Nicolas Payen

The Representation of Animals in the Qur'an and the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt

The following text is the final draft post-refereeing of Payen, Nicolas. "The Representation of Animals in the Qur'an and the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt." Journal of Qur'anic Studies 23

references, for it is [p. 114] difficult to assess to what extent it refers directly to the animal. Finally, though I do not take into account personal names or tribal names that refer to animals, such as Kalb or Thaʿlaba, toponyms, such as rawḍāt al-qaṭā ('the trough of the sandgrouse'), are included in the study, for they tie animals to a natural setting.

Let me now discuss the terms that I use to describe a given reference. First, an item will be classified either as a hyponym (a phrase whose semantic field is included within that of another phrase), a hypernym (a phrase whose semantic field includes that of another phrase), a proper noun, or a non-explicit reference. Other characteristics will be added, such as the significance of the reference in the discursive unit as, in some cases, the animal is central to the discursive unit, whereas, in others, it is part of the backdrop. If the animal features in comparisons or metaphors, the reference will be deemed as a 'background' one. On the other hand, if the animal is introduced into the text by textual digression, its appearance will be judged as a 'foreground' one, as it is subjected to a longer discussion. Nevertheless, there is no clear boundary between a metaphor and a digression, and scholarly understanding comes into play.

The deconstruction of the respective textual structures will enable us to characterise, through semiotic analysis, the Weltanschauung displayed in the Qur'an and the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt. The consistence of any discourse is reflected in its 'isotopy', that is 'a principle of consistence based on the repetition of units'. [START_REF]According to Catherine Kerbrat-Orecchioni's definition, which remodels Algirdas Julien Greimas's (Kerbrat-Orecchioni[END_REF] The way those units are repeated might be characteristic of the society for which the text was first intended. We can measure with precision the isotopic rate within an excerpt through what can be called 'semiotic compression', a fraction with the number of isotopes as its numerator and the length of the excerpt as its denominator. This method proves valuable when dealing with the representations of animals within texts displaying various themes, for not only does it allow us to assess the proportion of the discourse which is dedicated to the animal kingdom, but it enables us also to engage deeply when undertaking comparative analysis, taking into account many elements, such as the identity of the mentioned species and the associations between species within units. Thus, we will be able to go beyond the differences of nature between both texts, ensuring comparability.

The Extent of the Animal World in the Qur'anic Weltanschauung

In classical Arabic, the most common word used to refer to an animal is ḥayawān. In the Qur'an, this word only occurs once, in Q. 29:64, and does not have the same meaning, but refers instead to the afterlife. [START_REF]This fact has already been noticed by Ambros, 'Gestaltung und Funktionen[END_REF] In the following discussion of the way that the animal world is conceptualised in the Qur'anic Weltanschauung, I will conclude with an argument for why the Qur'an does not use this specific term to refer to an animal, even if it were in current usage at the time.

[p. 115] According to Ambros, the Qur'anic Weltanschauung does not formalise the concept of 'animal', as opposed to the concept of 'vegetation'. 10 Ambros attributes the absence of the concept of 'animal' to the diversity of the realities that it covers. [START_REF]Gestaltung und Funktionen[END_REF] In his view, it is therefore inaccurate to say that the Qur'an draws a clear dichotomy between plants and animals within the biosphere. [START_REF]Gestaltung und Funktionen[END_REF] Incidentally, it is also difficult to appreciate the scope of ḥayy, which occurs nine times with the general meaning of 'biosphere' according to Ambros, and the Qur'anic hapax anām (Q. 55:10). [START_REF]With regards to ḥayy, see Ambros[END_REF] In the third/ninth century, the Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ have defined anām as a category that encompasses both animals (ḥayawān) and plants (nabāt), but it is impossible to determine the meaning of the word at the time of the Prophet, for the Qur'anic clause does not offer enough indications. [START_REF] Al-Ṣafāʾ | [END_REF] Another term, dābba, which is derived from the root d-b-b, connoting a movement, generally slow, is also often used in the Qur'an to refer to an animal. [START_REF] Tlili | The Meaning of the Qur'anic Word "dābba[END_REF] Ambros does not manage to ascertain its signification: according to him, nothing in the Qur'an allows us to elucidate the scope of its meanings. [START_REF]Gestaltung und Funktionen[END_REF] Tlili, who seeks to show that the Qur'an considers human beings to be part of the animal world, reaches the same conclusion: it is impossible to establish indisputably the Qur'anic meaning of dābba. [START_REF] Tlili | The Meaning of the Qur'anic Word "dābba[END_REF] So, what kind of beings does the Qur'an encompass within its conceptualisation of the living world? Part of the answer is provided by Q. 2:164: God thereby revived (aḥyā) the earth after its death and dispersed all kinds of moving creatures (dābba) therein. God gives life to the earth, so that it becomes, so to speak, a living being. The earth denotes, metonymically, what lives on it, though the Qur'an makes a clear distinction between what is living, such as the earth, and what is moving, such as a dābba.

However, the Qur'an deals with mountains and birds in the same way, for it animates both in the same verses (Q. 21:79, Q. 34:10, and Q. 38:18-19). From looking at these verses, we get an indication that the Qur'anic conception of the biosphere is certainly different from the modern-day perspective, as it encompasses both the animal and the mineral kingdoms. The Qur'anic association of mountains with birds may be an invitation to look beyond the human level. [START_REF]Another instance of the association of mountains with birds features in Q. 2[END_REF] When one wants to admire a bird or a mountain, he must look up. Then he might realise that something is towering over him, and that a transcendent being might well do the same. The very subject of those verses is transcendence, and in them living creatures are envisioned as signs acting as mediating tools between the divinity and the human beings. [START_REF] According | the Qur'an, in line with Judaism, values birds more than other animals (Ambros[END_REF] In fact, birds are not the only animals to be associated with mountains, as we can see in Q. 88:17-20:

Then, do they not look at the camels (ibil), how they were created? And at the sky, how it was raised? And at the mountains, how they were erected? And at the earth, how it was spread out?

[p. 116] The collective noun ibil does not occur anywhere else, and the parallelism here between the camels, the sky, the mountains, and the earth is a hapax. The sky, the mountains and the earth are not static, but moving elements. Nature, as a whole, is animated. In this respect, the possession of life constitutes a temporary property of the body, rendered as an attribute (ḥayy). This is why the term ḥayawān, a substantive referring to an entity that is living by essence, is not a relevant, useful term in the Qur'an, except in the case in which it is used to refer to the afterlife (Q. 29:64), where life is not a temporary state, but an essential, lingering element.

To return to the word dābba, we cannot know whether or not the first audience of the Qur'an thought of dābba as a technical word, that is an uncommon phrase used because of its outstanding semantic precision, but it does seem to be the only word used in the Qur'an to refer to the class of land animals. [START_REF]Gestaltung und Funktionen', p. 324, has already noticed that dābba is typical of the suras dating from the end of the predication exclusively, when the Prophet[END_REF] Dābba and its plural dawābb occur eighteen times in the Qur'an, but apart from the two hyponymic uses of dābba, denoting, on the one hand, the beast from the earth in the context of the Last Judgement (Q. 27:82) and, on the other hand, a termite (Q. 34:14), dābba is preceded by the preposition min, twelve times out of sixteen. 21 This linguistic marker suggests that dābba refers to a particular category of beings. Five times, the Qur'an makes uses of the formal expression mā min dābba. 22 Dawābb appears twice in a clause introduced by the particle inna, expressing an assertion. 23 In this context, the word has a formal meaning. Elsewhere, it appears in an enumeration, together with the sun (shams), the moon (qamar), the stars (nujūm), the mountains (jibāl), the trees (shajar), and many human beings (kathīr mina'l-nās) (Q. 22:18). Inasmuch as dābba is a class, it can be argued that it carries a technical signification, which the Qur'an itself defines in Q. 24:45, God created every moving creature (dābba) from water. Of them are those that move on their bellies. Of them are those that walk on two legs. Of them are those that walk on four. If a word needs a definition, as it does in this verse, it indicates that its signification is not immediately obvious, thus clarification is useful so that the audience can correctly interpret statements that contain the term in the Qur'an. The gnomic context in which dābba can be found in this text rarely occurs in poetry, which does not seek to state general truths. To sum up, neither dābba and ḥayawān appear in the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, nor do the poems use any other word to refer to the animal kingdom as a whole.

The Position Allocated to the Animal World in the Qur'an

As discussed in the previous section, although the concept of animal is not defined as such, the Qur'an defines the word dābba, as opposed to the poems in the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, which do not consider the animal kingdom as a whole at all. In the Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, Herbert Eisenstein claims that 'animal life is not a predominant theme in the Qur'ān'. 24 Let us quantify this assumption.

[p. 117] Each occurrence referring to an animal is part of a 'discursive unit'. One can measure either the number of words, or the number of Qur'anic verses, or lines of poetry contained in the unit. The first measurement tool is more precise, as lines and verses do not contain the same number of words. On average, a line from the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt measures 9.2 words. Poem 15 has the smallest average, with 7.7 words, while poem 66 has the highest, with 11.6 words. In the Qur'an, a verse measures 12.4 words on average, but the statistical dispersion is higher, with a minimal average of 3.2 words for Sūrat ʿAbasa (Q. 80), and a maximum of 26.8 words for Sūrat al-Mumtaḥina (Q. 60). Therefore, on the quantitative level, it is not possible to compare poetry lines with Qur'anic verses. Thus, the word is the most suitable unit for comparison.

Defining a 'discursive unit' is a somewhat arbitrary process. Where are we to locate the transition from one unit to another? In the case of the comparison of one animal with another, or in the case of the description of a landscape teeming with different animals, the discursive units would be intertwined. Several occurrences may belong to a single discursive unit. The more one finds occurrences inside a single unit, the more the 'semiotic compression' grows. Some Qur'anic clauses begin with the imperative qul, 'Say!', or with a vocative. In this study, those beginnings will be regarded as part of the unit they introduce. The units sometimes end up with a clausula, a clause underlying some qualities ascribed to God. For instance, the excerpt on Jewish food prohibitions in Q. 6 which includes references to sheep, goats, camels, and cattle, ends up with the clause And indeed, We are truthful (wa-innā la-ṣādiqūna) at Q. 6:146. Here, there is no conspicuous link between the cited animals and God's truthfulness. Therefore, I do not regard these clausulae, which are rather standard formulae with prosodic purposes, as part of the discursive units that precede them. 25 Furthermore, I only take into account, as part of a single discursive unit, the verses that refer to an animal without being separated by one verse or more that do not imply keeping the previously-mentioned animal in mind. For instance, the units concerning the calf (ʿijl) revered by Moses's contemporaries (Q. 7:148 and Q. 7:152) are different. 26 Discursive units referring to animals only represent 3.7% of the Qur'an, whereas they account for 35.2% of the chosen anthology. 27 How are we to explain this significant difference? One could posit that animals may have mattered less in the life of the inhabitants of the Western Arabian Peninsula as a whole. However, in the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, poets coming from this specific region referred to animals as often as those from other regions did. 28 Hence, one can infer that the Western Arabian poets and the Qur'an did not endorse the same views on animals not because of their geographical differences, but because the texts did not have the same aim. In comparison with the Qur'an, the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt dedicate longer units to animals (see Table 1). In addition, semiotic compression in the poetic collection substantially exceeds that of the Qur'an. Thus, the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt are more interested in animals than the Qur'an, on both quantitative and qualitative grounds. Nevertheless, the result is substantially different if one considers the identity of the described animal. The longer units are those that the poets dedicate to their mounts, that is camels and horses.

[p. 118]

Although the longest unit does not mention any mount, the average length of the units mentioning no mount is clearly lower than that of the units mentioning explicitly the camel or the horse. In other words, apart from the poets' consideration for their mounts, the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt are not meaningfully more interested in animals than the Qur'an. The average length of the units mentioning no mount, in the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, is almost equal to that of the Qur'an. The camel and the horse are the only two animals that benefit from closer attention in poetry. In the Qur'an, the discursive units devoted to the camel average 24 words, as opposed to 19 words in the other units. 29 This statistical comparison shows that, in the Qur'an, the discourse focuses less on animals, whereas, in the collection of poems, the assessment is more complex, as the poets do not consider all animals with the same interest.

Figure 1 overleaf depicts a network model, edited using Gephi 0.9.2, which provides insight into the bestiary depicted by the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt. The more often an animal is mentioned in the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, the bigger the corresponding node; and the more often an animal is associated to another within discursive units, the thicker the link between them.

I have been able to identify four groups of animals, structured around three poles. A first group of nodes, coloured in blue, is polarised around the camel. The second, in red, is [p. 119] organised around the horse. A third, in green, is structured around the oryx. A last one gathers the independent animals that are not associated with the camel, the horse, or the oryx. In the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, 75 out of the 126 poems (60%) mention the camel, exclusive of camel meat, as the living animal, alone, is considered. Apart from the horse, the camel is mainly associated with the ostrich and the oryx, which figures in another pole, though this is secondary. The poets usually compare the camel to the ostrich to underline their mounts' speed; [START_REF] Mufaḍḍaliyyāt | Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, poem 11[END_REF] only one poet compares these two animals for another reason. 31 As eight out of the nine occurrences date back to the pre-Islamic period, we can assume that the comparison between the camel and the ostrich is an old one. 32 The poets compare the camel with the oryx for the same reasons, but this comparison is tied neither to a specific period or geographic area. 33 The poets also compare the horse with the oryx due to its speed in two poems. [START_REF] Mufaḍḍaliyyāt | [END_REF] In total, 70 poems (56%) mention the horse, mainly in a military context. [START_REF]Khayl often occurs in a military context: Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, poem 10, line 34; Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, poem 12[END_REF] Thus, Rabīʿa b. Maqrūm, a Central Arabian poet whose death would have occurred at the paleo-Islamic period, compares the enemy to a restive horse (ṭamūḥ). 36 Horses and war are combined to the point that, sometimes, poets do not bother to mention the animal explicitly. For instance, ʿAwf b. ʿAṭiyya, a pre-Islamic poet, uses a series of third-person feminine verbs in lines that describe military manoeuvers; he does not [p. 120] mention their subject, but it is clear from the context that mares are implicitly meant. [START_REF] Mufaḍḍaliyyāt | poem 124, lines 28[END_REF] There is another aspect to the poets' treatment of animals that is worthy of note: the only animals to possess proper nouns are horses and dogs. [START_REF]A caprine is an exception: Mufaḍḍaliyyāt[END_REF] Personified horses are associated with war. 39 It appears that horses, like sabres, are of service to humans on the battlefield, and are thus deserving of names. For instance, the pre-Islamic poet, ʿAlqama b. ʿAbada, who hails from Central Arabian Peninsula, quotes the name of the king's horse, al-Jawn, along with those of his sabres (suyūf), which are called Mikhdām and Rasūb. 40 In poetry, the horse assumes a role that is different from that of the camel. Whereas the camel is a means of transportation, the horse is a war mount. Consequently, the poets often associate the horse with the wolf, as comparison with this hunting animal highlights the horse's strong position on the battlefield, where it gives chase to the enemy. 41 As to the personified dogs, they all belong to a hunter. [START_REF] Mufaḍḍaliyyāt ; Miqlāʾ Al-Qanīṣ | The commonplace of generosity figures in the following poems: Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, poem 4, line 9; Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, poem 5, line 11; Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, poem 8, lines[END_REF] Although poets slaughter camels to provide for visitors, they never butcher horses, apart from a hapax: to boast about his braveness, ʿAlqama b. ʿAbada claims that he would sacrifice horses instead of camels for a game of chance. 43 This is presumably because the usefulness of horses in war makes them especially valuable to their owner: the horse is important because of the bonded unit that it forms with the warrior. As a result, the word khayl is often used to refer to both the horses and their riders.

As can be seen in Fig. 1, the oryx pole revolves around three main animals: the oryx, mentioned in 20 poems; the dog, mentioned in 16 poems; and the gazelle, mentioned in 17 poems. They are mentioned in a total of 39 poems (31%). We can also see that, in comparison with the camel pole and that of the horse, the oryx pole remains secondary. Furthermore, the oryx and the dog are connected, as are the oryx and the gazelle, but the dog and the gazelle are not. The oryx thus links two different environments that are specific to poetry: the universe of the hunt, and that of the women and the abandoned settlement.

To summarise, pre-Islamic and paleo-Islamic poets spotlight mounts due to the arrangement they form with man. In the poets' minds, the ideal animal is perpetually travelling. This vision is consistent with what one could expect from nomads or seminomads. The Qur'an does not deal with animals less than the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt; it is just that poetry has its favourite animals, the mounts, and they are subject to longer digressions. Additionally, in the Qur'an, a majority of occurrences place animals in the foreground of the discourse, whereas animals are generally background elements in the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt. [START_REF] Eisenstein | 62% of occurrences are deemed foreground ones in the Qur'an (see Appendix 1), as opposed[END_REF] Now, why does the Qur'an mention animals? According to Eisenstein, the Qur'an conceives animals as signs of God's omnipotence above all. 45 In line with this, the signified animal has no value other than as an allusion to God, the signifier. Tlili likewise underlines the primary semiotic value of a number of animals mentioned in the Qur'an, namely camels, livestock, bees, birds, and human beings. 46 Each of these [p. 121] brings to light a paradox that is deemed wonderful. For instance, bees sting, though they produce honey. 47 Indeed, a wide scope of animals can be deemed as signs for humans: How many a moving creature (dābba) does not carry its means of subsistence (rizq). God sustains it and you (Q. 29:60).

According to the Qur'an, every dābba succeeds in surviving because God gives it its provision. Addressing humans, the Qur'an specifies that this applies both to animals and to human beings. Animals have undoubtedly a semiotic dimension. The Qur'anic semiotisation of animals is supported by the fact that, in the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, animals acquire a semantic dimension from the paleo-Islamic period. [START_REF]Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, poem 37, lines 6[END_REF] Ambros defines four contexts into which animals can be divided: legends, prohibitions, sermons, and comparisons. [START_REF]This quadripartition is useful in that it covers the entirety of occurrences. 50 Eisenstein[END_REF] In the first case, the animal is only one element of the myth among others. In the second, the Qur'an only names the animal, without describing it much.

In the third case, the Qur'an uses animals as signs of God's power, wisdom, and mercy. (This categorisation agrees with Eisenstein's abovementioned remark on the semiotic dimension of animals.) The fourth case only concerns eleven occurrences, in which animals display mainly negative features. In three out of the four cases, the Qur'an does not consider the animal as a subject: prohibitions, sermons, and comparisons are directly related to the human beings. As for the legends, all of which come from foreign sources, they include four personifications, all in the same sura (Q. 27:16, 18, 22-26, and 82). Apart from the mention of the beast from the earth, Solomon is always involved. Solomon, who claims that he has been taught the language of birds, is depicted conversing with an ant and a hoopoe. Indeed, the ability to speak granted to animals sheds further light on Solomon's supernatural dispositions.

In addition to myths, comparisons, and their semiotic dimension, 'real' animals as referenced in the Qur'an happen to be of some kind of use to human beings, and the Qur'an regulates their use in order for humans to benefit from them. 50 According to Ambros, it endorses a utilitarian vision of animals, from the outset of the predication. 51 This view figures explicitly in Sūrat al-Anʿām, at Q. 6:142-144:

Of the livestock (anʿām) are carriers and beasts that ought to be slaughtered. Eat of that which God provided to you … [He provided to you] eight mates: of sheep, two; of goats, two; … of camels, two; of oxen, two.

The discursive unit of which Q. 6:142-144 is a part contains the highest number of references to animals, with eleven occurrences. [START_REF]Discursive unit no. 28 contains the following references to animals: anʿām (twice), farsh, ḥamūla, maʿz, ḍaʾn, ibil, baqar (twice), khinzīr, and ghanam. 53 Ambros[END_REF] The utilitarian vision is also reflected in Sūrat al-Naḥl, at Q. 16:5-8:

The livestock (anʿām) has He created for you. There is warmth and benefits in them. From them you eat. There is beauty in them for you, when you bring them home, and when you take them out to pasture.

[p. 122] They carry your loads to a land you could not have reached, except with hardship to yourselves. Indeed, your Lord is Kind, Merciful. [He created] the horses, the mules and the asses for you to ride them, and as adornment. He creates that which you do not know.

With four occurrences, this segment belongs to the 6% units that contain four or more occurrences. Whenever a reader wants to know the Qur'anic views on animals, it is likely that he or she will first consider the verses where they are most frequently mentioned, i.e. the passages where semiotic compression is highest, as in Q. 16:5-8. Semiotic compression thus reinforces the utilitarian vision of animals, which also happens less explicitly in a legendary context, for instance when God sends quails to Moses's group and advises them to eat the good things (ṭayyibāt).

To sum up, the Qur'an prizes animals as consumable goods at the disposal of humanity, and only discusses animals through, or in terms of, their relationship with humans. Like poetry, it does not take animals as its primary focus. However, unlike the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, the Qur'an's references to animals are scattered throughout the whole text, and systematically relegated to the background inasmuch as the text puts animals at the service of God and humankind.

The Qur'anic Bestiary as a System

The preceding assessment of the position allocated to the animal world in the Qur'an and in the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt has enabled us so far to demonstrate that both texts mainly consider animals through their relationship with humankind. This raises another question: to what extent does the Qur'anic bestiary convey information on the environment of the Qur'anic predication? Ambros hypothesises that the poets' bestiary differs from the Qur'anic one, as they belong to two different backgrounds: the steppe inhabited by a nomadic elite, and the sedentary environment of the Western Arabian Peninsula respectively. 53 Although such a simple dichotomy between nomadism and sedentarism may be far too simplistic, it can be recognised that two different environments imply two ways of conceiving the human relationship with animals, and this is not to say that they are not intertwined in one way or another. Given this, I will now explore the categorisation system endorsed by each text.

In order to understand the categorisation system endorsed by the Qur'an, the hypernyms referring to animals have been collected and sorted according to the number of times they occur (see Table 2).

The substantive rikāb ('mount'), could have been considered as a hypernym, though it refers specifically to the camel in the contexts it occurs, and therefore has not been included in the table. 54 Table 2 shows that references to domestic animals prevail over those to wild ones. The collective naʿam and its plural anʿām, meaning 'livestock', [p. 123] amount to 40% of the total hypernyms that stand for animals in the Qur'an.

Budn ('fattened livestock'), ghanam ('caprines'), and jawāriḥ ('hunting animals'), also refer to domestic animals, while sabuʿ ('predator'), ṣayd ('game'), and wuḥūsh ('wild beasts') are the only hypernyms that refer explicitly to wild animals, and are the fewest. Apart from sabuʿ, all of the aforementioned words conceptualise animals in terms of their relationship with humankind: livestock (naʿam, ghanam, and budn) is to be raised, and then slaughtered; game (ṣayd) is to be hunted by humans; hunting animals (jawāriḥ) assist their masters; wild animals (wuḥūsh) are so called because they are untamed by humans. As for the two other hypernyms, ṭāʾir and dābba, they come from animals' movement: they fly, or they walk the earth. In other words, the Qur'anic hypernyms can be classified in two categories. On the one hand, the hypernyms grounded in the relationship with humankind represent 45 occurrences. On the other hand, the hypernyms based on physical characteristics stand for 39 occurrences. 55 Whereas hypernyms stand for about 41% of the references to animals in the Qur'an, they only account for about 10% in the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt (see Table 3). This suggests that the Qur'an conceptualises animals in a more generic, and therefore distanced, way than poetry. The Qur'an's high rate of hypernyms hints at its tendency to categorise the world, which may be explained by the very nature of the scripture. The hypernyms based on a phenotypic or environmental characteristic stand for about 4% of the references to animals in the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, as opposed to 20% with regard to the Qur'an. 58 Although the Qur'anic categorisation is devoid of any large-scale naturalistic ambition, for it is only based on nine hypernyms, five of which are determined by the human relationship with animals, the Qur'an's use of classes reflects an endeavour to grasp the universe conceptually. Poetry includes hypernyms based on an individual feature, such as age or fecundity, due to a higher individualisation of animals.

[ In the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, identification of animals through their mode of locomotion is a minor trope, so, for example, the use of ṭāʾir, which refers to a flying creature, and, more specifically, to a bird, is less frequent. 59 Generally, in the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, ṭāʾir/ṭayr has a hypernymic meaning: no one species of bird can be visualised more than another. 60 Thus, in Salama b. al-Khurshub's poem, ṭāʾir is clearly used to refer to a bird of prey, presumably an eagle, for the mount is compared with the latter for its speed. 61 In contrast, Suwayd b. Abī Kāhil, who lived both in the pre-Islamic and in the [p. 125] paleo-Islamic period, in Iraq, includes ṭāʾir in the idiom ṭāʾir al-itrāf, 'the bird of opulence', 62 and in ʿAwf b. ʿAṭiyya's pre-Islamic ode, ṭāʾir means a bird of ill omen, specifically. 63 (The Qur'an equally features this latter meaning in Q. 7:131.) Finally, in Thaʿlaba b. Ṣuʿayr's poem, ṭāʾir denotes a cockerel, for the poet depicts a bird singing in the small hours. 64 Stylistic conventions may have compelled the poet to use the hypernymic ṭāʾir instead of dīk ('cockerel'), fostering the non-hypernymic use of a word that has, initially, a hypernymic meaning. Therefore, theoretically, words with a hypernymic meaning must occur more frequently in poetry than they do in natural language.

To sum up, the use of hypernyms in poetry seems to be mainly motivated by stylistic constraints, whereas their use in the Qur'an seems to be mainly motivated by the cosmological perspective of the predication. Stylistic constraints, in poetry, enable frequent mention of some animals, notably those with a short name. The frequency with which the poets use khayl ('horses', or, metonymically, 'riders'), may be due to the brevity of the word. [START_REF]Khayl and its dual form, khaylān, are the most frequent words referring to animals in the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, with 38 occurrences. A pre-Islamic poet, al-Ḥuṣayn b. al-Ḥumām, who hails from the Western Arabian Peninsula, uses the word three times[END_REF] With only two syllables, it turns out to be practical in terms of metrics. In the Qur'an, the camel and the horse, the poets' favourite mounts, only represent 16% of the occurrences referring to animals. The scripture rather values livestock (camels, bovines, goats, and sheep), for it stands for 43% of the occurrences (see Fig. 2).

For example, naʿam/anʿām occurs 34 times (16.5% of the occurrences) in the Qur'an, in which it refers to livestock in a general sense, whereas it had previously, in earlier times, been restricted to camels. [START_REF] Benkheira | [END_REF] The word anʿām is defined by the Qur'an itself as encompassing camels, bovines, sheep, and goats in Q. 6:142-144, meaning that in the Qur'anic era, the signification of the hypernym had enlarged. The root n-ʿ-m covers positive ideas, such as comfort and luxury. 67 Likewise, the word māl, which formerly meant a 'flock' and occurs 86 times in the Qur'an, including the plural amwāl, ended up referring to 'wealth'. Considering the scarcity of historical sources dating back to early Islam, it is hard to date the formation of this acceptation. However, one can ascertain that livestock was associated from early on with the positive idea of wealth. A man's wealth was measured by the size of his herd. Thus, generous men, who slaughtered camels one after the other, were praised in pre-Islamic times. 68 The anthology supports such a conceptualisation. [START_REF] Mufaḍḍaliyyāt | poem 4, line 9; Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, poem 5, line 11; Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, poem 8, lines[END_REF] In Qur'anic times, livestock goes on being perceived as a form of wealth, as in Q. 22:28:

[Proclaim to the pilgrims] that they may witness benefits for them and mention the name of God, on known days, over what He has provided for them of livestock (bahīmat al-anʿām). So, eat of them and feed the wretched poor.

In this verse, the Qur'an addresses wealthy people, who are able to slaughter part of their livestock and to donate it to the poor. In its diatribe against Muḥammad's [p. 126] half-paternal uncle, the Qur'an underlines that his wealth was useless: May Abū Lahab's hands perish! May he perish! His flocks (māl) and what he has earned avail him not. He shall enter a blazing fire (Q. 111:1-3). 70 [p. 127] To sum up, the poets' bestiary fits the fauna of the steppe, inhabited by a nomadic elite, which valued expensive mounts. This also fits with the general picture created by animal engravings from Central Arabian Peninsula, which were undoubtedly drawn up by nomads, for they represent mounts rather than livestock. 72 In contrast, the Qur'anic bestiary largely relies on imagery relating to animal husbandry, similar to Biblical imagery, which might have been more appealing to the Western Arabian audience. The Qur'an deals with animals collectively, as can be seen in the fact that two thirds of the occurrences referring to animals in the sacred book are either in the plural or dual, as opposed to half of those in the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt. 73 When the Qur'an uses an animal as a background element, less important than the narrative, it always appears to be a domestic one: a calf (ʿijl) brought to the angels by Abraham after his son's birth (Q. 11:69 and Q. 51:26), a camel caravan (ʿīr) in the background of Joseph's story (Q. 12:94), the dog (kalb) belonging to the People of the Cave (Q. 18:18), the sheep (ghanam) that Moses guided with his crook (Q. 20:18), or the pilgrims' lean mounts (ḍāmir) (Q. 22:27). None of these elements directly relate to Muḥammad's lifetime, though a significant part of the Qur'an deals with it. Nevertheless, the latter reference is very interesting, as the mounts are considered as a regular means of transportation. I will discuss this verse in conclusion.

Conclusion

In Sūrat al-Ḥajj, God supposedly assigns the announcement of the pilgrimage to Abraham: And proclaim to the people the pilgrimage (ḥajj); they shall come to you on foot and upon all lean mounts (ḍāmir), coming from all deep passes (Q. 22:27). Although this commandment is projected as taking place in a distant past, the clear analogy between Abraham's environment and Muḥammad's suggests that the mention of 'lean mounts' should reflect the setting of Muḥammad's predication. The word ḍāmir does not appear anywhere else in the Qur'an and, whereas poets frequently use independent adjectives to refer to an animal, this is rarer in the Qur'an. [START_REF]For a list of metonymies in the Qur'an, see Bauer[END_REF] Therefore, this verse raises a question: why are the mounts depicted as lean ones? Early commentators do not provide any explicit answer to this question. [START_REF] Sulaymān | [END_REF] Nonetheless, Thomas Bauer pointed out possible similarities between this verse and poetic constructions. [START_REF] Bauer | The Relevance of Early Arabic Poetry', pp. 707-713. His main concern is the meaning of kull, which he translates as 'all those[END_REF] As it happens, the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt turn out to be a useful tool for comparison. Thaʿlaba b. Ṣuʿayr, a poet from the Central Arabian Peninsula, applies the adjective ḍāmir to two different animals in the same poem. On the one hand, he highlights the leanness of a she-camel (ḥarf ḍāmir). 77 On the other hand, the adjective is applied to a farseeing steed (shayyiʾān ḍāmir). 78 A reason for the leanness of the mounts is given by al-Akhnas b. Shihāb, a pre-Islamic poet who lived in Mesopotamia: 79 They drink our milk in the evening, and again in the morning. The ride has made them lithe (qubb) and lean (shawāzib).

[p. 128] The two hemistiches, separated by the conjunction fa-, express two different ideas. In the first hemistich, the poet stresses the attention that is delivered to the mounts. In the second one, he focuses on the optimisation of their ride. The good treatments were meaningful on condition that the horses were pushed to the brink of exhaustion. This verse exemplifies one of the pre-Islamic favourite topoi: the description of the emaciated mount as a result of an exhausting ride. [START_REF]See, for instance[END_REF] This topos even survived the beginning of Islam. [START_REF]Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, poem 26, lines 18 and 62, attributed to ʿAbda b. al-Ṭabīb (paleo-Islamic period); Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, poem 123, line 18[END_REF] The comparison between the poems and the Qur'an thus allows us to establish that the scripture, in exhorting pilgrims to race to the sacred mosque (al-masjid al-ḥarām), appreciates the indispensable emaciation of the mounts for the sake of faith. Both the anthology and the Qur'an approach animals in utilitarian terms, but the Qur'an defends greater control over the flocks: whereas poets boast about the freedom of their herds, the Qur'an disapproves of livestock going astray and it forbids the common pre-Islamic practice of freeing a camel on special occasions. 82 This element tallies with the fact that the Qur'an promotes community affiliation as opposed to individualism. In the same way that praiseworthy human beings form a community of believers, animals form communities (Q. 6:38). From the Qur'anic viewpoint, every animal is of potential usefulness to humans, as supplies or as instruments of war. 83 Therefore, it denounces the useless accumulation of animals, such as Solomon's obsession with steeds which distracts him from the remembrance of God. 84 Overall, the Qur'anic representation of animals contrasts sharply with the poets' viewpoint. As opposed to the Prophetic traditions, the Qur'an does not give any clue regarding the way one should treat animals. [START_REF]Q. 5:103 (freeing a camel). In pre-Islamic times, certain kinds of livestock were consecrated to God, and were called sāʾiba, waṣīla, or ḥām[END_REF] Although poetry does not have prescriptive aspirations, a few poets describe animals complaining about mistreatment at the hands of humans. 86 On the other hand, Rabīʿa b. Maqrūm, a paleo-Islamic poet living in the Central Arabian Peninsula, praises the mounts for not complaining about being injured. 87 The Qur'an takes on more distanced views regarding animals, not dealing with them as individuals, but collectively. As I have demonstrated, the Qur'an departs from the nomadic Weltanschauung and supports pastoral conceptions of animals that are associated with the prophetic archetype. Prophets are occasionally portrayed as shepherds: after entering prophetic history in Q.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Network model representing the bestiary of the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt.

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Network model representing the bestiary of the Qur'an.These verses testify to a change in attitude from pre-Islamic poetry. According to the Qur'an, a man's status is not proportionate to the size of his herd. (The Qur'an refers to cattle more than any other kind of animal, for livestock represents human riches.) The Qur'anic discourse favours intangible over tangible capital, in the context of an eschatological perspective, which poetry does not embrace. Acting as a foil, livestock embodies some behaviours, such as misguidance (Q. 7:179 and Q. 25:44) and gluttony (Q. 47:12 and Q. 56:55).[START_REF] According To Tlili | 134, the Qur'anic references to misguided livestock can be explained by the beasts' common wandering at that time. Although a comparison with the Biblical corpus may be hard with respect to the context, it[END_REF]

Table 1 : Data relating to the discursive units that mention animals in the Qur'an and the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt.

 1

		Number	Average	Longer unit	Semiotic
		of units	length		compression
					(number of
					references to animals
					per unit)
	Qur'an	143	20 words; 1.7 verse	159 words; 13 verses	𝟐𝟎𝟔 𝟏𝟒𝟑	≈ 𝟏. 𝟒
	Mufaḍḍaliyyāt	368	23 words; 2.6 lines	199 words; 22 verses	𝟔𝟖𝟔 𝟑𝟔𝟖	≈ 𝟏. 𝟗
	Units mentioning explicitly the camel	113	40 words; 3.6 lines	182 words; 22 verses	272 110	≈ 2.5
	Units mentioning explicitly the horse	120	26 words; 3 lines	166 words; 20 verses	247 93	≈ 2.7
	Units mentioning no mount	134	16 words; 1.9 line	199 words; 21 verses	202 136	≈ 1.5

Table 2 : Frequency of hypernyms in the Qur'an.

 2 What about poetry?

	Expression	Number of
		occurrences
	Naʿam/anʿām	34
	Ṭāʾir/ṭayr 56	23
	Dābba/dawābb 57	16
	Ṣayd	5
	Ghanam	3
	Budn	1
	Jawāriḥ	1
	Sabuʿ	1
	Wuḥūsh	1
	Total	85

Table 3 : Frequency of hypernyms in the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt.

 3

  Appendix 1: List of References to Animals in the Qur'an

	37:107, when God replaces Abraham's son with a beast that exegetical tradition identifies with a ram, 88 sheep are tended by Moses in Q. 20:18, and finally become the objects of judgements that David and Solomon pronounced in Q. 21:78 and Q. 38:23-24. Sheep thus constitute a standard object of regulation that is emblematic of the prophetic tradition that Muḥammad follows, as this is attested in his discussion of the restrictions that Meccans impose on themselves, along with Jewish food prohibitions, in Q. 6:142-Abbreviations: Hypo.: hyponym. Hyper.: hypernym. Fg.: foreground. Bg.: background. Sg.: singular. Pl.: plural. Word Type Environment Sura Verse Significance Number Unit baʿūḍa Hypo. Wild 2 26 Bg. Sg. 1 ʿijl Hypo. Domestic 2 51 Bg. Sg. 2 ʿijl Hypo. Domestic 2 54 Bg. Sg. 3 salwā Hypo. Wild 2 57 Fg. Pl. 4 qirada Hypo. Unknown 2 65 Fg. Pl. 5 baqara Hypo. Domestic 2 67 Fg. Sg. 6 baqara Hypo. Domestic 2 68 Fg. Sg. 6 baqara Hypo. Domestic 2 69 Fg. Sg. 6 baqar Hypo. Domestic 2 70 Fg. Pl. 6 baqara Hypo. Domestic 2 71 Fg. Sg. 6 ʿijl Hypo. Domestic 2 92 Bg. Sg. 7 ʿijl Hypo. Domestic 2 93 Bg. Sg. 7 dābba Hyper. Unknown 2 164 Fg. Pl. 8 khinzīr Hypo. Domestic 2 173 Fg. Sg. 9 ḥimār Hypo. Domestic 2 259 Fg. Sg. 10 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 2 260 Fg. Pl. 11 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 3 14 Fg. Pl. 12 khayl Hypo. Domestic 3 14 Fg. Pl. 12 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 3 49 Fg. Pl. 13 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 3 49 Fg. Pl. 13 dharra Hypo. Wild 4 40 Bg. Sg. 14 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 4 119 Fg. Pl. 15 ʿijl Hypo. Domestic 4 153 Bg. Sg. 16 bahīmat al-anʿām Hyper. Domestic 5 1 Fg. Pl. 17 ṣayd Hyper. Wild 5 1 Fg. Pl. 17 khinzīr Hypo. Domestic 5 3 Fg. Sg. 18 sabuʿ Hyper. Wild 5 3 Fg. Sg. 18 jawāriḥ Hyper. Domestic 5 4 Fg. Pl. 19 ghurāb Hypo. Wild 5 31 Fg. Sg. 20 ghurāb Hypo. Wild 5 31 Fg. Sg. 20 qirada Hypo. Unknown 5 60 Fg. Pl. 21 khanāzīr Hypo. Domestic 5 60 Fg. Pl. 21 ṣayd Hyper. Wild 5 94 Fg. Pl. 22 naʿam Hyper. Domestic 5 95 Fg. Pl. 22 ṣayd Hyper. Wild 5 95 Fg. Pl. 22 [p. 135] ṣayd al-barr Hyper. Wild 5 96 Fg. Pl. 22 ṣayd al-baḥr Hyper. Wild 5 96 Fg. Pl. 22 baḥīra Hypo. Domestic 5 103 Fg. Pl. 23 ḥām Hypo. Domestic 5 103 Fg. Pl. 23 sāʾiba Hypo. Domestic 5 103 Fg. Pl. 23 waṣīla Hypo. Domestic 5 103 Fg. Pl. 23 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 5 110 Bg. Pl. 24 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 5 110 Bg. Pl. 24 dābba Hyper. Unknown 6 38 Fg. Pl. 25 ṭāʾir Hyper. Wild 6 38 Fg. Pl. 25 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 6 136 Fg. Pl. 26 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 6 138 Fg. Pl. 27 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 6 138 Fg. Pl. 27 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 6 138 Fg. Pl. 27 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 6 139 Fg. Pl. 27 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 6 142 Fg. Pl. 28 farsh Hypo. Domestic 6 142 Fg. Pl. 28 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 6 142 Fg. Pl. 28 ḥamūla Hypo. Domestic 6 142 Fg. Pl. 28 maʿz Hypo. Domestic 6 143 Fg. Pl. 28 ḍaʾn Hypo. Domestic 6 143 Fg. Pl. 28 ibil Hypo. Domestic 6 144 Fg. Pl. 28 baqar Hypo. Domestic 6 144 Fg. Pl. 28 khinzīr Hypo. Domestic 6 145 Fg. Sg. 28 baqar Hypo. Domestic 6 146 Fg. Pl. 28 ghanam Hyper. Domestic 6 146 Fg. Pl. 28 jamal Hypo. Domestic 7 40 Bg. Sg. 29 nāqa Hypo. Domestic 7 73 Fg. Sg. 30 nāqa Hypo. Domestic 7 77 Fg. Sg. 31 thuʿbān Hypo. Wild 7 107 Fg. Sg. 32 ṭāʾir Hyper. Wild 7 131 Bg. Sg. 33 ḍafādiʿ Hypo. Wild 7 133 Fg. Pl. 34 qummal Hypo. Wild 7 133 Fg. Pl. jarād Hypo. Wild 7 133 Pl. 34 ʿijl Hypo. Domestic 7 148 Fg. Sg. 35 ʿijl Hypo. Domestic 7 152 Bg. Sg. 36 salwā Hypo. Wild 7 160 Fg. Pl. 37 ḥītān Hypo. Wild 7 163 Fg. Pl. 38 qirada Hypo. Unknown 7 166 Fg. Pl. 39 kalb Hypo. Domestic 7 176 Bg. Sg. 40 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 7 179 Bg. Pl. 41 dawābb Hyper. Unknown 8 22 Fg. Pl. 42 [p. 136] dawābb Hyper. Unknown 8 55 Fg. Pl. 43 khayl Hypo. Domestic 8 60 Fg. Pl. 44 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 10 24 Bg. Pl. 45 dharra Hypo. Wild 10 61 Bg. Sg. 46 dābba Hyper. Unknown 11 6 Fg. Pl. 47 dābba Hyper. Unknown 11 56 Fg. Pl. 48 nāqa Hypo. Domestic 11 64 Fg. Sg. 49 ʿijl Hypo. Domestic 11 69 Bg. Sg. 50 dhiʾb Hypo. Wild 12 13 Bg. Sg. 51 dhiʾb Hypo. Wild 12 14 Bg. Sg. 51 dhiʾb Hypo. Wild 12 17 Bg. Sg. 52 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 12 36 Bg. Pl. 53 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 12 41 Bg. Pl. 54 baqarāt Hypo. Domestic 12 43 Bg. Pl. 55 baqarāt Hypo. Domestic 12 46 Bg. Pl. 55 baʿīr Hypo. Domestic 12 65 Bg. Sg. 56 ʿīr Hypo. Domestic 12 70 Bg. Pl. 57 baʿīr Hypo. Domestic 12 72 Bg. Sg. 57 ʿīr Hypo. Domestic 12 94 Bg. Pl. 58 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 16 5 Fg. Pl. 59 ḥamīr Hypo. Domestic 16 8 Fg. Pl. 59 khayl Hypo. Domestic 16 8 Fg. Pl. 59 bighāl Hypo. Domestic 16 8 Fg. Pl. 59 dābba Hyper. Unknown 16 49 Fg. Pl. 60 dābba Hyper. Unknown 16 61 Fg. Pl. 61 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 16 66 Fg. Pl. 62 naḥl Hypo. Unknown 16 68 Fg. Pl. 63 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 16 79 Fg. Pl. 64 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 16 80 Fg. Pl. khinzīr Hypo. Domestic 16 115 Fg. ṭāʾir Hyper. Wild 17 Bg. 67 nāqa Hypo. Domestic 17 59 Fg. Sg. 68 khayl Hypo. Domestic 17 64 Bg. Pl. 69 kalb Hypo. Domestic 18 18 Bg. Sg. 70 kalb Hypo. Domestic 18 22 Bg. Sg. 71 kalb Hypo. Domestic 18 22 Bg. Sg. 71 kalb Hypo. Domestic 18 22 Bg. Sg. 71 ḥūt Hypo. Wild 18 61 Fg. Sg. 72 ḥūt Hypo. Wild 18 63 Fg. Sg. 72 ghanam Hyper. Domestic 20 18 Bg. Pl. 73 ḥayya Hypo. Wild 20 20 Fg. Sg. 73 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 20 54 Fg. Pl. 74 [p. 137] salwā Hypo. Wild 20 80 Fg. Pl. 75 ʿijl Hypo. Domestic 20 88 Fg. Sg. 76 ghanam Hyper. Domestic 21 78 Bg. Pl. 77 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 21 79 Bg. Pl. 77 nūn Hypo. Wild 21 87 Bg. Sg. 78 dawābb Hyper. Unknown 22 18 Fg. Pl. 79 ḍāmir Hypo. Domestic 22 27 Bg. Pl. 80 bahīmat al-anʿām Hyper. Domestic 22 28 Fg. Pl. 80 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 22 30 Fg. Pl. 81 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 22 31 Bg. Pl. 82 bahīmat al-anʿām Hyper. Domestic 22 34 Fg. Pl. 83 budn Hyper. Domestic 22 36 Fg. Pl. 84 dhubāb Hypo. Wild 22 73 Bg. Pl. 85 dhubāb Hypo. Wild 22 73 Bg. Pl. 85 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 23 21 Fg. Pl. 86 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 24 41 Bg. Pl. 87 dābba Hyper. Unknown 24 45 Fg. Pl. 88 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 25 44 Bg. Pl. 89 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 25 49 Bg. Pl. 90 thuʿbān Hypo. Wild 26 32 Fg. Sg. 91 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 26 133 Fg. Pl. 92 nāqa Hypo. Domestic 26 155 Fg. Sg. 93 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 27 16 Bg. Pl. 94 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 27 17 Bg. Pl. 94 naml Hypo. Wild 27 18 Pl. 94 naml Hypo. Wild 27 18 Fg. Pl. 94 namla Hypo. Wild 27 18 Fg. Sg. 94 hudhud Hypo. Unknown 27 20 Fg. Sg. 94 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 27 20 Fg. Pl. 94 ṭāʾir Hyper. Wild 27 47 Bg. Sg. 95 dābba Hypo. Unknown 27 82 Fg. Sg. 96 ʿankabūt Hypo. Wild 29 41 Bg. Sg. 97 ʿankabūt Hypo. Wild 29 41 Bg. Sg. 97 dābba Hyper. Unknown 29 60 Fg. Pl. 98 dābba Hyper. Unknown 31 10 Fg. Pl. 99 ḥamīr Hypo. Domestic 31 19 Fg. Pl. 100 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 32 27 Bg. Pl. 101 dharra Hypo. Wild 34 3 Bg. Sg. 102 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 34 10 Bg. Pl. 103 [p. 138] dābbat al-arḍ Hypo. Wild 34 14 Bg. Sg. 104 dharra Hypo. Wild 34 22 Bg. Sg. 105 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 35 28 Bg. Pl. 106 dawābb Hyper. Unknown 35 28 Bg. Pl. 106 dābba Hyper. Unknown 35 45 Fg. Pl. 107 ṭāʾir Hyper. Wild 36 19 Bg. Sg. 108 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 36 71 Fg. Pl. 109 dhibḥ Hypo. Domestic 37 107 Bg. Sg. 110 ḥūt Hypo. Wild 37 142 Fg. Sg. 111 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 38 19 Fg. Pl. 112 naʿja Hypo. Domestic 38 23 Fg. Pl. 113 naʿja Hypo. Domestic 38 23 Fg. Sg. 113 naʿja Hypo. Domestic 38 24 Fg. Sg. 113 niʿāj Hypo. Domestic 38 24 Fg. Pl. 113 ṣāfināt jiyād Hypo. Domestic 38 31 Fg. Pl. 114 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 39 6 Fg. Pl. 115 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 40 79 Fg. Pl. 116 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 42 11 Bg. Pl. 117 dābba Hyper. Unknown 42 29 Fg. Pl. 118 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 43 12 Fg. Pl. 119 dābba Hyper. Unknown 45 4 Fg. Pl. 120 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 47 12 Bg. Pl. 121 ʿijl Hypo. Domestic 51 26 Bg. Sg. 122 jarād Hypo. Wild 54 7 Bg. Pl. 123 nāqa Hypo. Domestic 54 27 Fg. Sg. 124 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 56 21 Bg. Pl. 125 hīm Hypo. Domestic 56 55 Bg. Pl. 126 rikāb Hypo. Domestic 59 6 Bg. Pl. 127 khayl Hypo. Domestic 59 6 Bg. Pl. 127 ḥimār Hypo. Domestic 62 5 Bg. Sg. 128 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 67 19 Fg. Pl. 129 ḥūt Hypo. Wild 68 48 Bg. Sg. 130 ḥumur Hypo. Unknown 74 50 Bg. Pl. 131 qaswara Hypo. Wild 74 51 Bg. Pl. 131 jimālat Hypo. Domestic 77 33 Bg. Pl. 132 sābiqāt Hypo. Domestic 79 4 Bg. Pl. 133 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 79 33 Fg. Pl. 134 anʿām Hyper. Domestic 80 32 Fg. Pl. 135 ʿišār Hypo. Domestic 81 4 Bg. Pl. 136 wuḥūsh Hyper. Wild 81 5 Bg. Pl. 136 [p. 139] ibil Hypo. Domestic 88 17 Fg. Pl. 137 nāqa Hypo. Domestic 91 13 Fg. Sg. 138 dharra Hypo. Wild 99 7 Bg. Sg. 139 dharra Hypo. Wild 99 8 Bg. Sg. 139 ʿādiyāt Hypo. Domestic 100 1 Fg. Pl. 140 farāsh Hypo. Wild 101 4 Bg. Pl. 141 fīl Hypo. Unknown 105 1 Bg. Sg. 142 ṭayr abābīl Hypo. Unknown 105 3 Fg. khawṣāʾ N. Expl. Domestic 5 14 Fg. Pl. 14 fanīq Hypo. Domestic 5 Bg. Sg. 14 hayq Hypo. Wild 10 20 Bg. Sg. 32 maṭiyy Hyper. Domestic 10 25 Fg. Pl. 32 ghazāl Hypo. Wild 16 6 Bg. Sg. 51 baʿīd N. Expl. Domestic 16 Fg. Sg. 52 midhʿān Hypo. Domestic 21 24 Fg. Sg. 79 qarm Hypo. Domestic 21 24 Bg. Sg. 79 maṭiyy Hyper. Domestic 30 15 Fg. Pl. 115 maṭiyya Hyper. Domestic 30 16 Fg. Sg. sibāʿ Hyper. Wild 39 16 Bg. Pl. 140 wahm wasāʿ Hypo. Domestic 39 17 Fg. Sg. 140 jūn N. Expl. Wild 76 23 Bg. Sg. 232 [p. 151] N. Expl. Domestic 76 26 Bg. Sg. 232 shuǧāʿ Hypo. Wild 92 6 Bg. Sg. 261 dhiʾb Hypo. Wild 92 Bg. 261 khayl Hypo. Domestic 98 47 Bg. Pl. 283 arqam Hypo. Wild 99 1 Bg. Sg. thādiq Prop. Domestic 110 1 Fg. Sg. 307 thādiq Prop. Domestic 110 2 Fg. Sg. 307 ṭilāʾ N. Expl. Domestic 116 13 Bg. Sg. 329 khayl Hypo. Domestic 118 1 Fg. Pl. 330 jūn N. Expl. Domestic 120 55 Fg. Sg. 351 rubaʿ N. Expl. Domestic 120 56 Fg. Sg. 351 Pl. [p. 140] Appendix 2: List of References to Animals in the Mufaḍḍaliyyāt Abbreviations: Hypo.: hyponym. Hyper.: hypernym. Prop.: proper noun. N. Expl.: non-explicit reference. Fg.: foreground. Bg.: background. Sg.: singular. Pl.: plural. Word Type Environ-ment Poem Line Signifi-cance Number Unit ḥayyāt Hypo. Wild 1 2 Bg. Pl. 1 ḥuṣṣ N. Expl. Wild 1 6 Bg. Sg. 2 umm khishf Hypo. Wild 1 6 Bg. Sg. 2 dhū ʿudhar N. Expl. Domestic 1 7 Bg. Sg. 2 dhū janāḥ N. Expl. Wild 1 7 Bg. Sg. 2 naghghāq N. Expl. Wild 1 14 Bg. Sg. 3 thalla Hypo. Domestic 1 15 Bg. Pl. 4 bahm Hypo. Domestic 1 15 Bg. Pl. 4 ʿarāda Prop. Domestic 2 5 Fg. Sg. 5 ʿarāda Prop. Domestic 3 1 Fg. Sg. 6 faras Hypo. Domestic 3 2 Fg. Sg. 6 asad Hypo. Wild 3 2 Bg. Sg. 6 kumayt N. Expl. Domestic 3 5 Fg. Sg. 6 malhūz N. Expl. Domestic 4 2 Bg. Sg. 7 mujriya N. Expl. Wild 4 5 Bg. Sg. 8 dhīb Hypo. Wild 4 6 Bg. Sg. 9 ibil Hypo. Domestic 4 8 Fg. Pl. 10 ḥalūba N. Expl. Domestic 4 Fg. Pl. 10 ṣirma Hypo. Domestic 4 9 Fg. Pl. 10 ḥumur Hypo. Domestic 4 10 Bg. Pl. 10 ḍaʾn Hypo. Domestic 4 12 Bg. Sg. 10 ḍummar N. Expl. Domestic 5 3 Fg. Pl. 11 riḥāla Prop. Domestic 5 6 Fg. Sg. 12 ṭāʾir Hyper. Wild 5 8 Bg. Sg. 12 buzl N. Expl. Domestic 5 11 Fg. Pl. 13 ʿishār N. Expl. Domestic 5 11 Fg. Pl. 13 afrās Hypo. Domestic 5 12 Fg. Pl. 14 rawāḥil N. Expl. Domestic 5 12 Bg. Pl. 14 qurāqir Prop. Domestic 5 13 Bg. Sg. 14 qurzul Prop. Domestic 5 15 Bg. Sg. 15 rubd N. Expl. Wild 6 3 Bg. Pl. 16 sabūḥ N. Expl. Domestic 6 4 Fg. Sg. 16 kumayt N. Expl. Domestic 6 8 Fg. Sg. 16 shaḥḥāj Hypo. Wild 6 12 Bg. Sg. 16 [p. 141] ʿuqāb Hypo. Wild 6 13 Bg. Sg. 16 ʿikrisha Hypo. Wild 6 13 Bg. Sg. 16 qurzul Prop. Domestic 7 2 Fg. Sg. 17 sabūḥ N. Expl. Domestic 7 5 Fg. Sg. 18 jardāʾ Hypo. Domestic 7 6 Fg. Sg. 18 qāriḥ N. Expl. Domestic 7 8 Fg. Sg. 19 khayl Hypo. Domestic 7 8 Fg. Pl. 19 ghazāl Hypo. Wild 8 3 Bg. Sg. 20 ghazāl Hypo. Wild 8 18 Bg. Sg. 22 sawāhim N. Expl. Domestic 8 22 Fg. Pl. 23 hīm N. Expl. Domestic 8 23 Bg. Pl. 23 maṭiyya Hyper. Domestic 8 25 Fg. Sg. 24 maṭiyya Hyper. Domestic 8 25 Fg. Sg. 24 qaṭā Hypo. Wild 8 Bg. Pl. 25 dhiʿliba N. Expl. Domestic 8 31 Fg. Sg. 26 ʿans Hypo. Domestic 9 5 Fg. Sg. 27 ġurāb Hypo. Wild 9 7 Bg. Sg. 27 ʿilj Hypo. Wild 9 9 Fg. Sg. 28 qadhūr N. Expl. Wild 9 9 Fg. Sg. 28 ḥajsh Hypo. Wild 9 10 Fg. Sg. 28 jaʾb Hypo. Wild 9 12 Fg. Sg. 28 samḥaj N. Expl. Wild 9 13 Fg. Sg. 28 nahd N. Expl. Domestic 9 20 Fg. Sg. 29 riʾm Hypo. Wild 9 23 Bg. Sg. 29 kilāb Hypo. Domestic 9 23 Bg. Pl. 29 shawl Hypo. Domestic 9 25 Bg. Pl. 29 ʿarfāʾ N. Expl. Wild 9 31 Fg. Sg. 30 rakāʾib Hypo. Domestic 10 3 Bg. Pl. 31 ʿayrāna N. Expl. Domestic 10 10 Fg. Sg. 32 ḥāqifāt N. Expl. Wild 10 11 Bg. Pl. 32 faṣīl Hyper. Domestic 10 13 Bg. Sg. 32 rubd N. Expl. Wild 10 20 Bg. Sg. 32 khayl Hypo. Domestic 10 34 Fg. Pl. 33 khamīṣa N. Expl. Domestic 11 7 Fg. Sg. 34 dhiʿliba N. Expl. Wild 11 8 Bg. Sg. 34 nīb N. Expl. Domestic 11 18 Bg. Pl. 35 bulq al-khayl Hypo. Domestic 11 21 Bg. Pl. 36 mukhdir layth Hypo. Wild 11 22 Bg. Sg. 37 ʿuqāb Hypo. Wild 11 24 Bg. Sg. 38 khayl Hypo. Domestic 12 8 Fg. Pl. 39 [p. 142] khayl Hypo. Domestic 12 8 Fg. Pl. 39 jurd Hypo. Domestic 12 9 Fg. Pl. 39 khayl Hypo. Domestic 12 11 Fg. Pl. 40 ajrad Hypo. Domestic 12 12 Fg. Sg. 40 sirḥān Hypo. Wild 12 12 Bg. Sg. 40 maḥbūka N. Expl. Domestic 12 12 Fg. Sg. 40 sīd Hypo. Wild 12 12 Bg. Sg. 40 wajra Prop. Domestic 13 2 Fg. Sg. 42 faluww Hypo. Domestic 13 3 Fg. Sg. 42 nasr Hypo. Wild 13 7 Bg. Sg. 43 hajma Hypo. Domestic 14 1 Fg. Pl. 44 ibil Hypo. Domestic 14 3 Fg. Pl. 45 labūn Hypo. Domestic 14 3 Fg. Sg. 45 sāʾima N. Expl. Domestic 14 8 Bg. Pl. 45 raʿla Hypo. Wild 15 4 Bg. Pl. 46 ṣaʿl N. Expl. Wild 15 5 Bg. Sg. 46 asāwid N. Expl. Wild 15 8 Bg. Pl. 47 aʿnuz Hypo. Domestic 15 9 Fg. Pl. 48 kalbayn Hypo. Domestic 15 9 Fg. Pl. 48 laʿbāniyya N. Expl. Domestic 15 9 Fg. Pl. 48 liqāḥ Hypo. Domestic 15 16 Fg. Pl. 49 liqāḥ Hypo. Domestic 15 20 Fg. Pl. 49 ṣubba khiyāl N. Expl. Domestic 15 21 Fg. Pl. 49 faḥl Hyper. Domestic 15 21 Bg. Sg. 49 rubd N. Expl. Wild 15 22 Bg. Sg. 49 hijān awābid Hyper. Wild 15 22 Bg. Pl. 49 dhawd Hypo. Domestic 15 23 Fg. Pl. 49 ḍirghām Hypo. Wild 15 28 Bg. Sg. 49 jadājid Hypo. Wild 15 33 Bg. Pl. 50 munkadir Prop. Domestic 16 8 Bg. Sg. 52 naʿām Hypo. Wild 16 12 Bg. Pl. 52 ṭimirr Hypo. Domestic 16 13 Bg. Sg. 52 ʿayrayn Hypo. Wild 16 14 Bg. Pl. 52 thaʿlab Hypo. Wild 16 21 Bg. Sg. 52 yaʿfūr Hypo. Wild 16 21 Bg. Sg. 52 ṣayd Hyper. Wild 16 23 Bg. Sg. 52 bāz Hypo. Unknown 16 23 Bg. Sg. 52 afrās Hypo. Domestic 16 26 Bg. Pl. 52 aʿwajiyyāt Prop. Domestic 16 26 Bg. Pl. 52 ʿīdiyya N. Expl. Domestic 16 27 Fg. Sg. 53 [p. 143] bāzil Hypo. Domestic 16 29 Fg. Sg. 53 ʿāqir Hyper. Domestic 16 29 Fg. Sg. 53 ʿaddāʾ N. Expl. Wild 16 31 Bg. Sg. 53 qaṭā Hypo. Wild 16 31 Bg. Pl. 53 faḥl Hyper. Wild 16 32 Bg. Sg. 53 waḥsh Hyper. Wild 16 37 Bg. Pl. 53 namir Hypo. Wild 16 44 Bg. Sg. 54 kilāb Hypo. Domestic 16 50 Fg. Pl. 55 kalb Hypo. Domestic 16 51 Fg. Sg. 55 qaṭā Hypo. Wild 16 60 Bg. Pl. 56 khadhūl N. Expl. Wild 16 67 Bg. Sg. 57 riʾm Hypo. Wild 16 71 Bg. Sg. 58 juʾdhar Hypo. Wild 16 86 Bg. Sg. 59 sāq ḥurr Hypo. Unknown 95 Bg. Sg. 60 mahāh Hypo. Wild 17 9 Sg. 61 asāwid N. Expl. Wild 17 10 Bg. Pl. 62 ṭuwāl al-qarā N. Expl. Domestic 17 16 Fg. Sg. 63 ṣarīḥī Prop. Domestic 17 17 Fg. Sg. 63 bāz Hypo. Unknown 17 18 Bg. Sg. 63 sīd Hypo. Wild 17 19 Bg. Sg. 63 aḥṣān Hypo. Domestic 17 20 Bg. Pl. 63 jiyād N. Expl. Domestic 17 20 Bg. Pl. 63 ʿāna Hypo. Wild 17 21 Bg. Pl. 63 dhawd Hypo. Domestic 17 21 Bg. Pl. 63 khayl Hypo. Domestic 17 23 Bg. Pl. 63 salhaba Hypo. Domestic 17 28 Fg. Sg. thuʿbān Hypo. Wild 17 51 Bg. Sg. 66 aklab Hypo. Domestic 17 65 Fg. Pl. 67 suḥām Prop. Domestic 17 66 Fg. Sg. 67 miqalāʾ al-qanīṣ Prop. Domestic 17 66 Fg. Sg. 67 salhab Prop. Domestic 17 66 Fg. Sg. 67 jadlāʾ Prop. Domestic 17 66 Fg. Sg. 67 sirḥān Prop. Domestic 17 66 Fg. Sg. 67 [p. 144] mutanāwil Prop. Domestic 17 66 Fg. Sg. 67 salūqiyyayn Hypo. Domestic 17 67 Bg. Pl. 67 mudharraʿa Hyper. Domestic 18 3 Fg. Sg. 69 nājiya N. Expl. Domestic 18 13 Fg. Sg. 70 maṭiyy Hyper. Domestic 18 14 Fg. Pl. 70 ajrad Hypo. Domestic 18 15 Fg. Sg. 71 ṣāʿidī Prop. Domestic 18 15 Fg. Sg. 71 awābid Hyper. Wild 18 16 Fg. Pl. 71 shamalla N. Expl. Domestic 19 4 Fg. Sg. 72 shayẓam N. Expl. Domestic 19 5 Fg. Sg. 73 maṭiyy Hyper. Domestic 20 2 Bg. Pl. 74 ʿayr Hypo. Wild 20 23 Bg. Sg. 75 ʿāna Hypo. Wild 20 23 Bg. Pl. 75 ḥasīl Hypo. Domestic 20 26 Bg. Pl. 76 baqar Hypo. Wild 21 8 Bg. Pl. 77 ārām Hypo. Wild 21 8 Bg. Pl. 77 udm Hypo. Wild 21 8 Bg. Pl. 77 aṭlāʾ Hyper. Wild 21 9 Bg. Pl. 77 jādhir Hypo. Wild 21 9 Bg. Pl. 77 ghizlān Hypo. Wild 21 9 Bg. Pl. 77 bahm Hyper. Wild 21 9 Bg. Pl. 77 lukhm Hypo. Wild 21 15 Bg. Sg. 78 qaṭā Hypo. Wild 21 23 Bg. Pl. 79 Hypo. Wild 21 32 Bg. Sg. 79 udm Hypo. Domestic 21 37 Bg. Pl. 80 ʿuṣm Hypo. Wild 21 38 Bg. Pl. 81 yaʿāqīb N. Expl. Domestic 22 2 Bg. Pl. 82 khayl Hypo. Domestic 22 5 Fg. Pl. 83 ʿādiyāt N. Expl. Domestic 22 6 Fg. Pl. 83 ghanam Hyper. Domestic 22 10 Bg. Pl. 83 jūn N. Expl. Wild 22 13 Fg. Pl. 83 wajnāʾ nājiya N. Expl. Domestic 22 30 Fg. Pl. 84 jardāʾ surḥūb N. Expl. Domestic 22 30 Fg. Pl. 84 maḥlūb N. Expl. Domestic 22 31 Fg. Pl. 84 bark Hypo. Domestic 23 12 Fg. Pl. 86 maqāḥīd kawm N. Expl. Domestic 23 12 Fg. Pl. 86 mirbāʿ al-nitāj N. Expl. Domestic 23 13 Fg. Pl. 86 fanīq Hypo. Domestic 23 13 Bg. Sg. 86 azhar Hypo. Domestic 23 16 Fg. Sg. 86 ḥarf Hypo. Domestic 24 6 Fg. Sg. 87 [p. 145] maṭiyy Hyper. Domestic 24 8 Fg. Pl. 87 ẓalīm Hypo. Wild 24 9 Bg. Sg. 87 rāʾiḥa N. Expl. Wild 24 10 Bg. Sg. 87 saqb Hypo. Wild 24 12 Bg. Sg. 87 ṭāʾir Hyper. Unknown 24 17 Bg. Sg. 88 shārif N. Expl. Domestic 24 18 Fg. Sg. 89 jarād Hypo. Wild 24 20 Bg. Pl. 90 shayyiʾān N. Expl. Domestic 24 20 Fg. Sg. 90 mahāh Hypo. Wild 24 22 Bg. Sg. 91 aṣwira Hypo. Wild 25 2 Bg. Pl. 92 jiyād N. Expl. Domestic 25 3 Bg. Pl. 93 ẓibāʾ Hypo. Wild 25 5 Bg. Pl. 94 ḥarf Hypo. Domestic 25 7 Fg. Sg. 95 duhm N. Expl. Domestic 25 11 Bg. Pl. 96 dīk Hypo. Domestic 26 2 Bg. Sg. 97 fīl Hypo. Unknown 26 2 Bg. Sg. 97 jasra N. Expl. Domestic 26 9 Fg. Sg. 99 marāsīl N. Expl. Domestic 26 11 Fg. Pl. 99 qaṭā Hypo. Wild 26 14 Bg. Pl. ʿaqārib Hypo. Wild 27 12 Fg. Pl. 107 wadʿatayn Hypo. Wild 27 22 Fg. Pl. 108 ṣawādīḥ N. Expl. Wild 28 5 Bg. Pl. 109 dharīʿa N. Expl. Domestic 28 6 Fg. Sg. 109 naʿāma Hypo. Wild 28 7 Bg. Sg. 109 jūn N. Expl. Wild 28 11 Bg. Sg. 109 ʿiqbān Hypo. Wild 28 22 Bg. Pl. 110 yaʿāsīb N. Expl. Domestic 28 23 Fg. Pl. 110 maqaṣṣī N. Expl. Domestic 28 26 Fg. Pl. 110 jafra Hypo. Domestic 29 4 Fg. Sg. 111 khayl Hypo. Domestic 30 6 Bg. Pl. 113 nahda N. Expl. Domestic 30 6 Bg. Sg. 113 jiyād N. Expl. Domestic 30 6 Bg. Pl. 113 layth Hypo. Wild 30 14 Bg. Sg. 115 khayl Hypo. Domestic 30 17 Fg. Pl. jarād Hypo. Wild 30 18 Bg. 115 jawād N. Expl. Domestic 30 19 Bg. Sg. 115 khayl Hypo. Domestic 30 19 Bg. Pl. 115 hāma Hypo. Wild 31 3 Bg. Sg. 116 makhāḍ N. Expl. Domestic 31 9 Bg. Pl. 117 ʿuqāb Hypo. Wild 32 2 Bg. Sg. 119 naʿām Hypo. Wild 32 4 Bg. Pl. 119 khayl Hypo. Domestic 32 6 Bg. Pl. 120 khayl Hypo. Domestic 32 11 Fg. Pl. 118 manīḥa Hyper. Domestic 33 1 Fg. Sg. 121 manāʾiḥ Hyper. Domestic 33 1 Bg. Pl. 121 ghamra Prop. Domestic 33 2 Fg. Sg. 121 aḥfāḍ N. Expl. Domestic 34 3 Bg. Pl. 122 qalāʾiṣ Hypo. Domestic 34 10 Fg. Pl. 123 mukhlifa N. Expl. Domestic 34 11 Fg. Sg. 123 jadaliyya N. Expl. Domestic 34 11 Fg. Sg. 123 jawāziʾ N. Expl. Wild 34 15 Bg. Pl. 124 miqlāt N. Expl. Domestic 34 20 Fg. Sg. 125 khadūǧ N. Expl. Domestic 34 20 Fg. Sg. 125 jumāliyya Hypo. Domestic 34 21 Fg. Sg. 125 kalbā N. Expl. Domestic 35 14 Bg. Sg. 126 kilāb Hypo. Domestic 36 2 Fg. Pl. 127 shawl N. Expl. Domestic 36 7 Fg. Pl. ʿaqīr N. Expl. Domestic 36 7 Fg. Sg. 128 [p. 147] shāʾ Hypo. Domestic 36 10 Fg. Pl. 129 ʿuṣm N. Expl. Wild 37 6 Bg. Pl. 130 nāqa Hypo. Domestic 38 3 Bg. Sg. 131 admāʾ N. Expl. Domestic 38 6 Fg. Sg. 132 ʿayrāna N. Expl. Domestic 38 6 Fg. Sg. 132 jumāliyya Hypo. Domestic 38 7 Fg. Sg. 132 aqabb N. Expl. Wild 38 8 Fg. Sg. 132 dhubbal N. Expl. Wild 38 9 Fg. Pl. 132 qurūm Hypo. Domestic 38 28 Bg. Pl. 134 jurd Hypo. Domestic 38 44 Fg. Pl. 137 radāḥ N. Expl. Domestic 39 9 Fg. Sg. 138 ṭamūḥ N. Expl. Domestic 39 12 Bg. Sg. 139 jaʾb Hypo. Wild 39 20 Fg. Sg. 140 samḥaj N. Expl. Wild 39 23 Fg. Sg. 140 ṣill Hypo. Wild 39 28 Bg. Sg. 140 waḥsh Hyper. Wild 39 29 Bg. Pl. 140 aʿṣam N. Expl. Wild 40 18 Bg. Sg. 141 ṣilāb N. Expl. Domestic 40 25 Fg. Pl. 142 kudr Hypo. Wild 40 28 Bg. Sg. 142 luyūth Hypo. Wild 40 40 Bg. Pl. 143 dhayyāl N. Expl. Wild 40 51 Fg. Sg. 144 dharaʿ Hypo. Wild 40 53 Bg. Sg. 144 ḍirāʾ Hypo. Domestic 40 54 Fg. Pl. 144 kilāb al-ṣayd Hypo. Domestic 40 55 Fg. Pl. 144 shāh Hypo. Wild 40 57 Fg. Sg. 144 ḍuwaʿ Hypo. Wild 40 72 Bg. Sg. 145 thalib ʿawd Hypo. Domestic 40 78 Bg. Sg. 146 shakht ḍaraʿ N. Expl. Domestic 40 78 Bg. Sg. 146 ṭāʾir Hyper. Wild 40 98 Bg. Sg. 147 layth Hypo. Wild 40 108 Bg. Sg. 148 rubd al-naʿām Hypo. Wild 41 3 Bg. Pl. 149 hawjāʾ al-najāʾ shimilla N. Expl. Domestic 41 4 Fg. Sg. 150 ḥūsh N. Expl. Domestic 41 10 Bg. Pl. 151 khayl Hypo. Domestic 41 19 Fg. Pl. 152 miʿzā Hypo. Domestic 41 19 Bg. Pl. 152 faḥl Hyper. Domestic 41 27 Fg. Sg. 154 rahb Hypo. Domestic 42 6 Fg. Sg. 155 hirr Hypo. Unknown 42 7 Bg. Sg. 155 shaqqāʾ ṣildim Hypo. Domestic 42 23 Fg. Sg. 156 [p. 148] kilāb Hypo. Domestic 42 25 Bg. Pl. 157 sālikh N. Expl. Wild 42 27 Bg. Sg. 158 asad Hypo. Wild 42 27 Bg. Pl. 158 ẓabya Hypo. Wild 43 2 Bg. Sg. 159 jasra N. Expl. Domestic 43 5 Fg. Sg. 160 aṣdāʾ Hypo. Wild 43 7 Bg. Pl. 160 mushammir N. Expl. Domestic 44 31 Fg. Sg. 162 awābid Hyper. Wild 44 31 Bg. Pl. 162 waḥad N. Expl. Wild 44 32 Bg. Sg. Pl. 218 baqar Hypo. Wild 69 4 Bg. Pl. 219 thaʿlab Hypo. Wild 71 2 Bg. Sg. 221 ṣāḥib N. Expl. Domestic 73 2 Fg. Sg. 222 sīd Hypo. Wild 73 2 Bg. Sg. 222 ʿaṣāfir Hypo. Wild 73 3 Bg. Pl. 222 ṣāḥib N. Expl. Domestic 73 3 Fg. Sg. 222 waḥsh Hyper. Wild 73 4 Bg. Pl. 222 shawhāʾ N. Expl. Domestic 74 4 Fg. Sg. 223 ẓaby Hypo. Wild 74 5 Bg. Sg. 223 awraq N. Expl. Domestic 74 6 Fg. Sg. 223 aswad N. Expl. Domestic 74 10 Bg. Sg. 224 qaṭā Hypo. Wild 75 11 Sg. 225 quṭayy Hypo. Wild 75 11 Bg. Sg. 225 asad Hypo. Wild 75 14 Bg. Pl. 226 ashbul Hypo. Wild 75 14 Bg. Pl. 226 khayl Hypo. Domestic 75 16 Bg. Pl. 227 admāʾ hilwāʿ N. Expl. Domestic 75 19 Fg. Sg. 228 jumāliyya Hypo. Domestic 75 20 Fg. Sg. 228 bukht Hypo. Domestic 76 8 Fg. Pl. 229 ghizlān Hypo. Wild 76 10 Bg. Pl. 229 murshiqāt N. Expl. Wild 76 15 Bg. Pl. 230 dhāt lawth ʿudhāfira N. Expl. Domestic 76 19 Fg. Sg. 232 hirr Hypo. Unknown 76 20 Bg. Sg. 232 gharība dhubāb Hypo. Wild 76 28 Bg. Pl. sibāʿ Hyper. Wild 92 7 Bg. Pl. 261 jasra ʿayrāna N. Expl. Domestic 99 6 Fg. Sg. 285 khayl Hypo. Domestic 110 3 Fg. Pl. 307 jurdān Hypo. Wild 118 2 Bg. Pl. 330 kūm Hypo. Domestic 120 56 Fg. Pl. 351 232 ḥamām Hypo. 76 28 Bg. Pl. qāriḥ N. Expl. Domestic 92 10 Fg. Sg. 262 fanīq Hypo. Domestic 99 6 Bg. Sg. 285 kumayt N. Expl. Domestic 110 5 Fg. Sg. 307 ʿayr Hypo. Domestic 118 6 Bg. Sg. 331 mukhtabar N. Expl. Domestic 120 57 Fg. Sg. 351 232 sabʿ Hyper. Wild 77 6 Bg. Sg. [p. 152] ṭayr Hyper. Wild 93 1 Bg. Pl. 263 khayl Hypo. Domestic 99 11 Fg. Pl. 286 khayl Hypo. Domestic 110 6 Bg. Pl. 307 ḥubārā Hypo. Wild 118 10 Bg. Sg. 332 jimāl Hypo. Domestic 120 57 Bg. Pl. 351 233 sabḥa Prop. Domestic 78 1 Fg. Sg. sawām Hyper. Domestic 93 3 Bg. Pl. 263 sibāʿ Hyper. Wild 99 12 Bg. Pl. 286 qaṭā Hypo. Wild 110 7 Bg. Pl. 307 ṣaqr Hypo. Unknown 118 10 Bg. Sg. 332 niʿāj Hypo. Wild 121 2 Bg. Pl. 352 235 shamūs Prop. Domestic 79 1 Fg. Sg. kilāb Hypo. Domestic 93 3 Bg. Pl. 263 ḍaygham N. Expl. Wild 99 12 Bg. Pl. 286 faḥl Hyper. Domestic 111 3 Bg. Sg. 308 naʿām Hypo. Wild 118 10 Bg. Sg. 332 sarb Hyper. Domestic 121 9 Fg. Pl. 353 237 liqāḥ Hypo. Domestic 79 3 Fg. Pl. ṭayr Hyper. Wild 93 8 Bg. Pl. 264 [p. 153] ʿuqāb Hypo. Wild 99 15 Bg. Sg. 287 nājiya N. Expl. Domestic 111 3 Fg. Sg. 308 umm hām Hypo. Wild 118 12 Bg. Sg. 333 wird N. Expl. Domestic 121 9 Bg. Pl. 353 237 tays Hypo. Wild 79 4 Bg. Sg. muḥallaʾ N. Expl. Domestic 94 3 Bg. Sg. 265 afḍaḥ N. Expl. Wild 99 15 Bg. Sg. 287 wāḍiḥ al-N. Expl. Wild 111 4 Fg. Sg. 308 sawām Hyper. Domestic 118 15 Bg. Pl. 334 ghawj al-N. Expl. Domestic 122 6 Fg. Sg. 354 237 afrās Hypo. Domestic 81 5 Fg. Pl. 238 bāzil Hypo. Domestic 82 2 Fg. Sg. 240 niqniqa Hypo. Wild 82 4 Bg. Sg. 240 ghayhab N. Expl. Wild 82 4 Bg. Sg. 240 ṣirma Hypo. Domestic 82 5 Fg. Pl. 241 ajrad Hypo. Domestic 82 7 Fg. Sg. 242 ibil Hypo. Domestic 82 8 Fg. Pl. 242 ḍibāʿ Hypo. Wild 83 3 Bg. Pl. 243 nusūr Hypo. Wild 3 Bg. Pl. 243 maṭiyy Hyper. Domestic 85 1 Bg. Pl. 244 khayl Hypo. Domestic 85 3 Fg. Pl. 245 khayl Hypo. Domestic 85 4 Fg. Pl. 245 adhwād Hypo. Domestic 88 4 Bg. Pl. 246 ḥayyāt Hypo. Wild 88 5 Bg. Pl. 247 ḥimār Hypo. Domestic 88 7 Bg. Sg. 248 quluṣ Hypo. Domestic 89 1 Fg. Pl. 249 nāqa Hypo. Domestic 89 17 Fg. Sg. 250 dhubāb Hypo. Wild 89 21 Pl. 251 siqāb Hypo. Domestic 89 22 Bg. Pl. 251 liqāḥ Hypo. Domestic 89 23 Bg. Pl. 251 ḥārid N. Expl. Domestic 90 9 Fg. Pl. 252 ghufr Hypo. Wild 91 5 Bg. Sg. 253 khayl Hypo. Domestic 91 6 Bg. Pl. 254 ʿanāǧīǧ N. Expl. Domestic 91 9 Fg. Pl. 255 khayl Hypo. Domestic 91 11 Fg. Pl. 255 shawl Hypo. Domestic 91 14 Fg. Pl. 256 tays Hypo. Domestic 91 29 Bg. Sg. 257 bakra Hypo. Domestic 92 3 Bg. Sg. 258 ummahāt al-ribāʿ N. Expl. Domestic 92 5 Bg. Pl. 260 hajma Hypo. Domestic 94 5 Bg. Pl. 265 asad Hypo. Wild 95 5 Bg. Pl. 266 numr Hypo. Wild 95 5 Bg. Pl. 266 jurashiyya N. Expl. Domestic 96 4 Bg. Sg. 267 qaṭāh Hypo. Wild 96 7 Bg. Sg. 268 ḍarūs Hypo. Domestic 96 10 Bg. Sg. 269 shahbāʾ N. Expl. Domestic 96 10 Fg. Pl. 269 kalīb Hypo. Domestic 96 13 Bg. Pl. 270 kilāb Hypo. Domestic 96 14 Bg. Pl. 271 jirāʾ Hypo. Domestic 96 14 Bg. Pl. 271 mubqiyāt N. Expl. Domestic 96 16 Fg. Pl. 272 jaʾbat al-midrā N. Expl. Wild 97 7 Bg. Sg. 274 aḥwā N. Expl. Wild 97 8 Bg. Sg. 274 ẓibāʾ Hypo. Wild 97 10 Bg. Pl. 274 dhiʿliba N. Expl. Domestic 97 11 Fg. Sg. 274 akhnas N. Expl. Wild 97 12 Fg. Sg. 274 labūn Hypo. Domestic 97 20 Bg. Sg. 274 sarb Hyper. Domestic 97 23 Fg. Pl. 275 khayl Hypo. Domestic 97 25 Fg. Pl. 276 jidhāʿ Hyper. Domestic 97 31 Fg. Pl. 276 ḥamām Hypo. Unknown 97 32 Bg. Pl. 276 ẓibāʾ Hypo. Wild 98 7 Bg. Pl. 277 ʿishār N. Expl. Domestic 98 11 Bg. Pl. 278 ṣuwār Hypo. Wild 98 15 Bg. Pl. 279 ḥimār Hypo. Domestic 98 33 Bg. Sg. 281 tuyūs Hypo. Wild 98 34 Bg. Pl. 282 musnafa N. Expl. Domestic 98 38 Fg. Pl. 283 jarāda Hypo. Wild 98 39 Bg. Sg. 283 khindhīdh Hypo. Domestic 98 43 Fg. Sg. 283 khayl Hypo. Domestic 99 18 Fg. Pl. 288 ṭimirra Hypo. Domestic 99 19 Fg. Pl. 288 muqaṭṭiʿ N. Expl. Domestic 99 19 Fg. Pl. 288 sawām Hyper. Domestic 101 2 Fg. Pl. 290 shawl Hypo. Domestic 101 3 Bg. Pl. 290 sarb Hyper. Domestic 102 3 Fg. Pl. 291 nahda jardāʾ N. Expl. Domestic 102 5 Fg. Sg. 292 afrās Hypo. Domestic 103 5 Bg. Pl. 293 dāḥis Prop. Domestic 103 6 Bg. Sg. 294 qulūṣ Hypo. Domestic 105 9 Fg. Sg. 295 nājiya N. Expl. Domestic 105 10 Fg. Sg. 296 nāb Hypo. Domestic 105 18 Bg. Sg. 297 ghanāʾim Hyper. Domestic 105 22 Bg. Pl. 298 muqalliṣ N. Expl. Domestic 105 24 Fg. Pl. 299 dāfiʿat al-khizām N. Expl. Domestic 105 25 Fg. Pl. 299 shāh Hypo. Wild 105 25 Bg. Sg. 299 kilāb Hypo. Domestic 105 25 Bg. Pl. 299 khayl Hypo. Domestic 107 2 Fg. Pl. 302 kilāb Hypo. Domestic 107 2 Bg. Pl. 302 khayl Hypo. Domestic 107 3 Fg. Pl. 302 khayl Hypo. Domestic 107 4 Fg. Pl. 302 ḥidaʾ Hypo. Unknown 107 4 Bg. Pl. 302 nahd sābiḥ N. Expl. Domestic 107 9 Fg. Pl. 303 dhiʾb Hypo. Wild 108 1 Bg. Sg. 304 jurd Hypo. Domestic 109 9 Fg. Pl. 305 ʿuṣm Hypo. Wild 109 9 Bg. Pl. 305 mushtarif N. Expl. Domestic 109 10 Fg. Pl. 305 mudmaja N. Expl. Domestic 109 10 Fg. Pl. 305 baliyya Hypo. Domestic 109 13 Bg. Sg. 306 aqrāb ẓāhira N. Expl. Domestic 111 10 Bg. Pl. 309 [p. 154] jawādān N. Expl. Domestic 111 11 Bg. Pl. 310 ibil Hypo. Domestic 112 4 Fg. Pl. 311 ʿūdh al-niʿāj Hypo. Wild 112 11 Bg. Pl. 312 khayl Hypo. Domestic 112 13 Bg. Pl. 313 jardāʾ Hypo. Domestic 112 13 Fg. Sg. 313 kūm Hypo. Domestic 113 7 Bg. Pl. 314 wārida N. Expl. Domestic 113 8 Bg. Pl. 315 qaṭā Hypo. Wild 113 8 Bg. Pl. 315 nahd N. Expl. Domestic 113 9 Fg. Sg. 315 sīd Hypo. Wild 113 9 Bg. Sg. 315 dīk Hypo. Domestic 113 11 Bg. Sg. 316 sarb Hyper. Domestic 113 14 Fg. Pl. 317 quṭāmī Hypo. Wild 113 15 Bg. Sg. 318 sarāḥīn Hypo. Wild 113 17 Bg. Pl. 318 ṭarīda Hyper. Domestic 113 20 Fg. Pl. 319 khayl Hypo. Domestic 113 20 Fg. Pl. 319 aʿḍab N. Expl. Wild 113 23 Bg. Sg. jasra N. Expl. Domestic 119 11 Fg. Sg. labān 336 nājiya N. Expl. Domestic 119 13 Fg. Sg. rikāb Hypo. Domestic 122 7 Fg. Pl. 355 336 muwallaʿa N. Expl. Wild 119 14 Bg. Sg. niqniqa Hypo. Wild 122 8 Bg. Sg. 355 336 kalīb Hypo. Domestic 119 15 Bg. Pl. naqāniq Hypo. Wild 122 8 Bg. Pl. 355 336 ḥasrā N. Expl. Domestic 119 19 Bg. Pl. nahl N. Expl. Domestic 122 10 Bg. Pl. 355 336 [p. 155] jawn Prop. Domestic 119 24 Bg. Sg. 337 saqb Hypo. Domestic 119 31 Bg. Sg. 338 ṭayr Hyper. Wild 119 32 Bg. Pl. 339 shaṭba N. Expl. Domestic 119 33 Fg. Sg. 340 ṭimirr Hypo. Domestic 119 33 Fg. Sg. jimāl Hypo. Domestic [p. 156] ẓibāʾ Hypo. Wild 124 2 Bg. Pl. 358 340 jimāl Hypo. Domestic 120 3 Bg. Pl. niʿāj Hypo. Wild 124 2 Bg. Pl. 358 341 jimāl Hypo. Domestic 120 4 Bg. Pl. malbūna N. Expl. Domestic 124 10 Fg. Sg. 359 342 ṭayr Hypo. Wild 120 5 Bg. Pl. ḥimār Hypo. Wild 124 10 Bg. Sg. 359 342 dahmāʾ N. Expl. Domestic 120 8 Bg. Sg. kumayt N. Expl. Domestic 124 11 Fg. Sg. 359 343 rashaʾ Hypo. Wild 120 13 Bg. Sg. faʾr Hypo. Wild 124 14 Bg. Sg. 359 344 juldhiyya N. Expl. Domestic 120 14 Fg. Sg. afrās Hypo. Domestic 124 21 Fg. Pl. 360 345 būm Hypo. Wild 120 16 Bg. Sg. ṭāʾir Hyper. Wild 124 23 Bg. Sg. 361 345 ṭawī al-kashḥ mawshūm N. Expl. Wild 120 17 Bg. Sg. jiyād N. Expl. Domestic 124 25 Fg. Pl. 362 345 mihār Hypo. Domestic 124 25 Bg. Pl. 362 320 ḍibāʿ N. Expl. Wild 113 25 Bg. Pl. khāḍib zuʿr N. Expl. Wild 120 18 Fg. Sg. 346 asad Hypo. Wild 124 32 Bg. Sg. 363 321 adhʾub N. Expl. Wild 113 25 Bg. Pl. ʿuljūm Hypo. Wild 120 24 Bg. Sg. 346 mahāh Hypo. Wild 124 35 Bg. Sg. 363 321 jurd Hypo. Domestic 114 7 Fg. Pl. ḥiskil Hyper. Wild 120 25 Bg. Pl. 346 shimlāl N. Expl. Domestic 125 10 Fg. Sg. 364 322 maṭāyā Hyper. Domestic 114 7 Fg. Pl. ʿirsayn N. Expl. Wild 120 27 Bg. Pl. 346 ḍawābiḥ Hypo. Wild 125 11 Bg. Pl. 364 322 sakhl Hyper. Domestic 114 9 Fg. Pl. hiqla Hypo. Wild 120 30 Bg. Sg. 346 aṣdāʾ Hypo. Wild 125 11 Bg. Pl. 364 322 khayl Hypo. Domestic 114 9 Fg. Pl. qarār Hypo. Domestic 120 34 Bg. Pl. 346 būm Hypo. Wild 125 11 Bg. Sg. 364 322 miʿzā Hypo. Domestic 114 10 Bg. Pl. niqāda Hypo. Domestic 120 34 Bg. Pl. 346 jūn al-sarāh N. Expl. Wild 126 14 Fg. Sg. 365 322 khayl Hypo. Domestic 114 16 Bg. Pl. ghirbān Hypo. Wild 120 37 Bg. Pl. 347 jadāʾid Hypo. Wild 126 14 Fg. Pl. 365 323 ḥimār Hypo. Domestic 115 4 Fg. Sg. ẓaby Hypo. Wild 120 44 Bg. Sg. 348 shabab N. Expl. Wild 126 35 Fg. Sg. 366 327 dāḥis Prop. Domestic 115 5 Bg. Sg. khayl Hypo. Domestic 120 48 Bg. Pl. 349 kilāb Hypo. Domestic 126 35 Fg. Pl. 366 328 ʿurqūb Prop. Domestic 115 5 Fg. Sg. 328 salhaba N. Expl. Domestic 120 52 Fg. Sg. 351 kilāb Hypo. Domestic 126 36 Fg. Pl.

146. This overview tallies with the representation of Muḥammad as a shepherd, which is dominant in early ḥadīth and biographical literature, as demonstrated by Sean Anthony.

[START_REF]157Bibliography Abū al-Ḥabb, Jalīl, 'Malāmiḥ min ʿālam al-ḥayawān fī al-Qurʾān al-karīm[END_REF]

As a result, we should revise the common opinion stating that the Qur'an [p. 134]


R Fulchiron
email: fulchiro@matplast.univ-lyon1.fr.

E Koscher

G Poutot

D Delaunay

G Régnier

ANALYSIS OF THE PRESSURE EFFECT ON THE CRYSTALLIZATION KINETICS: DILATOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS AND THERMAL GRADIENT MODELING

Keywords: Polypropylene, Pressure-Volume-Temperature Measurement, Thermal Modeling, Crystallization kinetics, Nakamura equation

Dilatometric measurements in isobaric cooling mode are performed to study the pressure effects on the crystallization kinetics of polypropylene up to 100 MPa. The rough experimental specific volume curves are analyzed by taking into account the thermal gradient which appears in the sample even for relatively low cooling rates. The Tait equation is used to describe the specific volume of the purely amorphous phase and linear variations of the purely crystalline phase specific volume are considered. The relative crystallinity is modeled using the Nakamura equation which is relevant for non constant cooling rates. Considering an Avrami exponent of 3, the Nakamura rate constant is obtained first at atmospheric pressure and then generalized for higher pressures considering the equilibrium melting temperature variation. The obtained intrinsic specific volume is validated by computing the thermal gradient in the sample and comparing the calculated average specific volume to the experimental one.

INTRODUCTION

The Pressure-Volume-Temperature (PVT) behavior is an important characteristic of thermoplastic polymers either for fundamental aspects (thermodynamics) or for practical applications (injection molding for example). Moreover when studying the polymer crystallization, one classical procedure to assess the kinetics of the transition is to investigate the influence of the cooling rate on the transition temperature. In that case, because of the poor thermal conductivity of the polymers, one must take care of the temperature gradient in the sample. When using a DSC, for example, the sample is so small that the temperature is reasonably considered homogeneous.

Nevertheless, for pressure studies by dilatometry, the sample must be large enough (typically 1 cm 3 ) to obtain an accurate measurement of the volume change. In that case, when the cooling rate increases, the thermal gradient in the sample must be considered, especially in the vicinity of the phase change where the enthalpy of crystallization can affect the temperature field. For these reasons the PVT measurements are generally achieved in isothermal or very low cooling rates conditions 1-3 . The objective of this study is to establish a methodology in order to obtain reliable PVT diagrams for semi-crystalline polymers. Particularly, the thermal gradient effect in the experimental results is extracted in order to obtain the specific volume of the polymer independently of the sample size. The present study follows and completes a previous one where the thermal aspect was already described 4 . In this work, the specific volume evolution, and especially the cooling rate and the pressure effects on the crystallization kinetics are thoroughly analyzed.

EXPERIMENTAL

In this work, the studied polymer was a injection grade of isotactic polypropylene (i _ PP) supplied by Solvay (Brussels, Belgium) with the commercial name Eltex HV252. The Melt Flow Index of this polypropylene was MFI2/230=11g/10min. The PVT experimental results were obtained using a piston type dilatometer (PVT100) commercialized by SWO Polymertechnik GmbH (Krefeld, Germany). The detailed description of the system was given elsewhere 4 hence, only the main characteristics are recalled in this paper. The diameter of the cylindrical cell is 7.7 mm and the length of the sample is typically around 15 mm. The temperature is controlled using a thermocouple located very close to the periphery of the sample, in the middle of its height. The pressure on the sample is ensured by a lower fixed piston and an upper mobile one. In order to avoid polymer leakage, PTFE seals are placed between the sample and the pistons. From the length of the sample, measured by a displacement sensor, the specific volume is obtained. Experiments were performed in isobaric cooling mode for different pressures ranged between 20 and 100 MPa and different cooling rates ranged between 1°C/min and 35°C/min. At atmospheric pressure, crystallization experiments were carried out using a DSC7 from Perkin-Elmer (Norwalk, Connecticut) calibrated with indium and zinc. The procedure for isothermal crystallization experiments was as follows: The sample of about 10 mg was molten at 210°C during five minutes. Then, it was first rapidly cooled down to a temperature of ten Celsius degrees higher than the chosen crystallization temperature Tc. Second, it was cooled down to Tc using a cooling rate of 10°C/min. This procedure allowed us to prevent an undershoot below Tc. The crystallization temperatures were ranged between 124°C and 140°C. For constant cooling rate crystallization experiments, the sample was also molten at 210 °C during five minutes and cooled with the chosen cooling rate ranged between 1 and 40 °C/min. Heating runs at 10°C/min were then performed on the same samples to determine their crystallinity and its evolution with the previous cooling rate.

Measured enthalpies of melting H were compared to the enthalpy of fusion of the infinite crystal 5 H = 148 J/g. Furthermore, the crystallinity of samples crystallized at 1°C/min at different pressures in the PVT analyzer were also determined from DSC melting experiments.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Thermal Modeling

The thermal modeling of the PVT sample was achieved following a procedure previously described 4 . Considering that the problem is axisymmetric and that there is no heat flux through the pistons thanks to the PTFE seals, the heat equation for a radius r and a time t is expressed by:

t V H X r T r r T r t T V C sp sp P                         (1)
where Cp is the heat capacity,  is the thermal conductivity, Vsp is the specific volume,  is the relative crystallinity, X is the final crystallinity and T is the temperature.

Obviously, all the parameters which appear in eq. ( 1) can be temperature, pressure and even time dependent. These parameters will be detailed in the next section. A Crank-Nicholson finite difference scheme was used to solve the thermal problem with the following bounding conditions.

At time equal to zero, the temperature is homogeneous in the sample. For each time, the temperature gradient is null in the axis and the peripheral temperature is given by the control temperature.

Heat Capacity and Thermal Conductivity

Following previous results 4, 6 , the heat capacity and the thermal conductivity were described using simple mixing rules between the solid state and the liquid state values weighted by the relative crystallinity:

pa ps p C C C ) 1 (      (2)
where Cps and Cpa are the heat capacity of the solid state and the liquid state respectively.

a s        ) 1 ( (3)
where s and a are the thermal conductivity of the solid state and the liquid state respectively.

It must be pointed out that a simple mixing rule is not rigorously appropriate for the thermal conductivity (eq. 3) because it is not an additive property. Nevertheless, this approximation was reasonably considered adequate for our purpose because it can introduce only a small error in the crystallization temperature domain which is relatively narrow as it will be shown further.

Moreover, linear temperature dependences for Cps, Cpa, s and a were obtained leading to:

1451 68 , 10 C) ( (J/kgK)    T C ps (4) 2124 10 , 3 C) ( (J/kgK)    T C pa (5) 31 0 10 96 4 C) ( (W/mK) 4 , T . , s       (6) 189 0 10 25 6 C) ( ) W/mK ( 5 , T . , a       (7)
Besides, a pressure dependence could also be considered but, because of a lack of experimental results, this pressure dependence was not introduced in our analysis. Nevertheless, as it will be shown further in this article, a pressure dependence as well as a cooling rate dependence of the relative crystallinity  were taken into account. Consequently, the change of the transition temperature domain with the pressure and the cooling rate appears in the Cp and  values.

Specific Volume

The specific volume (Vsp) evolution with the temperature was described considering a blending law of the amorphous (or liquid) phase and the crystalline phase specific volumes (respectively Va and Vc). The balance between each phase is given by the mass crystallinity equal to the product

X. a c sp V X V X V ) 1 (        (8)
First, the amorphous phase specific volume Va was described using the well known empirical

Tait equation: 3,7                  ) ( 1 ln 1 ) ( 0 a T B P C T V V ( 9
)
where C is considered as a universal constant equal to 0.0894.

The functions V0(T) and B(T) can be described by linear, second order polynomial or, more currently, by exponential expressions. In this work, exponential expressions were used. The parameters of the Tait equation were fitted on the liquid part of experimental PVT data obtained in isobaric cooling mode with a low cooling rate (1°C/min) to avoid the thermal gradient effect. The results of the fitting were:

  /g) (cm 10 74 . 6 exp 1546 . 1 ) ( T T V    (10)   (MPa) 10 3767 . 4 exp 69 . 148 ) ( 3 T T B     ( 11
)
where T is in °C.

It can be pointed out that eq.10 and eq.11 are similar to those given by Rodgers 7 . As shown in Figure 1, the calculated curves are very close to the experimental specific volume in the liquid part.

Moreover, the specific volume of the purely amorphous phase, calculated at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature is consistent with literature data 8 (see Figure 1).

As concerns the solid part of the PVT diagrams (eq.8 with =1), the description appeared incorrect by assuming no variation of the purely crystalline specific volume Vc with P and T.

Indeed, as shown in Figure 2, considering a constant Vc, the slopes of the calculated curves is much lower than the experimental ones and the shift between each pressure is not large enough. In that case, the change of the calculated specific volume is only due to the amorphous contribution given by the Tait equation. Moreover, this description remains inaccurate whatever the used final crystallinity (X) in a reasonable range. Therefore, despite no explicit establishment in the literature, linear variations of Vc with the pressure and the temperature were assumed to describe the solid state of the specific volume. The parameters of these variations were determined using the solid part of a low cooling rate (1°C/min) PVT diagram to avoid thermal gradient effects. Moreover, it was imposed that the calculated value of Vc at ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure was consistent with literature data given for the density of the  crystalline form 9 (c=0.936 g/cm 3 ). It must be added that for this calculation, X was considered independent of the pressure and adjusted together with the parameters. Following these criterions, the best fit was obtained with X=0.684 leading to:

P T T P V c 4 4 10 901 . 1 10 2.071 0632 . 1 ) , (        (12)
where T is in °C, P is in MPa and Vc is in cm 3 /g.

As shown in Figure 2, the solid part of the experimental PVT diagram is correctly described by eq.8

(with =1 and X=0.684) and eq.12. Moreover, the calculated value of X is consistent with the experimental results obtained for samples crystallized at different pressures with a cooling rate of 1°C/min (Table 1). Indeed, for a crystallization pressure varying from 0.1 MPa to 100 MPa, only a slight decrease of the crystallinity is observed from 0.677 to 0.623.

Relative Crystallinity

The crystallization kinetics was analyzed on the basis of the Nakamura equation 10-11 which is expressed by:

                          n t d T K 0 ) ( exp 1 ( 13
)
where K(T) is the Nakamura rate constant and n is the Avrami exponent. The main advantage of this expression is its ability to describe the relative crystallinity for a non-constant cooling rate which is the case inside the PVT sample. First, the determination of the rate constant K(T) was achieved at atmospheric pressure from isothermal and constant cooling rate crystallization DSC experiments.

Indeed, the DSC crystallization results were analyzed using the Avrami 12-14 (eq.14) and the Ozawa 15

(eq.15) expressions for isothermal and constant cooling rate experiments respectively:

  n t T k t ) ( exp 1 ) (     ( 14
)
where k is the Avrami rate constant.

              n T T ) ( exp 1 ) ( ( 15
)
where  is the Ozawa rate constant and  is the cooling rate.

Moreover, the Nakamura rate constant is mathematically linked to the Avrami and Ozawa rate constants 16-17 :

dT d k K n n           1 1 (16)
Although the Avrami exponent n could have been an outcome of the analysis, it was fixed to n=3 in our work because this value is frequently encountered in the literature for i-PP 17-20 which commonly exhibits a heterogeneous nucleation process.

From isothermal crystallization DSC experiments, the relative crystallinity function (t) was obtained by the ratio of the crystallization peak area before time t over its total area. Then, for each experimental temperature, the Avrami rate constant k(T) was deduced from eq.14 with n=3.

For constant cooling rates experiments, the relative crystallinity function (T) was calculated for every cooling rate by dividing the crystallization peak area above the temperature T by its total area.

Then, the Ozawa rate constant (T) was calculated by fitting eq.15 with n=3 on the whole collection of relative crystallinity curves considering a polynomial evolution of ln((T)).

Knowing k(T) and (T), the Nakamura rate constant K(T) was then obtained from eq.16. The results are plotted in Figure 3 showing the agreement between data deduced from isothermal and non isothermal experiments in the overlapping domain. Then, K(T) was described by the following equation:

2 -3 10 2.19 3763 . 0 38 . 18 )) ( ln( T T T K      (17)
with T in °C and K(T) in s -1 .

Moreover, the suitability of eq.13 and eq.17 is shown in Figure 4 where the calculated relative crystallinity curves are very close to the experimental ones for cooling rates ranged between 1 and 40°C/min.

Furthermore, the pressure effect on the crystallization kinetics was evaluated by considering first the temperature of the crystallization onset (Tc) for low cooling rate experiments (2°C/min) and different pressures. The crystallization temperature versus the pressure is shown in Figure 5. Then, it was described by a second order polynomial:

2 -4 10 2.08 283 . 0 P P T T Patm c c     ( 18
)
where Tc is in °C and P is in MPa.

In order to generalize the pressure effect for any cooling rate, it was considered that the crystallization kinetics is mainly driven by the supercooling 21-22 which is the difference between the equilibrium melting temperature and the actual temperature (

T T T m    0
). In other words, for a given cooling rate the crystallization occurs at the same supercooling whatever the pressure. Therefore, the previous polynomial which describes the crystallization temperature (eq.18)

directly reflects the variation of the equilibrium melting temperature with the pressure which is mainly due to the change of the liquid phase entropy. Consequently, this evolution can be written: In eq.18, the first term is the crystallization temperature at atmospheric pressure (126.1°C for a cooling rate of 2°C/min). This term is cooling rate dependent. In eq.19, the first term is the equilibrium melting temperature at atmospheric pressure which is the melting temperature of an hypothetical infinite crystal. There are different values for Patm m T 0 in the literature 5,9,23,24 but it should be pointed out that it does not influence our further calculations. In this work, the value of 210°C was chosen 5 . Besides, Mezghani and Phillips 9 reported the variation of 0 As a result, the Nakamura rate constant can be obtained for every pressure by a shift along the temperature scale given by the two last terms of eq.19. In other words, it means that when K(T) is expressed versus the temperature, it obviously depends on the pressure but, when expressed versus the supercooling, it becomes pressure independent as shown in Figure 6. Therefore the relative crystallinity can be calculated from eq.13 whatever the pressure.

Comparison with Experiments

At this stage, all the parameters in the heat equation (eq.1) were evaluated. So this equation can be resolved and the temperature and the specific volume for each time and each location in the sample can be obtained. Knowing this specific volume distribution for each time, an average specific volume, analogous to experimental data, can be deduced. This average specific volume is defined by the simple ratio between the sample volume and the sample weight:

      R sp R sp sp r V rdr R r V rdr L L R V 0 2 0 2 ) ( 2 ) ( 2 (20)
The modeling of the specific volume was validated by calculating Vsp and comparing it to experimental results for different cooling rates (up to 35°C/min) and three pressures. For these calculations, the input final crystallinity values were measured on samples crystallized at atmospheric pressure with different cooling rates. These values are displayed in Table 2. Although there is not a great evolution of X with the cooling rate, the general trend is a decrease of X when the cooling rate increases. However, the slight effect of pressure on X (see Table 1) was not taken into account in the calculations.

Figure 7, 8 and 9 show the specific volume measured with cooling rates of 2, 10 and 35 °C/min respectively and for three pressures up to 100 MPa. As it can be seen in these Figures, the calculated average specific volumes Vsp are very close to the experimental points for all the cooling rates and pressures. Hence, it can be concluded that the modeling is quite suitable and, particularly, it correctly describes the pressure and the cooling rates effects on the crystallization. Moreover, in these Figures, the intrinsic specific volume int sp V versus the control temperature is also plotted. Actually, this intrinsic specific volume stands for the result that would be obtained experimentally if there was no thermal gradient in the sample. Practically, it corresponds to the specific volume obtained at the sample periphery. Obviously, for a low cooling rate, the difference between the experimental and the intrinsic specific volumes is not significant (Figure 7). However, when the cooling rate increases, this difference becomes more and more important, especially, but not only, in the crystallization zone (Figures 8 and9).

In Figure 10, the results are plotted for cooling rates of 2 and 35 °C/min and a pressure of 60 MPa. As it can be seen, in the liquid part, the rough experimental results are different from one cooling rate to the other, only because of the thermal gradient in the sample. Nevertheless, the intrinsic specific volume curves are obviously identical because the real specific volume in the liquid state is independent of the cooling rate. In the solid part of the diagram, the slight difference between the intrinsic curves is only due to a difference of final crystallinities caused by the different cooling rates. However, in the transition zone, experimental results show an important difference due not only to the thermal gradient but also to the effect of the cooling rate on the crystallization.

As it can be noticed in Figure 10, the half of the difference between the two presented cooling rates arises from the crystallization kinetics which is revealed by the intrinsic specific volume curves.

The other half of the difference is given by the thermal gradient. Therefore, both effects can be distinguished by the presented method.

The other output of the modeling is the temperature evolution inside the sample. As an example, Figure 11 shows the temperature in the sample axis and at the sample periphery versus time for three pressures and a cooling rate of 20°C/min. Outside the crystallization zone the temperature difference between the axis and the periphery is about 13°C. Compared to the solid state, the thermal gradient is slightly higher in the liquid state because the thermal conductivity is lower.

Moreover, during the crystallization the temperature difference between the periphery and the axis can increase up to more than 30°C. Furthermore, In Figure 12, the radial temperature distribution for different times is plotted showing a sliding regime before and after the crystallization (the lines are parallel). However, during the transition, the heat release leads to an alteration of this temperature profile.

CONCLUSION

In this study, it was shown that dilatometric measurements in isobaric cooling mode can be used to characterize the crystallization kinetics of polymers under pressure. Nevertheless, the rough experimental results must be analyzed by taking into account the thermal gradient in the sample. In our case, the specific volume of the purely amorphous phase was described using the Tait equation fitted on low cooling rate PVT experiments. The purely crystalline phase specific volume was considered linearly dependent on temperature and pressure. Then, the relative crystallinity was modeled by the Nakamura equation, suitable for non constant cooling rates. The rate constant of the Nakamura equation was obtained at atmospheric pressure from DSC experiments, with an Avrami exponent of 3. The pressure effect was drawn from the crystallization temperature pressure dependence which is directly linked to the equilibrium melting temperature variation with the pressure. Finally, the obtained intrinsic specific volume was validated by calculating the thermal gradient in the sample and comparing the average specific volume to the experimental one. eq.8 with =1, X=0.684 and Vc given by eq.12.

Figure 3:

Nakamura rate constant obtained at atmospheric pressure from isothermal and constant cooling rate DSC experiments. Solid line given by eq.17.

Figure 4:

Relative crystallinity obtained at constant cooling rate and atmospheric pressure. Experimental data and Nakamura equation.

mT

  with pressure for both  and  phases of i-PP. Their results are close to eq.19, although they are shifted because of

Figure 5 :

 5 Figure 5:

Figure 7 :

 7 Figure 7:

Figure 8 :

 8 Figure 8:

Figure 9 :

 9 Figure 9:

Figure 10 :

 10 Figure 10:

Figure 11 :

 11 Figure 11:

Figure 12 :

 12 Figure 12:

TABLE 1 :

 1 Evolution of the crystallinity with the crystallization pressure (Cooling rate: 1°C/min).PVT diagram of i-PP obtained in isobaric mode with a cooling rate of 1°C/min. Symbols are experimental data. Solid lines are calculated using eq.9, eq.10 and eq.11. The arrow indicates the specific volume of the amorphous phase at ambient pressure and temperature given in Ref 8.Solid part of the PVT diagram of i-PP obtained in isobaric mode with a cooling rate of 1°C/min.

	Pressure (MPa)	0.1	20	60	100
		X		0.677 0.663 0.634 0.623
	TABLE 2:
	Evolution of the crystallinity with the cooling rate (samples crystallized at atmospheric pressure)
	Cooling rate (°C/min)	1	2	5	10	20	30	35	40
	X	0.677 0.669 0.597 0.582 0.587 0.545 0.602 0.568

Symbols: Experimental data. Dashed lines: eq.8 with =1, X=0.684 and constant Vc. Solid lines:

0

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors want to gratefully acknowledge the companies Legrand, Solvay and Moldflow for the material supply and characterization and for financial support.