participation[END_REF][START_REF] Brustad | Who will go out and play? Parental and psychological influences on children's attraction to physical activity[END_REF][START_REF] Brustad | Attraction to physical activity in urban schoolchildren: Parental socialization and gender influences[END_REF][START_REF] Kimiecik | Relationships among children's beliefs, perceptions of their parents' beliefs and their moderate to vigorous physical activity[END_REF]. The reliance on self-reports from single sources can be problematic, in that the associations identified might be due to shared method variance rather than to actual relations involving the construct of interest. In line with that concern, a final limitation pertains to the fact that parents' influence often is assessed without distinguishing between the mother's and the father's beliefs (e.g., [START_REF] Brustad | Who will go out and play? Parental and psychological influences on children's attraction to physical activity[END_REF][START_REF] Brustad | Attraction to physical activity in urban schoolchildren: Parental socialization and gender influences[END_REF][START_REF] Dempsey | Parental influence on children's moderate to vigorous physical activity participation: An expectancy-value approach[END_REF][START_REF] Kimiecik | Relationships among children's beliefs, perceptions of their parents' beliefs and their moderate to vigorous physical activity[END_REF]. Fathers and mothers might not share similar appraisals of their child's aptitudes and abilities and it is likely that one parent might be more influential in shaping the child's achievement-related beliefs. Because mothers typically are immersed more fully in the rearing of their children during childhood and early adolescence, mothers' perceptions particularly might be important in shaping children's achievementrelated beliefs [START_REF] Ames | Mothers' beliefs about the role of ability and effort in school learning[END_REF], including in stereotypically masculine achievement domains such as sport [START_REF] Jacobs | The impact of mothers' gender role stereotypic beliefs on mothers' and children's ability perceptions[END_REF]. Research conducted by [START_REF] Parsons | Socialization of achievement attitudes and perceptions: Parental influences[END_REF] also indicated that mothers' beliefs were related more strongly than were fathers' beliefs to children's achievement-related self-perceptions. Moreover, it has been suggested [START_REF] Bussey | Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation[END_REF]) that a parent's influence is stronger for a child of the same gender. However, previous studies (e.g., [START_REF] Eccles | Gender role stereotypes, expectancy effects, and parents' socialization of gender differences[END_REF][START_REF] Jacobs | The impact of mothers' gender role stereotypic beliefs on mothers' and children's ability perceptions[END_REF][START_REF] Frome | Parents' influence on children's achievement-related perceptions[END_REF] always have included child's gender as a control variable and gender as yet has not been used as a moderator of the relation between parents' beliefs and their child's perceived competence.

The Present Study

The main purpose for this study was to investigate the presence and extent of expectancy effects of mothers' perceptions 1 of their child's capacity on children's and adolescents' own perceptions of sport competence. Another concern was to extend the current knowledge on parental socialization in the sport domain to a non-American sample. Using a French sample provided an opportunity to test mothers' expectancy effects in another western country. Special attention was devoted also to methodological concerns because previous studies in which expectancy effects have been investigated always have not accounted for other relevant variables. A 12-month study was conducted with data collected at two points in time. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to determine whether theoretically anticipated relations were found. SEM, which is useful particularly in longitudinal research [START_REF] Bentler | Multivariate analysis with latent variables: Causal modeling[END_REF][START_REF] Maccallum | Applications of structural equation modeling in psychological research[END_REF], allows for examination of hypothesized relations among all of the constructs involved in a model, using a latent representation of these constructs that is less vulnerable to measurement errors, such as those that can be encountered in research with child and adolescent populations. The hypothesized model for the present study is illustrated in Figure 1. According to Jussim (1991a), if the researcher desires to interpret the association between mothers' and children's perceptions as evidence of the existence of an expectancy effect, it is necessary that the mothers' initial perceptions predict the child's self-perceptions one year later even after controlling for variables that might have an impact on the child's self-perceptions, namely the child's previous physical performance and the initial level of the child's perceived competence 1 (autoregressive effect). A thick line in Figure 1 symbolizes that hypothesis. The thin line symbolizes the variables of control. As a complementary hypothesis, it was expected that mothers' perceptions would be based on valid information such as the child's performance and/or motivation (i.e., perceived competence). That hypothesis is symbolized by dotted lines in figure 1. That analysis would reveal whether mothers are more likely than children to base their perceptions on objective standards. Findings from the Eccles studies (e.g., [START_REF] Eccles | Gender differences in sport involvement: Applying the Eccles' expectancy-value model[END_REF][START_REF] Eccles | Gender role stereotypes, expectancy effects, and parents' socialization of gender differences[END_REF][START_REF] Frome | Parents' influence on children's achievement-related perceptions[END_REF][START_REF] Parsons | Socialization of achievement attitudes and perceptions: Parental influences[END_REF] have revealed that children's self-perceptions are related more directly to their parents' perceptions than to their own past performance and that relation was tested in the current investigation. Finally, gender differences were expected. First, in line with previous research, it was anticipated that the boys would rate themselves as having higher competence than would girls in sports, in part because parents of boys have higher perceptions of their child's physical competence than do parents of girls [START_REF] Eccles | Gender differences in sport involvement: Applying the Eccles' expectancy-value model[END_REF]. Second, a test was conducted also to determine whether the child's gender would moderate the relation between mothers' perceptions of their child's competence and their child's own perceived competence. It was expected that mothers would be more influential with regard to their daughters' selfperceptions of competence than on their sons' competence perceptions due to same-sex gender socialization effects.

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METHOD

Participants

A sample of 156 children (75 boys and 81 girls) who were enrolled in four differing French elementary schools (grades 3 through 5) located in three differing cities (each with a population of 15,000 to 30,000 inhabitants), and their mother 2 , served as the sample for this study. The participants included in this study were those who presented a complete data set across all child and mother variables and were part of a larger, original group of 344 children and their parents. The child participants ranged from 8 through 12 years of age (X = 10.4 years, SD = 0.90 years) and their mothers averaged 38.3 years (SD = 4.5 years). The participant sample was comprised primarily of middle to upper class families. In terms of family structure, 71% of the children in the participant sample lived within a two-parent home whereas 26% lived in a single-parent home. Three percent of the sample did not provide information concerning their current family structure.

With regard to physical activities, the French school system differs from the United States system in that all children from elementary through high school have physical education lessons. The French national school system defines the subjects that are taught each year and the amount of time allowed to each subject at each grade. Consequently, physical education in France is taught at least two hours a week at each grade level.

Procedure

Agreement was obtained both from parents and from the school director for the child to participate in the study and verbal assent was obtained from each child prior to their involvement. Data were obtained from (a) questionnaires completed by mothers and children, and (b) through physical ability tests for children. Two waves of data were collected. The first wave (Wave 1) was collected from parents and children in September of 1999, and data in the second wave (Wave 2) was collected from children in September 2000. Children completed questionnaires in the classroom in a group with an assistant reading the questions aloud and providing help and clarification as necessary. Subsequently, children were given questionnaires for their mothers to complete and were asked to return them a week later. Physical tests were performed during physical education lessons. Two class periods were necessary for each class to perform all the tests.

Measures

Perceived physical competence. Children completed a French version (Sarrazin, Bois, & Trouilloud, 2000a) of the [START_REF] Harter | Manual for the self-perception profile for children[END_REF] Perceived Physical Competence Scale for Children. The back-translation method (see [START_REF] Brislin | The wording and translation of research instruments[END_REF]) was used to translate the original scale into French. Items were scored on a 4-point response format using the [START_REF] Harter | Manual for the self-perception profile for children[END_REF] structured alternative approach. An example of one of the four items used in this scale is, "Some kids are sure that they are good at sports BUT other kids don't think they are good at sports". On this scale, "1" reflected a low level of perceived physical competence and "4" a high level of perceived physical competence with "2" and "3" indicating intermediate levels of perceived competence. In previous research, this scale has been found to be valid and reliable (Sarrazin et al., 2000a). In the present study, the internal consistency was satisfactory: Cronbach's α = .70 (Wave 1) and .78 (Wave 2), including when alphas were computed by age (from .68 to .82, respectively, for the three following groups: under 10 years of age, between 10 and 11, over 11 years).

Physical performance. Four physical tests from the Eurofit battery (1993) were used to assess physical performance. Two were physical aptitude tests and the other two were motor coordination tests. The aptitude test consisted of the standing long jump, for which performance was assessed as distance in meters. Two tries per child were measured and the better score was retained. The second aptitude test was a thirty-second sit-up endurance test [START_REF] Mathews | Measurement in Physical Education[END_REF]. The performance was the number of situps executed in 30 seconds (one try per child). The motor coordination tests consisted of a ball dribbling test and a running motor coordination test. The dribble test involved dribbling a ball through a zigzag course and around 6 pins that were separated evenly. The measure of performance was the time spent to perform the course in seconds. The other motor coordination test was a 20 meter shuttlehurdle running test. The measure of performance was also the time spent to complete the course in seconds. For those two tests, children had two practice trials, and the third test was timed and used as the indicator of performance.

Mothers' perceptions of their child's sport competence. Mothers completed a French version [START_REF] Sarrazin | Trans-cultural validation of the measurement scales of the Eccles et al[END_REF] of the Jacobs and Eccles (1992) questionnaire on mothers' perceptions of their child's physical competence. The back-translation method was used to translate this 4-item scale into French. A sample item was, "In general how good is your child in sports?" Each item is rated on a scale from 1 = not at all good through 5 = very good. In previous research, this scale has been found to be valid and reliable [START_REF] Sarrazin | Trans-cultural validation of the measurement scales of the Eccles et al[END_REF]. In the present study, the internal consistency was satisfactory: α = .88.

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics and preliminary data analysis were performed to obtain an overview of possible gender differences. Then a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to examine the construct validity of the variables in the study. The primary research question related to the influence of mothers' expectancy effects on their child's perceived competence was tested through structural equation modeling (SEM). Subsequently, the same model was run in a multi-sample analysis to assess the moderating function of gender of the child. RESULTS

Descriptive Statistics and Preliminary Analyses

Means and standard deviations for boys and for girls are presented in Table 1. Oneway ANOVAs were conducted to investigate gender differences (Table 1). Boys had significantly better scores (p < .05) than did girls on long jump ability, sit-ups, the ball dribble test, and perceived physical competence both at Wave 1 and Wave 2. No significant differences existed between mothers of sons and mothers of daughters in perceptions of their child's ability.

- --------------------< Insert Table 1 here >---------------------

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

The variables were subjected to a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test for construct validity. In light of the already high number of variables in the model in relation to the number of participants, it was decided to reduce the number of variables and hence keep the model degrees of freedom reasonable. Items on each subscale were aggregated randomly to form only two composite scores for each construct [START_REF] Bentler | Multivariate analysis with latent variables: Causal modeling[END_REF][START_REF] Byrne | Structural equations modeling with EQS and EQS/Windows[END_REF], except for the construct of physical performance, which consisted of the four measured ability variables. The CFA model thus was based on ten observed variables and four latent factors. The analysis was conducted with LISREL 8.3 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1999) using a covariance matrix 3 and maximum likelihood method of estimation. In view of the current controversy regarding measures of overall goodness of fit, it generally is considered appropriate to report multiple indices [START_REF] Bollen | Structural equations with latent variables[END_REF]. Thus, the chi-square statistic, the goodness-of-fit index (GFI), the non-normed fit index (NNFI), the comparative fit index (CFI) and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) all were used to evaluate the adequacy of the fit of the model to the data. For GFI, NNFI and CFI values above .90 are considered satisfactory. For SRMR, values below .10 indicate a good fit of the model to the data.

The model provided an adequate fit to the data, χ²(29, N = 156) = 39.62, p = .09, GFI = .95, NNFI = .95, CFI = .97, SRMR = .05. All λ were significant (t>2.00). The computed reliabilities 4 for the constructs were .73 for physical performance, .82 for mothers' perceptions of their child's ability, and .69 and .79 for children's perceived physical competence at Wave 1 and Wave 2, respectively. Thus, adequate construct validity for the variables was demonstrated. The correlations between latent factors, disattenuated for error measurement, are displayed in Table 2. There were significant correlations between the child's physical performance and mothers' perceptions (φ = .52) and between child's physical performance and child's perceived physical competence at Wave 2 (φ = .22). In addition, there were significant correlations between mothers' perceptions and the two measures of child's perceived physical competence (φ =. 37 and .43, respectively) for Wave 1 and Wave 2.

- --------------------< Insert Table 2 here >---------------------Structural Model

After having assessed the adequacy of the factor structure, tests were conducted of the hypothesized relations among the variables, as predicted in Figure 1. The hypothesized model provided a good fit to the data , χ²(29, N = 156) = 39.62, p = .09, GFI = .95, NNFI = .95, CFI = .97, SRMR = .05. The structural and measurement coefficients of the model are displayed in Figure 2. The relation between mother's perceptions of her child's ability and her child's own perceived competence one year later (i.e. at Wave 2) was significant (β = .26) despite the significant autoregressive effect of the child's perceived competence (β = .42) from Wave 1. The path from child's physical performance to child's perceived competence at Wave 2 was non significant. The variables entered in the model accounted for 33% of the variance in child's perceived physical competence at Wave 2. Mother's perceptions of her child's ability were related significantly to her child's physical performance (β = .47) and her child's perceived physical competence at Wave 1 (β = .29). Those variables explained 35% of the variance in mothers' perceptions and thus show a relative accuracy with mothers' perceptions 5 .

Multigroup Structural Equation Modeling: Testing Moderating Effect of Child's Gender

To test the gender moderation hypothesis, the same model was run using multigroup structural equation modeling [START_REF] Jaccard | LISREL approaches to interaction effects in multiple regression[END_REF]. That procedure allows the researcher to set cross-group equality constraints on parameters of interest. A gender difference in parameter estimates will be present if there is a significant improvement in data-model fit in terms of the chi-square statistic when an equality constraint is released. The moderation effect was tested on the path between mother's perceptions of her child's ability and child's perceived physical competence at Wave 2 to see if mothers' influence was stronger for daughters as compared to mother influence for sons (see Figure 2). When the equality constraint was relaxed, the decrease in chi-square was significant (∆χ² = 6.17, p < .02). For the unconstrained model (χ² = 75.09, df = 73, p = .41, NNFI = .98, CFI = .98) the standardized path coefficient between mother's perceptions of her child's ability and child's perceived competence was .05 (ns) for sons and .65 (p<.001) for daughters. None of the other paths in the model differed as a function of child gender. Therefore, the results support the hypothesis that the influence of mothers' perceptions is stronger for daughters than for sons.

---------------------< Insert Figure 2 here >---------------------DISCUSSION The three main goals in this study were: (a) to examine if mother's perceptions of her child's physical ability predicted child's perceived physical competence one year later, independent of previous level of the child's perceived competence and physical performance; (b) to examine the antecedents of mothers' and children's perceptions; and (c) to investigate gender differences, particularly to determine if the child's gender would moderates the relation between mother's perceptions and child's perceived competence. Results will be discussed with regard to those three issues.

Influence of Mother's Perceptions on her Child's Perceived Physical Competence

Evidence was found in this study for the effect of mother' s expectancies on their children's perceived competence in sport. The results supported that hypothesis and indicated that the more favorable were mother's perceptions of the child's physical competence, the more likely it was that the child perceived himself or herself as physically competent. That result supports previous findings both in sport and in academic domains [START_REF] Frome | Parents' influence on children's achievement-related perceptions[END_REF][START_REF] Jacobs | The impact of mothers' gender role stereotypic beliefs on mothers' and children's ability perceptions[END_REF]. However, the findings are strengthened by the fact that a yearlong investigation was conducted with data collected at two points in time and were controlled for essential intervening variables (i.e., child's previous perceived physical competence and child's previous physical performance) in such a way as to provide a strong test of the hypotheses. Demonstrating mother's influence on her child's perceived competence is quite an important finding given that perceived competence is a fundamental predictor of involvement and of motivation in the sport domain [START_REF] Brustad | Youth in sport: Psychological considerations[END_REF][START_REF] Roberts | Motivation in sport and exercise: Conceptual constraints and convergence[END_REF][START_REF] Weiss | Motivational orientations in sport[END_REF]. Furthermore, because that finding was obtained from a French sample, rather than a United States sample, the findings strengthen the generalizability of previous research findings.

The model accounted for 33% of the variance in children's perceived physical competence. Consequently, it seems that mothers' influence only explains a moderate portion of the variance in children's perceived physical competence. There are two possible reasons for that finding. First, it is important to remember that many sources of competence information are available to the child, including fathers, siblings, teachers, and coaches. However, those sources of influence almost always are assessed separately. Further studies should be designed for consideration of the relative influence of various forms of social influence in shaping children's perceived competence. Second, some authors have hypothesized that expectancy effects should be cumulative over time [START_REF] Smith | Do self-fulfilling prophecies accumulate, dissipate, or remain stable over time[END_REF]. Indeed, the influence of mothers' expectancies that were found over one year has the potential to be much more powerful if it were reproduced over many years. Longitudinal studies conducted over longer periods of time are necessary to corroborate that hypothesis. Antecedents of Mothers' and Children's Perceptions

The results showed that mothers' perceptions were based on the child's previous performance and motivation (i.e., perceived competence). That indicates that mothers base their perceptions on relatively objective standards that might prevent mothers from having stereotyped perceptions of their children. The current results also indicate weak or no correlations between the child's performance and his or her perceived competence in Wave 1 or Wave 2 (see Table 2). Thus children, unlike their mothers, did not base their perceptions of competence on their previous performance. According to previous studies both in sport (e.g., [START_REF] Horn | Informational components influencing children's perceptions of their physical competence[END_REF][START_REF] Horn | A developmental analysis of children's self-ability judgments in the physical domain[END_REF] and academic (e.g., [START_REF] Frome | Parents' influence on children's achievement-related perceptions[END_REF] domains, the current results showed that, in estimating their physical competence, children appear to rely more heavily on what their mothers think of them than they do on their own past performance. In summary, these results show that mothers are rather accurate in their perceptions of their child's competence and that they assume an important role as interpreters of the child's previous performance. Therefore, mothers should be aware of the magnitude of influence of the information that they provide to their children as it can affect a child's self-concept.

Gender Differences

Consistent with numerous studies (e.g., [START_REF] Brustad | Attraction to physical activity in urban schoolchildren: Parental socialization and gender influences[END_REF][START_REF] Eccles | Gender differences in sport involvement: Applying the Eccles' expectancy-value model[END_REF][START_REF] Jacobs | The impact of mothers' gender role stereotypic beliefs on mothers' and children's ability perceptions[END_REF], the current findings revealed gender differences in children's selfperceptions of their sport competence, with the boys rating themselves as more competent than did the girls. Previous studies [START_REF] Eccles | Gender role stereotypes, expectancy effects, and parents' socialization of gender differences[END_REF][START_REF] Jacobs | The impact of mothers' gender role stereotypic beliefs on mothers' and children's ability perceptions[END_REF] have concluded that those gender differences in children's self-perceptions could be attributable, in part, to gender-related stereotypes held by their parents. Although gender stereotypes were not assessed directly, that outcome does not seem to be the case in that study insofar as the results demonstrated that mothers hold similar perceptions for their sons and for their daughters. It is possible that social changes over the past decade might account for this unique set of results. With the growing visibility of women in sport in Western societies, sport is probably considered to be less stereotypically masculine than it was previously. In any event, that seems to be the case for the French mothers in this study. In the United States, a similar tendency might exist. In a recent study [START_REF] Kimiecik | Parental beliefs and children's moderate-to-vigorous physical activity[END_REF] it was found that neither fathers nor mothers held gender-differentiated perceptions of their children's physical competence. Additional cross-cultural studies with other populations and with variables other than (or different from) perceived competence are necessary further to explore that question.

Was examined also the moderating role of gender in the relation between mother's perceptions of her child's ability and child's perceived physical competence. The multigroup analysis revealed that the interaction between mothers' perceptions and a child's gender was predictive of the child's perceived competence. The results indicated a significant relation between mothers and daughters but not between mothers and sons. To our knowledge, no studies have been used for the examination of the gender moderation effect in the relation between mother's perceptions and her child's perceived competence. However some studies have revealed that parental encouragement and involvement appear to be particularly important influences on same-gender children (e.g., [START_REF] Greendorfer | Race and gender differences in children's socialization into sport[END_REF][START_REF] Linver | Maternal predictors of early adolescent achievement related outcomes: Adolescent gender as a moderator[END_REF]McElroy & Kirkendall, 1980), which is consistent with our findings. Further studies are needed to confirm those results and especially to test if a symmetrical relation exists, namely that sons are more influenced by their fathers than by their mothers. Two possible explanations can be proposed to explain the current findings: (a) mothers produce differing sets of behaviors with regard to their sons than to their daughters and/or (b) sons are less sensitive to the perceptions and behaviors of their mothers. The first explanation can be evaluated with respect to the Bandura theory [START_REF] Bandura | Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory[END_REF][START_REF] Bussey | Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation[END_REF]. In that framework, child's gender development is influenced actively by parents and especially by the same-sex parent. For example, mothers talk more to their daughters than to their sons and use more supportive forms of speech with their daughters than with their sons [START_REF] Bussey | Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation[END_REF]. Consequently, a daughter can be more sensitive to the behaviors of her mother and thus can be affected more by mother's beliefs about her competency. According to the second proposition, it can be argued that boys might not consider their mothers, as compared to their fathers or coaches, as reliable sources of information from which to estimate their physical competence, especially if they consider that sport typically is a masculine domain 6 . Thus sons can be unaffected by differentiated perceptions and behaviors from their mothers. Therefore, the moderating effect of child's gender might be due either to a greater sensitivity by the girls and/or to a greater indifference by the boys, in relation to mothers' differentiated behaviors and perceptions. The data did not allow to make a conclusion in this matter and further studies will be necessary to explore that question. However, the results of this study highlight the importance of examining mothers' and fathers' influence separately.

Although special attention was devoted to methodological precaution, the results remains correlational in nature and causality cannot be inferred. Only experimental studies can provide a strong inference of causality because situational variables are controlled for by such designs. Although consistent efforts were made trying to control for relevant variables, particularly the child's objective physical performance, it always is possible that one relevant variable was omitted [START_REF] Judd | Data analysis model comparison approach[END_REF]. Furthermore, only mothers' influence was examined in this study which is why further study should take into account the simultaneous influences of several significant others.

Children's decisions to participate in physical activity and sport have important implications for their physical, psychological, and social development. Because perceived physical competence appears to be an important contributor to participatory involvement in this domain, it is important to identify contributors to those self-appraisals. The influence of mothers in shaping their child's perceived physical competence was supported by this investigation and the generalizability of previous research has been strengthened by the findings with a French sample. This finding is consistent with research in academic contexts (e.g., [START_REF] Eccles | Gender role stereotypes, expectancy effects, and parents' socialization of gender differences[END_REF][START_REF] Felson | The effect of parents on the self-appraisals of children[END_REF][START_REF] Jacobs | The impact of mothers' gender role stereotypic beliefs on mothers' and children's ability perceptions[END_REF] and further highlights the importance of examining parental socialization influence on children's and adolescents' motivation and performance in varying achievement contexts. However, mothers have been found to only influence their daughters, whereas mothers' influence on sons was not demonstrated. That result highlights the possible differential sensitivity of boys and girls to their mothers' socialization influence and this form of same-gender socialization influence warrants further investigation. Footnotes 1. As suggested by a reviewer, recent studies (Wigfield, Eccles, Yoon, Harold, Arbreton, et al., 1997, Jacobs, Lanza, Osgood, Eccles and[START_REF] Jacobs | Changes in children' s self-competence and values: Gender and domain differences across grades one through twelve[END_REF] using longitudinal data have showed that children self-perceptions of physical competence declined steadily across grades 1 through 12. Therefore it seems also necessary to control this variable in the model. Interested readers should see [START_REF] Wigfield | Changes in children's competence beliefs and subjective task values across the elementary school years: a three-year study[END_REF] and [START_REF] Jacobs | Changes in children' s self-competence and values: Gender and domain differences across grades one through twelve[END_REF], for more information on this domain. 2. Data were collected both from fathers and mothers but this report was limited to mothers only. Fathers' results were not presented because their sample was not large enough to meet statistical standards. 3. Covariance matrix used in this study is available from the first author. 4. Reliability estimates for the total scales are obtained by [START_REF] Bollen | Structural equations with latent variables[END_REF]) : ρ = (Σλi)² / ((Σλi)² + Σδii) where λi are the factor loading and δii the error variances. 5. As suggested by an anonymous reviewer, a model that included age as a control variable on mothers' perceptions and child's perceived competence at Wave 2, was tested. The model fits the data well. Age significantly predicted child's perceived competence at Wave 2 (β = -.28) but that association was not related significantly to mothers' perceptions. As this variable added only 1 % to the explained variance in the child's perceived competence at Wave 2, and significantly did not change any of the other paths within the model, it was decided to retain the original model for clarity. 6. Sport still is presented as a masculine domain, particularly in televised media sport coverage in which not only are there few images of female athletes, but in addition, women who participate in sports, especially activities considered as stereotypically inappropriate for women, often are depicted in a deprecatory manner [START_REF] Koivula | Gender stereotyping in televised media sport coverage[END_REF]. Moreover, female participation in sport continues to be far lower than that of males. For example, in France males constitute 66 % of the participants involved in organized sport activities (French Ministry for Youth and Sports in 1997).

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure Caption

Table 1 :

 1 Mean Ratings and Standard Deviations of Children's and Mothers' Variables. Note: * p<.05. *** p<.001. Child' s Perc. Comp =. Child's perceived physical competence

				Wave 1			.01	Wave 2
	.41	.60	.63	.72	.40	.19	(-.16/.09)
	.51 physical competence .95 Child's perceived .18 (.09/.11) Child's Physical Performance Length Sit up Dribble -.60 .77 .63	Mothers' perceptions of their child's ability R² = .35 (.24/.48***) .26* .29** (.43***/.34*) .42*** .47*** (.36**/.66***) (.65***/.05) Hurdl.. 2 items 2 items -.53 .90 .78	2 items .66 .59 physical competence .06 2 items .98 R² = .33 Child's perceived
		.10	.74

items 2 items

This study was facilitated by a grant from the Direction Départementale de la Jeunesse et des Sport 26 and the Comité Départemental Olympique et Sportif de la Drôme We thank Gerard Mels for his patient help and his extensive advice on Lisrel. We would also like to acknowledge Dr. Ellen Thornburg and three anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments on earlier versions of the manuscript.


Estelle Crochelet

Nadeem Nazurally

Laure Inçaby

Océane Desbonnes

Geoffrey Bertrand

Natacha Nikolic

Elasmobranchs survey in the Mascarene Archipelago (La Réunion, Mauritius, Rodrigues): creation of an observatory to improve scientific knowledge

Several species of rays and sharks evolve in the waters of the Mascarene archipelago (La Réunion, Mauritius, Rodrigues) but they remain little known. To compensate this lack of knowledge, the Mascarene Archipelago Elasmobranch Observatory (MAEO) has been created in 2021 to collect data on elasmobranchs biodiversity and distribution. It combines non-invasive sampling methods (360°c ameras and UVCs) and a sighting network. A total of 412 sightings of 994 individuals including 18 species of elasmobranchs were recorded from large time scale sightings (2012-2022).

Along with Madagascar, Comoros and Seychelles, the Mascarene archipelago is one of the main biodiversity hotspot of the Western Indian Ocean [START_REF] Myers | Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities[END_REF]. As a result its biodiversity is very important but threatened by anthropogenic activities [START_REF] Mauremootoo | Sate of the Hotspots : Mauritius Institutional Conservation Capacity[END_REF][START_REF] Letourneur | An updated checklist of the marine fish fauna of reunion island, southwestern Indian ocean[END_REF]. 59 species of rays and sharks have been identified in the archipelago: 15 rays and 44 sharks, among which more than 60% are threatened with extinction. The lack of knowledge of these populations makes conservation measures difficult to establish.

To fill this gap, the Mascarene Archipelago Elasmobranch Observatory (MAEO) has been created in 2021. It is the first scientific and educational project on elasmobranchs overall Mascarenes. Through the set-up of a sightings network and in-situ sightings, it provides updated data on the biodiversity of elasmobranchs and their spatial and temporal distribution. Several actions of sensitisation are also implemented for wide audience and school children to communicate on elasmobranchs biology and ecology, and their ecosystems around the Mascarene archipelago. Huge number of geographic locations around the islands has been explored (48 sites). A total of 116 cameras records and UVC have been carried out at La Réunion (26 sites), 57 at Mauritius (14 sites) and 11 at Rodrigues (8 sites). Considering records from cameras, UVC, and the sighting network, 323 elasmobranchs were detected at La Réunion (8 rays and 9 sharks species), 83 sightings at Mauritius (6 rays and 5 sharks species), and 6 sightings at Rodrigues (2 rays and 1 shark). Results show that observed species and specific diversity depend on the area. The western coast of La Réunion as well as northern and western Mauritius costs are the most suitable areas to observe elasmobranchs. Some ray species as Aetobatus ocellatus, Taeniura meyeni, and Pateobatis fai are very common in the archipaelago. Conversely, sharks are less frequently observed and differently recorded depending on the island: reef sharks as Triaenodon obesus and Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos are more observed at Mauritius, while bigger sharks as Carcharhinus leucas, Galeocerdo cuvier, and hammerheads (Sphyrna spp.) are more present at La Réunion. Moreover, sightings of some species as Mobula rays, Carcharhinus longimanus and Rhyncodon typus are uncommon and punctual in the Mascarenes.

19 elasmobranch species have been recorded so far in the Mascarene archipelago: 8 rays and 11 sharks. This represents 31% of the Mascarenes elasmobranch species. The setup of this observatory is a real success considering the number of records in the database in such a short time. Moreover, sightings have been crossed with environmental parameters in a study in progress and some of them seem to play a role in the abundance of species. Finally, this scientific and educational project shows the benefit of working in collusion with citizens (participatory science). First results revealed that species are different depending on the island and bring out the existence of some preferred areas, particularly on the West coasts of La Réunion and Mauritius. Future analysis in the context of MAEO will go in deeper to understand the link with environmental parameters and help to implement actions for their conservation and management.

Fig 6 .

 6 Fig 6. Distribution of elasmobranchs around La Réunion Fig 7. Distribution of elasmobranchs around Mauritius

Fig

  Fig 3. Sighting network flyer Fig 5. Underwater Visual Census (UVC) Fig 4. 360° cameras

Fig 2 .

 2 Fig 9. Rhynchobatus djiddensiis -Mauritius

Fig 1 .

 1 Fig 1. Rhincodon typus -Mauritius © Cédric Péneau


Valérie Camel

Marie-Noëlle Maillard

Jonathan Piard

Cécile Dumas

Mathieu Cladière

Gérôme Fitoussi

Emilie Brun

Isabelle Billault

Cécile Sicard-Roselli

CHIMACTIV: an open-source website for student-centered learning in analytical chemistry

Keywords: General public, Analytical Chemistry, Food Science, Drug / Pharmaceuticals, Laboratory Instruction, Distance Learning / Self Instruction, Internet / Web-Based Learning

The CHIMACTIV website (http://chimactiv.agroparistech.fr/) offers open educational resources related to analytical chemistry. It tackles a teaching problematic: how could we encourage students to be more involved in learning during teaching courses (especially during lab work) and provide deeper teacher-learner interactions during the sessions? With 30 digital bilingual (English/French) sheets classified in 5 topics (security in a chemistry lab, basics of manipulations, food analysis, drug analysis, and getting familiar with experimental methodologies), CHIMACTIV offers a great variety of media (scientific content, short videos, interactive schemes, pictures, games, quizzes and exercises) which are responsive whatever the digital medium (computer, tablet, smartphone). Depending on their educational objectives and their students' curricula, teachers can guide students towards the appropriate resources to consult before, during or after class and/or lab sessions, in order to strengthen backgrounds, build new scientific background or analyze data. These digital resources are also very useful for students aiming to self-train, for trainees in research labs, as well as for professionals working in a sector related to chemical analysis.

INTRODUCTION

Laboratory instruction is very important in analytical chemistry in order to acquire practical skills. [START_REF] Hofstein | The laboratory in chemistry education: thirty years of experience with developments, implementation, and research[END_REF] It is also the best way to train students to experimental approaches, as well as to metrology concepts since they have the opportunity to acquire their own data and thus to become aware of the bias and imprecision linked to the experiments. Yet, the time devoted to such sessions in some graduated chemistry programs has been decreasing in recent years, mainly due to associated costs or lack of preparation time as already reported. [START_REF] Boesdorfer | Secondary school chemistry teacher's current use of laboratory activities and the impact of expense on their laboratory choices[END_REF] Since learning outcomes remain the same in graduated curricula to fulfill professional skills, chemistry teachers need to find options to make experimental sessions more efficient, i.e. allowing students to benefit more from practical sessions and discussions with teachers in such situation. In the meantime, within graduate programs, the learners' audience is getting more and more heterogeneous (partly due to students coming from different topics) so that students enter these sessions with diverse background. In particular, they arrive in the laboratory without any safety notion, or any knowledge of the practical experiments they have to perform. Also, as already observed, [START_REF] Agustian | Reasserting the role of pre-laboratory activities in chemistry education: a proposed framework for their design[END_REF][START_REF] Jolley | Analytical Thinking, Analytical Action: Using Prelab Video Demonstrations and e-Quizzes To Improve Undergraduate Preparedness for Analytical Chemistry Practical Classes[END_REF] pre-laboratory work is a key issue to optimize experimental sessions. It allows students to anticipate what they will do in the lab and how, thereby increasing their self-confidence as they feel better prepared. Consequently, they are more involved in these sessions, and benefit from a subsequently improved and deeper learning. In such a context, we decided to provide students with appropriate assets so that they have the opportunity to train themselves before sessions. Since students are now digital natives, we created the open-source website CHIMACTIV (http://chimactiv.agroparistech.fr/) [START_REF] Camel | Innovation pédagogique : un site web pour progresser en labo de chimie. The Conversation France[END_REF] offering digital educational resources we designed and produced (students' preferences regarding interactive tools have been recently reported [START_REF] Veiga | Online pre-laboratory tools for first-year undergraduate chemistry course in Uruguay: student preferences and implications on student performance[END_REF] ). All these resources are gathered in 30 digital sheets, all available in bilingual versions (French / English).

OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD COVERED BY THE WEBSITE

Scientific field covered

CHIMACTIV is covering the field of chemical analysis, with special emphasis on complex matrices such as foods or drugs. Bearing in mind that the laboratory is a complex system for learning, [START_REF] Agustian | Reasserting the role of pre-laboratory activities in chemistry education: a proposed framework for their design[END_REF] we produced resources with different degrees of complexity as illustrated in figure 1.

The basics cover main aspects related to safety in the lab, as well as descriptions of basic equipment and tasks (e.g. performing a dilution). Consulting such resources before lab sessions enable students to become more familiar with lab environment and simple tasks, allowing them to perform more complex work during the courses. [START_REF] Camel | Innovation pédagogique : un site web pour progresser en labo de chimie. The Conversation France[END_REF] Of higher degree of complexity, concrete applications are presented with detailed experimental procedures, extensively illustrated by short videos; they focus on food and drug analysis, two major topics of interest in our programs. Finally, students can also find reflexive content linked to methodological aspects that are of great importance in master degrees.

Types of educational resources

As previously recommended, [START_REF] Agustian | Reasserting the role of pre-laboratory activities in chemistry education: a proposed framework for their design[END_REF] the resources cover experimental, theoretical and post-laboratory analysis aspects of laboratory work. Another major valuable aspect of CHIMACTIV lies in the great diversity for the types of resources it offers as illustrated in figure 2.

Besides details of scientific theories and principles underlying some phenomena, experimentations or equipment, the website enables visitors to experience active-learning thanks to numerous interactive schemes (mostly drag and drop). Several quizzes and exercises are also very useful for students to assess their understanding and knowledge retention. Then, short videos are also of great interest to present some theoretical concepts, to make some demonstrations of particular procedures to be performed by students during the sessions, to focus on some operational tasks of experiments or to detailed data analysis. For all videos, text transcripts with timeline are available as recommended, [START_REF] Veiga | Online pre-laboratory tools for first-year undergraduate chemistry course in Uruguay: student preferences and implications on student performance[END_REF] enabling students with auditory deficiency to train. The experimental approach is also explained and illustrated, to get the students familiar with the key steps of the whole approach before they assist to the experimental sessions, and to continue to guide them during the sessions. Finally, to make the web site exploration attractive, several games are also proposed or presented.

Target curricula

The website initially opened in December 2016 targeting mostly graduate students (master's degree programs in science). Later on, many discussions with chemistry teachers from undergraduate programs or even high schools clearly revealed their great interest in using such resources for their teaching. So, we have implemented our website in April 2019 with several new educational resources that cover a wider content of basics in chemical analysis, thereby ensuring enlargement of our teachers and learners audience.

THE WEBSITE CONTENT

General presentation

CHIMACTIV is organized in five main sections, directly accessible from the front page of the website and gathering different digital sheets: (i) security in a chemistry lab/2 sheets, (ii) basics of manipulations/15 sheets, (iii) food analysis/5 sheets, (iv) drug analysis/4 sheets, and (v) getting familiar with experimental methodologies/4 sheets. Another section dedicated to the general website presentation is also proposed, describing the genesis and content of the website; this section will soon (around Spring 2020) be implemented with proposals of pedagogical scenarii to facilitate the website integration in existing courses for teachers.

Several items and tools are proposed on each page as illustrated in figure 3, to ensure fast and easy overview of available resources on the website. A color code for each section is also adopted to facilitate tracking. Graphics and browsing within the website were initially tested by a pilot group of thirty students, in order to design attractive resources for them. Several generic tabs at the head of each page enable convenient and rapid browsing among the different contents and resources within each sheet. Supportive information 3 related to concepts and underlying theory are clearly distinguished from procedural information [START_REF] Agustian | Reasserting the role of pre-laboratory activities in chemistry education: a proposed framework for their design[END_REF] describing the apparatus and/or the different steps of the experiments to be conducted in the lab (e.g. "Introduction", "A bit of theory" tabs versus "Experimental procedure", "Illustrating theory" tabs). Direct access to the front page of either the current section or the website is also proposed on each page, along with direct access to the previous or forehead page. A mini-menu also authorizes to easily jump from one section to another. Real-time direct access to the language (French or English) on each page is greatly appreciated, both by students and teachers. A searching engine is also available and may be helpful for the new visitors. Finally, a satisfaction survey is proposed, helping us to acquire users' perceptions and commentaries, in order to regularly implement and optimize the website.

The safety in a chemistry lab section The section relative to security gathers two sheets which are very useful for students to consult before experimental sessions. Hence, the first sheet details the different options to protect oneself (e.g.

wearing laboratory coat and protective glasses) and the others (e.g. organizing working space on a laboratory bench, ranging a lab room); several recommendations in case of incidents are also given, as well as detailed information relative to safety materials (e.g. types of fire extinctors). Two short videos show concretely bad and correct behaviors to adopt in a chemistry laboratory.

The second sheet is related to the manipulation of hazardous chemical products: it details the hazard pictograms, the types of products classically found in a chemistry lab (organic solvents, reagents, toxic products, acids and bases) as well as the recommended storage conditions. It also presents the fate of solid and liquid wastes; for each type of waste, a decision tree is proposed to help students to choose the best management option.

The basic manipulations section

The section relative to the basics of manipulations is very extensive, with 15 sheets. Few of them focus on material or basic procedures (e.g. choosing lab equipment, preparing a dilution), with sometimes short videos to allow students to specifically visualize the performance of some operations.

Others sheets are more concerned with instruments or techniques (e.g. fluorescence, HPLC); in some cases, after a more or less detailed presentation of the theory and the relevant scientific principles, the apparatus part is illustrated (photos, schemes) and documented. In some sheets (vibrational spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance), data analysis procedure and spectra interpretation are also detailed.

It appears that this section is the most polyvalent in practice, with resources available by learners from different study levels. A proposal showing the possible study levels concerned by each of the 15 sheets of this section is illustrated in figure 4. Of course, this is only indicative, the levels concerned

The food analysis section The section related to food analysis gathers five sheets. The detailed and widely illustrated applications range from relatively general determinations (dry residue or proteins' content by Kjeldahl method) up to more specific analyses (quantification of vitamin E, oxidation state of fats or antioxidant activity of a plant extract). This section also includes a very complete sheet dealing with the analysis of a spring water, where different methods and their experimental procedures are detailed for determining several characteristics (hardness, conductivity, alkalimetric title) or measuring some parameters (contents of cations, anions, dissolved oxygen or even permanganate index).

The drug analysis section

The other applicative section is related to drug analysis. It offers four sheets, each related to a specific determination that is deeply detailed with the operating conditions: controlling the ascorbic acid purity using redox assay, ion-pair extraction or potentiometric titration of lidocaine hydrochloride, and spectrophotometric determination of paracetamol or sulfamethoxazole in galenic forms. Short videos enable to visualize in large plan the dosage during its execution, such as the mixing operation or titration during the analysis of ascorbic acid for example.

The experimental methodologies section

The last section is about getting familiar with experimental methodologies. It proposes four sheets.

Two of them are rather methodologic (managing a supervised experimental project, metrology) whereas the other two sheets are rather orientated towards applicative problematics (methodology of analyzing contaminants in complex matrices, or choosing and developing an extraction method).

TEACHING WITH CHIMACTIV

Back from our experience From around three years of using CHIMACTIV with our students from different graduated programs, we have designed several pedagogical scenarios. Of course, we engage the students to consult specific resources of the website before lab sessions. That way, they can get familiar with safety aspects as well as with key concepts and practical issues of the experiments they will perform in the lab. The responsive character of our resources authorizes the students to go back to the information required during the lab sessions, so that they can get the information "just-in-time", which is very helpful for conducting their experiments. We also use the website for flipping classroom.

Whatever the scenario, we have experienced that CHIMACTIV must be integrated to the overall teaching experience as recommended, [START_REF] Agustian | Reasserting the role of pre-laboratory activities in chemistry education: a proposed framework for their design[END_REF] otherwise the students will lack motivation to consult the resources over time.

Benefits for students

As already underlined, [START_REF] Agustian | Reasserting the role of pre-laboratory activities in chemistry education: a proposed framework for their design[END_REF] enabling students to engage in appropriate pre-activities before the lab sessions is benefit for learning. We clearly observed that students having used CHIMACTIV before the sessions were more prepared, and thus more engaged in the lab. [START_REF] Camel | Innovation pédagogique : un site web pour progresser en labo de chimie. The Conversation France[END_REF] Thereby discussions between the students and the professors are deeper than before as previously noticed by other authors. [START_REF] Teo | How flip teaching supports undergraduate chemistry laboratory learning[END_REF] Also, getting the information "just-in-time" should lead to a better retention of the information from a cognitive point of view. Hence, most of the students investigated declared having the feeling of the website being useful for achieving their learning objectives. 9

CONCLUSION

Our open-source website CHIMACTIV shows unique features that deserve interest and attention of both teachers and students concerned with chemical analysis. The diversity of the types of educational resources available along with their responsive character allow their use in different contexts. Flip teaching is one opportunity, both for classroom and laboratory. Traditional teaching is also concerned, with several resources being useful after class, to interpret data, write a laboratory report or prepare an exam.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Illustration of the scientific field covered by the CHIMACTIV website.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Illustration of the great diversity of the educational resources available on the CHIMACTIV website.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Details of items and tools enabling intuitive and easy navigation within a CHIMACTIV sheet.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors acknowledge all other persons that have participated in the production of the resources of the CHIMACTIV website: Pierre Giampaoli, Luc Eveleigh, Véronique Bosc, Paola Soto (Université Paris-Saclay, AgroParisTech); Christie Aroulanda, Jean-François Peyrat, Alain Danan, Nicolas Fouquet, Eric Pivert (Université Paris-Saclay, Université Paris-Sud); Natalia Alvarado (infographist) and Duke Software (web developer). They also acknowledge the Université Paris-Saclay for its funding (IDEX funding attributed on the different calls for projects « Former par le numérique » 2014, and « Initiatives pédagogiques -Transformer » 2016 & 2018).

by each sheet being dependent on the type of formation (initial or executive / general or specialized in chemistry), on the knowledge of the students and also on the pedagogical intention of the teacher.

AUTHOR INFORMATION Corresponding Author

*E-mail: valerie.camel@agroparistech.fr