Keywords: Polymers, Ferroelectric, Organic Device, Structure-Function, Piezoelectric

"All the effort in the world won't matter if you're not inspired."

C. Palahniuk

Ferroelectric Polymers for Organic Electronic Applications

Abstract

Organic electronics represent a realistic alternative to conventional silicon-based technologies through the design, synthesis and implementation of functional organic materials into light and flexible devices. Organic materials, such as small molecules or organic polymers, are advantageous for their low-cost, flexibility and easy processing. Thanks to the economical and timesaving advantages, organic electronics have emerged as an innovative field with application in energy, environment, health, information and communication technologies.

Organic electronics originates from the discovery of polymers with semiconducting functionalities. However, one should not neglect another class of outstanding polymers, the ferroelectric polymers. The electroactive nature of ferroelectric polymers, which are also pyroelectric and piezoelectric, combined with the intrinsic advantages of polymers have designated them as constituent elements of a widespread range of organic electronic devices.

The most well-known family of ferroelectric polymers is that of poly(vinylidene fluoride), P(VDF), and its copolymers with trifluoroethylene, P(VDF-co-TrFE). Energy harvesting, data storage and sensing, main applications of organic electronics, can potentially all be realised using these exceptional functional materials.

Since ferroelectricity is a structure-dependent property an insight into the interrelations between structure and final ferroelectric properties is indispensable in order to improve existing applications of ferroelectric polymers in organic electronics and to promote the introduction of P(VDF-co-TrFE) in new application fields.

P(VDF-co-TrFE) as semi-crystalline polymer possess crystalline properties which are sensitive to thermal treatment. Since only the crystalline regions contribute to ferroelectric switching and not the amorphous ones, the degree of crystallinity is a key factor to modulate the ferroelectric properties. Moreover, crystallites orientation as well as the presence of defects within the crystallites are crucial parameters playing an important role in defining the final performance of the devices in which P(VDF-co-TrFE) is incorporated.

Herein stands the aim of this thesis: reach an exhaustive understanding of processingstructure-function relationships that will serve as tool to modulate ferroelectric devices performances.

Going one step further, the potential applications of P(VDF-co-TrFE) in organic electronics are explored by investigating it in: (1) medical piezoelectric catheter sensors for measuring cardiac function and eventually for detecting cardiac disease and (2) electronic devices in which P(VDF-co-TrFE) is blended with the semiconducting polymer poly(3-hexylthiophene),

P3HT. The latter has already been applied in non-volatile ferroelectric memory diodes and the potential use in organic photovoltaics is explored.

Polymères Ferroélectriques pour Applications Electroniques Organiques

Résumé

L'électronique organique représente une alternative réaliste aux technologies conventionnelles à base de silicium par le design, la synthèse et la mise en oeuvre des matériaux organiques fonctionnels dans des dispositifs légers et flexibles. Les matériaux organiques, tels que les petites molécules ou les polymères organiques, sont avantageux pour leur faible coût, leur flexibilité et leur facilité de traitement. Grâce aux avantages liés à l'utilisation de matériaux organiques, en termes économiques et de gain de temps, l'électronique organique est devenue un domaine innovant qui s'applique aux technologies de l'énergie, de l'environnement, de la santé, de l'information et de la communication.

L'électronique organique est issue de la découverte de polymères dotés de fonctionnalités semi-conductrices. Cependant, il ne faut pas négliger une autre classe de polymères exceptionnels, les polymères ferroélectriques. La nature électroactive des polymères ferroélectriques, qui sont également pyroélectriques et piézoélectriques, combinés aux avantages intrinsèques des polymères, les a désignés comme éléments constitutifs d'une gamme étendue de dispositifs électroniques organiques.

La famille de polymères ferroélectriques la plus connue est celle du poly(fluorure de vinylidène) P(VDF) et de son copolymère avec le trifluoroéthylène, P(VDF-co-TrFE). La récupération d'énergie, le stockage et la détection de données, principales applications de l'électronique organique, peuvent potentiellement tous être réalisés avec ces matériaux fonctionnels exceptionnels.

La ferroélectricité étant une propriété dépendant de la structure, il est indispensable de mieux comprendre les relations réciproques entre la structure et les propriétés ferroélectriques finales afin d'améliorer les applications existantes des polymères ferroélectriques en électronique organique et de promouvoir l'introduction du P(VDF-co-TrFE) dans de nouvelles applications. P(VDF-co-TrFE) en tant que polymère semi-cristallin possède des propriétés cristallines sensibles au traitement thermique. Puisque seules les régions cristallines contribuent a le commutation électronique de la polarisation et non les amorphes, le degré de cristallinité est un facteur clé pour moduler les propriétés ferroélectriques. En autre, l'orientation des cristallites ainsi que la présence de défauts dans les cristallites sont des paramètres cruciaux qui jouent un rôle important dans la définition des performances finales des dispositifs dans lesquels P(VDF-co-TrFE) est incorporé. Tel est l'objectif de cette thèse: atteindre une compréhension exhaustive des relations traitement-structure-fonction qui serviront d'outil pour moduler les performances des dispositifs ferroélectriques.

De plus, les applications potentielles de P(VDF-co-TrFE) en électronique organique sont explorées en examinant sa mise en oeuvre dans: (1) des capteurs médicaux à cathéter piézoélectrique destinés à mesurer la fonction cardiaque et éventuellement à détecter maladies cardiaques et (2) dispositifs électroniques dans lesquels P(VDF-co-TrFE) est mélangé avec le polymère poly (3-hexylthiophène) semi-conducteur, P3HT. Ce dernier a déjà été appliqué dans les diodes à mémoire ferroélectrique non volatile et l'utilisation potentielle dans le champ de l'organique photovoltaïque est explorée.

Mots clés

Polymères, Ferroélectrique, Dispositifs organiques, Structure-Fonction, Piézoélectrique

Unité de recherche

Ferroelectric polymers in organic electronics

Organic electronics gave birth to a realistic alternative to conventional silicon-based technologies through the design, synthesis and implementation of functional organic materials into light and flexible devices. Organic materials are low cost materials that require low pressure and low temperature in order to be processed. Therefore, the economical and timesaving advantages, provided by organic materials, promote organic electronics as an innovative field that meets challenges in energy, environment, health, information and communication technologies.

Thinking about organic electronics, our mind goes spontaneously to semiconducting polymers, neglecting the significance of organic dielectrics: ferroelectric polymers constitute one of those. The most well-known family of ferroelectric polymers is that of poly(vinylidene fluoride), P(VDF), and its copolymers with trifluoroethylene, the P(VDF-co-TrFE).Their electroactive nature, given by their ferroelectric, pyroelectric and piezoelectric functionalities, combined with the intrinsic advantages of polymers have promoted them as constituent elements for a widespread range of organic electronic devices.

Ferroelectric fluorinated polymers have been used for decades in acoustics to develop for example audio-frequency microphones, headphone, speakers, and in electromechanical applications to develop sensors such as pressure switches. The operation of such devices is based on the piezoelectric effect. Acoustic devices are made up of a flexible polymeric film that vibrates upon application of a voltage, generating sound (Figure 1.1a). On the other hand, electromechanical transducers are low-frequency piezoelectric switches whose operation depends on the deformation of the film, induced by the pressure applied onto a push button (Figure 1.1b). 1,2 Figure 1. 1 (a) Example of acoustic generator operation: when a voltage is applied the plane piezoelectric element bends. This transverse motion represents a pulsed motion that generates sound.

Reproduced from reference 2 . (b) Schematic cross section of an electromechanical switch. Reproduced from reference 2 . (c) A polymer-based FeFET device where the p-semiconducting polymer used is poly (2methoxy,5-(20-ethylhexyloxy)-p-phenylenevinylene), MEH-PPV. Reproduced from reference 3

. (d) A

schematic representation of the cross-section of a non-volatile diode memory made by a phaseseparated blend of P3HT and P(VDF-co-TrFE). Reproduced from reference 4 . (e) Schematic draw of a BHJ photovoltaic device that incorporates P (VDF-co-TrFE) domains in the active layer. Reproduced from reference 5 .

In the last 10-15 years PVDF and its copolymers expanded their field of use in memory applications and photovoltaics. Concerning memory devices, ferroelectric Field effect transistors, FeFET, in which the ferroelectric insulator P(VDF-co-TrFE) acts as the gate dielectric have been fabricated (Figure 1.1c). The gate voltage can tune the ferroelectric polarisation of the gate insulator inducing either high or low semiconductor channel conductance. In this way, FeFETs provide a non-volatile memory that can be non-destructively read-out. 3,4,6,7 Another kind of ferroelectric non-volatile memory has been achieved by blending P(VDF-co-TrFE) with the semiconducting polymer poly(3-hexylthiophene), P3HT (Figure 1.1d). These non-volatile resistive memories use the polarisation field of the ferroelectric matrix to modulate the injection barrier at the semiconductor-metal interface: through variation of the polarisation direction a lowering (increase) of the injection barrier occurs and with it an increase (reduction) of the device current: the device is in the on-state (off-state).

In organic photovoltaics, OPVs, one of the main issues that need to be overcome in order to achieve high efficiency devices concerns the electron-hole, e --h + , recombination. Bulkheterojunction OPVs that incorporate ferroelectric polymers are reported to exhibit an improved efficiency (Figure 1.1e) 5 thanks to the fact that ferroelectric polymers act as promoters of the dissociation of the photo generated e --h + pairs (singlet excitons) thanks to their polarisation potential that hinders exciton recombination.

Nowadays ferroelectric polymers are increasingly seizing attention for applications related to the realization of the Internet of Things (IoT), a technological challenge based on networks of environmentally-friendly and auto-sustainable sensors and energy sources. An example of recent achievements in energy harvesting that can be seen as a knot of the IoT network is the implementation of ferroelectric polymers in piezoelectric nanogenerators, in which, ferroelectrics (being piezoelectrics that exhibit a large electromechanical response) are able to harvest and efficiently convert mechanical energy into electrical power. [8][9][10] Energy harvesting, data storage and sensing, main applications of organic electronics, can potentially all be realised using ferroelectric polymers (Figure 1.2). This Thesis is centred on the study of these exceptional functional materials.

Basic dielectric definitions

A ferroelectric material is first of all a dielectric material, which acts as a barrier for the free charges to flow when an electric field is applied. When a dielectric of thickness d and surface area A is placed between two metallic electrodes, in a parallel plate capacitor geometry (Figure 1.3.a) and a voltage V is applied charges, Q, are stored at the surface:

𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉 (1.1)
C is the capacitance that is defined as:

𝐶 = 𝜀𝐴 𝑑 = 𝜀 0 𝜀 𝑟 𝐴 𝑑 (1.2)
Where ε0 is a constant, the vacuum permittivity (8.854 10 -12 F m -1 ), and εr is the relative dielectric permittivity of the material:

𝜀 𝑟 = (1 + 𝜒) (1.3)
Where χ is the susceptibility, the same as 𝜀 𝑟 after the 𝜀 0 contribution subtraction:

𝜀 0 𝜒 = 𝜀 0 𝜀 𝑟 -𝜀 0 = 𝜀 0 (𝜀 𝑟 -1) (1.4) Dielectric permittivity, ε and susceptibility, χ, essentially represent the same phenomena.

When an electric field is applied to a material, the response of the materials depends on the frequency of the field. Indeed, the dielectric permittivity, ε is function of the frequency of the applied electric field and is defined as a complex function:

𝜀 𝑟 = 𝜀 ′ 𝑟 + 𝑖𝜀 ′′ 𝑟 (1.5) where εr' represents the real part of the relative permittivity and is related to the energy stored in the dielectric and εr'' represents the imaginary part of the relative permittivity and relates to the energy loss in the material.

The applied electric field 𝐸 ⃗ induces a spatial displacement of charges, 𝐷 ⃗ ⃗ :

𝐷 ⃗ ⃗ = 𝜀 0 𝐸 ⃗ + 𝑃 ⃗ (1.6)
The overall macroscopic polarisation 𝑃 ⃗ is the density of charges created at the surface, namely the total amount of charges per unit area (P = Q A -1 ) and is defined as:

𝑃 ⃗ = 𝜀 0 𝜒𝐸 ⃗ (1.7)

In the limit of small fields, the dielectric polarisation varies in a linear way with the electric field as shown in Figure 1.3.b where the polarisation 𝑃 ⃗ dependence to the 𝐸 ⃗ for a classical dielectric material is represented. 11

Ferroelectric polarisation

A crystalline dielectric material with non-centrosymmetric structure is called polar dielectric and its net polarisation can be modified by an applied field, giving rise to high permittivity. Certain crystalline polar dielectrics exhibit high permittivity and bear, even in absence of electric field, a spontaneous and reversible electric polarisation. Such materials are called ferroelectrics. The ferroelectric polarisation originates from the alignment of dipoles inside the crystallites through the application of an electric field. The ferroelectric polarisation is bi-stable, i.e. when the direction of the electric field is reversed, inversion of dipoles moment orientation occurs giving rise to a ferroelectric hysteresis loop, electrical analogue of the hysteresis loops exhibited by ferromagnetic materials (Figure 1.4.a). As it emerges, the ferroelectric polarisation does not vary with the electric field in a linear way as classical dielectrics do. A crystalline ferroelectric material can be schematised by crystallites that can form ferroelectric domains with a certain polarisation axis. The intrinsic polarisation of the ferroelectric domains is represented by arrows oriented in different directions, namely different dipoles orientation in Figure 1.4b. When the ferroelectric is placed between two electrodes and a voltage is applied, an orientation of the dipoles within the crystallites will be induced.

In Figure 1.4.c the transition of a material from the non-polarized to the polarized state under application of an electric field 𝐸 ⃗ is depicted. Ferroelectric domains, initially randomly oriented with respect to each other (Figure 1.4c, ①), tend to align (Figure 1.4.c from ② to ④) until reaching saturation of 𝑃 ⃗ at high 𝐸 ⃗ (Figure 1.4.c ⑤): the material is finally polarised and its polarisation can be inverted by applying an opposite equal electric field.

From the recorded hysteresis loop the ferroelectric parameters characterising the material can be determined. The saturation polarisation, Psat, is the maximum polarisation obtainable at a specific value of electric field and is related to the total amount of dipoles responding to the 𝐸 ⃗ . At the intersections with the P-axis and E-axis respectively we can determine the remnant polarisation, ±Pr, which is the retained polarisation in absence of electric field, and the coercive field, ±Ec, which is the value of the electric field that must be applied in order to switch the full saturated polarisation (Figure 1.4a). On this polarisation reversal are based the non-volatile ferroelectric random access memories, FRAMs, where the binary logic states "1"

and "0" are associated with the bi-stable polarisation states +Pr and -Pr.

The comprehension of this electrical switching process and the evaluation of the parameters that come out from it are of fundamental importance to target the final application of the device. For example, in case of capacitors, normally the goal is to induce the highest amount of charges per surface area by applying the lowest effort to switch the dipoles, namely the lowest electric field. Therefore, a good ferroelectric performance in that case corresponds to a high Pr (high amount of information stored in the write process) and a low Ec (read-out requires low voltages).

Another important parameter that is characteristic of ferroelectric materials is the Curie temperature, TCurie, that marks the transition from the ferroelectric to the paraelectric state and vice versa. Above TCurie the crystallites are in a paraelectric state, i.e. the dipoles are randomly oriented, the spontaneous polarisation vanishes and the ferroelectricity is lost.

1.4 Ferroelectric polymers: state-of-the-art PVDF and its polymorphs PVDF is the most well-known organic ferroelectric polymer, whose the repeating unit is (CH2-CF2)n. The chemical structures of monomer and polymer are shown in Figure 1.5. The PVDF ferroelectricity arises from the presence of the small highly electronegative fluorine atom (its effective ionic radius is 1.35 Å) which forms a polar bond with carbon (with a dipolar moment µ of 6.4-7  10 -30 C m) (Figure 1.5a). 1,[START_REF] Kim | Curie transition, ferroelectric crystal structure and ferroelectricity of a VDF/TrFE (75/25) copolymer: 2. The effect of poling on curie transition and ferroelectric crystal structure[END_REF]13 Nevertheless, the presence of dipoles is not sufficient to make PVDF a ferroelectric polymer: molecular conformation and crystalline packing play an important role in the final polymeric electroactivity. Some requirements need to be encountered concerning both conformation and packing of the chains inside a crystallite to obtain a ferroelectric material (Figure 1.6). PVDF is semi-crystalline and exists in several crystalline polymorphs: the most common crystalline phases are α or II, β or I, γ or III (Figure 1.7). 1,14,15 The difference between α, β, γ polymorphic forms relies on the polarity of their chain conformation and on the polarity of the crystals that consequently determine a not-, highly-or slightly-ferroelectric phase. The most ferroelectric phase of PVDF is the β, obtained by a parallel packing of polymeric chains with an all-trans stereo-chemical conformation (TTT) where F and H substituents are at 180 ° to each other (Figure 1.6b and Figure 1.7a). In the all-trans conformation, the dipoles are all aligned in the same direction, perpendicular to the main chain. The parallel packing of these all-trans chains within a crystalline unit cell (Figure 1.6c) leads to a crystalline ferroelectric phase. However, this highly polar phase (μ = 7  10 -30 C m per repeating unit), is energetically unfavourable and in order to achieve it a uniaxial mechanical stretching of the stable α-phase is required. [16][17][18] (a) (b) (c) The α-phase is obtained by the packing of two trans-gauche (TG + TG -) chains, in which the F and H substituents are at 180 ° and at ± 60 ° alternatively (Figure 1.7b). The absence of steric strains between fluorine atoms makes the TG + TG -the lowest potential energy conformation. 19 Nevertheless the antiparallel arrangement of the dipole moments within the α-unit cell, in which every dipole is neutralized by a neighbouring one that is oriented in the opposite direction, makes the α-PVDF an non ferroelectric crystalline phase. 16 Another common and polar crystalline phase of PVDF is the γ-phase that, with respect to the β-, exhibits weaker piezo-and ferroelectric properties because of the presence of gauche defects (μ =4-3.4  10 -30 C m per repeating unit). This polar γ-phase made by a parallel packing of TTTG + TTTG -chains (Figure 1.7c), is achieved by isothermal crystallisation at high temperature or by a solid-state transition from α-or β-to γ-phase by annealing at temperatures close to the melting point, Tm, or by adding nucleating agents. [20][START_REF] Petsagkourakis | Structurally-driven Enhancement of Thermoelectric Properties within Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) thin Films[END_REF][22][23] As it arises obtaining the polar phases, β and γ, is not trivial so easy to obtain but it is in any case required in order to exploit the ferroelectric functionality of PVDF.

P(VDF-co-TrFE) and its polymorphs

When trifluoroethylene, TrFE, (CF2-CFH), monomer is added in the PVDF chain, the P(VDFco-TrFE), statistical copolymer is obtained. 24,25 The repeating unit is (CH2-CF2 The copolymer of PVDF with trifluoro ethylene exhibits a polymorphism which is reported to be molar ratio dependent. In literature many studies have investigated the crystalline structures of P(VDF-co-TrFE) with different molar ratios.

Lovinger's and Furukawa's works constitute the milestone for PVDF and its copolymers with TrFE. In the 80 ies, by means of X-rays diffraction analysis they have shown the crystalline structure difference between copolymers with a VDF molar content less or higher than 54%.

The melt solidified copolymer with a VDF/TrFE 52/48 molar ratio was found to crystallize into a mixture of two rather disordered crystalline phases: one well-organized trans planar zig-zag phase arranged in a hexagonal packing, and another 3/1 helical structure arranged in pseudohexagonal packing. It was proposed that both these conformations give rise to an overall chain structure of irregular succession of TT, TG +/-sequences that appear in the diffractogram as a single peak because of the superposition of two independent peaks. 26 For higher VDF content, at room temperature, the copolymer was found to co-crystallize directly into a well-ordered trans zig-zag packing, resulting in a ferroelectric polar phase analogous to that of β-PVDF. This low-temperature state of P(VDF-co-TrFE) with 54 mol% ≤ VDF ≤ 82 mol% has a polar trans conformation of molecular chains whose order increases with the VDF content, leading to a decrease of the dimension of the pseudo-hexagonal unit cells. 16 In 1986, Tashiro and Kobayashi studied the copolymer with a content of VDF of 55 mol% and reported the appearance of a defective phase when cooled down after annealing. In particular, three crystal forms were defined: a low-temperature (LT) phase, essentially the β-PVDF, where VDF monomeric units are replaced statistically by TrFE units in the crystal structure; a high temperature (HT) phase, statistical combination of TT and TG +/-rotational isomers in a nonpolar unit cell and a cooled (CL) phase (Figure 1.9). When LT is annealed above the TCurie, molecular chains experience a violent rotational motion around the chain axis through a trans-gauche conformational exchange and the HT paraelectric phase is obtained, which, upon cooling, generates a defective CL. For copolymers with VDF content higher than 55% Tashiro et al. did not find any CL phase but they described an almost reversible transition between LT and HT. 15,27 The CL phase of Tashiro is an individual disordered ferroelectric phase that should correspond to the one described by Lovinger as the mixture of two individual phases whose diffraction peaks overlap at RT. Even though both Lovinger and Tashiro described just one ordered ferroelectric phase for the low temperature state of copolymers with high VDF content (>55%), Koga et al. have proposed the existence of three different ferroelectric phases for copolymers of 60 mol% ≤ VDF ≤ 90 mol% based on the multiple-peak Curie transition shape recorded with DSC. It was suggested that copolymers belonging to this weight ratio group crystallize into a mixture of αphase, (TG + TG -), β-phase (TTT), and γ-phase (T3G + T3G -). This mixture of phases has been shown

to convert into the same ordered regular all-trans phase through poling with a strong electric field: the multiple DSC peaks of the Curie transition merge into a single sharp peak, shifted towards higher TCurie. 28,29 Towards the same direction, Kim et al. succeed in separating the multiple Curie peaks into isolated ones confirming (by IR spectroscopy) that upon heating, the peak at higher temperature corresponds to a ferroelectric phase with more trans sequences (the TTT, βphase of Koga) and less gauche defects which in order to convert into a paraelectric phase requires higher thermal energy. 30 In 1998, Gregorio completed the studies of Kim demonstrating the effect of annealing below or above the crystallization onset, T0. 31 Annealing at a crystallization temperature, Tc, which is below T0 results in ordering the ferroelectric phase: TCurie upon heating shifts towards higher temperatures but the melting temperature, Tm, remains the same, i.e. there is no change in the crystallite size. When annealing is performed at a temperature above T0 both paraelectric and ferroelectric phases are modified: a shift of TCurie towards lower temperatures and of Tm towards higher temperatures is recorded (Figure 1.10). These phenomena have been explained by the appearance of one paraelectric and one ferroelectric phases (named Fα2 and Fβ1 respectively) at Tc<T0 or two paraelectric and ferroelectric phases (named Fα1, Fα2 and Fβ1, Fβ2) at Tc>T0, a hypothesis that was corroborated by means of Wide Angle X-Ray Diffusion (WAXD). 29 The importance of ordering within the paraelectric phase had already been arisen with the work of Stack et al. who have demonstrated that higher isothermal crystallization temperatures form crystallites with greater thermodynamic stability (lower free energy, G) and greater structural order, whose melting point Tm increases (due to the low G).

Such paraelectric crystallites of greater stability must be cooled to lower temperature before undergoing the Curie transition and analogously they reform sooner (at lower temperatures) on subsequent heating. 32 The most recent study of the structural transition of P(VDF-co-TrFE) has been reported by Bargain et al. 33 They investigated isotropic films investigated by means of simultaneous SAXS/WAXS and DSC experiments. By following the structural changes during heating and cooling they concluded that the orthorhombic defective ferroelectric phase, called DFE, arises from the crystallization of chain segments containing chemical conformational defects in the hexagonal paraelectric phase during a first heating above the Curie transition. This DFE is probably the same phase as the CL, or the Fβ2 phases already described in literature.

From this summary of studies on P(VDF-co-TrFE) structure it arises an absence of a common terminology and of a convergent theory that described the structure of P(VDF-co-TrFE). Even though it is clear the enhanced complexity of the copolymer polymorphism with respect to that of PVDF, few groups still refer to copolymer phases using the homopolymer terminology

Challenges and Thesis objectives

Since ferroelectricity is a structure-dependent property, a complete understanding of existing interrelations between resulting structure and final ferroelectric properties is indispensable in order to improve existing applications of ferroelectric polymers in organic electronics and to promote the introduction of P(VDF-co-TrFE) in new fields of applications.

As already highlighted, despite the multiplicity of studies that have investigated the structural properties of P(VDF-co-TrFE) a unified theory is still missing. Moreover, just few studies correlate the functional ferroelectric properties of P(VDF-co-TrFE), such as the Pr and the Ec, to its structural characteristics in terms of degree of crystallinity, polymorphism and crystallites orientation. 13,17,[34][35][36][37][38] The degree of crystallinity is a key factor to modulate the ferroelectric properties since only the crystalline regions are involved in the ferroelectric switching of P(VDF-co-TrFE) and contribute to ferroelectricity. Note that as a semi crystalline polymer, P(VDF-co-TrFE) can be viewed as an intrinsic composite where ferroelectric crystallites are embedded in an amorphous, and thus non-ferroelectric, matrix (Figure 1.11). 39 In order to enhance the degree of crystallinity, crystallisation of polymers can be carried out either by melt crystallisation, i.e.

crystallising from the molten state, or by cold crystallisation, i.e. crystallising from the glassy state. [40][41][42] . Even though various protocols can be found in literature, normally the P(VDF-co-TrFE) films are annealed at a temperature between the Curie transition (TCurie) and melting (Tm), through a "cold crystallisation" process, for typically 2 hours. However, the choice of conditions seems mainly arbitrary.

The first challenge of this Thesis will be to define the "cold crystallisation" annealing conditions that lead to best ferroelectric properties. The role of crystallinity and polymorphism will be examined. Concerning polymorphism, the lack of a unified terminology and theory for the P(VDF-co-TrFE) polymorphs leads to confusion in defining the possible crystalline phases in which the copolymer can crystallise into. Especially comprehending the origin of the polymorphs is of fundamental importance to predict the formation or not of such phases, more or less ordered, more or less ferroelectric. It has been highlighted above (Chapter 1.4.2) that the appearance of defects in P(VDF-co-TrFE) cannot be neglected when we consider the crystalline phases.

Since it is not possible to get rid of these imperfections, the way to control it should be investigated.

Therefore, polymorphism needs to be defined in terms of type of generated phases, the way they originate and how they affect the functional properties. In order to reply to these questions, in this Thesis we seek to reveal the structural changes at which the ferroelectric polymer P(VDF-co-TrFE) undergoes during typical processing steps in order to define how the different polymorphs are generated and how they are related to defects. To the best of our knowledge, the way that the different polymorphs affect the ferroelectric functionality has never been studied before. Herein we intent to address this issue. We will try to shin light on the role of defects on polarization switching.

Another important parameter is crystallites orientation. The intrinsic link between polarisation and dipoles orientation within the crystallites (note that the C-F dipoles are perpendicular to the polymer backbone) points out that the crystallites orientation with respect to the applied electric field is fundamental to help the alignment and get after poling the maximum density of charges at the surface. In literature, it has been demonstrated that crystallites orientation can be varied by surface modification of the substrate or by specific processing protocols. These studies have stressed the need for a perpendicular orientation of the dipoles with respect to the substrate plane in order to achieve a high value of Pr. 43,44 Herein we will attempt to quantify the impact of crystallite orientation on the ferroelectric properties. To address this challenge we induce by appropriate processing various crystallite orientations and we investigate how these respond to the electric field.

Addressing the challenges described above will provide the tool to modulate the ferroelectric performance of P(VDF-co-TrFE) in organic electronic devices through tuning its structure. This Thesis will shine light in the processing-structure-function relations of P(VDFco-TrFE).

Finally, two applications of P(VDF-co-TrFE) in organic electronics will be explored in this

Thesis. The first one concerns the implementation of P(VDF-co-TrFE) in medical piezoelectric sensors for laparoscopic simulation.

The goal is to design and optimise flexible piezoelectric catheter sensors that that allows mapping different regions of a 3D plastic heart used in training sessions by students to simulate surgery investigation. The second application is based on a more complex structure than that of a simple capacitor. Electronic devices in which P(VDF-co-TrFE) is blended with the semiconducting polymer P3HT will be studied. P(VDF-co-TrFE):P3HT blends form a phase separated active layer whose morphology at the nanoscale is critical for the operation of the devices made thereafter. 45 This blend has been already used in non-volatile ferroelectric diodes. Herein the potential of employing it in order to build un-conventional organic photovoltaics devices is explored.

Thesis Outline

After having highlighted the main objectives and challenges of this Thesis entitled "Ferroelectric polymers for organic electronic applications", we conclude this introductive Chapter with the Thesis outlook.

In Chapter 2 the thermal processing conditions that lead to an optimised ferroelectric function in terms of high Pr and low Ec will be defined. Since cold crystallisation is the postdeposition treatment normally used for organic electronic devices, a study of the effect of thermal annealing at various temperatures between the crystallisation onset and the melting temperature of P(VDF-co-trFE) is performed for various annealing times. The crystallization properties induced by applied these thermal protocols are investigated by means of grazing incidence wide angle x-ray scattering, GIWAXS, while the effect of processing on the ferroelectric properties is investigated by means of polarisation hysteresis loops.

Chapter 3 is focused on exploring the polymorphism of P(VDF-co-TrFE). In order to identify the various crystalline phases generated in P(VDF-co-TrFE) during thermal annealing, the phase transitions that the polymer undergoes have been followed by means of time-resolved WAXS and DSC employing an isothermal melt crystallisation protocol. Starting from the molten state, we study how different isothermal crystallization temperatures, Tc, affect the appearance of defective ferroelectric crystalline phases, as well as the ferroelectric performance. A thorough investigation of the ferroelectric and paraelectric crystalline phases that appear during the Curie transition is presented. The combination of time resolved WAXS and DSC employed herein allows following these structural transitions with a unique precision and to unveil the P(VDF-co-TrFE)'s polymorphism in an unprecedented way.

In Chapter 4 the effect of crystallites orientation is studied. Huge differences on structure, including a crystallites orientation change, have been generated by applying disruptive thermal protocols. It is discussed and quantified how the inversion of crystallites orientation with respect to the substrate play an important role on the device response to the applied electric field and on the shape of the ferroelectric hysteresis loops, thus on device function.

In Chapter 5 an application of In order to enhance device performance in view of the use of P(VDF-co-TrFE) in organic electronic applications, the functionality brought by the ferroelectric film should be maximised. In particular, the ferroelectric performance of P(VDF-co-TrFE) is known to depend on its structure, which in turns can be tuned through film processing. Given the intrinsic link between polarisation and dipoles orientation within the P(VDF-co-TrFE) crystallites, 1 triggering the crystalline structure of the polymer is expected to affect ferroelectric properties.

In organic electronics, devices are mainly layered structures that are complemented by the deposition of electrodes on both surfaces of this multilayer. The organic films are commonly formed by doctor blading, dip-coating, spray-coating, etc. Among film disposition techniques, spin coating is maybe the most used one for lab-scale device fabrication (i.e. before passing to industrial-scale production) thanks to its simplicity, low cost, and possibility to modulate the thickness of uniform films through variation of the deposition parameters. After deposition, organic thin films are usually subjected to a thermal treatment in order to eliminate solvent that is eventually trapped in the film, or improve surface smoothness, or, most commonly, to enhance crystallinity. In this latter case, one can consider that "coldcrystallisation" takes place. Therefore, to comply with the procedures followed for organic electronic devices fabrication, in this Chapter we study the "cold-crystallisation" of spun-cast P(VDF-co-TrFE) films and we correlate annealing conditions to ferroelectric properties.

Semi-crystalline polymers are able to crystallise between their glass transition temperature, Tg, and melting, Tm. Depending on the initial state, the crystallisation process can be classified as: i) melt crystallisation, when the initial state is the molten one. In this case the polymer should be annealed at T>Tm for few minutes to assure that all crystallites have melted, and then cool down and let crystallise at a crystallisation temperature Tc<Tm. ii) cold crystallisation, when the initial state is the amorphous or a partially crystalline one. After spincoating at room temperature, P(VDF-co-TrFE) is already in a partially crystalline state. Note that at room temperature P(VDF-co-TrFE) is already above its glass transition (Tg ≈ -50 °C).

Annealing its films at Tg<Tc<Tm will result in an increase of crystallinity, since this is energetically favourable for the polymer chains that during spin-coating have been "trapped" in the amorphous state. Therefore, the thermal treatment at Tc<Tm that is applied after spincoating can be indeed considered as "cold-crystallisation".

By modulating the thermal processing conditions, i.e. annealing temperature and annealing time, crystallinity can be enhanced and, subsequently, the ferroelectric performance can be improved. Although investigations of the bulk crystalline structure of bulk P(VDF-co-TrFE) have been attempted in literature since the 80's, [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][START_REF] West | Solid state chemistry and its applications[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | Curie transition, ferroelectric crystal structure and ferroelectricity of a VDF/TrFE (75/25) copolymer: 2. The effect of poling on curie transition and ferroelectric crystal structure[END_REF] studies that relate film processing conditions to the final ferroelectric properties are rare [13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20] and concern only the effect of annealing temperature or solvent casting. In literature several annealing conditions for the processing of P(VDF-co-TrFE) can be found. Just to mention a few, annealing temperatures of 120 °C, [START_REF] Petsagkourakis | Structurally-driven Enhancement of Thermoelectric Properties within Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) thin Films[END_REF] 130 °C, 18 135 °C, 8,10,22 140 °C, 23,24 have been applied during various annealing times such as 30 minutes, 18 1 hour, 17,25 2 h, 23,26,27 5 h, 28 8 h, 14 12 h, 8,9,27 or even 24 hours. [START_REF] Petsagkourakis | Structurally-driven Enhancement of Thermoelectric Properties within Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) thin Films[END_REF] However, no justification is provided. The choice of annealing conditions seems arbitrary and mostly depends on empirical observations.

In this Chapter, a study of the effect of cold crystallisation conditions on the structural properties dictating the ferroelectric performance of P(VDF-co-TrFE) is conducted in order to find the processing conditions that result in optimum ferroelectric performance of P(VDF-co-TrFE) thin films. The work presented herein has been published in Polymer (Spampinato et al.)

Samples preparation

A 10wt% solution of P(VDF-co-TrFE) (75-25 VDF/TrFE molar ratio) in cyclopentanone has been spin-coated onto Si substrates (for GIWAXS) or on Al/glass substrates (for capacitors).

The films were annealed on a precision hot plate with a rate of 5 °C min -1 from room temperature until the temperature of choice (130 °C, 133 °C, 135 °C, 137 °C, 140 °C). The temperature range explored is set between the crystallisation onset temperature, Tc, and the melting temperature, Tm, because in this range an enhanced degree of crystallinity, driven by the rearrangement of molecular chains, is induced. 23 Then an isothermal annealing step is performed at the selected temperature for 5 min, 15 min, 30 min, 1 h or 2 h, during which cold-crystallisation continues. Finally, the films were let to cool down to room temperature slowly, with a cooling rate of 1.6 °C min -1 on the same hot stage.

Additionally, a pristine film (i.e. not thermally treated) has been studied and used as a reference sample. Among all different combinations of annealing temperatures and times tested, we present herein two series of samples that are representative of the effect of temperature and of the effect of annealing time.

Capacitors were fabricated for the ferroelectric characterizations. 100 nm thick aluminium electrodes were thermally evaporated onto clean glass substrates and P(VDF-co-TrFE) films of 1 µm were spin-coated on top. 100 nm thick Al films were finally thermally evaporated to form the top electrode. The temperature inside the evaporator was kept below 70 °C, i.e. below the Curie transition temperature, to avoid undergoing the ferroelectric-to-paraelectric transition. The thermal treatment of P(VDF-co-TrFE) has been performed on the devices (i.e.

after top electrode deposition) following the procedure described above.

Results and discussion

Depending on thermal processing conditions, the ferroelectric properties of P(VDF-co-TrFE) films change significantly. Hereinafter these samples will be called t-5, t-15, t-30, t-60, t-120, where the number denotes the annealing time in minutes. Annealing for just 5 min already results in a decrease of Ec from 96 MV m -1 for the pristine film to 78 MV m -1 , which further decreases to 50 MV m -1 for samples annealed for 15 min (t-15) and 30 min (t-30) (Figure 2.3a). This is the lowest electric field for the ferroelectric switching process.

However, increasing annealing time above 30 min results in an increased Ec. In consistence with this observation, the corresponding switching current peaks are significantly shifted along the electric field axis (Figure 2.3b). The sharper ones are centred at the lowest Ec and correspond to samples t-15 and t-30. As far as Pr is concerned, no trend is observed. A 5 min annealing already results in a high Pr value of 82 mC m -2 , close to the maximum Pr obtained for t-15. Two main conclusions can be derived from these experiments. First, annealing temperature mostly affects remnant polarisation, while annealing time has more influence on coercive field. Figure 2.4a and Figure 2.4b respectively show the effect of temperature on Pr and the effect of time on Ec, as these were discussed above. This result already provides a tool for tuning ferroelectric properties through processing. When one seeks to increase the surface charge density -and thus the amount of information stored in a device -annealing temperature should be modulated. On the other hand, if promoting a fast ferroelectric switching is the objective, one should tune the annealing time.

The second conclusion concerns the processing conditions that should be applied for optimum ferroelectric performance. The shaded areas in Figure 2.4a and Figure 2.4b suggest that a maximum polarisation and a minimum coercive field are achieved when the isothermal cold-crystallisation step is performed in the temperature range between 133 °C and 137 °C for short annealing times of only 15 to 30 min. This processing conditions result not only in high

Pr and low Ec but also in square hysteresis loops with minor polarisation losses when passing from the saturated polarisation Ps to the remnant value Pr, fast switching and, thus, very good bistability of the ferroelectric properties of the prepared devices.

In fact, the result that optimum ferroelectric response is achieved for only 15 min of annealing is particularly interesting for industrial applications where time-consuming and energy-consuming treatments are not desirable. Here it is demonstrated that long annealing treatments are not necessary since they do not lead to a functional improvement but rather deteriorate device performance. We can conclude that the 2 h annealing step has been mostly used so far 23,26,27 can be replaced by a shorter and more efficient thermal treatment such as that resulting from our study. In order to explore the origin of this enhanced ferroelectric performance under certain processing conditions, grazing incidence wide-angle x-ray scattering (GIWAXS) experiments have been performed. This experiment allows to identify and quantify the crystalline phases present in P(VDF-co-TrFE) films. Films for GIWAXS have been deposited on Si substrates following the same processing conditions as those followed for the fabrication of the capacitors. Si has been chosen instead of Al because it scatters less than Al. This is important for a quantitative analysis as the one endeavoured below since all background contributions should be removed as precisely as possible. Nonetheless, we have cross-checked that the orientation of the crystallites is not affected by the choice of the substrate.

2D scattering patterns have been recorded at room temperature for all films processed using the same thermal protocols studied above (inset in Figure 2.5a, Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7). All necessary corrections (listed in the Annex Section) have been applied to the raw GIWAXS patterns, including background scattering subtraction and wedge correction. 29 The corrected 2D images were radially integrated to extract the 1D scattered intensity vs scattering vector (Intensity vs q) patterns (such as the one presented in Figure 2.5a).

Figure 2.5a shows the Intensity vs q scattering pattern obtained for the film that was annealed at 135 °C for 15 min while the corresponding wedge-corrected 2D image is presented in the inset. This pattern includes the typical reflections that are assigned to the ferroelectric orthorhombic unit cell of P(VDF-co-TrFE). 9,[START_REF] West | Solid state chemistry and its applications[END_REF]30,31 The first peak at around 1.5 Å -1 corresponds to a combination of the ( 200) and (110) reflections, the second peak at 2.6 Å -1 to the superposition of ( 001), ( 310) and (020) planes, and the third one at 3 Å -1 is assigned to the According to current understanding concerning the phase transitions in P(VDF-co-TrFE), 3,7- 10,32-34 no paraelectric phase exists below the Curie temperature but only ferroelectric ones.

In particular Kim et al. 8,9 and Gregorio et al. 32 examined the Curie transition mainly by DSC and concluded that several ferroelectric phases can co-exist at room temperature, having different amounts of conformational gauche defects and hence different thermodynamic stability.

Moreover, gauche defects are reported to induce lattice expansion, which shifts the Bragg peak to lower angles. 8,9,[START_REF] West | Solid state chemistry and its applications[END_REF] Indeed, the presence of defects is expected to induce a less compact packing of chains, which results in an increased d-spacing along the a and b axes and consequently in a Bragg reflection that appears at lower q-values in the reciprocal space with respect to a less-or non-defective phase. This suggests that at room temperature each ferroelectric phase -characterised by a different amount of defects -crystallises into an orthorhombic unit cell, with slightly different lattice parameters depending on the amount of defects. Based on this, the peak at around 1.5 Å -1 should be considered as the superposition of the ( 110),(200) reflections of different ferroelectric phases. For the analysis carried out below we deconvolute this peak into the sum of an intense, predominant peak that is assigned to a ferroelectric phase with a low degree of gauche defects, named F1, and a second less intense peak that is centred between 1.3 -1.4 Å -1 and is assigned to a more defective ferroelectric phase, named F2. Note that several names have appeared in literature in the past to describe ferroelectric phases with different amount of defects. [START_REF] West | Solid state chemistry and its applications[END_REF]32,34 A detailed review of the existing theories on the crystalline polymorphs of P(VDF-co-TrFE) has been provided in the Chapter 1 of this Thesis.

For samples T-133, T-135 and t-30, an intermediate peak is present in our data, located between the peaks that are assigned to F1 and F2 phases. Deconvolution of these patterns absolutely necessitates the introduction of this third peak. We assign this peak to an additional ferroelectric phase, less ordered/more defective than F1 but more ordered/less defective than F2. Therefore, we name this intermediate phase F1-2. The position of this peak justifies the correlation made with the amount of defects.

The F1, F2 and F1-2 peaks have been described by pseudo-Voigt functions. Additionally, a broad peak which extends from 0.7 Å -1 to 1.6 Å -1 should be considered and it is assigned to the amorphous halo contribution. To limit any possible error, a statistical study has been carried out (for every sample the deconvolution has been performed several times) while some parameters, such as the F1 peak position (concerning the crystalline contribution) which is easily identified from the data, and the width of the amorphous halo (concerning the amorphous contribution), have been kept fixed. This latter is imposed by the shape of the halo measured for a molten film at 165 °C and fitted with an asymmetric function. The parameters that are related to the width of this asymmetric function have been kept fixed for deconvolution in order to correctly consider the shape of the amorphous halo. 35 The parameters related to the amplitude and to the position of the halo were free to vary. The deconvolution performed on sample T-135 is presented in Figure 2.5b as an example. All the other deconvolutions are presented in Figure 2.8. Although only the q-range between 1 and 1.7 Å -1 is presented in Figure 2.5b for clarity reasons, deconvolution has been performed between 0.8 Å -1 and 2 Å -1 . Based on the deconvolution of the (110),(200) peak we can evaluate the degree of crystallinity, 𝜒 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜 , and the amount of each ferroelectric phase in each sample. The degree of crystallinity we calculate is not the absolute one, but slightly lower than that, due to the missing scattered intensity for 0 ° < χ < 5 ° (at q ≈ 1.5 Å -1 ), χ being the polar angle, defined with respect to the out-of-plane direction. Thanks to the apparent amorphous halo contribution, the degree of crystallinity is calculated similarly to the case of WAXS, using Equation 2.1:

𝜒 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜 = 𝐴 𝐹1 +𝐴 𝐹2 +𝐴 𝐹1-2 𝐴 𝑡𝑜𝑡 (2.1)
Where AF1, AF2, and A F1-2 (when applicable) are the integrated areas of the respective fitted peak and Atot is the total area of the ( 110),(200) peak, i.e. the sum of the areas of the ferroelectric peaks plus the amorphous halo contribution. It is highlighted that since the films respectively. The shady parts correspond to the annealing conditions that result in the optimum ferroelectric performance. Clearly, the pristine sample (that corresponds to 0 annealing time in Figure 2.9a and 25 °C in Figure 2.9b) exhibits the lowest crystallinity and contains the highest amount of amorphous phase (see also Figure 2.8). Moreover, the contribution of the defective crystalline phase F2 dominates over that of the more ordered F1 phase, as witnessed by its higher intensity and bigger area (Figure 2.8). For the annealed samples the situation is reversed, and F1 dominates over F2 and F1-2. Note that the ferroelectric response of the pristine film is very poor as compared to that of the annealed films (Figures 2.2a and 2.3a). This result is expected, since annealing is known to increase the degree of crystallinity, which consequently increases polarisation, 13,33 given that the crystalline domains are the only regions involved in the ferroelectric switching process which is accomplished by the rotations of individual dipoles around the chain axes. 13 Concerning the effect of annealing time Figure 2.9a suggests that crystallinity increases rapidly within the first 15 min of annealing and then reaches a plateau at which the fraction of ferroelectric phase is considerably high, around 80%. This result asserts that it is not necessary to perform a long thermal treatment of 2 hours in order to obtain a high degree of crystallinity, but only 15 or 30 minutes are enough, and, in fact, optimum device performance is achieved for these short times, as evidenced by the shady area.

Regarding the annealing temperature effect, we can assert that ferroelectric crystallinity increases with annealing temperature (Figure 2.9b), in consistence with previous reports, 13 and reaches its maximum value when annealing is performed at 140 °C. However, the GIWAXS image recorded for sample T-140 shows that an inversion of crystallite orientation has occurred at this temperature (Figure 2.6, T-140). The ( 110),( 200) ring is now more pronounced at the equatorial than in the meridian, implying that the majority of polymer chains are oriented with their backbone perpendicular to the substrate, and, consequently, the dipoles are not aligned parallel to the electric field direction. This inverted orientation has a negative impact on the ferroelectric response and justifies the decreased Pr, despite the high degree of crystallinity in T-140.

On the other hand, the highly performing T-133, T-135 and t-30 samples exhibit a chain orientation parallel to the substrate, a high crystallinity and, moreover, the intermediate phase F1-2. This intermediate state has some gauche defects, which are fewer than in case of phase F2, and is considered to be a slightly unstable ferroelectric phase. We suggest that this phase is responsible for the superior ferroelectric performance of these films, given that the presence of some gauche defects in the ferroelectric crystal is reported to favour dipole rotation along the chain, by decreasing the respective potential energy barrier and thus facilitates polarisation switching. 9 Finally, to further support the information derived by GIWAXS, DSC data recorded for selfstanding films are presented below. Drop-casted films were prepared and underwent in the DSC crucible to heating/cooling sequences that mimic the preparation conditions used for the cold-crystallised films, i.e. heating from room temperature until the respective crystallisation temperature with a rate of 5 °C min -1 , isothermal step at the crystallisation temperature for 15 min and cooling with a rate of 1. increasing further for T-140. Conversely, the maximum of the Curie peak, TCurie, slightly shifts towards lower temperatures when the annealing temperature is increased. This shift has already been correlated in literature with a larger amount of defects, since the generated ferroelectric phases require less energy in order to undergo the Curie transition. 9 Both the Curie transition peak and the melting peak correspond to a first order transition, but in case of the Curie transition the peak is broad indicating the participation of different ferroelectric phases to this transition. 8,30 Therefore the occurrence of the F2 and F1-2 ferroelectric phases, in addition to the less defective F1 phase is confirmed.

Conclusion

The effect of thermal processing on the ferroelectric properties of P(VDF-co-TrFE) films has been studied and the conditions that result in the best performing films have been identified.

The annealing temperature was varied between 130 °C and 140 °C and the annealing time varied between 0 s (no annealing) and 2 h. It is underlined that to the best of our knowledge the effect of annealing time on the ferroelectric performance has not been studied so far and most usually annealing treatments as long as 2 h have been reported in literature. Our results

suggest that only 15 min are enough to induce a high ferroelectric performance, proving that the 2 h-long annealing step that is traditionally applied is not necessary. In fact, optimal ferroelectric response, in terms of a high Pr and a low Ec, has been achieved when thermal processing takes place in the temperature range between 133 °C and 137 °C for 15 to 30 minutes. Thus, a Pr as high as 89 mC m -2 and an Ec as low as 50 MV m -1 have been obtained.

Moreover, it is shown that annealing temperature affects mostly the remnant polarisation value, while annealing time has a severe effect on the coercive field value.

The enhanced performance achieved under these conditions has been rationalised through GIWAXS studies that revealed the crystalline phases apparent in these films and allowed the calculation of the degree of crystallinity. It is shown that a high degree of crystallinity is necessary for an improved performance, but this is not the only crucial parameter. An orientation of the crystallites with the c-axis parallel to the substrate is imperative. For all the films an orientation of the crystallite with their polymeric chain orientated parallel with respect to the substrate has been found apart from the sample annealed at 140 °C. This last finding justifies the decreased performance in spite of the considerable amount of ferroelectric crystallites. Moreover, a deconvolution study demonstrates the existence of a moderately unstable ferroelectric phase F1-2 that contains some gauche defects and that is designated to facilitate ferroelectric switching shown to improve the ferroelectric performance by facilitating the rotation of dipoles during the ferroelectric switching. The best performing structure exhibits a high degree of crystallinity, a preferential orientation of the crystallites with the polymer chains parallel to the substrate and the occurrence of three ferroelectric phases.

This study shines light on the processing-structure-function relationships that dictate the performance of cold-crystallised ferroelectric P(VDF-co-TrFE) films and provides the processing conditions that should be applied for the maximum exploitation of the ferroelectric functionality in organic electronic devices that incorporate this ferroelectric polymer. 3 Unravelling the P(VDF-co-TrFE) polymorphism by investigating its crystallisation from the melt

Introduction

The advantage of using the copolymer P(VDF-co-TrFE) instead of the homopolymer PVDF is that the copolymer spontaneously crystallises into a highly polar ferroelectric phase. This is true for all compositions between 54%≤VDF≤82% that have been studied in literature. 1,2 Moreover copolymers having these molar compositions exhibit a clear ferroelectric-toparaelectric Curie transition, TCurie, at temperatures below the melting point Tm, which is not the case for PVDF. [3][4][5] In fact the Curie transition takes place at temperatures that increase with the increase of VDF content, until overtaking and exceeding the melting point in case of PVDF, whose TCurie cannot be discerned from the Tm. 6,7 The Curie transition is a solid-state reversible transformation: intramolecular dipoles rotations introduce gauche kinks that transform the polar all-trans conformation of pristine ferroelectric crystallites into nonpolar paraelectric crystallites, where the polymer chains adopt a partly disordered conformation consisting of irregular TG + , TG -and TT sequences. The Curie transition of P(VDF-co-TrFE) does not occur at a specific temperature but it is extended in a wide range of temperatures, normally tens of degrees large. Such broad-range transitions are typical for polymers, since they normally involve more than one phase.

Similar to the PVDF homopolymer, the copolymer P(VDF-co-TrFE) exhibits a complex polymorphism which is considered to be molar ratio dependent. In literature many studies have investigated the crystalline structures of P(VDF-co-TrFE) with different molar ratios. 1-3,6,8- 10 Lovinger's and Furukawa's works highlighted the crystalline difference between copolymers with a VDF content higher or equal to 54 mol%. 1 Copolymers with VDF content higher than 54% were found to co-crystallise directly into a ferroelectric phase analogous to the highly polar β-PVDF. 1 In the 80ies, Tashiro and Kobayashi,2,[START_REF] West | Solid state chemistry and its applications[END_REF] by establishing a temperature vs VDF content phase diagram, found that for similar molar ratio copolymers (VDF ≈ 55 mol%) three crystal forms exist: a Low Temperature (LT) phase, a High Temperature (HT) and a CooLed (CL)

phase. 2,[START_REF] West | Solid state chemistry and its applications[END_REF] The LT is essentially the β-PVDF phase, the HT is characterised by the packing of statistical TT and TG +/-isomers in a non-polar hexagonal unit cell, 2 namely the paraelectric phase, and the CL phase is an individual disordered ferroelectric phase defined as a superlattice of long trans chains domains linked together at the boundaries with disordered trans-gauche bonds. 2,[START_REF] West | Solid state chemistry and its applications[END_REF] For copolymers with 70-80mol% of VDF, the LT crystalline phase was observed at room temperature. Upon heating, this LT phase undergoes a Curie transition and converts to the paraelectric HT phase. For copolymers with a VDF content lower than 70mol%

when the HT phase is cooled down to room temperature the CL is generated. 2,[START_REF] West | Solid state chemistry and its applications[END_REF] Besides this work, many other studies on P(VDF-co-TrFE) crystalline structure reported the existence of different ferroelectric phases for various VDF/TrFE compositions (from 50 to 80mol % VDF), elaborated by various processes and by various post treatments. [1][2][3]6,[8][9][10] Koga et al.

have proposed the existence of three different ferroelectric phases for copolymers with 60%≤VDF≤90%, based on the multiple-shaped Curie transition peak recorded upon heating with DSC. 3,8 Kim et al. succeeded in separating these multiple Curie peaks into isolated ones and suggested that, upon heating, during the Curie transition, the peak at higher temperature corresponds to a transition of an "ordered" ferroelectric phase to the paraelectric phase, since this ordered phase would require higher thermal energy to be converted into the paraelectric phase. [START_REF] Kim | Curie transition, ferroelectric crystal structure and ferroelectricity of a VDF/TrFE (75/25) copolymer: 2. The effect of poling on curie transition and ferroelectric crystal structure[END_REF] Numerous designations have been used so far for the polymorphs of P(VDF-co-TrFE) either in the ferroelectric or in the paraelectric state. The ferroelectric phase with all-trans conformations was named LT, 2 as said above, but also Fβ1, 9 β 8 , or FE 13 ; at high temperature, the paraelectric phase was designated as HT, 2 γ 8 or PE 13 while the intermediate phase was named CL, 2 LTD (Low Temperature Disordered) or Fβ2. 3,8,9 The related literature review has been provided in Chapter 1. Regardless the terms used to describe the polymorphs of P(VDFco-TrFE), a common element is the consensus that these polymorphs originate from defects in the highly polar all-trans structure. So, before moving on, we will discuss the concept of "defective phase".

A defective, or disordered, ferroelectric phase differs from a well-ordered, nearly perfect all-trans (TTT) phase due to the appearance of gauche defects (G +/-) within all-trans domains.

Those conformational defects enable an easier rotation along the chain-axis, with a resulting decrease of the ferroelectric-to-paraelectric transition activation energy. Consequently, those defective ferroelectric phases upon heating are expected to evolve into the paraelectric state at lower temperature than the ordered ones. 3 The amount of conformational gauche defects along the chain dictates the structural characteristics of P(VDF-co-TrFE), giving rise to a more or less defective, and thus more or less stable, ferroelectric phase. [START_REF] Kim | Curie transition, ferroelectric crystal structure and ferroelectricity of a VDF/TrFE (75/25) copolymer: 2. The effect of poling on curie transition and ferroelectric crystal structure[END_REF] These G +/-conformations have been considered arising from chemical defects like the headto-head, HH, or tail-to-tail, TT, formed in expense of the correct head-to-tail, HT, configuration where the head is the unit (CH2) and the tail is (CF2). 14 Lovinger et al. have studied the defective crystalline structure of the homopolymer PVDF, by synthesising PVDF samples with various amounts of HH and TT defects. 15 Increasing the amount of configurational defects leads to a switch from a perfect PVDF β-phase to an intermediately defective (for an intermediate amount of HH or TT defects, ≈13%) until achieving a paraelectric-like phase at ≈17% of HH or TT defects. A continuous evolution of the cell parameters was observed while increasing the amount of defects. However, they concluded that the Curie transition did not occur because the conversion of the low temperature phase into the PE phase occurs mainly at the expense of the antipolar α-phase, rather than the polar β-phase and therefore this should not be considered as a Curie transition. 15 In any case, HH and TT are chemical defects, created during polymerisation so in theory they are not affected by processing since they already exist in pristine samples. Even thought, so far, the defective phase has been reported only for not annealed copolymers with a very low VDF content (≤54%) 6 or for high VDF content copolymers after they undergo thermal annealing. 2,3 Besides the HH and TT chemical defects one should keep in mind that the TrFE units can be also seen as chemical defects in the copolymer chain and, thus, the complexity of the system is increased.

Recently, Bargain et al. documented Based on DSC studies, it was demonstrated that, when crystallising from the molten state, higher isothermal crystallisation temperatures result in paraelectric crystallites with greater thermodynamic stability (i.e. lower free energy, G) and greater structural order, implied by the increased Tm . 9,16 It was suggested that these paraelectric crystallites of greater stability must be cooled to lower temperatures before undergoing the PE-to-FE transition, and analogously they reform sooner (i.e. at lower temperatures) on subsequent heating. 16 Moreover, it was suggested that the conformational defects enable an easier rotation along the chain axis, with a resulting decrease of the ferroelectric-to-paraelectric transition activation energy. Consequently, upon heating, a defective ferroelectric phase is expected to evolve into the paraelectric state at lower temperatures than the ordered one. 3 The amount of conformational gauche defects along the chain dictates the structural characteristics of P(VDF-co-TrFE), giving rise to different ferroelectric phases with more or less defects, and thus, more or less stability. [START_REF] Kim | Curie transition, ferroelectric crystal structure and ferroelectricity of a VDF/TrFE (75/25) copolymer: 2. The effect of poling on curie transition and ferroelectric crystal structure[END_REF] Based on that, Kim et al. suggested that, upon heating, during the Curie transition, the DSC peak at higher temperatures corresponds to a transition of a wellordered ferroelectric phase to a paraelectric one, since this transition would require higher thermal energy. [START_REF] Kim | Curie transition, ferroelectric crystal structure and ferroelectricity of a VDF/TrFE (75/25) copolymer: 2. The effect of poling on curie transition and ferroelectric crystal structure[END_REF] As demonstrated in Chapter 2, altering the final crystalline structure of P(VDF-co-TrFE) induces variations of the ferroelectric properties. 17,18 To complement this work and in order to make the link between the structural modifications induced by melt crystallisation and ferroelectric properties, at the end of this Chapter we discuss the device performance of melt crystallised thin films incorporated in capacitors.

Sample preparation

The P(VDF-co-TrFE) copolymer investigated herein has a VDF/TrFE molar ratio of 70-30.

The P(VDF-co-TFE) powder was first heated from RT until 165 °C (above the Tm) with a rate of 5 °C min -1 . An isothermal step is performed for 5 minutes in order to ensure the complete melting of all crystallites. Then a fast cooling is performed with a rate of 40 °C min -1 until the crystallisation temperature of choice (Tc: 129 °C, 131 °C, 133 °C, 135 °C, 137 °C, 140 °C) at which an isothermal crystallisation step takes place for 1 hour. Then a slow cooling rate of 2 °C min -1 is applied until room temperature. A second heating and cooling ramp with both heating and cooling rates of 10 °C min -1 have been finally performed. Both these cycles have been monitored by DSC and time resolved WAXS.

Capacitor devices have been fabricated by evaporating a bottom Al electrode onto clean glass substrates, then by spin-coating P(VDF-co-TrFE) films of a thickness of around 1.5 µm on top, and finally by evaporating through a shadow mask the Al top electrodes. These devices underwent the thermal treatment described above for the first heating and cooling cycles.

The fast cooling from 165 °C to the Tc of choice has been realized by rapidly moving the sample form the hotplate where the melting step has been performed onto another hotplate already set at the crystallisation temperature of choice. Then the films were cooled down to room temperature on the same hotplate, the cooling rate being 2 °C min -1 .

Results and discussion

DSC has been performed to follow the phase transitions in P(VDF-co-TrFE). As described above an atypical DSC analysis was programmed (Figure 3.1). The initial heating and cooling ramps, normally executed to delete the thermal history of the sample, are substituted by heating and cooling ramps that mimic the thermal treatment of films using the hotplate employed for device fabrications as described in the previous sample preparation session.

In particular, we performed a first heating ramp, ①, from RT to 165 °C with a rate of 5 °C min -1 , followed by an isothermal step at 165 °C for 5 minutes to assure melting of all crystallites. Then a first cooling ramp, ②, is performed that comprises cooling from 165 °C, with a fast cooling rate of 40 °C min -1 , until the chosen crystallisation temperature, Tc, then an isothermal crystallisation step at Tc during 1 hour, and finally a slow cooling down to RT with a cooling rate of 2 °C min -1 . Next, a second heating ramp ③ is performed from RT to 180 °C with a heating rate of 10 °C min -1 . Finally, a cooling ramp ④ from 180 °C to RT is performed with the same cooling rate 10 °C min -1 .

The above-described DSC thermal protocol is represented in ① First heating ramp: Curie transition and melting The Curie transition exhibits a main peak at 90 °C with a shoulder at 80 °C and a less intense shoulder at 52 °C. The appearance of these distinct shoulders and the diffuse character of this first order transition has been largely reported in literature and explained by the participation of many ferroelectric phases with different stability. [START_REF] Kim | Curie transition, ferroelectric crystal structure and ferroelectricity of a VDF/TrFE (75/25) copolymer: 2. The effect of poling on curie transition and ferroelectric crystal structure[END_REF] Since the Curie transition is a crystalline phase transition, its behaviour is highly dependent on the thermodynamic stability of each crystalline phase. In particular, the shoulders of the Curie peak at low temperatures were assigned to FE-to-PE transitions involving defective ferroelectric phases. 3,[START_REF] Kim | Curie transition, ferroelectric crystal structure and ferroelectricity of a VDF/TrFE (75/25) copolymer: 2. The effect of poling on curie transition and ferroelectric crystal structure[END_REF]17 We here highlight that in our study the appearance of defective ferroelectric phases is found ab initio before any thermal treatment. So far defective ferroelectric phases have been reported for not annealed copolymers with a low VDF content (≤54%), or for copolymers with high VDF content (like the one studied herein) that have been already thermally annealed. 14 A first explanation of the origin of these defective faces has been provided by Lovinger that considered that G +/-defects can arise from chemical conformational defects HH and TT. 15 These chemical defects are created during polymerisation, so they are already apparent in pristine samples. The reason why they were not apparent in previous studies may be related to heating rates; herein low heating rate are applied making possible the discrimination of the two shoulders.

The Curie transition is followed by a small exothermic peak (Figure 3.3) that is attributed to the ongoing cold crystallisation. 14,19,20 This peak is considered as a proof that the sample has never been heated above the Curie temperature before this first heating. 14,19,20 The drawn dash line is in fact the DSC baseline and serves to visualise clearly this small exothermic peak.

Finally, the endothermic peak recorded above 130 °C corresponds to the melting peak. minutes after the Tc is reached. S-m133 (orange curve) is slightly shifted, the crystallisation starts around 30 seconds after the Tc is reached. For higher Tc a shift of the isothermal peaks is more evident together with a broadening of the peak: S-m135 (green line) exhibits slower kinetics of crystallisation, which starts 1 minute after the Tc is reached and lasts for 5 minutes. It has to be said that, for low Tcs, an exothermic peak is detected in the heat flow vs time plots before the Tc is reached, as shown in Figure 3.6a for S-m129. In fact, the sample starts to crystallise during the fast cooling, before reaching the Tc. This non-isothermal crystallisation will be called hereinafter pre-isothermal crystallisation, Tc, pre-iso. Actually, every sample herein investigated exhibits this pre-isothermal crystallisation as shown in Figure 3.6b where the heat flow vs T plot shows the appearance of an exothermic peak just before the respective Tc (i.e at higher temperatures), whose contribution decreases with the increase of Tc. The ΔH of this crystallisation is calculated by integrating the area of the peaks shown in Figure 3.6b. Additionally, we observe a third, non-isothermal crystallisation peak, after each isothermal step, which will be called post-isothermal crystallisation: T c, post-iso. Figure 3.7 displays the T c, post-iso for S-m140 which exhibits the most evident peak for this post-isothermal crystallisation among all samples. The isothermal and the non-isothermal crystallisation enthalpies are calculated by integrating the corresponding exothermic peaks and by considering the cooling rate when necessary. An exponential baseline is fitted and subtracted before integration (as the one shown in Figure 3.7, dotted grey line).

In Figure 3.8a the pre-isothermal crystallisation enthalpy, ΔH pre-iso, (blue spheres) calculated by integrating the exothermic peaks of Figure 3.6b, the isothermal crystallisation enthalpy, ΔH iso, (grey spheres) calculated by integrating the exothermic peaks of The ΔH pre-iso is small compared to the others and decreases with the increase of Tc till becoming negligible for S-m140. Indeed, the bigger is the super-cooling ΔT = Tm-Tc, the larger is the area of the pre-isothermal crystallisation peak (Figure 3.6b). ΔH iso increases with Tc until 133 °C, at which a plateau is reached. In the same way, ΔH post-iso increases with Tc. Indeed, for this third crystallisation we have found an opposite behaviour with respect to the first one (Tc, pre-iso): the higher the Tc the bigger the contribution of the post-isothermal crystallisation.

Considering the difficulties in the evaluation of the crystallisation enthalpies we should be careful in building our theory on the absolute ΔH calculated values but we still can trust on the trends as a function of Tc. As expected, the highest crystallisation enthalpy is achieved for the highest Tc = 140 o C, as can be derived from Figure 3.8b where the total crystallisation enthalpy ΔHcryst given by the sum of the three crystallisation enthalpies is plotted as a function of the crystallisation temperature, Tc. This finding suggests that the degree of crystallinity In Figure 3.9 the time resolved WAXS patterns are presented for three representative samples at the different crystallisation steps: at the onset of the isothermal crystallisation, i.e.

the first I vs q plot recorded when the temperature reaches the Tc (Figure 3.9a), at the end of the isothermal crystallisation, i.e. the last I vs q plot recorded at T=Tc (Figure 3.9b), and at 30 °C below each Tc, i.e. 99 °C for S-m129, 103 °C for S-m133 and at 110 °C for S-m140 (Figure 3.9c), when all crystallisations should have ended according to DSC. The S-m129 annealed at the lowest Tc is shown in grey, the S-m133 annealed at an intermediate Tc is shown in orange and the S-m140, annealed at the highest Tc, is shown in pink. As expected, for S-m133 and S-140 it is not recorded any crystalline peak, but just an amorphous halo. This means that at 140 °C and at 133 °C the state is stills the molten state: the crystallisation has not yet started. However, for sample S-m129 a peak is apparent at ≈ 1.28 Å -1 and is assigned to the paraelectric crystalline phase. 10,14 This peak is attributed to the crystallites formed during the pre-isothermal crystallisation as just discussed above based on our DSC results. The pre-isothermal crystallisation contribution is so small for the other two samples S-m133 and S-140 that it is not recorded any scattering peak in WAXS for those samples (Figure 3.9a).

Figure 3.9b presents the scattering patterns of the three samples at the end of their isothermal crystallisation steps. The paraelectric peak of S-m129 (grey line) did not shift along the q-axis during the isothermal step (the two grey peaks in Figure 3.9a and Figure 3.9b are centred at the same q=1.28 Å -1 ) meaning that, along the progression of the isothermal crystallisation, the crystalline phase that is formed is the same. However, the pattern of S-m129 at the end of the isothermal step (Figure 3.9b) exhibits a much sharper and of higher intensity peak with respect to that recorded at the onset of Tc (Figure 3.9a) suggesting that the amount of crystallites has much increased during this step.

Concerning S-m133 (orange line in Figure 3.9b) at the end of the isothermal step a paraelectric peak is recorded at a q position very close to that of S-m129 (q≈1.28 Å -1 ). Besides the lower crystallisation kinetics of S-m133, the two samples S-m129 and S-m133 seem to behave in the same way, giving rise to a similar paraelectric phase. On the other hand, S-m140 (pink line) presents a crystallisation peak at around 1.29 Å -1 at the end of the isothermal step (Figure 3.9b). Between S-m140 and S-m129 (or S-m133) there is a small Δq of 0.1 Å -1 . This shift towards higher q values indicates that the paraelectric crystallites formed at 140 °C are better packed and therefore possess a higher amount of trans conformations with respect to the crystallites formed at Tc 129 °C or at 133 °C. It is reminded that the higher the q, the smaller the interplanar spacing, d, and thus the better the chain packing. When gauche conformations are converted into trans, a better packing of chains is achieved and with it a reduction of the d (𝑑 = 2𝜋 𝑞 ⁄ ) that in this case is from 4.91 Å (q=1.28 Å -1 ) to 4.87 Å (q=1.29 Å -1 ).

Figure 3.9c presents the scattering patterns recorded at 30 °C below each Tc, when all the isothermal and non-isothermal crystallisation processes that were recorded with DSC are completed. For all three samples a slight shift of the paraelectric peak position towards higher q's is observed. The S-m129 peak shifts from 1.28 Å -1 to 1.30 Å -1 , for S-m133 the peak shifts from 1.28 Å -1 to 1.29 Å -1 and for S-m140 the peak shifts from 1.29 Å -1 to 1.31 Å -1 . These shifts result from a re-arrangement of the polymer chains that occurs during cooling via intramolecular rotation: gauche defects have the thermal energy to convert into trans conformations through rotational movements. Already, concerning the origin of defects, this suggests that these defects are not chemical ones but physical ones that are generated by thermal processing.

Additionally, during cooling, an increase of peak intensity is observed for all samples, meaning that, along with the increased order, an increase of the crystallinity degree occurs. This is consistent with the decrease of the background intensity, which represents the scattering contribution of the amorphous phase which meaning that, as expected, some amorphous regions are turning crystalline.

It can be concluded that by increasing the crystallisation temperature better crystalline packing, less defects, and higher crystallinity of the paraelectric phase (in accordance with DSC analysis) are achieved, yielding to a greater thermodynamic stability (lower free energy G) of the paraelectric phase. According to literature, 16 this is expected to result in a shift of the Curie transition towards lower temperatures during cooling, and in an increase of the melting temperature during heating (due to the low G of the paraelectric state) that will be discussed later.

Next, the evolution of the paraelectric peak upon cooling between the Tc and the Curie transition is followed. Figure 3.10 shows the patterns recorded for S-m129, the behaviour of S-m133 and S-m140 being qualitatively the same. A shift of the PE peak towards higher q and a concomitant decrease of its intensity is detected. This shift means that the paraelectric phase continues to improve its intrinsic order: intermolecular rotations take place during cooling, inducing an inversion of gauche, G +/-, into trans, T, conformations, resulting in a gradual shift of the crystalline peak towards higher q values, due to better chain packing. Note that no significant heat flow variation can be detected by DSC at this temperature range. 3,9,[START_REF] Kim | Curie transition, ferroelectric crystal structure and ferroelectricity of a VDF/TrFE (75/25) copolymer: 2. The effect of poling on curie transition and ferroelectric crystal structure[END_REF]17 Based on that, one could suggest that three ferroelectric polymorphs are formed for each sample. In order to define these ferroelectric polymorphs and assign each peak of the Curie transition to a certain ferroelectric phase, the WAXS patterns recorded under cooling while crossing the Curie transition are discussed below.

In Figure 3.12 are presented the scattering patterns recorded at different temperatures under cooling, for the three representative samples separately, in order to simplify the understanding of the occurring transitions. Figure 3.12a displays the results for S-m129, Figure 3.12b for S-m133 and Figure 3.12c for S-m140. On the left side of Figure 3.12 the q-range from 1.2 Å -1 to 1.5 Å -1 is shown, while on the right side a zoom at low intensities for almost the same q-range is displayed in order to clearly see the appearance of the peak at 1.41 Å -1 .

For each sample it is followed the structural transition from the paraelectric state, recorded at 70 °C, before the beginning of the transition, until the ferroelectric state at 29 °C. In order to describe how this solid-state transition occurs the scattering pattern at 70 °C (black line) is plotted together with the patterns recorded at ≈ 60 °C (red line) at which the "first" TCurie, 1st c has its maximum, at ≈ 57 °C (blue line) at which the maximum of the "second" TCurie, 1st c occurs, at ≈ 54 °C (dark cyan) for the "third" TCurie, 1st c (for low Tc it appears as a shoulder of the second Curie peak), and at 29 °C (wine line). The plots represent also the scattering pattern at 50 °C and 40 °C (pink and orange lines respectively), which are below the Curie transition, as this is detected by DSC. At 70 °C, before the PE-to-FE transition starts, just one peak is visible at 1.31 Å -1 for S-m129 and S-m133 and at 1.32 Å -1 for S-m140. This peak corresponds to the paraelectric phase that, at 100 °C, was found at q=1.29 Å -1 for S-m129 and S-m133 and for S-m140 at q=1.31 Å -1 (Figure 3.9) and now, after ordering through increase of trans segments, has shifted towards higher q's (see also Figure 3.10 and related discussion).

Following the changes under cooling of WAXS patterns (Figure 3.12) it can be noticed that concurrently to the shift of the PE phase towards higher q's and the decrease of its intensity, a ferroelectric peak starts to appear at around 1.4 Å -1 at T ≈ 60 °C. The intensity of this FE peak increases with the decrease of the temperature. Going from ≈ 60 °C (red lines in Figures 3.12a, 3.12b, 3.12c respectively) to 57 °C (blue lines) and then to ≈ 54 °C (dark cyan line) it can be noticed an initial weak increase of the intensity at q= 1.4 Å -1 that then turns into a real peak centred at 1.41 Å -1 for both S-m129 and S-m133 and at 1.42 Å -1 for S-140. This peak is centred at the higher q end of the PE-to-FE doublet and its position remains constant during the whole transition. We then propose that the PE phase at ~ 60 °C starts to convert into a well-ordered ferroelectric phase that corresponds to the ferroelectric phase called F1 in Chapter 2.

As far as the shift of the PE peak towards higher q's is concerned, this peak finally arrives close to the FE peak. Comparing the scattering patterns at 40 °C and at 29 °C it can be noticed that the small PE peaks at around 1,33 Å -1 for S-m129 and S-m133 (Figure 3.12a, b right side) and at 1.33 Å -1 (Figure 3.12c right side) still discernible at 40 °C, are the incorporated into the peak at q=1,4 Å -1 at 29 °C, this additionally explains why the P(VDF-co-TrFE) peaks has this asymmetric shape.

It seems that intermolecular rotations in the PE phase continue until this peak being incorporated in the large FE peak centred at 1,4 Å -1 , i.e. until all PE crystallites turn into ferroelectric ones. The asymmetric shape of the peak at 1.4 Å -1, that has been assigned to the F1 phase, actually suggests that more than one ferroelectric phase (probably both F1 and F1

-2) is formed and they exhibit scattering peak at around 1.4 Å -1 .

We can propose that by increasing its amount of T conformations through ordering, the remaining PE phase finally fully converts into the F2 defective phase. Globally between 40 °C and 29 °C the PE phase converts into more than one different ferroelectric phases. This is supported by the asymmetric shape of the peak at 1.4 Å -1 which suggests that more than one ferroelectric phases are formed and their scattering peaks are centred between 1,32 Å -1 and 1,42 Å -1 . In conclusion the scattered intensity at the lower q will be assigned to the most defective ferroelectric phase F2 (already defined in Chapter 2) and can be considered as a residue of the PE phase. Moreover, besides the PE->F2 and the PE->F1 conversion, again based on the asymmetric broad shape of the ferroelectric peak, we can foresee the existence of a third crystalline peak between the peaks that correspond to the F1 and F2 phases and that will be assigned to an intermediately defective phase, F1-2, as this was defined and observed in Chapter 2.

Figure 3.13 allows visualising the PE-to-FE transition under cooling through the variations of the q position and intensity of the PE and F1 phases. Those variations under cooling are reported just for S-m140 for sake of clarity, since all the three samples exhibit the same trends.

Starting from 100 °C and moving towards lower temperatures we assist to an ordering of the paraelectric phase: the q position of the PE phase of S-m140 (pink scattering full circle and full lines) shifts towards higher q positions, from 1,31 Å -1 at 100 °C to 1,33 Å -1 at 40 °C. At 64,2 °C appears the F1 phase at 1,42 Å -1 (pink scattering full squares and full lines), when still the PE peak is present. The F1 phase peak does not shift along the q-axis during cooling to 29 °C The TCurie, 2nd h comprises 2 peaks, a broad shoulder at lower temperatures and a sharp peak at higher temperatures, centred at around 102 °C. According to literature 3,8 the shoulder should be assigned to the transition of the defective ferroelectric phases, the F2, into a paraelectric phase, while the sharper peak should be attributed to the transition of the wellordered ferroelectric phase, the F1, into the paraelectric phase. Assuming that, one can conclude that the area of the shoulder that corresponds to the defective phases increases with the increase of Tc in the expense of the ordered ferroelectric phase transition peak. In fact, with the increase of Tc the shoulder at lower T becomes predominant. This would suggest that the sample S-m140 would contain more defective ferroelectric crystallites at room temperature than S-m129. The intermediate F1-2 ferroelectric phase will convert as well into a paraelectric phases at temperature that depends on the level of defects. We do not distinguish anymore three peaks because now the heating rate is much larger than the cooling rate used after isothermal crystallisation. As it can be noticed the transitions occur within the same range of temperatures without a shift between the various samples, we could address this to the convergence of the different FE formed for the different Tc to the same ordered or disordered ferroelectric phases. What changes is the amount of each ferroelectric phase. The defective broad peak area seems to increase with the increase of Tc in spite of the ordered ferroelectric phase transition peak. With the increase of Tc the shoulder at lower T becomes predominant. A deconvolution study of the GIWAXS peaks is in perspectives since it will provide the amount of defective F2, intermediately defective F1-2 and ordered F1 phases and eventually confirm or reject what it has been proposed so far.

Before moving to the consideration of the melting peak we would like to go backwards to the first Curie transition encountered upon the first heating. In Figure 3.16 both TCurie, 1nd h and TCurie, 2nd h are displayed.

First it should be noticed that the red curve reproducing the first heating shows three main Curie transitions, which is in line with our description of three ferroelectric phases. 18 The second heating blue curve does not show three distinct peaks. This phenomenon is attributable to the heating rate that in the case of the first heating is low and in the case of the second heating high. In literature, this has been largely documented showing how the shape of the Curie transition is affected by the heating/cooling rate. We can assume that initially upon the first heating (red curve) the majority of ferroelectric crystallites are F1, since the sharper peak at higher temperatures (centred at 90 °C) is predominant with respect to the less intense shoulder at low temperature (at around 80 °C).

After annealing (blue curve), insertion of G +/-defects has occurred as evidenced by the enhanced contribution of the broader peak at lower temperatures ~ 95 °C, assigned to the F2 (and F1-2), with respect to the one at 102-3 °C, which is attributed to the F1.

Even though after annealing the F1 is still predominant, an increase of the defective phases, likely at the expense of pristine ordered, has occurred after thermal treatment. This is in agreement with previous studies were it has been demonstrated that, if on the one hand, an annealing at temperature below the Curie transition improves the order of the already existing ferroelectric phase, on the other hand, an annealing performed in the paraelectric state, so at temperature above the TCurie (as performed here) produces bigger crystallites but defective. [START_REF] Kim | Curie transition, ferroelectric crystal structure and ferroelectricity of a VDF/TrFE (75/25) copolymer: 2. The effect of poling on curie transition and ferroelectric crystal structure[END_REF] Upon further heating the melting peak is detected (Figure 3.15). In Figure 3.17 we plot the onset (grey symbols) and the gravitational maxima (black symbols) of the melting peak and the ΔHm calculated (red symbols) by integrating the melting peak after background

subtraction. An increase of the crystallite sizes occurs: Tm position (i.e. its gravitational centre) shifts at higher temperatures with the increase of Tc, as shown in Figure 3.17. ΔHm follows the same trend which suggests that higher Tc results in a higher degree of crystallinity, in consistence with the results obtained during crystallisation (Figures 3.8 and relative discussion). To complete this discussion, the data recorded during the second cooling are not herein reported since after the second melting the thermal history for all samples is deleted and they all undergo the same crystallization and Curie transition. Considering a high Pr and a low Ec as the desired ferroelectric properties we can conclude that by crystallising the films between 129 °C and 135 °C we obtain good, and similar between them, performances. When Tc is increased to 137 °C or 140 °C a slight deterioration of the performance occurs leading to a decrease of Pr (≈ 59 mC m -2 ) and an increase of Ec .

Impact on the ferroelectric properties

According to the structural investigations presented above, an increase of the crystallinity degree has been derived when the crystallisation temperature is increased and, thus, the performance of S-m137 and S-m140 should be expected to be superior with respect to the samples annealed at lower Tc. However, we should highlight that the analysis of the WAXS data is not completed yet and the volume fractions of the different ferroelectric phases that exist at room temperature have not yet been calculated. Moreover, no information on the orientation of the P(VDF-co-TrFE) crystallites with respect to the substrate has been evaluated yet. Therefore, an integrated analysis of the scattering data (similar to that performed in Chapter 2) should precede the final correlation between Tc and the ferroelectric properties.

Still, one can derive the conclusion that the crystallinity degree is not the only structural parameter that dictates ferroelectric performance.

It is worth now to emphasise that the shown ferroelectric hysteresis loops and so their derivatives (switching current peaks) are obtained after the saturation is reached. During poling a rearrangement of the chain is induced for orientating the dipoles. It has been reported

that in the case of the existence of defective ferroelectric phases, those are converted, through poling, into a single ordered phase. Analogously a too perfect F1 phase can generate gauche defects during poling. 9 In Chapter 2 we have discussed the appearance of an intermediate ferroelectric, slightly defective phase, the F1-2 which we proposed to have the role of facilitating dipoles rotation along the chain through gauche kinks rotation. 9 In this Chapter we also learned that the highly defective F2 is the result of a gradual transition of the paraeletric phase (made by a random conformation of T and G +/-segments) which then is expected to be highly defective. Indeed, even though both F1-2 and F2 are defective phases, we described that the F2 phase can be seen as a kind of PE residue that turns into disordered ferroelectric crystallites, while F1-2 could be generated with the ordered F1, since the asymmetric shape of the peak appearing at peak at 1.4 Å -1 could be attributed to both F1 and F1 -2 phases. Considering this potential different structural origin, the phases F2 and F1 -2 are expected to reveal different functional properties with respect to the F2. If in the case of an intermediately defective ferroelectric phase, as F1-2, few gauche defects can help the rotation, an extreme level/contribution of G +/-defects, as the one of F2, will block the rotation or in any case considerably hinder the dipoles switching.

For the samples S-m137 and S-m140 we have derived from DSC (Figure 3.15) a high contribution of the F2 where many gauche defects hinder the chain rotation and so cause an enlargement of the switching current peak width or equally a less steep slope of the hysteresis loop. The electric field to apply in order to achieve saturation is higher and the Pr reached is in any case lower because of the loss of the contribution of the ordered F1 and slightly defective F1-2.

We can conclude that while the high content of F1-2 seems to be desirable to get a highly ordered F1 after pooling, contrarily the F2 is hindering the switching and indeed is found to be very predominant for the samples S-137 and S-140, which have shown worse ferroelectric properties.

Conclusions

By means of time resolved WAXS and DSC analysis, the isothermal crystallisation of P(VDFco-TrFE) from the melt and the solid-state transitions its crystallites undergo during cooling or heating have been followed and its polymorphs have been investigated.

For the first time we observe the appearance of defective phases in pristine samples, before any annealing above the TCurie is performed. Even though previous studies have described that the gauche kinks originate from chemical defects (HH and TT), 15 so they should be apparent ab initio in the samples, so far the appearance of defective ferroelectric phases have been documented only for not annealed P(VDF-co-TrFE) with a very low content of PVDF or for high content VDF copolymers after thermal annealing above the Curie. 2,3 By following the cooling ramp of the melt-crystallisation protocol it has been found that three crystallisations occur: the pre-isothermal crystallisation during cooling from the molten state to the Tc (before the Tc is reached) which generates paraelectric crystallites having a definite unite cell, the isothermal crystallisation where crystallinity degree of the paraelectric phase decreases significantly, and the post-isothermal crystallisation immediately after the isothermal step. The contribution of the pre-isothermal and the post-isothermal crystallisations to overall crystallinity is lower with respect to that of the isothermal crystallisation. An overall increase of the crystallinity degree arises when Tc increases.

One paraelectric phase has been observed above the Curie transition. Its unit cell decreases continuously during cooling suggesting the ongoing increase of ordering through increase of trans segments. Before the Curie transition, the paraelectric phase was found to be more ordered for the samples crystallized at higher Tc.

Upon the Curie transition, the paraelectric P(VDF-co-TrFE) crystallites were found to convert into a well-ordered ferroelectric F1 phase, its scattering peak being located at a constant q-value throughout crystallisation, as well as in one or more disordered ferroelectric phases as suggested by the asymmetry of the peak at 1,4 Å -1 assigned to the appearance of F1-2 intermediately ordered phase as found in Chapter 2. In any case from the WAXS data we do not have any evidence of how this intermediate phase originates because of its vicinity in q position to the F1 phase. A deconvolution study of this peak should be performed in order to derive with accuracy the position and the volume fraction of each ferroelectric phase apparent in the samples. During the transition the paraelectric peak continuous to shift towards high q's and its intensity decreases while the intensity of the F1 peak increases, until vanishing. The data suggest that the defective F2 phase is a residual of the paraelectric phase.

Considering the ferroelectric properties of the melt-crystallised samples, we have distinguished two main groups between the samples herein investigated: from 129 °C to 135 °C high Pr and low Ec values, together with a small FWHM of the switching current peaks are achieved; while for samples S-m137 and S-m140 a decrease of the devices performance has been found. We attribute this decrease of the performances of the second group to a possible high content of the highly defective F2, (from DSC experiments) which undermines the ferroelectric switching. Despite the crystallinity degree increases with the increase of Tc and is higher among all samples for the S-m140, our data show that its ferroelectric performance is not optimal. Once more, a deconvolution studies on the WAXS data is necessary and is in perspectives.

We proposed that the correlations between structural phases and performance need to be searched in the intramolecular rotational during poling. Indeed, when we do apply an electric field to a P(VDF-co-TrFE) copolymer we are inducing rotation along the chains for aligning the dipoles. It has been already proposed in Chapter 2 that an intermediate phase, the F1-2, would even favour more than a very perfect ferroelectric phase, the intramolecular rotation thanks to the presence of few gauche defects that acts as activation site for the rotation to begin. In the other hand a too defective phase F2 is expected to show some dipoles orientation, which in any case will not reach the degree of that of the F1 and F1-2 leading to a decrease in the When the inversion occurs, a reduction or an extinction of the ferroelectric response to the applied electric field is detected. The decreased ferroelectric properties need to be ascribed to the direction of the b-axis, which is the direction of the dipoles. As it can be seen from This is the reason why "edge-on" crystallites are preferred for a high ferroelectric performance, since the externally applied electric field will easier align the dipoles.

While in case of Park, 2 the face-on orientation induced by annealing above the melting point, leads to the extinction of the ferroelectric polarisation i.e. to an almost zero coercive electric field Ec and a negligible Pr, in our case 1 and in the case investigated by Guo, 5 a ferroelectric response is detected despite the absence of the preferred "edge-on" orientation.

The discrepancy between the final ferroelectric behaviours could be attributed either to the presence of residual crystallites that are still in the preferred edge-on orientation, or to partial crystallite rotation (i.e. not a complete 90 ° rotation).

Therefore, we can summarise that adjusting thermal annealing or the thickness of the films, a variation of the orientation of P(VDF-co-TrFE) crystals can be induced with a simultaneous reduction or, in some cases extinction, of the ferroelectric properties. 6,7 In this Chapter 4 we describe how different crystals orientations are generated when considerably different thermal protocols are applied. In particular, we first discuss how melting, quenching and annealing processes affect chain orientation and the whole crystalline structure of P(VDF-co-TrFE) films, and then move to the investigation of ferroelectric and dielectric properties of films with different crystals orientations. A quantitative study of the effect of crystallites orientation on the final performance is endeavoured.

Sample preparation

A solution of P(VDF-co-TrFE), with a VDF-TrFE molar ratio of 75-25, has been spin coated onto Si (for GIWAXS experiments) and onto Al/glass substrates (for capacitor fabrication). For the capacitors fabrication, after spin-coating, thermal depositions of the top electrodes have been performed before applying the film processing thermal protocols. Four samples were prepared using four different thermal treatments that consist in:

(1) Isothermal cold crystallisation,

(2) isothermal crystallisation from the melt,

(3) non isothermal crystallisation from the melt, ( 4) melt-quench-isothermal crystallisation method.

The sample prepared by protocol (1) corresponds to the best performing sample of Chapter 2, which has been heated from RT to 135 °C, isothermally annealed for 15 min, and then slowly cooled down to RT. 1 This sample is called S-135.

The annealing treatment ( 2) is representative of the thermal protocols applied in Chapter 3: a heating from RT to 165 °C (above the Tm), where an isothermal step of 15 min is performed, is followed by a fast cooling to 135 °C, where an isothermal crystallisation is carried for 15 min, followed by a slow cooling to RT. This sample is called S-165-135.

The sample that follows the protocol ( 3) is heated from RT to 165 °C, isothermally melted for 15 min and then slowly cooled to RT. Thus a non-isothermal crystallisation from the melt occurs. This sample is called S-165.

The sample that follows the protocol ( 4) was heated onto an hotplate from RT to 165 °C then isothermally melted for 15min, then quenched by immersing it in liquid nitrogen (N2,liq).

After this step the sample is quickly transferred onto a hot stage already set at the crystallisation temperature of 135 °C, and is isothermally cold-crystallised at 135 °C for 15 min, then it was slowly cooled down to RT. The sample is called S-165-N2-135.

Results and discussion

Structural characterisation: crystallites orientation distribution

In order to identify the crystallites orientation of the four samples S-135, S-165, S-165-135 and S-165-N2-135 and quantify their crystallinity degree, GIWAXS experiments have been performed at RT. As already explained in Chapter 2, the choice of the substrate is very important when GIWAXS experiments are carried out. In fact, we avoided the use of Al/glass substrates, employed for the preparation of the capacitor devices, because of the high scattering contribution coming from the aluminium that overwhelms the scattered information of the P(VDF-co-TrFE) crystallites. Therefore, silicon was chosen as substrate for GIWAXS experiments since it scatters less than Al and thus is more suitable for a quantitative analysis that requires a background subtraction as precise as possible. All necessary corrections (listed in the Annex Section) have been applied to the raw GIWAXS patterns, including background scattering subtraction and wedge correction. 8 The 2D wedge-corrected images give us the information about the preferred orientation of the crystallites. Indeed, we can define an azimuthal angle χ with respect to the qz-axis: at the intersection with the qz-axis, i.e. the "out-of-plane" axis, χ = 0 °, while at the intersection with the qr-axis, that is the "in-plane" axis, χ = 90 °.9 When the scattering intensity at a certain q is higher along certain angle χ range, a preferred orientation of the crystallites is revealed. When higher intensity is revealed close to the out-of-plane axis, named also "meridian", the preferred orientation is the edge-on, while, when the intensity is higher along the in-plane axis, also named "equator", the preferred orientation is the face-on as shown in Figure 4.3 reproduced from reference 10 . Therefore, by qualitatively evaluating the variation of the scattering intensity at the peak position we can define the preferred crystals orientation of each differently processed sample. 2 The 2D-wedge corrected images of the four samples are displayed in In Figure 4.4a S-135 exhibits a broadly arced (110),(200) reflection whose intensity is higher at the meridian. 6 This intensity distribution declares a preferential orientation of crystals with their chain c-axis dominantly lying parallel to the substrate. For this orientation it has been described that both a-and b-axes can rotate around the c-axis randomly. 2 In Figure 4.4b the 2D wedge corrected image of S-165-N2-135 shows a scattering peak at q ≈ 1.4 Å -1 with high intensity from the meridian (χ = 0 °) up to ≈ 60 °-70 ° off meridian. The fact that a high scattering intensity is detected almost all along the entire ring, suggests that the S-165-N2-135 crystallites are oriented in a nearly isotropic way, with a slight preference towards the out-of-plane/edge-on orientation. We do not record high scattering intensity along qr, meaning that there are no face-on crystals. Through "melt-quench-isothermal" crystallisation, a quasi-random orientation of the crystallites seems to be induced: in S-165-N2-135 not just edge-on oriented crystallites exist, as found for S-135, but also crystallites tilted with respect to the substrate plane.

In Figure 4.4c the ( 110),( 200) arced reflection of S-165 reveals a scattering intensity that is high at both the meridian and the equator, meaning that there are crystallites whose c-axis is parallel to the substrates (high intensity at the meridian) and others with a preferential orientation of the c-axis perpendicular to the substrate (high intensity near the equator). It can be concluded then that the sample S-165 has crystallites with two main preferred orientations: "edge-on" and "face-on".

For the sample S-165-135 displayed in Figure 4.4d, a pronounced scattering intensity is found at the equator, implying that the majority of polymer chains are aligned with their caxis (i.e. their backbone) perpendicular to the substrate, with both a-and b-axis parallel to the substrate. 2 Consequently, the preferred orientation of the crystallites is considered to be "face-on" mainly. However, high intensity is also detected at the meridional, implying that a residue of the preferred edge-on orientation seems to be persistent.

This first qualitative evaluation of the 2D-wedge corrected images let us conclude that samples crystallised after melting tend to have crystallites that have rotated, giving rise to a microstructure that is or a mixture of edge-on and face-on lamellae, as in the case of S-165, or, as in the other case of S-165-135, to an almost complete inversion of the lamellae towards the face-on orientation.

It should be said that the preferred face-on orientation was found by Park et al. 2 when either a slow or a fast cooling from melt is carried out. 2 This is consistent with our observations on samples S-165 and S-165-135. For sample S-165-N2-135 (Figure 4.4b) the quenching step freezes the crystallites into a random, nearly isotropic orientation, inhibiting rotation. In other words, the cooling (rapid or slow) from the molten state seems to be the step that induces rotation of the lamellae towards a face-on orientation, and this rotation seems not to be completely accomplished when quenching of the molten state is performed.

So far, the 2D-wedge corrected images in Figure 4.4 have been just qualitatively described.

Going one-step further, we now seek to quantify the relative amount of crystallites oriented towards a certain direction. In order to carry out this analysis the orientation distribution I(χ) vs χ plots need to be evaluated as well as the crystallinity of each samples.

First the I(χ) vs χ plots that correspond to a cut that follows the χ-arc of the (200)( 110) peak (at q=1.4 Å -1 ) are shown for the four samples in Figure 4.5. Before continuing with the analysis, it is brought the attention to the fact that the intensity in these plots is corrected by multiplying with sin(χ) (Figure 4.5). Considering the detected scattering intensity "I" as representing the "amount of material" would result in an error since just a "cut" of the Ewald sphere in the 3D reciprocal-space is detected by the 2D GIWAXS detector. In order to take into account this error the samples symmetry should be considered. In this case that "in-plane powder" approximation, [START_REF] West | Solid state chemistry and its applications[END_REF] which assumes an isotropic in-plane orientation of the crystallites can be adopted. The observed scattering intensity near qr is due to a whole scattering ring in the 3D reciprocal-space, this ring is smaller at larger χ; multiplying by the sin(χ) factor we account for this variation, 9 and we obtain a corrected intensity which now is proportional to the amount of material oriented at that χ angle.

In Quantitative information on the crystallite orientation can be extracted from the I(χ)×sin(χ) vs χ plots. In particular, the fraction of edge-on oriented crystallites can be estimated from the ratio between the I(χ)×sin(χ) vs χ integral from 0 ° to 45 ° and the one from 0 ° to 90 °. Similarly, the volume fraction of face-on oriented crystallites is calculated from the ratio between the I(χ)×sin(χ) vs χ integral from 45 ° to 90 ° and the one from 0 ° to 90 °. The results obtained for these four samples are presented in Figure 4.7. In accordance with the qualitative data description provided above, the maximum edge-on volume fraction (72%) is obtained for S-135 and the lower (9%) for S-165 and S-165-135. All the 4 samples show the typical reflections of the ferroelectric orthorhombic unit cell of P(VDF-co-TrFE) [START_REF] Kim | Curie transition, ferroelectric crystal structure and ferroelectricity of a VDF/TrFE (75/25) copolymer: 2. The effect of poling on curie transition and ferroelectric crystal structure[END_REF][13][14][15] . The first peak at around 1.4 Å -1 arises from the overlap of the ( 200) and

(110) reflections as said above. (For the assignment of the others scattering peaks at higher q positions see Chapter 2).

It can be noticed that the 1D-scattering pattern of S-165 presents some differences compared to the other three samples that can be discussed focusing on the comparison of their first main peaks (Figure 4.8). The main peak centred at ≈1.4 Å -1 has the "classical" [START_REF] Kim | Curie transition, ferroelectric crystal structure and ferroelectricity of a VDF/TrFE (75/25) copolymer: 2. The effect of poling on curie transition and ferroelectric crystal structure[END_REF][13][14][15] shape characterised by a high intensity at high q positions (at 1.44 Å -1 for S-135 (violet line), at 1.47 Å -1 for 165-N2-135 and S-165-135 (green line and cyan lines respectively) with a shoulder at lower q positions. Contrarily S-165 shows a more pronounced peak at lower q position (at q=1.38 Å -1 ) that we have previously assigned to a defective phase peak F2. For S-165 a peak at higher q positions, assigned to the most ordered phase F1, is still apparent at around q=1.47 Å -1 but it is less pronounced with respect to the F2.

The crystallinity degree has been calculated through the deconvolution of the first peak at around 1.4 Å -1 as already discussed in Chapter 2, where it has been said that this peak should be considered as the superposition of the ( 110),(200) reflections of different ferroelectric phases. In Figure 4.9 an example of the fitting obtained from the deconvolution study is shown for all the four samples. Pseudo-Voigt functions were used to describe the crystalline peaks, while an asymmetric function was used for the amorphous halo. Based on the q position at which their maxima occur, the fitted peaks were assigned to the ordered ferroelectric phase F1, at higher relative q positions (at 1.44 Å -1 for the S-135, at 1.47 Å -1 for the S-165-N2-135 and the S-165-135 and at 1.45 Å -1 for the S-165), to the very defective ferroelectric phase F2 at lower relative q positions (at 1.34 Å -1 for the S-135, at 1.32 Å -1 for the S-165, at 1.36 Å -1 for the S-165-135) and to a mildly defective ferroelectric phase, the F1-2, located at an intermediate q position between the F1 and F2 peaks (at 1.38 Å -1 for the S-135 and the S-165, at 1.42 Å -1 for the S-165-N2-135, and at 1.41 Å -1 for the S-165-135). To limit any possible error, the deconvolutions have been performed several times for every sample and some parameters as the width of the amorphous halo were kept fix. As described in Chapter 2, for the amorphous contribution the width of the asymmetric function was imposed by the shape the scattering halo recorded for a molten film, whose scattering is generated obviously only by the amorphous regions. 16 For sample S-165-N2-135 (Figure 4.9b) only two crystalline peaks were needed for a correct cumulative fit. According to the q positions of their maxima we attributed the two peaks to the phases F1 (blue line) at higher q and F1-2 (dark cyan line) at lower q position. For all the other three samples S-135, S-165 and S-165-135 three peak functions were required and assigned to the phases F1 (blue line), F1-2 (dark cyan line) and F2 (red line).

The calculated volume fractions F1, F1-2 and F2 % for the four samples are shown in Figure 4.10a. Based on the deconvolution of the ( 110),( 200) peak, the degree of the ferroelectric crystallinity 𝜒 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜 17 has been calculated (similarly to the case of WAXS, thanks to the apparent amorphous halo contribution) from the Equation 2.1:

𝜒 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜 = 𝐴 𝐹1 +𝐴 𝐹2 +𝐴 𝐹1-2 𝐴 𝑡𝑜𝑡 (2.1)
Where AF1, AF2 and AF1-2 are the integrated area underneath the GIWAXS deconvoluted crystalline peaks respectively assigned to the phases F1, F2 and F1-2 and Atot is the total area of the ( 110),( 200) peak given by the sum of all the three contributions, plus the integrated area of the amorphous halo. We herein remind, as we did in Chapter 2, that the calculated 𝜒 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜 is not the absolute crystallinity but slightly lower due to the missed scattered intensity for 0 ° < χ < 5 ° (at q ≈ 1.5 Å -1 ) (see the 2D-reshaped images in Figure 4.4 where the dark curved triangle represents the Ewald-sphere correction). [START_REF] West | Solid state chemistry and its applications[END_REF] The calculated degree of crystallinity is plotted in Figure 4.10b. Apparently, no big differences between the four samples have been detected since 𝜒 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜 varies between 80 and 84%. In Chapter 2 we had correlated the ferroelectric performance with crystallinity. Herein, the crystallinity being the almost constant, we expect that any differences observed in ferroelectric performance of the four samples will originate to the crystallites orientation.

Ferroelectric properties

In order to study how the attained crystallites orientations affect the ferroelectric properties, capacitors have been fabricated and thermally annealed by following the four different thermal protocols. volume fractions we see that this decreased performance follows the evolution (namely, the decrease) of the edge-on volume fraction. This result corroborates others authors' findings 1,3,5,16 : the edge-on orientation is necessary to achieve good ferroelectric performance, since it favours ferroelectricity, while a random or a face-on orientation has negative impact on the ferroelectric response. During polarisation measurements, the applied external electric field is expected to induce irreversibly a preferential orientation of the polar b-axis towards the electric fields direction. In the case of an edge-on orientation where the baxis is already more or less aligned with the electric field, a high permanent polarisation (89 mC m -2 ) is reached, whereas in the case where in-plane crystalline lamellae exist a lower Pr (49 mC m -2 ) is detected.

The advantage of our study with respect to previous studies is that the GIWAXS analysis performed above allow us to quantitatively estimate the edge-on volume fraction. In the last section of this Chapter, based on this volume fraction we will endeavour to quantitatively correlate the ferroelectric to the structural properties.

Dielectric properties

The same kind of capacitor devices, annealed as above described, have been An increased ε' has been attributed to a higher amount of "β" phase, our F1, which is in accordance with our results (see Figure 4.10).

As it arises from Figure 4.12, at RT not many information about the relaxations of the four samples can be derived, since the energy given by the small electric field is not enough to induce dipoles relaxation. 19 At low frequencies an increase of both real, ε', and imaginary, ε", part is detected. This high increase of the dielectric parameters is known to be caused by the ionic DC conductions due to polarisation of interfacial or spatial charges. 19,20 At high frequencies the variation of dielectric properties, i.e. decrease of ε' and increase of ε", is due to the so called β or αa relaxation (glass transition relaxation 19 ), ascribed to the micro-Brownian motion of non-crystalline chain segments 20 associated to cooperative orientation movement of the amorphous-crystalline interface. Indeed, it is herein reminded that the glass transition of P(VDF-co-TrFE) is -50 °C, then the molecular chain at RT have already enough mobility to relax under the application of the electric field. At frequencies higher than 1 MHz it would be possible to detect this dipoles relaxation peak even at RT.

The same experiment (dielectric properties measured as function of the frequency) have been carried out at increasing temperatures, going from RT to 140 °C before the melting. In particular, starting from RT the devices were annealed at the chosen temperature, for example 40 °C, then, before starting the dielectric spectroscopy measurements, 3 minutes were accorded to give the time to the sample to reach the thermal equilibrium, and after the dielectric measurement is carried out, we heat to the next temperature and we repeat the protocol of waiting-measuring-heating. After 40 °C we then heat to 60 °C, then to 80 °C, to 100 °C, then to 120 °C, 130 °C and finally to 140 °C.

We opted to present herein the tanδ vs f plots instead of the ε" just for sake of clarity.

Indeed, it is easier to follow the relaxation peak described by the tanδ for our range of The maximum frequency, fm, of the tanδ peak shifts towards higher temperatures when the temperature increases. In order to evaluate the activation energy, Ea, of this relaxation we first calculated the relative relaxation times, τ, at which the maxima occur, according to the Equation 4.1:

𝜏 = 1 2𝜋𝑓 𝑚 (4.1)
Then we plotted the ln(τ) against the reciprocal of absolute temperatures multiplied for a 1000 factor (1/T*1000) in Figure 4.14. The axis on the top is just nearly indicative of the temperature in Celsius. It seems that different relaxation contributions are apparent for this tanδ peak. But actually it has to be specified that, the plateau that we see for all the samples apart from S-135 at low temperatures (first point at 80 °C) is probably an artefact due to the fact that with our frequency range the evaluation of the first fm at 80 °C is not exact for all the samples, therefore this point should be discarded. The shoulder at higher temperatures, between 130 °C and 140 °C, which exists for all the four samples, has been documented in literature and it is assigned to a critical slowing-down phenomenon of crystalline dipole motion associated to the segmental motions of the amorphous regions. 18 In order to evaluate the activation energy Ea of this FE-to-PE relaxation process, a linear fit has been done for the S-135 between 80 °C and 130 °C, while for the others between 100 °C and 130 °C. These ranges of temperatures where the linear fitting is performed, are highlighted with shadows in Figure 4.14a. We calculate the Ea according to Equation 4.2:

ln 𝜏 𝑚 = ln 𝜏 0 + 𝐸 𝑎 𝑅𝑇 (4.2)
Where τ0 is the intercept to the y-axis and Ea/R is the slope of the linear fit, where R is the gas constant (R=1.987 10 -3 kcal mol -1 K -1 ). The relaxation activation energy, of orders of tens of kcal mol -1 (in accordance with previous results 20 ), is lower for S-135 and increase for the others as shown in Figure 4.14b. Lower frequency and higher Ea of the relaxation between the two steady states of the dipoles could be ascribed to an increase of disorder, of defects. We can conclude that the different orientations probably behave as defects in our system. If we consider a schematic double well potential energy diagram, the two equilibrium states of a permanent dipole that is fluctuating (because thermally activated), will be energetically equal in the case of an ordered state (blue double well potential of Figure 4.16). In the case of a disordered or defective system, one of the two polarisation state would be favoured (red double well potential of Figure 4.16) therefore Ea will increase. The difference in energy of the two polarisation states causes an increase of the relaxation energy Ea. As shown in Figure 4.16 in a case of an ordered system the Ea of the relaxation would be lower than in the case of a defective system.

Structure -Function relationships in ferroelectric polymers

In order to go one step further towards the understanding of the laws that relate structural with functional properties, we have searched for any existing dependence between the resulted ferroelectric parameters and the structural characteristics (as the crystallinity degree, the amount of defective phases, the edge-on amount, Lcoherence size, etc...).

So far we have discussed about the edge-on volume fraction that has been calculated by integrating the I(χ) vs χ between 0 ° and 45 °, but now in order to evaluate the exact amount of crystallites edge-on and face-on oriented in the four samples, we have multiplied the calculated total crystallinity by the edge-on and face-on fractions. [START_REF] Petsagkourakis | Structurally-driven Enhancement of Thermoelectric Properties within Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) thin Films[END_REF] As expected, we have found a dependence of the ferroelectric parameters as a function of the edge-on amount, as shown in Figure 4.13. In Figure 4.13a we can clearly see that both the Pr and the slope of the hysteresis loop (i.e. index of the speed of the switching from a positive polarisation state to a negative one) increase when the edge-on amount increases, meaning that the preferential edge on orientation leads not just to a higher amount of charges per surface, (i.e. high Pr) but helps for the switching transition from a polarisation direction to the opposite one. In Figure 4.13 b other two ferroelectric parameters, the Ec and the FWHM of the switching current peaks are plotted as function of to the edge-on amount: the Ec decreases and the FWHM increases (index of a less abrupt switching) when the edge-on amount increases. Considering

the Ec trend we can conclude that, when the face-on is the preferred orientation, a higher electric field is required to induce the polarisation switching. With the increase of the edgeon amount, the FWHM which is related to the hysteresis slope increases as well as found for the hysteresis slope. Moreover, as described in Figure 4.18 we found that the Ea of the dielectric relaxation is smaller when the amount of edge on crystallites is high; and that the slope of the hysteresis loop is itself affected by this Ea: the lower the Ea the easier the polarisation switching indeed the higher (i.e. steeper) the slope. We can conclude that the face-on crystal orientation should be avoided for realising devices of P(VDF-co-TrFE) such as non-volatile memory where a high Pr and a low Ec are desired. Edgeon amount orientation seems to favour the dipoles relaxations, which indeed affects the speed of the switching between the two polarisation states described by the ferroelectric hysteresis loop slope. Moreover, a lowered coercive field is found in the case of smaller F1 crystallites mean size.

Conclusions

Different orientations have been induced by drastically varying the thermal annealing processing. We found that trough melt-crystallisation, randomly oriented crystallites, or preferentially face-on oriented are formed. In particular, we found that S-135 has mainly edgeon lamellae, S-165-N2-135 exhibits edge-on tilted towards the substrate, nearly isotropic orientation while a preferred stand-up chain orientation occurs for S-165 and S-165-135.

The S-135 which exhibits the highest amount of edge-on crystallites (~75%) among all exhibited the better ferroelectric response in terms of high Pr and low Ec. The ferroelectric parameters indeed were found to strongly depend on the orientation of the crystallites: not just a higher Pr and lower Ec are found for a high edge-on amount distribution but also the polarisation switching was shown to be faster. An interestingly dependence of the coercive field with the mean size of F1 crystallites was found, dictating that when the crystallites Lcoherence increases, the Ec decays exponentially.

From dielectric spectroscopy investigations at different temperatures we have found that going from S-135 to S-165-N2-135 to S-165 and then S-165 an increased activation energy simultaneously with a decreased fm of the FE-to-PE relaxation occurs, indicating that the faceon orientation can be seen as a defective parameter, that hinder dipoles relaxations and therefore a faster switching between the two polarisation states.

5 P(VDF-co-TrFE) a sensor for ventricular laparoscopic surgery simulation

P(VDF-co-TrFE) for biomedical sensing

In this Chapter we explore the implementation of the ferroelectric polymer P(VDF-co-TrFE)

for a specific organic electronic application in the field of medical pressure-sensors 1 . In this case we are interested in exploiting the piezoelectric properties of P(VDF-co-TrFE).

We all know that a ferroelectric material is also a piezoelectric material. When a piezoelectric material is stressed by an external mechanical force, a strain of the material is induced and with it the generation of an electrical potential that is proportional to the applied stress. 2 This is called "direct piezoelectric effect". Inversely, when an electric oscillating field is applied to the piezoelectric material, a mechanical deformation is generated and it is translated into a vibrational mode. This is called "reverse piezoelectric effect".

Piezoelectric catheters have found their medical application in measuring the cardiac functions and in detecting eventual cardiac diseases for example arrhythmia. As reported by Langberg et al. 3 "Arrhythmia surgery and catheter ablative techniques have become important alternatives to the pharmacologic treatment of patient with ventricular tachycardia but these methods require the localisation of the arrhythmia focus within the ventricle". It arises the importance of having an exact mapping of the localised cardiac functions. In this general context is placed the aim of the work that will be presented in this Chapter.

Herein the results obtained in the LCPO within the chair of a project called "Sweet Heart" in collaboration with the IHU (Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire) Liryc research institute (based in Pessac) will be presented. The institute acronym "Liryc" stands for "l'insitut de rythmologie In this chapter, will be described some remarkable results that have been obtained from the cooperative work of a big team where I and my colleagues Alizée Glasser, Konstantinos Kallitsis, Cindy Gomes Correia and Lauriane Giraud worked together for the development of the piezoelectric device. This project is actually still on-going. Therefore, we reveal in advance that the finalised device will not be herein presented, but the progressive steps that have brought to outstanding amelioration of the sensor device will be discussed.

The piezoelectric material used is the P(VDF-co-TrFE) provided by Piezotech, while as semiconducting material the PEDOT:PSTFSI, poly (3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene):poly(4styrene trifluoromethyl (bissulfonylimide)), ink formulated and synthesised in our laboratory by Alizée Glasser, and silver and gold have been used as electrodes.

Since, as mentioned above, our objective is to map the ventricle, we do need to fabricate a device network as the one shown in Figure 5.1b. The blue horizontal lines and the vertical lines correspond respectively to the bottom and the top electrodes and, each intersection between horizontal and vertical blue lines represents a single device.

The network of sensors has to perfectly adhere to the model of the 3D-printed heart.

Therefore, our first attempt was to directly spray onto the 3D printed heart both PEDOT and P(VDF-co-TrFE) polymers, but in both cases a deterioration of the heart substrate was induced due to the high temperatures required by spray coating technique (around 100 °C). We therefore opted to change approach and to start with the fabrication of independent devices, to try then to adapt and encapsulate them onto the model heart. The main advancements achieved in the device fabrication and characterisation will be discussed chronologically. In particular, the different developed systems will be described, firstly in terms of the materials and fabrication process and secondly in terms of the obtained device characterisation. The spray coating technique was chosen in order to fabricate the piezoelectric sensor directly onto the inner surface of the 3D-heart. Unfortunately, this technique turned out to be unsuitable for fabricating sensor devices for our purpose, since it leads to a not homogenous deposition: thicker PEDOT regions appear as darker drops clearly visible by eye on a clear blue PEDOT surface. Moreover, a non-perfect adhesion between the PET substrate and the shadow mask caused a non-perfect patterning of the PEDOT, which has the tendency to spread below the shadow mask.

Indeed, herein, we do not show any electrical characterization of these devices, because it was not possible to record any hysteresis loop due to the high leakage current and to the occurring short circuit when increasing voltages were applied.

Nevertheless, we were able to perform PFM Piezo Force Microscopy on this system as shown in Figure 5.3. PFM is an atomic force microscopy, AFM, contact mode imaging technique that allows recording the electromechanical response of piezoelectric materials when an AC voltage is applied between the conductive probing tip (which represents the top electrode) and the sample that is grounded through its bottom electrode. Expansions and contractions are detected as amplitude of the mechanical displacement vertically to the sample plane. In Figure 5.3a a schematic of the experiment conduct with PFM is shown and the recorded PFM vertical amplitude is displayed for an area of 25 µm 2 in Figure 5.3b. In Figure 5.3a the yellow square with a dimension of 2.5 µm x 2.5 µm and the circumscribed blue 1 µm x 1 µm rhombus correspond to two region polarised with two opposite voltages, which causes different directions of the displacement recorded along the z-axis, as shown in Figure 5.3b. The yellow region in Figure 5.3b corresponds to a decrease of the VPFM amplitude, while the blue colour to an increase of the VPFM amplitude. One is obtained by applying a negative voltage, the other by applying a positive voltage.

In Figure 5.3b yellow lines are visible out from the yellow square. We attribute this effect to the fact that when we perform a scan, applying a certain voltage into a certain area, the polarisation is induced on the entire hit crystallite. Due to the large thickness of the P(VDF-co-TrFE) film herein studied, the morphology at the surface exhibits crystalline fibres that, in this case, exceed in broadness the squared area. Therefore, by polarising a fibre that exists within the scanned square, we are polarising also the part of the fibre that continues outside the scanned square.

When PFM measurements are performed, the film under study needs to be deposited on top of a bottom electrode since the bottom electrode of the system needs to be grounded in order to apply a voltage onto the film surface through the AFM tip. As just described in Figure 5.3, we were able to polarise the piezoelectric film deposited onto of PEDOT bottom electrodes. In this way we have proven that our PEDOT:PSTFSI is suitable to be used as electrode for this system. Moreover, from this first result, we then conclude that the spraycoating deposition technique needs to be discarded if we want to obtain homogenous layers.

Second system: organic flexible device on PDMS

After having proven that our PEDOT can be used as electrode on flexible substrate (as the The first drawback encountered for this fabrication is associated to the patterning of the bottom electrodes: as found for the previous case, due to a non-perfect adhesion between the PDMS substrate and shadow mask, the PEDOT passes below the mask rendering impossible a good control of the patterning. Another issue encountered for this system is related to the poor affinity between PDMS and PEDOT that causes de-wetting as sequence of this incompatibility.

In order to solve the issue, we decided to avoid the use of doctor blading for the deposition of the patterned PEDOT electrodes on PDMS. We opted to use inkjet-printing technique. Inkjet printing is a non-contact technique where a nozzle does the deposition of droplets; it allows obtaining a pattern without requiring the use of any shadow mask. Improving its compatibility with PEDOT through an UV-O3 treatment of 20 minutes has optimised the printing conditions.

The PEDOT deposition by means of inkjet printing was performed keeping the substrate at 50 °C, this strategy allows a better wettability of the PDMS substrate and enhance homogeneity of the PEDOT layer. Then a drying step has been performed for 5 min at 100 °C. The P(VDF-co- In order to improve the system, we prolonged the UV-O3 treatment and we performed a pre-heating steps before PEDOT and P(VDF-co-TrFE) deposition. Even though better homogeneity and smoothness of PEDOT layers have been achieved and slightly less leaky polarisation loops have been recorded, this response was detected just for few devices onto the same sample. Because we did not obtain reproducible responses for this system, we decided to abandon this configuration and move to other systems.

Third system: free standing sensors

In order to avoid adhesion issues spotted when PDMS substrates are used we decided to fabricate freestanding sensors. First we obtained a 10 µm P(VDF-co-TrFE) free standing films by means of doctor-blading deposition on Teflon, from which the piezoelectric film can be easy peeled off. The deposition has been carried on Teflon sheet at 60 °C with a blade speed of 10 mm s -1 . Then the patterned PEDOT bottom and top electrodes have been inkjet printed on both surfaces of the free standing film.

A picture (Figure 5.6a) and a schematic (Figure 5.6b) of the fabricated free standing organic system are displayed below. The system has been characterised by recording polarisation vs electric field hysteresis loops at a frequency of 100 Hz. The hysteresis loops obtained for this freestanding organic device at different increasing voltages are displayed in Figure 5.7a. A better ferroelectric response in terms of less leaky hysteresis loop and higher Pr, as compared to the one achieved with the former system (Figure 5.5), is recorded. Pr has increased of one order of magnitude (from Pr ≈ 0.6 mC m -2 recorded at ~ 8 kV, for the previous system on PDMS, to ~ 6 mC m -2 recorded at ~ 0.9 kV) but the direct comparison between the two systems should be avoided because of the different electric field used for the two systems.

Once that polarisation is achieved we record the mechanical displacement, D, as function of the electric field, shown in Figure 5.7b (red curve). A distorted D vs E hysteresis butterfly loop is recorded, showing the detection of the inverse piezoelectric effect (see Annex section). Even though piezoelectric effect has been recorded, both polarisation hysteresis and butterfly loops are leaky and distorted respectively. We decided therefore to test the use of metallic electrodes instead. A hybrid system where the PEDOT has been substituted by patterned metallic electrodes of gold and silver (300 nm thick) that have been thermally evaporated on both surfaces of the freestanding piezoelectric film has been fabricated. The P(VDF-co-TrFE) free standing films were obtained once more by means of doctor-blading

The current leakage is almost absent, demonstrating that by using metallic electrodes no current is passing through the piezoelectric layer.

Since this hybrid system has shown the best ferroelectric response so far, we decided to focus on this system and to work on the improvement of this kind of devices. Different Herein we will show only the results obtained for the Ag electrode devices with an area of 4 mm 2 as the one showed in Figure 5.10b, since with gold we encounter problems of delamination. Below in Figure 5.11 are summarised the processing conditions that has led to the best performing device in terms of high Pr, low leakage and high dielectric displacements or in other words nice butterfly shaped curve as shown in Figure 5.12 where the hysteresis loops and butterfly loops obtained for such processed devices are shown. In Figure 5.12 the hysteresis loops of this system clearly exhibits improved performance as compared with the organic device investigated above, in terms of less leaky hysteresis loops, higher Pr, and symmetric butterfly loop. So far, by recording the butterfly loops we have demonstrated the indirect piezoelectric effect, but our target is to fabricate a sensor that exploits the direct piezoelectric effect i.e. we need to be able to record the output voltage when pressure is applied. This can be done by means of oscilloscope.

Just for "a proof of concept", we performed measurements with the oscilloscope on a very rough device where the bottom electrode was an aluminium foil on top of which there were two free standing piezoelectric films with different thicknesses, and on top of it two squared aluminium foil of 4 cm 2 and 16 cm 2 (Figure 5.13). As we can see from Figure 5.13 the thicker the film and the larger the area, the higher the output voltage. Two peaks having opposite directions are visible. The first peak is generated during the direct pressure applied, and is indeed the direct consequence of the electrical displacement (whose electrical polarization induced by the applied stress generates surface charges because of the piezoelectric activity) induced into the film; while the second peak is the due to the voltage released when the film relaxes back to its initial thickness.

For the freestanding devices above described (Figure 5.10), the output voltages detected by the oscilloscope were too low and often hidden by the intrinsic electric noise of the instrument. In any case, these devices with good performance missed the characteristic of a good flexibility since bending without cracking or damaging the device was nearly impossible.

Therefore, we proceeded with another route by thermally evaporating bottom and top electrodes on top of two separated films of PDMS and by using them to embed the piezoelectric freestanding layer (Figure 5.14a). In order to allow an easy contact of the electrodes arms we attached to the electrodes terminals metallic wires as shown in Figure 5.14b and we fixed them by means of silver paste. This system showed quite good signals for the output voltage. This final device was evaluated by the Liryc institute.

In Liryc, the device has been connected to an electrical grid (as shown in Figure 5.14c) that allows the simultaneous recording of the output voltages generated pressure is applied.

Unfortunately, at the time of the test problems were encountered due to the electronic grid: even if the pressure was applied on a certain device an output voltage was detected also for the others devices whose electrode terminals were connected to the grid, but on top of which not any pressure was exerted. We do think that the problem was assigned to the grid because for all the different device the same output signal appear with no any delay or difference in the intensity. The engineers of the Lyric are considering reviewing their electronic recording system. The devices are still on the evaluation at the moment of the submission of this manuscript.

Conclusion

In this Chapter we have shown the advancements that have been achieved within the project "sweet heart". Since the goal was to obtain a flexible network of sensors that perfectly adhere to the model of a 3D-printed heart in order to map the localised output voltages generated by a mechanical stress our first attempt was to directly spray the conducting and the piezoelectric polymers in the inner of the heart. Deterioration of the heart substrate was induced by the high temperatures required so we opted fabricate independent devices to then let adhere onto the model heart.

The system firstly investigated was constituted of PET substrate, and spray-coated patterned PEDOT electrodes and spray-coated P(VDF-co-TrFE) film. PFM measurements demonstrate that the PEDOT:PSTFSI synthesised in our lab works well as electrode but the inhomogeneity of the systems suggest that other deposition techniques should be used.

We therefore chose to use doctor blade technique to deposit the piezoelectric film and inkjet printing for the patterned electrodes on top of a more flexible PDMS substrate.

Hysteresis loops have been recorded but the current leakage was very evident.

The third approach was to fabricate freestanding devices. After several approaches we found a way to obtain highly flexible piezoelectric sensors by thermally evaporating the metallic silver electrodes on top of thick PDMS substrates and encapsulate a P(VDF-co-TrFE) film between them. Since the temperature at which we perform the thermal evaporation does not exceed 180°C, the degradation of PDMS is prevented, being the decomposition temperature of PDMS ≈ 500 °C. Even though for this most performing device the characterisation is herein not presented because their analysis is still ongoing we succeeded to furnish a good sensor to test. We think that the optimisation of this flexible piezoelectric network of sensors complemented with a resolution of the issues linked with the electronic conversion and amplifying system would give a proper sensor to allow the localisation of different electrical responses for laparoscopic medical simulation.

6 Phase separated P(VDF-co-TrFE):rr-P3HT blend: an alternative to organic photovoltaics?

6.1 An introduction to the P(VDF-co-TrFE):P3HT blend

Polymeric blends have been beneficially applied in organic electronics, for instance as active layers in photovoltaic devices, 1 light-emitting diodes, 2 field-effect transistors, 3 and memories. 4,5 Among all the different types of blends in which the ferroelectric, FE, P(VDF-co-TrFE) has been employed, [6][7][8][9] its blends with semiconducting, SC, polymers are continuously grabbing attention.

Indeed, although the interesting electroactive nature of ferroelectric polymers, these materials are obviously dielectrics, acting as a barrier for the free charges flow. This aspect could be seen as a drawback for their application in organic electronic devices, which require charge transport and therefore the participation of semiconducting materials: hence the idea of blending FE with SC polymers.

In such blends normally the FE is P(VDF-co-TrFE) and the SC is the poly(3-hexylthiophene), P3HT. Other semiconducting polymers have been used as well, such as poly [3-(ethyl-5pentanoate) thiophene-2,5-diyl] (P3EPT), 10 poly(9,9-dioctylfluorenyl-2,7-diyl) (PFO), 7 or

Poly[(9,9-din-octylfluorenyl-2,7-diyl)-alt-(benzo [2,1,3]thiadiazol-4,8-diyl)](F8BT). [START_REF] West | Solid state chemistry and its applications[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | Curie transition, ferroelectric crystal structure and ferroelectricity of a VDF/TrFE (75/25) copolymer: 2. The effect of poling on curie transition and ferroelectric crystal structure[END_REF] All of these semiconducting polymers are conjugated polymers, which have alternating single, and double bonds, with sp 2 hybridization, that allow the delocalization of π-electrons.

When sp 2 -hybridization occurs between 2p and 2s orbitals in C atoms, three sp 2 hybrid orbitals and one pz orbital of two neighbouring carbons highly overlap to form planar σ-bonds, while the remaining pz orbitals weakly overlap to form π-bonds, perpendicular to the molecular plane (Figure 6.1a). The splitting between the bonding π and the anti-bonding π* orbitals is weaker than the one between the bonding and anti-bonding σ-and σ*-orbitals as shown in Figure 6.1b. Therefore, in typical organic materials with π-and σ-bonds, a π-orbital forms the Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO) and a π*-orbital the Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO) (see Figure 6.1b). 13 In the case of P3HT the HOMO is at -5.2 eV and the LUMO at -3 eV, with a resulting band gaps of ~ 2.2 eV. In general SC materials can be seen as electrical insulators with a low energy band gap that can be crossed by charge carriers at room temperature thanks to the thermal energy contribution KBT (of the order of meV at RT), where kB is the Boltzmann constant 8.6 10 -5 eV K -1 and T is the temperature in Kelvin (298.15 K at RT).

After this short reminder about semiconducting polymers we come back to the FE-SC blends. The FE-SC blends found their main application in memories, which overpass the limits related to those based on single FE capacitor. Indeed, even though ferroelectric polymers, thanks to their bistable reversible polarisation, are by themselves suitable for data storage, in simple ferroelectric capacitors the reading-out is destructive since it requires the application of an electric field that exceeds the coercive field, Ec. 14 These memories need then to be reprogrammed after reading-out.

A non-destructive reading-out device, named non-volatile memory, requires resistive switching. Bistable conduction has been demonstrated in ferroelectric Schottky diodes where inorganic ferroelectrics, considered as wide-band-gap semiconductors, conduct electricity owing to the presence of lattice defects (i.e. vacancies). The depletion width in ferroelectric Schottky diodes varies depending on the polarisation state of the ferroelectric. 15,16 A polarisation parallel to the built-in field leads to a small depletion width, that can be crossed by charge carriers (the diode has a low resistance); vice versa a polarisation antiparallel to the built-in field leads to a large depletion width and consequently to a high resistance. The attempts to increase the conductivity of inorganic ferroelectric Schottky diodes through doping, strongly reduces ferroelectric polarisation since the additional free charge carriers neutralise the polarisation charges.

Such obstacles in developing Schottky-based non-volatile memories have pushed research to develop new solutions, for instance separating the switching (ferroelectricity) from the reading-out (electric conductivity) functionalities 17 by means of the employment of two materials each bearing a different function. Thus, Asadi and co-workers with the development of FE-SC polymers blend based diodes achieved a breakthrough in non-volatile organic memories. 4 The extremely promising alternative of Asadi et al. overtook the drawbacks linked to the volatility of simple ferroelectric capacitor and to the difficulties in modulating two opposite properties borne by the same material. Organic non-volatile ferroelectric resistive memories were realised by using a phase-separated system where the two distinct functional polymers coexist. The advantage of using phase separated FE-SC blends is given by the phase separation itself. The fact that the two phases that bring the two divergent functionalities (the ferroelectric and the resistive one) are morphologically separated, permits the individual optimisation of each functionality independently. Therefore, on one side by acting on the ferroelectric material, the switching property can be varied, while on the other side, by modulating the semiconducting material the reading-out functionality can be adjusted. 5 A simplified layout of the non-volatile memory device cross-section made of the ferroelectric P(VDF-co-TrFE) and of the semiconducting P3HT (whose chemical structures are depicted in Figure 6.2a and 6.2b) is shown in Figure 6.2c: two metal electrodes sandwich the thin active layer, which consists of SC polymeric paths embedded in the FE matrix. Charge carriers flow is possible only via the SC phase that, as p-type semiconductor, conducts holes. The holes' injection barrier is the difference in energy between the work function of the electrode and the HOMO level of P3HT (HOMOP3HT= -5.2 eV), that is 0.9 eV if we consider an Ag electrode (ΦAg anode= -4.3 eV) as in the example shown in Figure 6.3a reported from reference 4 . In the case of the symmetric configuration Ag/P3HT/Ag, silver acts as a poor injection contact as shown by the low current density for the pristine, unpoled junction in Figure 6.3a (black line). If the top Ag is grounded, when a positive voltage is applied to the bottom Ag anode, the holes' injection occurs from the bottom anode to the P3HT layer, contrarily when a negative voltage is applied to the anode, the holes' barrier slightly increases at the bottom Ag anode/P3HT interface: a slightly lower J is recorded at -3V compared to the J recorded at +3V in Figure 6.3a for the pristine blend device (black line).

When the ferroelectric matrix is poled, the induced polarisation field serves to control the injection barrier locally at the SC/metal interface. 4 Depending on the polarisation direction a lowering (or an increase) of the injection barrier at the SC/metal interface occurs and with it an increase (or a reduction) of the device current. Applying to the bottom anode an electric field that exceeds the negative Ec of P(VDF-co-TrFE) brings the device into the ON-state (Figure 6.3c), since the FE polarisation is parallel to the built-in field, and therefore the charges can cross easily the lowered injection barrier. On the other hand, exceeding the positive Ec leads to the OFF-state device (Figure 6.3d) at positive bias, indeed the injection is now improved at the top electrode (the poled junction is still a bistable resistive diode, but in the reverse direction 4 ). Switching from the off-state to the on-state generates a bistable resistive switch whose driving force is controlled by the stray field of the ferroelectric. 18 If a metal contacts with a small work function, for example the (LiF/Al) is used, an important injection barrier of 2 eV results at the P3HT/(LiF/Al) interface. This blocking contact makes the junction a rectifying bistable resistive switch (see Figure 6.3b reported from reference 4 ).

The operation mechanism of this device relies on the formation of a phase-separated network with continuous semiconducting pathways that expand through the entire thickness, indispensable for charge carriers flow from the top to the bottom electrodes. 19,20 Indeed Asadi et al. asserted the formation of a phase-separated pillar-like network (i.e. P3HT pillars embedded in a FE matrix) with a lateral phase separation typically of 200 nm. [START_REF] Petsagkourakis | Structurally-driven Enhancement of Thermoelectric Properties within Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) thin Films[END_REF] Due to these structural requirements, and driven by the need for further optimisation and device miniaturisation, many research groups have investigated the morphology of the P(VDF-co-TrFE):P3HT blend.

In 2010 McNeill, Asadi and co-workers 19 through AFM and Scanning Transmission X-ray Microscopy (STXM) showed that the two polymers form a phase-separated structure, where SC columns with a lateral size ranging from 100 nm to 500 nm depending on the molecular ratio, are extended through the entire thickness of P(VDF-co-TrFE):P3HT thin films.

Even though (STXM) allows investigating the bulk structure of thin-films of polymer blends 10 they underline that one needs to "be careful in reading too much the vertical information and the appearance of a wetting layer at the interface demanded further investigations with surface-sensitive techniques".

Three years later, by means of Atomic force microscopy (AFM) Khikhlovskyi et al. have shown that the semiconducting polymer domains can form either convex protrusions at the film surface, or concave depressions, these latter being mainly responsible for the charge conduction in the device. [START_REF] West | Solid state chemistry and its applications[END_REF] In particular, in order to reconstruct the 3D-morphology blend, selective dissolution of the different components was combined with AFM analysis, revealing the existence of various types of embedded semiconductor domains as well as a thin wetting layer at the bottom electrode (see Figure 6.4). Domains that go through the entire film thickness do exist (feature (1) in Figure 6.4), and thus would connect bottom and top electrodes, while others are electrically non-active, either protruding at the surface (feature ( 2) not connected with the bottom electrode) or laying on the substrate, reminiscent of a partial wetting layer buried by the matrix. [START_REF] Kim | Curie transition, ferroelectric crystal structure and ferroelectricity of a VDF/TrFE (75/25) copolymer: 2. The effect of poling on curie transition and ferroelectric crystal structure[END_REF] It is highlighted that these latter kind of domains are undesirable for device fabrication because they do not contribute to overall current and could even be detrimental to device performance by affecting either the potential charges injection at the electrode/semiconducting interface, or the charges collection to the other electrode. 10 Even though a "pillar-like" morphology seems fundamental to collect charges that vertically travel through semiconducting pathways, 4 the results summarised above well document that in reality the semiconducting domains deviate from the simplified pillar-like morphology.

Differences in morphology between the surface and bulk could play an important role in charge carrier transport and overall device performance, for example if a homogeneous layer of semiconducting material stands at the metallic interface charge conduction is not possible.

It arises that the device operation is intimately linked to the phase separated morphology.

Since the phase separation of the FE-SC blends cannot be easily controlled, perhaps one should resort to alternative strategies as the one proposed by Martinez-Tong et al. who succeeded in obtaining controlled periodic surface nanostructures by means of laser-induced patterning. 22 A well-distributed nanostructure of vertical SC domains that connect the bottom to the top electrodes indeed seems to be required for efficient device operation, since the polarisation induced current density is reported to be higher in the perimeter of semiconducting domains [START_REF] West | Solid state chemistry and its applications[END_REF] .

This last statement is based on the theoretical model proposed by Kemerink et al. 18 according to whom the driving force for the resistance switching of the FE-SC diode is the ferroelectric stray field of the polarized ferroelectric phase within the SC domains, which can modulate the charge injection from the electrode into the semiconductor. The stray field is localised in the regions where semiconductor and ferroelectric phases exist, and only the SC regions that are very close to the SC/FE interface are affected by the stray field. Therefore, the advantages coming from the FE material are lost if the poled FE material and metal-SC interface are too far away for the stray field to penetrate in the SC and modify the charge injection barrier. 4 The structure of this FE-SC polymer blend system has also been investigated formerly in our lab by the PhD student Carine Lacroix whose Thesis was focused on the electric/photoelectric characterisation of such system for its application in memories and photovoltaic devices. 23 In this Chapter we will present complementary results obtained from the 3D-nanostructural analysis of the FE-SC blends and few results obtained focusing on their potential application in organic photovoltaics OPVs.

In particular in this Chapter we will present the investigation of the morphological nanostructure of P(VDF-co-TrFE):P3HT blends by a combination of Scanning Probe Microscopy techniques which allows to provide the 3D-reconstruction of this system. Most of the studies on such or similar systems normally use regio-irregular P3HT, rir-P3HT, which ensures to obtain amorphous SC domains within the semi-crystalline FE matrix. We here employ the regio-regular P3HT, rr-P3HT, in view of a potential application of the FE-SC blend in photovoltaics, since semi crystalline P3HT is known to allow a better charge conduction, which is needed in OPV devices. The use of rr-P3HT is indeed preferable with respect to rir-P3HT since holes mobility is increased for rr-P3HT, assisted by the ordered π-π stacking of the thiophene rings (μ h+ rr-P3HT = 10 -3 cm² V -1 s -1 > μ h +rir-P3HT = 10 -4 cm² V -1 s -1 ) 24 . After having characterised FE-SC blends with different weight ratio compositions of the FE and SC polymers, we will move to the device fabrication and to their electrical characterisation in order to test the potential application of such blends in OPVs. It is worth to underline now that the KPFM is not a purely surface-sensitive technique, 26 but its sampling depth goes up to over 100 nm when semiconducting materials are investigated. We remind that the thickness of the investigated films is 250 nm, and then the PFM information is coming from almost half thickness of our system. This sort of ''bulk sensitivity'' of the technique means that the recorded "surface potential" map is not describing the composition at the film-air interface but gives us information about a thicker part of the layer.

By using the image processing software "Image J" we calculated the area occupied by P3HT

on the VCPD maps of 25 µm 2 . In Figure 6.7, the rr-P3HT fraction estimated by KPFM for the 95:5 film, the 90:10 film and the 80:20 film is plotted as a function of the P3HT content in the blend. Interestingly we find that the fraction of P3HT detected by KPFM is higher than the content of P3HT in the blend. This suggests a not controlled distribution along the entire film thickness of the P3HT, which probably segregates preferentially at the upper levels of the film, i.e. close to the film surface. In order to prove the possible origin of this surface segregation of P3HT, we have performed contact angle measurements on pure rr-P3HT and on pure P(VDF-co-TrFE) films with three different solvents: water, ethanol and isopropanol. We have calculated the respective surface tensions, γ, by using the OWRK model (Owens, Wendt, Rabel and Kaelble).

The values that we have obtained are almost identical for both polymers: γP3HT =31.85 ± 0.3mJ m -2 and γPVDF-co-TrFE = 33.02 ± 0.7 mJ m -2 , therefore no conclusion can be derived from the calculated surface tensions. Hence the fact that the P3HT domains, that appear with a very good contrast in the surface potential map, are hardly visible in AFM topography is probably due to a thin layer of P(VDF-co-TrFE) which covers the SC domains.

Moreover, from Figure 6.6 is evident that the rr-P3HT domains have the tendency to connect with each other, creating a network. This is deduced by the occurrence of connecting lines between the P3HT, at low P3HT weight ratios in the blend (Figure 6.6b and 6.6d), which turns into big domains for the 80:20 blend (Figure 6.6f). Hence, from the KPFM investigation it can be concluded that, in order to obtain the desirable phase-separated columnar structure the P3HT content in the blend should not exceeds the 10%, to avoid networking between the P3HT pathways.

Moving further, we investigated if the appearance of pillar-like semiconducting pathways that link the bottom to top surface can be confirmed. In order to reply to this question, we performed Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy, C-AFM that permits to map the variations of electrical conductivity across low-conducting and semiconducting materials. The samples are grounded through the ITO bottom electrode, while the AFM tip serves as the top electrode. If a current flow is passing between the bottom electrode and the AFM tip, it will be recorded.

Topography images (top row of Figure 6. In Figure 6.8a the green circle on the top right side circumscribes a P3HT spike which corresponds to a conducting pathway from the bottom to the top of the film, as shown by the red spot in Figure 6.8b. While for the green circle on the left-side of Figure 6.8a no any electric flow is recorded by the AFM tip in Figure 6.8b. This suggests that not all P3HT protrusions that exist at the surface are connected to the bottom interface by conductive channels. The same description can be done comparing Figure 6.8c with Figure 6.8d. It can be easily noted that by increasing the amount of P3HT in the blend, the number of conducting domains that connect the bottom and the top sides (sections of the P3HT network percolating across the film)

increases. The size of these domains increases as well (Figure 6.8e and Figure 6.8f).

Note that in these current flow images the interconnecting network, that was obvious in the KPFM images, is missing. This suggests once more that the big P3HT interconnected domains that were apparent for the sample with a FE:SC weight ratio of 80:20 are localised not at the surface but they are rather buried by a P(VDF-co-TrFE) dielectric layer, which does not contribute to current flow.

Finally, from this complementary Scanning Probe Microscopy study we have found that various SC domains, convex protrusions or concave depressions, and structures deviating from the pillar-like morphology exist, as already anticipated by other authors. [START_REF] Kim | Curie transition, ferroelectric crystal structure and ferroelectricity of a VDF/TrFE (75/25) copolymer: 2. The effect of poling on curie transition and ferroelectric crystal structure[END_REF] In the case of the 80:20 blend, we have found that almost all SC pathways cross the entire thickness. Even though this is desirable for applications that demand for a high current density flow, the existence of a horizontal SC network at regions close to the surface, very pronounced for this 80:20 composition, could screen the effect of the ferroelectric stray field at the metal-SC interface. On the other hand, for the 95:5 FE:SC composition, SC pathways connecting the bottom to the top of the layer do exist, with a mean diameter of the SC domains of 100 nm that belongs to the optimum lateral semiconductor domain size range (that was found to be between 50-100 nm 18 for high performance memory diodes). However, we found that the number of connecting pathways per surface area for the 95:5 blend is very small compared to the other ratios. Therefore, we would suggest discarding the 95:5 composition because of the small current density expected, in view of a higher device performance and therefore to opt for a 90:10 FE:SC blend where is achieved a compromise between the number of SC pathways per surface area, the domain sizes and a lack of a horizontal SC network.

Application in organic photovoltaics

Normally, in blend-based devices like the above-mentioned diodes, as well as in the blendbased solar cells, controlling the phase-separated network is crucial in regulating the device operation and efficiency. For instance increased photovoltaic performances were obtained with the bulk heterojunction, BHJ, solar cells compared to the two-layer photovoltaic solar cell 27 , thanks to the increased number of interfaces between the n-type acceptor (e.g. the [6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester, PCBM) and the p-type donor, (e.g. the P3HT) semiconductor materials. 1,28 The main challenge in OPVs concerns the device efficiency improvement that is hindered by the significant energy loss caused by the recombination of electron-hole pairs and of free charges. [29][30][31][32] The ferroelectric materials, whose strong dipoles produce a permanent internal electric field, are able to assist the electron-hole separation and the extraction of free charges carriers in OPVs. 33 In particular, the polarisation electric field of the FE component favouring the holes-electrons, h + -e -, separation at the FE-SC interface would prevent their recombination. Recently progresses have been achieved thanks to the integration of FE materials in OPV devices. The influence of ferroelectric materials in a p-n heterojunction has been studied through the insertion of a P(VDF-co-TrFE) layer either between P3HT and PCBM, 31 or between the active layer and the electrodes 29 (i.e. the cathode 34 ) or by blending the ferroelectric polymer in the bulk heterojunction films. 35 All these configurations have been demonstrated to lead to an improvement of the energy conversion from 1-2% to 4-5% 29,33 (see Figure 6.9). The two images are reproduced from reference 32 .

The OPVs mentioned above exploit the ferroelectric polarisation field in order to assist the transport of the dissociated charges to the electrodes or improve charge extraction. In this Chapter we propose to use the ferroelectric polarization field as the driving force for exciton dissociation. This approach circumvents the need for an external bias to dissociate the excitons formed in P3HT upon illumination. In fact, the n-type material is no more needed to provide -along with the p-type one -the driving force for exciton dissociation. In the event that the permanent ferroelectric polarisation field would act as a bias voltage to efficiently separate the electrons and holes, the P(VDF-co-TrFE):P3HT blend system could be arise as an alternative for organic photovoltaics. 31 After having thoroughly characterised the nanostructure of this FE-SC, in the next session we will discuss few results obtained from the J vs V characterisation in dark and under light exposure of devices having as active layer a thin film of the P(VDF-co-TrFE):P3HT blend. We once more highlight that we herein use regio-regular P3HT, since crystalline semiconducting polymers can conduct higher current densities that amorphous ones, which is crucial for organic photovoltaics devices.

In view of a potential application of the FE-SC blends in photovoltaics, we had first studied a simple device geometry in which an active layer of P(VDF-co-TrFE):P3HT is sandwiched between a transparent bottom electrode, ITO and a gold top electrode. Then we moved to a more complex device Al/LiF/ P(VDF-co-TrFE):P3HT/PEDOT:PSS/ITO to obtain a device where the diode behaviour is more pronounced helped by the big difference in the energetic levels of the two electrodes.

Device fabrication

As above mentioned, devices have been prepared by using 2 configurations: 1) ITO and Au PEDOT:PSS has been spin-coated as well as the blends layers. The metallic electrodes have been deposited by means of thermal evaporation.

J vs V characterisation

After having fabricated Au/blend/ITO devises we have recorded the J vs V curves and evaluated its photovoltaic potential. The ITO as bottom electrode is necessary for its Thin films with the three different molar ratios blends have been incorporated between ITO and patterned Au top electrodes, obtaining 4 devices with an active area of 10 mm 2 as displayed in Figure 6.10b. The voltage applied is swept between -3V and +3V.

In Figure 6.11 the current density vs voltage, J vs V, responses of the 95 :5, 90:10, 80:20 devices in dark and under illumination are presented. The measurements under illumination are performed by means of a solar simulator whose lamp reproduces the solar spectrum. As expected, the samples exhibit high J because of the low contact resistance for charge extraction from the active layer. The blend having a FE:SC ratio of 95:5 exhibits lower current flows with respect to the others with higher P3HT content. At +3V, 30 mA cm -2 are recorded for the 95:5 blend, 80 mA cm -2 for the 90:10 and 600 mA cm -2 for the 80:20. Note that the increase in current density is not linear with the fraction of the SC material in the blends. This electrical behaviour is in line with the morphological study discussed before where just few semiconducting pillars were found to connect the two electrodes for the 5% P3HT blends, which is expected to decrease the charge collected. Moreover, here we would like to underline that the lack of reproducibility is higher for this 95:5 weight ratio with respect to the 90:10 and the 80:20. In particular for the same sample with an active layer of 95:5 for just one or maximum two devices out of four it was possible to record J vs V curves. Moreover, for the 80:20 samples almost all P3HT domains are co-continuous therefore charge collection is expected to be maximised.

The J-V curve of the 90:10 device exhibits a behaviour that varies more evidently when exposed to light. Also for the 80:20 we can see an effect of light irradiation, which is less evident than that for the 90:10. For the 95:5 the J measured in absence of light (dark current)

seems to be mostly overlapped with the J measured under irradiation. We opted to present herein the J-V curves obtained after polarisation of the P(VDF-co-TrFE) just for the 90:10. Even though the high J found for the device 80:20 would be desirable for OPV applications, the optimum diameter of the semiconducting domains in a ferroelectric matrix has been estimated to be 50-100 nm, 18 therefore we prefer to avoid too large SC domains, that would decrease the area of FE-SC interfaces. Once more remind that we found that the 90:10 blend has an average diameter of semiconducting domains that does not exceed largely the optimum sizes (90:10 has a mean SC diameter of 200 nm that is higher than the ideal 100 nm, but lower than the 300 nm found for the 80:20) and exhibits high current flow 18 (the number of SC pathways per area found for 90:10 is higher than the one found for the 95:5).

In Figure 6.12 we present a comparison between the J vs V behaviour of a not polarised 90:10 device, of positively "polarised" device and of a negatively "polarised" device. The positive and negative polarisation states have been achieved by applying, before the J vs V measurements, a DC bias of +10 V and of -10V respectively for a few minutes in order to drive the blend film into an "ON state" for a positively poled device, and to an "OFF-state" for a negatively poled device. Holes extraction occurs from the active layer to both electrodes. In this case, a positive polarisation will lead to a decreased injection barrier with Au and an increased with ITO, while the negative one to an increased barrier with Au and increased with ITO. Considering a film thickness of 250 nm and knowing that approximately the Ec for P(VDFco-TrFE) with a molar ratio of 75-25 is of 50 MV m -1 we can conclude that with 10 V we do not exceed the Ec in order to bring the FE film into a saturated forward or reversed polarisation state. We herein present this way to induce the preferred polarisation because we have tried different polarisation protocols by varying the voltages and it was found that exceeding 12.5V

(voltage which corresponds to an Ec of 50 MV m -1 for a film of 250 nm) the device breaks down and short circuit occurs. This is expected, if we consider that we try to pole a sample that contains conducting pathways. In any case, we preferred to apply twice +10 V onto the same device and apply twice -10 V onto another device of the same sample, in order to induce different polarisation orientation and to compare their behaviour even though we do not reach a saturated polarisation. Indeed, even though not saturated polarisation is assured, we expect induce two different polarisation orientations.

A decrease of current density in the dark and under light is recorded after poling with a negative voltage (dark green and clear green in Figure 6.12) while for the device poled with a positive voltage an increase of dark J and light J is recorded (dark pink and clear pink in Figure 6.12) with respect to the not-poled device.

Defining the photocurrent, ΔJ, as the difference between the J measured under light and the J in the dark at a certain voltage:

𝛥𝐽 = 𝛥(𝐽 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 -𝐽 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 ) (6.2)
We have calculated ΔJ at +3V, ΔJ+3V, and ΔJ at -3V ΔJ-3V. The trends of ΔJ+3V and ΔJ-3V as a function of the device polarisation are shown in Figure 6.13. We can conclude that by positively poling the P(VDF-co-TrFE) the ferroelectric stray field increases the amount of current detected while, for a negative poling, J decreases. In any case, we do not detect any photovoltaic behaviour: the current is crossing at zero voltages, i.e the short circuit current density is zero. In order to make a step further towards the photovoltaic application of this system we here present the results achieved for a more complex device configuration, that is a rectifying diode (Figure 6.14a). In particular we have deposited on top of ITO a thin film of PEDOT:PSS. After the spin coating of the blend film, a very thin layer of LiF (2nm) has been deposited before the Ag (80 nm) by means of thermal evaporation. In Figure 6.14a the schematic of the energy levels of the device are shown.

In Figure 6.14b the preliminary J-V curves are presented. In Figure 6.14c the log scale clearly shows the asymmetry of the J-V curves, i.e. the rectifying effect.

It is interesting to note that with this configuration the J recorded under illumination does not pass from zero and a JSC can be recorded without need of polarising the FE polymer. A zoom of Figure 6.14c is shown in Figure 6.14d. As reminder in order to evaluate the performance of photovoltaic cells, current density vs voltage curves needs to be recorded during illumination. From this curve two parameters can be determined: the short-circuit current density, JSC, i.e. the current at which the voltage across the "short-circuited" device is zero, 13 and the open circuit voltage, VOC, i.e, the potential difference recorded at the terminals of the cell under illumination and in open circuit (for zero current). In Figure 6.14d the VOC found is almost 1eV, which is quite high for a P3HT-based system (for P3HT:PCBM heterojunctions VOC is around 0.6eV). The origin of this "un-expected good result" is unknown for the system.

The Fill Factor, FF, measures the device efficiency and is the power generated when JV is a maximum divided by JSCVOC. 13

The equation 6.2 gives the power conversion efficiency ηP of an OPV device:

𝜂 𝑃 = 𝐽 𝑆𝐶 𝑉 𝑂𝐶 𝐹𝐹 𝑃 𝐴 (6.3)
Where PA is the areal light power (W m -2 ) incident on the device. 13 From the curve in Figure 6.14d we obtained a FF% of 0.275% and a power conversion efficiency ηP of 0.02%. The very low FF and the shape of the J vs V curve suggest that there are contact problems in the device that induce an important series resistance and a low parallel resistance. These problems normally are addressed by engineering the devices. However, the results we obtained give a proof of concept that such a phase separated FE-SC system could be employed for OPVs. Of course, it should be further investigated the correct way to induce polarisation on the FE matrix in such complex FE-SC system and it should be understood why a so high VOC is detected. Furthermore, the J vs V shape further improved by eliminating the presence of the series resistances in the device. In any case these preliminary results could open the challenge of photovoltaic application of such a FE-SC blend.

Conclusions

The morphology of the FE-SC blend of P(VDF-co-TrFE) and rr-P3HT with different weight ratios, 95:5, 90:10 and 80:20 have been investigated by PFM, KPFM and C-AFM.

We proved that the combinations of different SPM techniques are advantageous for a nondestructive reconstruction of 3D thin film morphology: an almost exhaustive comprehension of the phase-separated structure across the active layer thickness has been reached.

By means of PFM it has been confirmed that a phase separation occurs. The piezoelectric displacement recorded just for the matrix has proved that during phase separation the properties of each constituent are not affected. In particular P(VDF-co-TrFE) maintains its functional piezoelectric properties.

The SC phase was found to segregate as concave and convex semiconducting domains at the surface. By means of KPFM we conclude that, as already found for P(VDF-co-TrFE):rir-P3HT

General conclusions

In this Thesis the relations between structure and ferroelectric properties of P(VDF-co-TrFE) copolymers have been investigated with the aim of achieving a complete understanding of the properties necessary for existing applications and enabling new ones.

The first challenge of this Thesis was to define the "cold crystallisation" annealing conditions (normally used for organic electronic devices) that lead to best ferroelectric properties in terms of high remnant polarisation Pr and low coercive electric field Ec that was discussed in Chapter 2. Optimal ferroelectric response, in terms of a high Pr and a low Ec, has been achieved when thermal processing that takes place in the temperature range between 133 °C and 137 °C for 15 to 30 minutes annealing time. Our results proved that the 2 h-long annealing time step, traditionally applied is not necessary, but just 15 minutes are enough.

Additionally, it arose that annealing temperature affects mostly the remnant polarisation value, while annealing time has a severe effect on the coercive field value. The enhanced performance achieved under these conditions has been rationalised through GIWAXS studies that revealed the crystalline phases apparent in these films and allowed the calculation of the degree of crystallinity. It is shown that a high degree of crystallinity is necessary as well as an edge-on orientation of the crystallites for an improved performance. Moreover, through a deconvolution study we discuss the existence of a moderately unstable ferroelectric phase F1-2 that facilitates ferroelectric switching through easier rotation of dipoles along the chain. The best performing structure exhibits a high degree of crystallinity, a preferential orientation of the crystallites with the polymer chains parallel to the substrate and the occurrence of three ferroelectric phases.

In Chapter 3 we unravelled the polymorphism by following the structural transitions changes at which the ferroelectric polymer P(VDF-co-TrFE) undergoes by means of timeresolved WAXS and DSC employing an isothermal melt crystallisation protocol. Different isothermal crystallisation temperatures have been studied. With this study we were the first to describe the appearance of defective phases in pristine samples, before any annealing over the TCurie is performed. By following the heating and cooling ramps of the melt-crystallisation protocol three crystallisations were found to occur: before the isothermal crystallisation, during (obviously) the isothermal step, and immediately after the isothermal crystallisation.

An overall increase of the crystallinity degree arises when Tc increases. Once, after crystallisation, the paraelectric crystallites are formed, during cooling at the Curie transition range they were found to convert into a F1 most ordered (directly formed with the lattice parameters typical of the ferroelectric phase), and the very disordered F2. The asymmetry of the scattering peak assigned to the F1 phase, at 1.4 Å -1 suggests the appearance of F1-2

intermediately ordered phase as found in Chapter 2, even though from the WAXS data we do not have any evidence of how this intermediate phase originates.

Nevertheless, the crystallinity degree has been proven to increase with the increase of Tc and consequently to be higher among all samples for the samples annealed at the higher Tc a nonoptimal ferroelectric performance was detected. We attribute this decrease of the performances to a possible high content of the highly defective F2, which undermines the ferroelectric switching. However, deconvolution studies of the GIWAXS peaks are in perspective work since are required for confirming the hypothesis herein proposed.

We conclude that the correlations between structural phases and performance need to be searched in the intramolecular rotational during poling. Indeed, when we do apply an electric field to a P(VDF-co-TrFE) copolymer we are inducing rotation along the chains for aligning the dipoles. As proposed in Chapter 2 the intermediate phase, the F1-2, would favour more than a perfect ferroelectric phase the intramolecular rotation thanks to the presence of few gauche defects that acts as activation sites for the rotation to begin. On the other hand, a too defective phase F2 is expected to show some dipoles orientation, which in any case will not reach the degree of that of the F1 and F1-2 leading to a decrease in the performances.

In Chapter 4 the effect of the crystallite orientation has been thoroughly investigated.

Indeed, the link between polarisation and dipoles orientation within the crystallite points out that the crystallite orientation with respect to the applied electric field is fundamental to help the alignment and get after poling the maximum density of charges at the surface. In Chapter 4 we have quantified the impact of crystallite orientation on the ferroelectric properties by inducing various crystallite orientations through a variation of thermal protocol. We found that trough melt-crystallisation, randomly oriented crystallites, or preferentially face-on oriented are formed. The sample that underwent to an isothermal cold crystallisation was found to exhibit the highest amount of edge-on crystallites (~75%) among all and this was found to be related with the better ferroelectric response. The ferroelectric parameters indeed were found to strongly depend on the orientation of the crystallites: a higher Pr, lower Ec and a faster polarisation switching are found for a high edge-on amount. From dielectric spectroscopy investigations at different temperatures we have found that a cold crystallised sample exhibits lower dipoles relaxation activation energy with a decreased fm of the FE-to-PE relaxation as compared to the melt-crystallised samples due to an edge on orientation. From dielectric spectroscopy investigations at different temperatures we have found that an increased activation energy of the dipoles relaxation, simultaneously with a decreased fm of the FE-to-PE relaxation occurs when we go from a preferentially edge on oriented sample to a preferentially face-on sample. This suggests that the face-on orientation acts as defective parameter, hindering dipoles relaxations. Combining KPFM and CFM we noticed that the rr-P3HT (a semiconductor polymer) percentage strongly influence the distribution of the SC paths. By means of KPFM we unravelled the appearance of nearly superficial SC networks (at least until 100 nm below the air-film interface) when the P3HT weight percentage exceeds the 10%. Such networks were not detected with CFM, therefore they do not act as semiconducting path. We concluded that the best ratio for organic electronic applications is the 90:10, in terms of SC domain size and reproducibility of the nanostructure. Photovoltaic devices have been fabricated and characterised by recording their respective J-V curves in darkness and under light in order to evaluate the difference in their electrical behaviour. Even thought our results are just preliminary they represent a "proof of concept" that such a system could be exploited in OPVs.

Chapter 8 Annex 8 Annex

In this chapter we will first describe the materials, used in this Thesis. Then we will move to the thin films preparation and the devices fabrication details. The performed thermal treatments will be quickly summarised and finally the characterisation techniques will be described.

Materials P(VDF-co-TrFE)

The random copolymers P(VDF-co-TrFE) investigated in this thesis have been provided by

Capacitor fabrication

Aluminium electrodes were thermally evaporated onto clean glass substrates to form 100 nm thick bottom electrodes (in inert atmosphere at 10 -6 mbar by means of ME400B PLASSYS evaporator) that were subsequently coated with the P(VDF-co-TrFE) films. 100 nm thick top Al electrodes were finally thermally evaporated. The temperature inside the evaporator was kept below 70 °C, i.e. below the Curie transition temperature, to avoid undergoing the ferroelectric-to-paraelectric transition. The thermal treatment of P(VDF-co-TrFE) has been conducted on the devices (i.e. after top electrode deposition) following the procedure described below.

Thermal treatment

The films were heated on a precision hot plate with a rate of 5 °C min -1 starting from room temperature until the temperature of choice. In particular, it has been performed:

 An isothermal steps of 15 minutes at 130 °C, 133 °C, 135 °C, 137 °C, 140 °C, or at 135 °C along 5, 15, 30, 60, 120 minutes, for the cold crystallisation study.

 An isothermal step at 165 °C for 5 minutes, followed by a fast cooling to the 129 °C, 131 °C, 133 °C, 135 °C, 137 °C and 140 °C. At each temperature an isothermal step of 15 minutes has been carried for the melt crystallisation study.

 An isothermal step at 165 °C for 15 minutes, followed by a quenching step through immersion of the sample in liquid nitrogen and an isothermal annealing at 135 °C for 15 minutes, for the melt quenched crystallised sample.

After every final isothermal steps the samples were cooled down to room temperature slowly, with a cooling rate of 1.6 °C min -1 on the same hot stage.

Techniques

Spin-coating deposition technique

Spin coating is one of the most common techniques for depositing polymer solutions into uniform thin films. The advantage of spin coating is its ability to quickly and easily produce very uniform films, ranging from a few nanometres to a few microns in thickness on solid, flat or slightly curved substrates. 3 The instrument is relatively simple, consisting of a small rotating support with a hole in the centre through which a vacuum depression allows to keep the substrate attached to the support during the spinning process (Figure 8.2). A polymer, usually solubilised in a highly volatile solvent, is spread onto the substrate that is let to rapidly rotate at a constant acceleration rate until the desired rotation speed (Figure 8.3). The solution flows radially on the surface of the substrate and covers it uniformly thanks to the centrifugal force which pushes out the excess of solution and allows the thinning of the deposited film. By varying parameters such as the rotation speed and/or the polymer solution concentration, it is possible to modulate the thickness of the film.

At the end of the process, only about 10% of solvent remains, which can be removed by a subsequent annealing phase. Grazing incidence Wide Angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS)

Grazing incidence X-ray scattering (GIXS) provides information about the morphology of active materials and thin film layers. The X-ray beam impinges onto the sample surface with a shallow incident angle αi < 1 °. 4 The scattered intensity can be collected under a small exit angle αf (grazing incidence small angle X-ray scattering GISAXS) or as in the case of GIWAXS under a wide exit angle αf as shown in Figure 8.5. 4 Indeed the difference between GIWAXS and GISAXS stands in the sample-to-detector distance which is shorter in the case of GIWAXS and thus diffraction maxima at larger angles are observed. The beam interacts with the sample structure, giving rise to scattering features such as peaks and diffuse scattering. The scattering from the sample is then recorded with a 2D X-ray detector. 4 GIWAXS is sensitive to the crystalline parts and allows for the determination of the crystal structure and the orientation of the crystalline regions with respect to the electrodes. Analysis of the 2D scattering pattern enables quantification of crystallinity degree of thin films as shown in this thesis. For GIWAXS measurements, the P(VDF-co-TrFE) films were spin-coated on silicon substrates. The GIWAXS experiments have been performed at the Dutch-Belgian beamline (DUBBLE CRG, station BM26B) of the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in Grenoble, France. 5 X-rays photons with 12 keV energy were used and the sample-to-detector distance was set at 8 cm. The angle of incidence αi was set at 0.15 °, slightly above the polymer critical angle to allow full penetration of the polymer film. The diffracted intensity was recorded by a Frelon CCD camera and was normalized by the incident photon flux and the acquisition time (30 s). Flat field, polarization, solid angle and efficiency corrections were subsequently applied to the 2D GIWAXS images. 4 The scattering vector q was defined with respect to the centre of the incident beam and has a magnitude of q = (4π/λ)sin(θ), where 2θ

is the scattering angle and λ is the wavelength of the x-ray beam (here λ=1.033 Å). We opted to present the wedge-shaped corrected images where qr and qz are the in-plane and near outof-plane scattering vectors, respectively. The scattering vectors are defined as follows: qx = (2π/λ)(cos(2θf)cos(αf)-cos(αi)), qy =(2π/λ)(sin(2θf)cos(αf)), qz = (2π/λ)(sin(αf)+sin(αi)), qr² = qx² + qy², and q² = qr² + qz², where αf is the exit angle in the vertical direction and 2θf is the inplane scattering angle, in agreement with standard GIWAXS notation. 6 In addition, the crystallites structural coherence length Lcoherence has been calculated by using a modified Scherrer's equation: Lcoherence=(2πK)/Δqhkl 7 where K is the Scherrer's constant (K≈0.93) 7 and Δqhkl is the FWHM of the peak, in our case we have considered the deconvoluted peak.

Scanning Probe Microscopies: AFM, PFM, KPFM and CFM Atomic force microscopy is a high-resolution scanning probe microscopy technique for nanoscale imaging, measuring and manipulating surface features. The AFM principle is based on the interaction between a tip, mounted on a flexible cantilever, and the superficial atoms of the sample. The tip, usually in silicon nitride, and the reflective cantilever constitute the probe. This mechanical probe scans the surface generating attractive or repulsive forces between a tip and the sample surface. Since the cantilever obeys Hooke's law for small displacements, the strength of the interaction between the tip and the sample can be derived.

The movement of the tip or of the sample is performed through an extremely precise position device obtained from piezoelectric ceramic materials that act as guides of the movement itself. A laser beam is focused on the reflective cantilever (Figure 8.6). While the tip scans the sample surface it deflects following the surface features and the laser beam focused on the cantilever is recoiled. Different interactions between the tip and the sample surface generate a difference in the intensity of the reflected light. A photodetector records such difference and the signal is sent off to the controller feedback loop which keeps the cantilever deflection constant by maintaining a constant distance between the cantilever and the sample. This is done by applying a voltage to the piezoelectric scanner which moves in the Z direction at each point. Depending on the type sample-tip interaction, there are three operation modes: contact mode, non-contact mode and tapping mode. In contact mode, the tip constantly touches the sample surface and scans across the surface. The contact mode microscopy gives an accurate image with high resolution, but both the sample and the tip may be damaged due to the direct contact. Such damage can be avoided by using non-contact mode; however, the resolution is decreased. Hence, the tapping mode, a combination of contact and non-contact mode, appears to be a good solution. In tapping mode, the tip is alternatively placed in contact with the surface to provide a high resolution and lifted above the surface to avoid dragging the tip across the surface. The cantilever oscillates close to its resonant frequency with an amplitude between 20 and 100 nm.

Dielectric spectroscopy

The dielectric characterisation has been realised with a Solartron (1296 dielectric interface, solartron analytical) and Impedance Analyzer (Solartron Analytical, SI 1260). These tools are interfaced with a computer whose command can be send by the software called "Smart". For the temperature experiment, a Linkam LTS 350 temperature controlled element has been used.

The dielectric permittivity describes the response of a medium to an applied electric field in function of the frequency of the electric field. Indeed the dielectric permittivity is a dynamic complex parameter, 𝜀 𝑟 * (𝜔) defined as: and of course for the good science we did together! During the infinite time spent together in her office I have learnt a lot from her: she has guided me from the preparation of devices and the way of studying them, to the scientific approach to GIWAXS technique and even if not with few difficulties, the way to write a paper! These are only few things I am mentioning now, since a lot of job has been done but the thesis has been already given! Nevertheless, it is also thanks to Eleni that I have strengthened self-consciousness about my skills.

𝜀
There is a lot of people I would like to thank, who has accompanied me through all these three years. First I have to thank Dr. Jon Maiz who as Postdoc has guided me during my first year and has introduced me to the amazing world of the ferroelectric measurements with the TF analyser! I would like to thank Mickael and Gilles for all their help in device fabrication and characterisation. I would like to thank Aude and Melanie for every single suggestion and comment they had for me, to help me solving my troubles as foreign or non-French speaker.

I would like to thank Giuseppe Portale who, with his Sicilian enthusiasm, has taught me some X-rays-measurements tips, thanks for all the skype (and non-) calls about science we had together and for the ones that will come! I would like to thank Daniele, Aleksei and Michela from the beam line Dubble B26 in ESRF, Grenoble. I am going to miss a lot the beam time over there…it has been magic, being "caged" between those walls, apart from the beam cut! I am grateful to the jury members Aurora Ruiz Nogales, Mark Geoghegan, Philippe Poulin, Bruno Ameduri and Giuseppe Portale for reading my manuscript and for the fruitful and interesting discussion we had during the Thesis defence. In particular, would like to thank Aurora and Mark for accepting the revision of my manuscript and Bruno for giving me his notes.

Of course I thank Amadeus for funding and the ELORPrintTec facility.

Moving to more personal thanks, I'd like to thank two friends of mine Ariana and Alberto with whom I started this adventure, we shared a lot of moments that we will never forget. You were always there for me and I thank you for all the nice times together and the support and complains we shared. I want to thank every B8ers…I believe I was really lucky to meet all of you people; we are an amazing crazy bunch of friends! A special thanks for having supported me and my improvised songs to my office mates: you're the best! I have to thank one of the most amazing women of the world: my sister Valentina. She is not just a scientist, not just a beautiful and of character woman, she is not just the most generous sister I could always dreamed of, but for me she is an idol. I have to say that for me the idea to leave my hometown and "face" foreign people and languages had scared the hell out of me (just to cite the Muse) but thanks to her example I overcame this fear. She is of inspiration and I thank her for being as she is and also for being always there for me whatever the call is about!

 1 

 1 AF1: integrated area of the fit peak of the F1 phase  AF1-2: integrated area of the fit peak of the F1-2 phase  AF2: integrated area of the fit peak of the F2 phase  AFM: Atomic Force Microscopy  ATOT: integrated area of the scattering peak centred at 1,4 Å -1  BHJ: bulk heterojunction  C: capacitance  CFM: Conductive Force Microscopy  CL: CooLed phase  D: Displacement  d: thickness  DC: direct current  DFE: Defective Ferroelectric Phase  DSC: Differential Scanning Calorimetry  d-spacing: inter-planar spacing  E: Electric Field  e -: electron  Ea: activation energy  Ec: coercive electric field  F1: most ordered ferroelectric phase  F1-2: intermediately disordered ferroelectric phase  F2: disordered ferroelectric phase  FE: ferroelectric phase  FeFET: Ferroelectric Field Effect Transistor  fm: maximum frequency  FRAM: Ferroelectric Random Access Memory  FWHM: Full Width at Half Maximum  G: Gauche  GIWAXS: Grazing Incident Wide Angle X-ray Scattering  h + : hole  HOMO: highest occupied molecular orbital  HT: High Temperature phase  I: intensity  IoT: Internet of Things  J: current density  KB: Boltzmann constant 8.6 10-5 eV K-1  KPFM: Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy  Lcoherence: structural coherence size  Liryc: l'insitut de rythmologie et modélisasion cardiaque  LT: Low Temperature phase  LUMO: lowest unoccupied molecular orbital  OPV: Organic Photovoltaic  P(VDF-co-TrFE): poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-trifluoroethylene) copolymer  P: Polarisation  P3HT: Poly(3-hexylthiophene)  PCBM: [6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester  PCE: Power Conversion Efficiency  PDMS: poly(dimethylsiloxane)  PE: paraelectric phase  PEDOT: poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)  PET: poly(ethylene terephthalate)  PFM Piezoresponse Force Microscopy  Pr: Remnant Polarisation  Psat: Saturated Polarisation  PSTFSI: poly(4-styrene trifluoromethyl (bissulfonylimide)  PVDF: Poly(vinylidene fluoride)  q: scattering vector  Q: stored charges  R: gas constant, 1.987 10 -3 kcal mol -1 K -rpm: revolutions per minute  SAXS: Small Angle X-ray Scattering  SC: semiconducting phase  SPM: Scanning Probe Microscopy  t: Film thickness  T: Temperature  T0: crystallisation onset  Tc: crystallisation temperature  TCurie: Curie transition temperature  Tg: Glass transition temperature  THF: Tetrahydrofuran  Tm: Melting temperature  TrFE: trifluoroethylene  TTT: trans sequence  V: voltage  VCPD: contact potential difference  VCPD: Contact potential difference  VDF: vinylidene fluoride  WAXD: Wide Angle X-Ray Diffusion  WAXS: Wide Angle X-ray Scattering  α: alpha phase  β: beta phase  γ: gamma phase  ΔH iso: enthalpy of the isothermal crystallisation  ΔH post-iso: enthalpy of the post-isothermal crystallisation  ΔH pre-iso: enthalpy of the pre-isothermal crystallisation  ε: dielectric permittivity  ε0: vacuum permittivity  εr: relative permittivity  εr': real dielectric permittivity  εr": immaginary dielectric permittivity  µ

Figure 1 . 2

 12 Figure 1.2 The main organic applications of ferroelectric polymers.

Figure 1 . 3

 13 Figure 1.3 (a) Schematic representation of a capacitor device where a dielectric material of area A and thickness d is placed between two parallel metallic plates; (b) the typical linear dependence of the polarisation of a dielectric material versus the electric field applied.

Figure 1 . 4

 14 Figure 1.4 (a) A representative ferroelectric hysteresis loop, which arises from the electrical switching; polarisation P is measured as function of the applied electric field E. (b) Simple schema of a capacitor in which the active layer is a ferroelectric crystalline material: the crystallites are depicted as polygons with a defined orientation of the ferroelectric domain. (c) Steps to induce a polarised state: ①, all dipoles are randomly oriented, ⑤ all dipoles are aligned.

Figure 1 . 5

 15 Figure 1.5 Chemical structures of the monomer VDF and of the polymer PVDF.

Figure 1 . 6

 16 Figure 1.6 Unit (a), molecular (b), crystalline (c) and bulk structure (d) of PVDF.

Figure 1 . 7

 17 Figure 1.7 Chain conformations of the β-(a), α-(b) and γ-PVDF phases (c).

  )n-stat-(CHF-CF2)m. The monomers and the copolymer's chemical structures are shown in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1 . 8

 18 Figure 1.8 Chemical structures of the monomers VDF and TrFE and of the copolymer P(VDF-co-TrFE).

Figure 1 . 9

 19 Figure 1.9 The Low temperature phase, LT, the Cooled phase, CL, and the High temperature phase, HT, described by Tashiro et al. for P(VDF-co-TrFE) copolymers with a VDF content lower than 55 mol%. The c-axis represents the chain axis, the a-axis and b-axis being perpendicular to the c-axis. 15

Figure 1 . 10

 110 Figure 1.10 Phase diagram of P(VDF-co-TrFE) annealed at temperatures below the crystallization onset, T0, on the left (a) and annealed at temperatures above the T0 on the right (b). Reproduced from reference 31 .

  (i.e. α-, β-, γ-phases), while others keep the Tashiro definitions of LT, HT and CL or introduce new ones, such as DFE, based on the different origins found for those phases. Despite the huge amount of studies, there is still confusion regarding the polymorphism of P(VDF-co-TrFE).

Figure 1 . 11

 111 Figure 1.11 Schematic representation of a ferroelectric semi-crystalline material: the crystallites are illustrated as quadrilaterals with a defined orientation of the ferroelectric domain; the curved features correspond to the amorphous regions.

  Tc and Tm were determined by DSC scans performed on P(VDF-co-TrFE) powder from room temperature to 200 °C at a heating/cooling rate of 10 °C min -1 (Figure 2.1a where the first cooling and the second heating ramps are shown). Already during this heating ramp the cold-crystallisation of the films is initiated, as proven by the DSC exothermic peak in Figure 2.1b which shows a zoom of the first DSC cycle of a drop-casted self-standing P(VDF-co-TrFE) film. The heating ramp applied mimics the preparation conditions used for the films under study.

Figure 2 . 1

 21 Figure 2.1 (a) DSC curve of P(VDF-co-TrFE) 75/25 powder. A first heating ramp was used to erase thermal history, herein we present the first cooling and the second heating ramps, in consistence with common practice. (b) DSC curves of P(VDF-co-TrFE) self-standing film. A zoom of the first heating ramp that mimics the thermal treatment of the sample S-130 is displayed. The exothermic peak after the Curie transition suggests that no previous treatment has been performed.

Figure 2 .

 2 2a presents the polarisation vs electric field (P vs E) hysteresis loops recorded by applying an external oscillating electric field of amplitude 150 MV m -1 under a frequency of 0.1 Hz for the P(VDF-co-TrFE) films isothermally annealed at various crystallisation temperatures during a fixed time of 15 min. Hereinafter these samples will be called T-130, T-133, T-135, T-137, T-140, where the number denoted the isothermal crystallization temperature. The response of the not annealed (pristine) film with respect to the annealed ones clearly shows the drastic overall effect of thermal treatment: an enhanced ferroelectric response is achieved after annealing. The remnant polarisation, Pr, almost doubles (from 38 mC m -2 for the not annealed to 70 mC m -2 for T-130) while the coercive field, Ec, reduces to half (from 96 MV m -1 for the not annealed to 56 MV m -1 for T-130). Concerning the annealed devices, samples T-130 and T-140 exhibit lower Pr compared to samples T-133, T-135 and T-137 that were annealed at temperatures close to the crystallisation onset (Figure 2.2a

Figure 2 . 2

 22 Figure 2.2 (a) Polarisation vs electric filed hysteresis loops for the pristine sample and for those annealed at 130 °C, 133 °C, 135 °C, 137 °C and 140 °C for 15 min, and (b) the corresponding current vs electric field data. The height of the symbols on the polarisation curves corresponds to the error bar associated with the remnant polarisation.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure2.3a presents the hysteresis loops obtained for the samples isothermally crystallised at 135 °C during various annealing times. Hereinafter these samples will be called t-5, t-15, t-

Figure 2 . 3

 23 Figure 2.3 (a) Polarisation vs electric filed hysteresis loops for the pristine sample and for those annealed at 135 °C for 5 min, 15 min, 30 min, 60 min and 120 min. (b) the corresponding current vs electric field data. The height of the symbols on the polarisation curves corresponds to the error bar associated with the remnant polarisation.

Figure 2 . 4

 24 Figure 2.4 (a) Effect of annealing temperature on Pr and, (b) effect of annealing time on Ec.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.5 a) The 1D GIWAXS pattern obtained for the films annealed at 135 °C for 15 min and the corresponding 2D wedge-corrected GIWAXS image (inset). b) A zoom at the (110),(200) peak, along with the fitted curves that were used to deconvolute this peak.

Figure 2 . 6

 26 Figure 2.6 Wedge-corrected GIWAXS images of the samples annealed for 15 min at different temperatures.

Figure 2 . 7

 27 Figure 2.7 Wedge-corrected GIWAXS images of the samples annealed at 135 °C for different times.

Figure 2 . 8

 28 Figure 2.8 The experimental (110),(200) peak of the differently thermally treated P(VDF-co-TrFE) films and the corresponding deconvoluted peaks. The F1, F2 and F1-2 phases have been described by pseudo-Voigt functions while the amorphous halo by an asymmetric function.

Figure 2 . 9

 29 Figure 2.9 Degree of ferroelectric crystallinity as a function of: (a) annealing time for a fixed annealing temperature 135 °C and (b) annealing temperature for a fixed annealing time 15 min. The lines that connect the data points serve as guides to the eye. The shady parts correspond to the annealing conditions that result in the optimum ferroelectric performance.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.9a and Figure 2.9b show the evolution of the degree of crystallinity in these ferroelectric P(VDF-co-TrFE) films versus annealing time and annealing temperature

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2.10 DSC heat flow curves recorded for free standing P(VDF-co-TrFE) films upon the second heating cycle. The curves are presented shifted along the y-axis for clarity.

  the structural changes of isotropic films by means of simultaneous SAXS/WAXS and DSC experiments during heating and cooling.14 They concluded that an orthorhombic defective ferroelectric phase, that they call DFE, is formed upon cooling of a hexagonal paraelectric phase that contains defective segments. They reported that gauche defects are irreversibly incorporated within the paraelectric crystallites during the first heating above the Curie transition. These defects have been called by the authors "chemical gauche conformational defects", meaning that they are gauche conformations that have been generated by the presence of chemical defects, as HH, TT or by different distributions of TrFE groups along the chains. Yet, such defects should appear during polymerisation and therefore, annealing should not be required in order to induce them. Nevertheless,Bargain et al. reported the appearance of the DFE just after annealing above the TCurie.14 It arises that, despite the huge amount of studies on P(VDF-co-TrFE) crystalline structure, even the origin of defective phases seems still to be not very clear. As already said, a convergent theory on the polymorphism of P(VDF-co-TrFE) is still lacking. Herein stems the aim of this work: understand the structural behaviour of P(VDF-co-TrFE) and unravel the phase transitions that take place during thermal heating or cooling, in particular across the Curie transition. For this, a DSC study complemented with time resolved WAXS experiments have been conducted and will be presented in this Chapter, following the crystallisation of P(VDFco-TrFE) from the melt.Melt crystallisation is chosen because it allows us to study crystallisation in a controlled way, starting from the same molten state where no crystallites pre-exist. We will study the effect of different crystallisation temperatures, Tc, on the formed paraelectric phases and see the dependence of the FE polymorphs on the mother PE phase. In particular, we would like to unveil the origins of the defective phases and their role on ferroelectric functionality. Some studies on the melt crystallisation of P(VDF-co-TrFE) have already appeared in literature. The main advantage of the work presented herein with respect to published work is that we follow the crystallization and the Curie transitions with two complementary techniques in real-time, with an unprecedented time resolution coupled with high quality scattering data provided by synchrotron radiation. The main outcomes of the previous works are listed below.

Figure 3 . 1 ,

 31 while in Figure 3.2 the corresponding DSC cycles are shown. For sake of clarity, just one Tc is presented as an example, (the one recorded for a Tc of 129 °C, which corresponds to sample S-m129). Red line corresponds to ramp ①, green line to ramp ②, blue line to ramp ③ and the grey line to ramp ④.The crystallisation temperatures, Tc, herein investigated are 129 °C, 131 °C, 133 °C, 135 °C, 137 °C, 140 °C. Therefore, the samples will be hereinafter called S-m129, S-m131, S-m133, S-m135, S-m137, S-m140 respectively. The letter "m" before the Tc indicates that the samples underwent melt crystallisation, differently from Chapter 2 where cold-crystallisation was studied.

Figure 3 . 1

 31 Figure 3.1 The four thermal ramps performed by DSC in the case of a Tc of 129 °C. (1) Red line: 1 st heating from RT to 165 °C with a rate of 5 °C min -1 , followed by an isothermal step at 165 °C for 5 minutes. (2) Green line: 1 st cooling ramp from 165 °C to 129 °C (Tc) with a cooling rate of 40 °C min -1 , followed by an isothermal step at 129 °C of 1 hour; then from 129 °C to RT the cooling steps continues with a rate of 2 °C min -1 . (3) Blue line: 2 nd heating from RT to 180°C with a rate of 10 °C min -1 . (4) Grey line: 2 nd cooling from 180 °C to RT with a rate of 10 °C min -1 .

Figure 3 . 2

 32 Figure 3.2 The DSC curves recorded for the sample crystallised at Tc = 129 °C.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.3 displays the Curie transition upon the first heating, TCurie, 1 st h (red line). The Curie FE-to-PE transition does not occur at a distinct temperature but takes place over a broad temperatures range between 45 °C and 100 °C.

Figure 3 . 3

 33 Figure 3.3 Zoom at the Curie transition peak of the first heating DSC ramp: different FE-to-PE transition shoulders indicate that different FE phases are participating to the transition. The dash line is the DSC baseline and serves to indicate the cold crystallisation exothermic peak at ≈ 105 °C.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.4 shows the first heating DSC ramps ① for all the Tc studied herein. No significant differences arise: the Curie transition and the melting endotherms are almost identical in shape and temperature range at which they occur. All the samples exhibit the same behaviour during the first heating ramp since they all undergo the same thermal treatment, starting from the same initial state.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.4 1 st heating cycles recorded for the different Tcs under study. From 60°C to 100°C the Curie transition is encountered followed by the melting at around 150°C.

  For S-m137 (blue line) crystallisation starts 2.5 minutes after the Tc is reached and lasts for almost ≈10 minutes. An even more evident time shift and broadening occur for S-m140 peak (pink line, shown cut by a break in the time axis between 21 and 38 minutes, just for better visualising the lower Tc isothermal crystallisation peaks).

Figure 3 . 5

 35 Figure 3.5 Heat flow (W g -1 ) vs time (min) curves recorded during isothermal crystallisation for the various Tc studied.

Figure 3 . 6

 36 Figure 3.6 (a) The recorded heat flow along with the corresponding DSC temperature variations as a function of time for the sample S-m129. It clearly shows that the crystallisation has already started before the Tc is reached. The peak centred at 34 min corresponds to the non-isothermal crystallisation occurring before the isothermal one. (b) Heat flow vs T curves that show the pre-isothermal crystallisation for the various Tc.

Figure 3 . 7

 37 Figure 3.7 Heat flow (W g -1 ) vs temperature (°C) after the isothermal step for the S-m140. The dashed curve corresponds to the DSC baseline used to calculate the area of this post-isothermal crystallisation peak. An exponential fit has been performed to derive the baseline.

  Figure 3.5, and the post-isothermal crystallization enthalpy, ΔH post-iso, (cyan spheres) calculated by integrating the exothermic peaks shown in Figure 3.7, are plotted as a function of Tc.

Figure 3 . 8

 38 Figure 3.8 (a) ΔH pre-iso (blue spheres and line), ΔHiso (grey spheres and line), and ΔHpost-iso (cyan spheres and line), vs Tc; (b); ΔHcryst given by the sum of the three ΔH, as function of Tc.

  increases with Tc, in consistence with what is expected for the melt crystallisation of common polymers. Time-resolved WAXS experiments have been performed for the melt-crystallised samples following the thermal protocols applied for the DSC experiments. These experiments have been conducted at DUBBLE at the ESRF by Dr. G. Portale from the University of Groningen, NL.

Figure 3 . 9 I

 39 Figure 3.9 I vs q patterns for samples S-m129 (grey line), S-m133 (orange line) and S-m140 (pink line) (a) at the onset of the isothermal crystallisation (at which just the pre-isothermal crystallisation has occurred), (b) at the end of the isothermal crystallisation and (c) at 30 °C below the Tc at which all three crystallisations (pre-isothermal, isothermal and post-isothermal) have already finished.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.9a shows the scattering patterns for the three samples at the onset of the isothermal crystallisation. As expected, for S-m133 and S-140 it is not recorded any crystalline

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.10 I vs q detected at different T, under cooling from 99 °C (black thick line) until 70 °C (red thick line) for S-m129.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.11 The Curie transition under cooling TCurie,1st c detected for all the different Tc after background subtraction.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.12 I vs q scattering patterns for (a) S-m129, (b) S-m133 and (c) S-m140, recorded during cooling for the temperature range 70 °C -29 °C. The evolution of the PE-to-FE transition is demonstrated.

  keeping its position at 1,42 Å -1 . The intensity of the PE peak (pink scattering open circle and dashed lines) is almost constant between 100 °C and 70 °C, but starts to significantly decrease below 60 °C, reaching a minimum at 40 °C and then disappearing. This decrease of intensity occurs simultaneously with the appearance at around 60 °C of the F1 phase whose peak intensity increases continuously during cooling from 60 °C to 29 °C (pink scattering open squares and dashed lines).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.13 I and q position variations of the PE and F1 ferroelectric peaks of S-m140 During the Curie transition upon cooling.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.14 (a) Heat flow vs T variations at the Curie transitions recorded by means of DSC for S-m129 (grey lines), S-m133 (orange lines) and S-m140 (pink lines), and the I vs q patterns recorded at (b) 60 °C (c) 57 °C and (d) 54 °C.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.15 2 nd heating ramps recorded by DSC for all samples that have been isothermally crystallised from the melt at different Tc. The Curie transition is encountered between 75 °C and 105 °C while the melting peak is around 155 °C.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.16 Zoom at 35 °C-125 °C of the 1 st heating and 2 nd heating DSC ramp that shows the Curie transition peak shape. The dashed baseline clearly shows the cold crystallisation exothermic peak at ~105 °C just for the 1 st heating cycle.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.17 The gravitational centre (black hexagons) and onset (grey hexagons) of the melting peak, as well as the melting peak area (red open triangles), as a function of Tc.

  Having completed the structural characterisation of the isothermally melt-crystallised P(VDF-co-TrFE) we proceed now with the ferroelectric characterisation. The effect of meltcrystallisation and of the Tc used on the ferroelectric properties has been studied by fabricating capacitor devices applying the same thermal protocols used for the structural characterisations.Polarisation hysteresis loops have been recorded at room temperature (Figure3.18a) applying a continuous sinusoidal voltage at 10 Hz frequency until the electric field of 150 MV m -1 to ensure that saturation of the polarisation is reached. From a qualitative evaluation of the ferroelectric loops in Figure3.18a we can distinguish two groups of samples: S-m129, S-131, S-m133 and S-m135 exhibit hysteresis loops that tend to overlap. In particular, for these first 4 samples almost the same value of remnant polarisation, Pr, is found at around 70 mC m -2 and the same coercive field, Ec, at around 67 MV m -1 . For the second group of samples, S-m137 and S-m140, a lower Pr of around 59 mC m -2 and a higher Ec (71 MV m -1 for S-m135 and 75 MV m -1 for S-m140) are recorded. In Figure3.18b the respective I vs E current switching peaks are shown: a similar behaviour for the first four samples in terms of similar shape, position and FWHM of the peaks is found. While for S-m137 and S-m140 an enlargement of the width, simultaneously with a decrease of the intensity, and a shift of the switching peaks at higher electric fields are recorded.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.18 (a) Ferroelectric hysteresis loops where the polarisation P is measured as a function of the electric field E and (b) the corresponding I vs E switching current peaks for the samples annealed at a Tc of 129 °C, 131 °C, 133 °C, 135 °C, 137 °C and 140 °C.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.19 (a) Pr ad Ec, (b) FWHM of the switching current peaks as a function of the different Tc.

4

  The effect of crystallites orientation on the ferroelectric performance of P(VDF-co-TrFE)4.1 IntroductionAfter having studied the effect of the cold-and melt-isothermal crystallisation on structural and ferroelectric properties of P(VDF-co-TrFE), in this Chapter 4 we investigate the effect of crystallites orientation. From Chapter 2 we have comprehended that the orientation of the crystallites plays a crucial role in the final device performance. Despite the high degree of crystallinity of sample S-140, we recorded a decreased ferroelectric performance for this sample, due to an altered crystallites orientation with respect to the substrate, compared to the samples annealed at lower crystallisation temperatures or the pristine one. 1 P(VDF-co-TrFE) is known to commonly crystallise into needle-like shaped crystallites which are composed by stacks of lamellae as represented in Figure4.1a, reported from reference 2 .

Figure 4 . 1 A

 41 Figure 4.1 A schematic representation of the microstructure for (a) an edge-on orientation, where the polar b-axis is perpendicular to the substrate and (b) for a face-on orientation, where the polar b-axis is parallel to the substrate. Reproduced from 2 .

Figure 4 . 2

 42 Figure 4.2 Schematic illustration of the (PVDF-co-TrFE) molecular orientation (left side) after an annealing at 135 °C and (right side) at 150 °C. From the top to the bottom are represented (a) the backbone orientation, (b) the b-axis orientation and (c) lattice orientation (a unit lattice cell is used for clarity), where the blue arrows represent the dipoles orientation. Reproduced from reference 5 .

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.1a or 4.2c left side, in the case of an "edge-on" orientation, the polar b-axis is already aligned towards the direction of the electric field applied, if we consider the capacitor geometry, where bottom and top electrodes are parallel to the plane of the P(VDF-co-TrFE) film. While when a "face-on" orientation is induced, an inversion of ≈ 90 ° of the chains occurs (Figure 4.1b and Figure 4.2c right side): polymer crystals have now the c-axis and b-axis

Figure 4 . 3

 43 Figure 4.3 Schematic representation of the variation of I vs χ and the corresponding crystalline lamellae orientations with respect to the substrate plane.Reproduced from reference 10 .

Figure 4 . 4 .

 44 Allthe four patterns display the arced strong reflection at q≈1.4 Å -1 which corresponds to both (110) and (200) reflections of P(VDF-co-TrFE) crystalline unit cell. The P(VDF-co-TrFE)

Figure 4 . 4

 44 Figure 4.4 2D wedge-corrected GIWAXS images (on the left side) and the corresponding microstructure schematic representation (on the right side) for (a) S-135, (b) S-165-N2-135, (c) S-165 and (d) S-165-135.

Figure 4 .Figure 4 . 5 I

 445 Figure 4.5 I vs χ at the maximum intensity q position of the (a) S-135, (b) S-165-N2-135, (c) S165 and (d) S-165-135.

Figure 4 . 6 I

 46 Figure 4.6 I(χ)×sin(χ) vs χ plots at the maximum intensity q position of the S-135(violet line), S-165-N2-135 (green line) S165 (orange) and S-165-135 (cyan line).

Figure 4 . 7

 47 Figure 4.7 The volume fraction of edge on (blue) and of the face-on (pink) oriented crystallites for these four samples.

Figure 4 . 8

 48 Figure 4.8 1D GIWAXS pattern obtained for S-135 (violet line), S-165-N2-135 (green line), S-165 (orange line) and S-165-135 (cyan line).

Figure 4 . 9

 49 Figure 4.9 Example of fitting obtained from a statistical deconvolution study of (a) S-135, (b) S-165-N2-135, (c) S-165 and (d) S-165-135. The crystalline fitted peaks are assigned to the F1 phase (blue line), the F1-2 phase (dark cyan line) and F2 phase (red line); the amorphous contribution is the fit described by the grey dotted line.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.10 (a) Volume fractions for the three ferroelectric phases F1 (blue line), F1-2 (dark cyan line) and F2 (red line) and (b) total ferroelectric crystallinity degree (black line) for the four samples.

Figure 4 .

 4 11a shows the polarisation vs electric field (P vs E) hysteresis loops recorded by applying an external oscillating electric field of amplitude 150 MV m -1 under a frequency of 0.1 Hz at room temperature for the four samples S-135 (violet line), S-165-N2-135 (green line), S-165 (orange line) and S-165-135 (cyan line). In Figure 4.11b the respective switching current peaks are shown as a function of the electric field. Depending on thermal processing conditions, the ferroelectric properties of P(VDF-co-TrFE) films change significantly.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.11 (a) Polarisation hysteresis loops and (b) switching current peaks measured at RT for the S-135 (violet line), S-165-N2-135 (green line), S-165 (orange line) and S-165-135 (cyan line).

  characterised by means of dielectric spectroscopy, that allows to obtain information about the dipoles relaxation. An AC voltage of 0.1 V is applied sweeping the frequency from 0.1 Hz to 1 MHz and the dielectric permittivity, real, ε', and imaginary, ε", as well as the tanδ (i.e. the 𝜀 ′′ 𝜀 ′ ⁄ ) are recorded. In Figure 4.12 the ε' (a) and the ε" (b) as function of frequency have been measured at RT for the four devices S-135 (violet data), S-165-N2-135 (green data), S-165 (orange data) and S-165-135 (cyan data).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.12 (a) ε' and (b) ε" of S-135 (violet data), S-165-N2-135 (green data), S-165 (orange data), S-165-135 (cyan data) measured as functions of frequency at RT.

  frequencies investigated. The tanδ vs f measured at different temperatures is shown for the device S-135 in Figure 4.13a, for the S-165-N2-135 in Figure 4.13b, for the S-165 in Figure 4.13c and for the device S-165-135 in Figure 4.13d. At 80 °C a peak starts to appear for all the foursamples. This relaxation occurring at temperature close to the Curie transition is associated to the α or ac relaxation ascribed to the crystalline motion of the FE-to-PE transition18 . The same authors18,20 have found that this peak it as to be ascribed to both amorphous and crystalline relaxations since the β and α relaxation are inseparable in a frequency domain because both relaxation times τ are identical or very close.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.13 tanδ vs f measured at different temperatures for the (a) S-135, (b) S-165-N2-135, (c) S-165 and (d) for the S-165-135 devices.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.14 (a) lnτ vs 1000/T where the shaded curves correspond to the range at which the linear fitting has been carried out. (b) Ea plotted for the different samples.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.15 (a) fm vs experiment temperature and (b) tanδ vs f at a fixed experiment temperature for all the different samples.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.16 Schematic of double well potential diagram for an ordered or a disordered system.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.17 (a) Pr and hysteresis loop slope and (b) Ec and FWHM of the switching current peaks as function of the edge-on crystalline amount.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.18 (a) Ea as function of the edge-on crystalline amount and (b) hysteresis loop slope as function of Ea.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.19 Ec dependence to the coherence length size of the ordered ferroelectric phase F1.

  et modélisasion cardiaque" that emphasises the specialisation of this institute in cardiac diseases. The aim of the project is indeed the development of flexible piezoresponsive P(VDFco-TrFE) matrix sensor for laparoscopic simulation. The goal is to obtain a piezoelectric matrix that allows mapping different regions of a 3D plastic heart (Figure5.1a) which, having similar mechanical characteristic of a human heart, is used in training sessions by students to simulate surgery investigation by means of a catheter technique. In medical surgery, ventricular arrhythmia can be revealed if an abnormal (very low current) output electrical signal is recorded as consequence to the pressure applied by a catheter.

Figure 5 . 1

 51 Figure 5.1 on the left side the 3D-printed plastic heart at the inside of which the sensor should be deposited. On the right schematic of the grid of bottom (horizontal blue lines) and top (vertical blue lines) electrodes at the surfaces of a piezoelectric layer made of P(VDF-co-TrFE) pink backgrounds.

First

  system: organic device on Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)Polyethylene terephthalate was used as substrate on top of which by means of spraycoating deposition technique squared patterned PEDOT, bottom electrodes have been deposited through a shadow mask. A layer of P(VDF-co-TrFE) was then spray-coated, by shielding with a mask the bottom electrodes terminals that need to be available for contacting. The top PEDOT patterned electrodes were spray-coated, as said before for the bottom electrodes, but the shadow mask has been rotated of 90 ° in order to avoid overlap between the electrodes arms. The schematic of the fabricated device is shown below in Figure5.2.

Figure 5 . 2 A

 52 Figure 5.2 A schematic of the device where the blue patterns called 1 st ink layer and 2 nd ink layer represent the bottom and the top electrodes respectively. The embedded active layer is the piezoelectric P(VDF-co-TrFE) and the substrate is PET.

Figure 5 . 3

 53 Figure 5.3 (a) Schematic of the PFM image on the right. Pink colour indicates absence of induced polarisation, yellow colour represents a square that have been polarised with a positive voltage and the blue colour a smaller rhombus polarised with a positive voltage. (b) VPFM image of an area of 25 µm 2 . The yellow square has shown a negative vertical displacement and the blue rhomb a displacement into the opposite direction. The two different colour demonstrate that the larger square exhibits negative displacement (shrinking) while the inner rhomb a positive vertical displacement (elongation).

  PET) we now move to a more flexible substrate, the poly-dimethylsiloxane, PDMS. We now deposit the patterned PEDOT electrodes by means of doctor-blading technique below a shadow mask. The P(VDF-co-TrFE) is deposited by means of doctor-blade technique too. With this deposition technique, we are able to control the processing parameters, and then better smoothness is achieved. In Figure5.4a a picture and, Figure5.4b, a schematic of the fabricated device is displayed.

Figure 5 . 4

 54 Figure 5.4 (a) Picture and (b) a schematic of the PEDOT/P(VDF-co-TrFE)/PEDOT/PDMS device. In (a) the first two lines on the left delimit devices with an area of 1 mm 2 while the third line on the right delimits devices with an active area of 2 mm 2 .

  TrFE) was deposited by doctor blade obtaining thick films of ~ 15µm that have been isothermally annealed at 135 °C during 30 min. Polarisation vs electric field curves have been recorded at 100 Hz and are shown for different increasing applied voltages in Figure 5.5. Due to their shape the curves below cannot be considered ferroelectric hysteresis loops.

Figure 5 . 5

 55 Figure 5.5 Polarisation vs electric field curves recorded increasing voltages for the PEDOT/P(VDF-co-TrFE)/PEDOT/PDMS device.

Figure 5 . 6

 56 Figure 5.6 (a) Picture and (b) Schematic of the fabricated free standing PEDOT/P(VDF-co-TrFE)/PEDOT device. In (a) the active area of the devices is of 1 mm 2 .

Figure 5 . 7

 57 Figure 5.7 (a) Polarisation vs electric field hysteresis loops recorded for a free standing PEDOT/P(VDFco-TrFE)/PEDOT device at different increasing voltages. (b) The hysteresis loop recorded at 880 V (black line) is overlapped with the mechanical displacement vs electric field butterfly loop (red line).

  parameters have been varied, such as different concentrations of P(VDF-co-TrFE) in cyclopentanone, different doctor blade "air gap", different electrodes and different metals. What herein is not shown is also a huge work that has been done by Alizée in the realisation of shadow masks with differently sized patterns, which has allowed investigating different areas. In Figure 5.10 as examples, we report two free standing devices obtained with Au (on the left side) and Ag (on the right side) where Au has smaller active area of 2 mm x 2 mm than Ag, which has of device areas of 4 mm x 4 mm.

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5.10 (a) Picture of the free standing Au/P(VDF-co-TrFE)/Au device and (b) of the free standing Ag/P(VDF-co-TrFE)/Ag device. In (a) the active area of the devices is of 4 mm2, in (b) is of 16 mm 2 .

Figure 5 . 11

 511 Figure 5.11 The optimised processing parameters for the hybrid device.

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5.12 (a) P vs E hysteresis loops at increasing voltages recorded for a Ag/P(VDF-co-TrFE)/Ag device and (b) the piezoelectric displacement recorded after saturated polarisation is reached. A perfect butterfly is shown.

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5.13 (a) Picture of the measurement (top) and (b) output voltage V vs time (seconds) recorded for free standing films having two different thicknesses and two different active areas (bottom).

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5.14 (a) Device where the free standing P(VDF-co-TrFE) is encapsulated between two PDMS layers on top of which Ag electrodes were thermally evaporated; (b) (middle side) and finally the setup used by the team of the Liryc centre. The device area is of 16 mm 2 .

Figure 6 . 1

 61 Figure 6.1 (a) Schematic of the orbitals involved between two neighbour C atoms: two sp 2 hybrid orbitals can merge to give σ molecular orbitals while two pure p orbitals can merge to form π molecular orbitals. (b) energy splitting between bonding and antibonding orbitals: sp 2 orbitals highly overlap in comparison with the p orbitals, causing a smaller splitting between bonding π and anti-bonding π* orbitals. Thus the π-orbital forms the HOMO and a π*-orbital the LUMO of the molecule.

Figure 6 . 2 .

 62 Figure 6.2. Chemical structures of (a) P3HT and of (b) P(VDF-co-TrFE). (c) Schematic layout of the FE (green squares)-SC (red squares) diode between two electrodes (blue bars).

Figure 6 . 3

 63 Figure 6.3 J-V characteristics of a P(VDF-co-TrFE):P3HT pristine film, and after positive and negative polarization in a diode configuration with (a) two Ag contacts, and with (b) an Ag bottom electrode and blocking LiF/Al top electrode. Reproduced from reference 4 . The device is in (c) the ON-state and in (d) the off-state of the devices. Black minus (-) and black plus (+) in the FE indicate its polarisation charges. White dashed arrows indicate the FE stray field, while the black full arrows indicate the path of the charges carriers. In the ON-state the polarisation is parallel to the built-in field, charges can cross easily the injection barriers that is lowered (black arrows are apparent). (d)In the OFF-state the polarisation reversal hinders the charges flow, the injection barrier has increased, blocking the current flow of the device (no black arrows are apparent).

Figure 6 . 4

 64 Figure 6.4 Different semiconducting domains (red features) embedded into a ferroelectric matrix (blue), reproduced from 12 .

6. 2

 2 Phase separated structure: a morphological characterisation In this session we first focus on the 3D-morphological characterisation of P(VDF-co-TrFE):rr-P3HT blends having different compositions. Three different FE:SC compositions, i.e. 95:5 wt/wt, 90:10 wt/wt and 80:20wt/wt, have been investigated by means of a combination of multiple force microscopy techniques, namely Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Piezoresponse Force Microscopy (PFM), Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy (KPFM) and Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy (C-AFM). Samples preparation P(VDF-co-TrFE) with a VDF/TrFE molar ratio of 75/25 and rr-P3HT (with a Mw of 60 kDa) were co-dissolved in tetrahydrofuran, THF, at a total concentration of 25 mg ml -1 . Three weight ratios of P(VDF-co-TrFE):rr-P3HT have been prepared, i.e. 95:5, 90:10 and 80:20 and spin-coated onto cleaned ITO substrates. Films with a thickness of ≈ 250 nm were obtained.The films have been annealed on a precision hot stage from RT to 135 °C and an isothermal step has been performed for 15 min in order to increase both polymers crystallinity and promote the phase separation. Then the films were let to cool down slowly until RT on the same hot stage. material is detected. In Figure6.6 the topography images (top row) and the corresponding surface potential maps (bottom row) are reported for the blends with a FE:SC weight ratio of 95:5 (Figure6.6a and Figure6.6b respectively), of 90:10 (Figure6.6c and Figure6.6d) and of 80:20 (Figure6.6e and Figure6.6f).The P3HT and the P(VDF-co-TrFE) can be unambiguously discriminated in VCPD images that show the phase separation of the two components. The yellow features represent regions with low Φ, namely semiconducting P3HT, while the pink regions correspond to high Φ, that is the insulating P(VDF-co-TrFE) matrix. From this KPFM study, we can estimate how the rr-P3HT domain sizes scale with the rr-P3HT content. As the content of P3HT increases, the diameter of the semiconducting features increases going from about 100 nm for the 95:5 ratio (Figure6.6b), to 200 nm for the 90:10 (Figure6.6d) until reaching, for the 80:20 system, a mean diameter of 300 nm (Figure6.6f). This result is in agreement with previous publications.20

Figure 6 . 6

 66 Figure 6.6 KPFM topography images (top row) and the corresponding surface potential map (bottom row) for the weight ratios of 95:5 ((a) and (b)), 90:10 ((c) and (d)), and 80:20 ((e) and (f)) P(VDF-co-TrFE):P3HT blend.

Figure 6 . 7

 67 Figure 6.7 P3HT fraction for the different FE:SC ratios evaluated from the KPFM VCPD images as a function of the respective P3HT % content in the blends.

  8) and high-resolution electric current flow maps (bottom row of Figure 6.8) are simultaneously measured in conductive AFM (Peak Force Tuna mode from Bruker).

Figure 6 . 8

 68 Figure 6.8 C-AFM topography images (top row) and the corresponding current flow maps (bottom row) of 25 µm 2 of P(VDF-co-TrFE):P3HT 95:5 blend ((a) and (b) respectively), of the 90:10 blend ((c) and (d) respectively) and of the 80:20 ((e) and (f) respectively). The green circles evidence the same morphological features in the topography and current flow images.

Figure 6 . 9

 69 Figure 6.9 (a) Schematics of ferroelectric-OPV where the active layer is inserted between the active layer and the electrodes and the photocurrent curves of p-n junction device without an FE layer (magenta line), with an FE layer before poling (black square line) and after poling (red squares). 29 (b )Energy level diagram of the semiconductor heterostructure without and with a dipole layer inserted at the D/A interface (violet panel) and the photocurrent curves for the as-made device (black balls), afterpoling the P(VDF-co-TrFE) layer with reverse (red triangles) and forward bias pulses (blue squares).34

(

  100 nm) as the bottom and top electrodes respectively, and b) PEDOT:PSS/ITO and Al/LiF as the bottom and top electrodes respectively where LiF is 5 nm thick and Al 80 nm thick.

  transparency that allows the radiation to reach the active layer. The Au represents an almost Ohmic contact with the semiconducting P3HT, since the gold work function, Φ (ΦAu ≈ 5.1 eV) is very close to the Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital, HOMO level of P3HT (ΦHOMO P3HT ≈5.2 eV), creating a very small injection barrier between Au and P3HT.36 In this case so, by using ITO and Au as bottom and top electrodes respectively, we do not fabricate any rectifying devices since the holes blocking contact is missing. This nearly ohmic contact is expected to give almost symmetric contacts, as reported for devices in which the same bottom and top electrode used.37 This kind of devices are called single-carrier diodes and are used to conduct only holes or electrons in both directions. The energy levels between rr-P3HT and the contacts of this first kind of fabricated device are depicted in Figure6.10a.

Figure 6 . 10

 610 Figure 6.10 Schematic of energy levels (on the left) and the device top view (on the right).

Figure 6 . 11 .

 611 Figure 6.11. Density of current in logarithmic scale as function of the voltage applied in dark and under light for the samples 95:5, 90:10 and 80:20.

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6.12 (a) J-V curves of the 90:10 pristine device, blue (dark current) and cyan (under light current) curves, compared with the J-V curves of a positively poled 90:10 in dark (dark green) and under light (clear green) and compared with the J-V curves of a negatively poled 90:10 in dark (dark pink) and under light (clear pink). (b) On the right the same graph with the y axis in log scale.

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6.13 Δ(Jlight-Jdark) as a function of the negative poling (-10 V in the x-axis), positive poling (+10 V in the x-axis), and absence of poling (0 V in the x-axis).

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6.14 (a) Schematic of the OPV device, J-V curves under dark and light of 90:10 blend films annealed at 135 °C for 15 min (black and red curves). (c) J-V graph with J in log scale, (d) zoom of the graph (b) with the Jsc, Voc and Jmax and Vmax.

Finally

  , two applications of P(VDF-co-TrFE) in organic electronics have been explored in thisThesis. The first one concerns the implementation of P(VDF-co-TrFE) in medical piezoelectric sensors for laparoscopic training. The second concerns the use of P(VDF-co-TrFE) copolymers in photovoltaic devices.In Chapter 5 we discussed the advancement achieved within the chair of the project named "sweet heart" conducted in collaboration with the research centre Liryc (L'Institut de Rythmologie et modélisation Cardiaque). The objective is to fabricate a flexible matrix of piezoelectric sensors that could be encapsulated in the inner part of a 3D-printed heart for laparoscopic training. After having tried several approaches we succeeded in fabricating highly flexible piezoelectric sensors by thermally evaporating metallic silver electrodes on top of thick PDMS substrates and encapsulating a P(VDF-co-TrFE) film between them. The characterisation of this system is in a perspective work and concerns the resolution of the issues linked to the electronic conversion of the out-put voltage signals and their amplification. The above will furnish a proper sensor for laparoscopic medical simulation.Finally, in Chapter 6 we investigate a second application where a more complex structure than that of a simple capacitor was studied: devices in which P(VDF-co-TrFE) is blended with the semiconducting (SC) polymer P3HT. P(VDF-co-TrFE):P3HT blends form a phase separated active layer. Morphology at the nanoscale of different weight ratios(95:5, 90:10, 80:20) was thoroughly characterised by means of several scanning probe microscopy techniques such as AFM, PFM, KPFM, CFM. By means of PFM was confirmed that a phase separation occurs without affecting the properties of each constituent component of the blend. In particular P(VDF-co-TrFE) maintains its functional piezoelectric properties. Moreover, semiconducting phase with the absence of piezoelectric response has been observed as concave and convex domains at the surface.

  courtesy of Piezotech® FC (France). We focused our study on P(VDF-co-TrFE) with VDF/TrFE molar ratios of 75/25 and 70/30 that have been largely studied due to their high remnant polarisation. The chemical structure of P(VDF-co-TrFE) copolymers is shown below (Figure 8.1).

Figure 8 . 1

 81 Figure 8.1 P(VDF-co-TrFE) chemical structure.

Figure 8 . 2

 82 Figure 8.2 Schematic of a spin coater.

Figure 8 . 3

 83 Figure 8.3 Spin-coating steps: deposition, acceleration, rotation at a constant speed, rotation at a constant speed and evaporation of the solvent. dω/dt is the acceleration and ω the rotational speed.

  The transition temperatures as the Curie point upon heating and the Curie point under cooling, the melting point and crystallisation temperature of the two molecular weight ratios 75/25 and 70/30 were evaluated forFigure 8.4.

Figure 8 . 4 1

 84 Figure 8.4 1 st heating and 1 st cooling (dashed lines) and 2 nd heating and 2 nd cooling (full lines) DSC curves for the P(VDF-co-TrFE) with VDF/TrFE molar ratio of 75/25 (red curves) and of 70/30 powder (blue curves).

Figure 8 . 5

 85 Figure 8.5 GIXS experiment. The incident beam strikes the sample under a small angle αi close to the critical angle of total external X-ray reflection. The diffuse scattering with an angle αf and an out-of plane ψ angle from the sample is recorded with an area detector. Example of GISAXS and GIWAXS pattern for a thin film are shown. Reported from reference 4

Figure 8 . 6

 86 Figure 8.6 Schematic illustration of the AFM cantilever work.

  AFM was used in tapping mode to characterise the surface morphology of the films. Silicon cantilevers (Fastscan-A) with a typical tip radius of ≈5 nm, a spring constant of 18 N m -1 and a cantilever resonance frequency of about 1,4 MHz were used. Two responses are obtained one in phase and one in topography.Piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) allows to identify the presence of piezoelectric (hence ferroelectric in our case) domains. PFM is based on the principle of the inverse piezoelectric effect: an AC electric field applied through the AFM tip induces a local deformation on the sample that is measured along the xy plane (film plane) and along the z applied to ensure that saturation is reached. Several devices have been measured per sample and a statistical study has been performed in order to corroborate the reproducibility of the polarization loops. (Chapter 2, Chapter 3, Chapter 4).The polarisation is expressed in mC m -2 and is proportional to the amount of charges accumulated at the electrodes surfaces. The integration of the measured current in function of the time and of the electric field applied gives the dielectric polarisation P. The software aixPlorer30 already gives the I vs E and the P vs E curves. The two maxima of I vs E observed in the two directions at the coercive fields (Figure8.7a) corresponds to the charges displacement occurring to compensate the change in the polarisation state that follows the change of the applied electric field.8 Moreover, the polarization switching by electric field in ferroelectric materials gives rise to a strain-electric field hysteresis, which resembles the shape of a butterfly and indeed is called "butterfly loop" 8 (Figure8.7b).

Figure 8 . 7

 87 Figure 8.7 Example of a ferroelectric hysteresis loop (black line) and the corresponding switching current peaks, (blue line) (a) and the respective mechanical displacement (red line) (b).

  part is ε' (stored energy) and the imaginary part is ε" (dissipated energy) that vary in function of ω as shown in Figure 8.8. The ratio between imaginary 𝜀 𝑟 ′′ and real part 𝜀 𝑟 ′ is defined as the charge losses tan(δ) that occurs if charges are passing through the material or are going out from the material. The magnitude of ε' depends on the degree of polarisation that can occur. For air, ε'= 1. For most ionic solids such as Al2O3 and NaCl, ε' = 5-10. For inorganic ferroelectric materials such as BaTiO3, ε' = 10 3 -10 4 , for polymeric ferroelectric as PVDF ε' = 15. To increase ε one should increase the density of electrical dipole moments. The applied electric field 𝐸 ⃗ induces variation on both ε' and ε" functions as depicted in Figure 8.8 that describes the different relaxations involved as function of the frequency.

Figure 8 . 8

 88 Figure 8.8 Real and imaginary dielectric permittivity as function of the frequency.

q (Å -1 ) q (Å -1 ) q (Å -1 )

	are studied below the Curie temperature, ferroelectric crystallinity corresponds to total
	crystallinity. 32					phase F	1	phase F	2
				experimental		phase F	1-2	amorphous halo
		pristine
						t-5					t-30
	(a.u.)	1,0 t-60	1,2	1,4	1,6	1,0 t-120	1,2	1,4		1,6	1,0 T-130	1,2	1,4	1,6
	Intensity	1,0	1,2	1,4	1,6	1,0	1,2	1,4		1,6	1,0	1,2	1,4	1,6
		T-133				T-137					T-140
		1,0	1,2	1,4	1,6	1,0	1,2	1,4		1,6	1,0	1,2	1,4	1,6

  Process influences on the structure, piezoelectric, and gas-barrier properties of PVDF-TrFE copolymer. Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics 52, 496-506, doi:10.1002/polb.23443 (2014). 20 Alves, N., Plepis, A. M. G., Giacometti, J. A. & Oliveira, O. N. Influence of preparation

	methods and thermal treatment in melt-solidified and cast films of poly(vinylidene
	fluoride-trifluorethylene)copolymers. Ferroelectrics Letters Section 23, 99-105,
	doi:10.1080/07315179808204185 (1998).
	performances.
	through	modulation	of	crystallinity	and	polymorphism.	Polymer,

doi

:10.1016/j.polymer.2018.06.072 (2018)

.

19

Oliveira, F. et al.

  Je voudrais même remercier Bertrand qui m'a donné beaucoup des conseils et m'a supportée toujours ! Merci !! I need to thank Bruno who surprisingly still supports me and this is kind of miracle since I can be unpleasant for myself as well with my ups and downs. Thank you for being always there for me.For the next paragraph I need to switch to Italian sorry! Résumé L'électronique organique représente une alternative réaliste aux technologies conventionnelles à base de silicium par le design, la synthèse et la mise en oeuvre des matériaux organiques fonctionnels dans des dispositifs légers et flexibles. Les matériaux organiques, tels que les petites molécules ou les polymères organiques, sont avantageux pour leur faible coût, leur flexibilité et leur facilité de dépôt. Grâce aux avantages liés à l'utilisation de matériaux organiques, en termes économiques et de gain de temps, l'électronique organique est devenue un domaine innovant qui s'applique aux technologies de l'énergie, de l'environnement, de la santé, de l'information et de la communication.La ferroélectricité étant une propriété dépendant de la structure, il est indispensable de mieux comprendre les relations réciproques entre la structure et les propriétés ferroélectriques finales afin d'améliorer les applications existantes des polymères ferroélectriques en électronique organique et de promouvoir l'introduction du P(VDF-co-TrFE) dans de nouvelles applications.P(VDF-co-TrFE) en tant que polymère semi-cristallin possède des propriétés cristallines sensibles au traitement thermique. Puisque seules les régions cristallines contribuent à la commutation électronique de la polarisation et non les amorphes, le degré de cristallinité est un facteur clé pour moduler les propriétés ferroélectriques. En autre, l'orientation des cristallites ainsi que la présence de défauts dans les cristallites sont des paramètres cruciaux qui jouent un rôle important dans la définition des performances finales des dispositifs dans lesquels P(VDF-co-TrFE) est incorporé. Tel est l'objectif de cette thèse : atteindre une compréhension exhaustive des relations traitement-structure-fonction qui serviront d'outil pour moduler les performances des dispositifs ferroélectriques. Le premier challenge de cette thèse était de définir les conditions de recuit de « cristallisation à froid » (normalement utilisées pour les dispositifs électroniques organiques) qui conduisent aux meilleures propriétés ferroélectriques en termes de haute polarisation Pr et de bas champ électrique coercitif Ec. Une réponse ferroélectrique optimale, en termes de Pr élevé et de faible Ec, a été obtenue lorsque le traitement thermique a lieu dans des températures comprises entre 133 °C et 137 °C pendant 15 à 30 minutes de temps de recuit. Nos résultats ont prouvé que le pas de temps de recuit de 2 h, traditionnellement appliqué, n'est pas nécessaire, mais que seulement 15 minutes suffisent. De plus, il est apparu que la température de recuit affectait principalement la valeur de polarisation restante, alors que le temps de recuit avait un effet important sur la valeur du champ coercitif. Les performances accrues obtenues dans ces conditions ont été rationalisées grâce aux études GIWAXS qui ont révélé les phases cristallines apparentes dans ces films et ont permis de calculer le degré de cristallinité. Il est démontré qu'un degré élevé de cristallinité est nécessaire ainsi qu'une orientation des cristallites « edge-on » pour une performance améliorée. De plus, à travers une étude de déconvolution, il est discutée l'existence d'une phase ferroélectrique F1-2 modérément instable qui facilite la rotation des dipôles le long de la chaîne. La structure la plus performante présente un degré élevé de cristallinité, une orientation préférentielle des cristallites avec les chaînes polymères parallèles au substrat et la présence de trois phases ferroélectriques. Ensuite, le polymorphisme a été étudié en suivant les transitions structurelles auxquelles le polymère ferroélectrique P(VDF-co-TrFE) est soumis au moyen de WAXS et DSC résolus en temps utilisant un protocole de « cristallisation isotherme à l'état fondu ». Différentes températures de cristallisation isothermiques ont été étudiées. Avec cette étude, nous avons été les premiers à décrire l'apparition de phases défectueuses dans des échantillons non traités (c'est-à-dire sans recuit au-dessus de la TCurie). En suivant les étapes de chauffage et de refroidissement du protocole de « cristallisation à l'état fondu », il a été constaté que trois cristallisations se produisaient : une avant la cristallisation isotherme, une pendant l'étape isotherme et une immédiatement après la cristallisation isotherme. Une augmentation globale du degré de cristallinité se produit lorsque Tc augmente. Après la cristallisation, les cristallites paraélectriques se forment puis, lors du refroidissement dans la plage de transition de Curie, ils se transforment en une phase F1 plus ordonné (formé directement avec les paramètres de maille typiques de la phase ferroélectrique) et en F2 très désordonné. L'asymétrie du pic de diffusion attribuée à la phase F1 suggère l'apparition d'une phase F1-2 ordonnée de manière intermédiaire. Néanmoins, bien qu'il ait été prouvé que le degré de cristallinité augmentait avec l'augmentation de Tc, nous avons détecté une performance ferroélectrique non optimale pour les échantillons recuits à Tc très élevée. Nous attribuons cette diminution des performances à une possible forte teneur en F2 hautement défectueux, ce qui ralentit la rotation ferroélectrique. une certaine orientation des dipôles, qui dans tous les cas n'atteindra pas le degré de celui des F1 et F1-2, entraînant une baisse des performances. Ensuite, l'effet de l'orientation des cristallites est étudié en détail. En effet, le lien entre la polarisation et l'orientation des dipôles au sein de la cristallite indique que l'orientation de la cristallite par rapport au champ électrique appliqué est fondamentale pour faciliter l'alignement et obtenir, après polarisation, la densité maximale de charges à la surface. Nous avons quantifié l'impact de l'orientation des cristallites sur les propriétés ferroélectriques en induisant diverses orientations des cristallites au moyen d'une variation du protocole thermique. Nous avons découvert que lors d'une « cristallisation en état fondu », il se forme des cristallites orientées de manière aléatoire ou préférentiellement orientées « face-on ». Il a été constaté que l'échantillon ayant subi une « cristallisation isotherme à froid » présentait la plus grande quantité de cristallites « edge-on » (environ 75%), ce qui était lié à la meilleure réponse ferroélectrique. Les paramètres ferroélectriques ont en effet été fortement dépendants de l'orientation des cristallites : un Pr plus élevé, un Ec plus faible, et une inversion de la direction de polarisation plus rapide sont trouvés pour une valeur de « edge-on » élevée. Des études de spectroscopie diélectrique à différentes températures nous ont permis de constater qu'un échantillon cristallisé à froid présente une énergie d'activation de la relaxation dipolaire inférieure avec une diminution de la relaxation FE-PE par rapport aux échantillons cristallisés à l'état fondu en raison de l'orientation « edge-on ». Ces études de spectroscopie nous ont également permis de constater qu'une énergie d'activation accrue de la relaxation dipolaire, ainsi qu'une diminution de la fréquence de relaxation FE-PE, se En regardant l'application des capteurs médicaux piézoélectriques les résultats obtenu dans la cadre du projet "sweet heart" conduit en collaboration avec le centre de recherche Liryc (L'Institut de Rythmologie et modélisation Cardiaque) sont discuté. L'objectif était de fabriquer une matrice flexible de capteurs piézoélectriques qui pouvant être encapsulés à l'intérieur d'un coeur imprimé en 3D. Après avoir essayé plusieurs approches, nous avons réussi à fabriquer des capteurs piézoélectriques très flexibles en évaporant thermiquement des électrodes en argent métallique sur des substrats PDMS épais et en encapsulant un film P (VDF-co-TrFE) entre eux. Ce mélange P(VDF-co-TrFE) : P3HT a déjà été appliqué dans les diodes à mémoire ferroélectrique non volatile et nous avons explorée son utilisation potentielle dans le champ de l'organique photovoltaïque.Le mélange P(VDF-co-TrFE) : P3HT forme une couche active à séparation de phase. La morphologie à l'échelle nanométrique des différents rapports pondéraux(95 : 5, 90 : 10, 80 : 20) a été minutieusement caractérisée à l'aide de plusieurs techniques de microscopie à sonde à balayage telles que l'AFM, le PFM, le KPFM, et le CFM. Au moyen du PFM, il a été confirmé qu'une séparation de phase se produit sans affecter les propriétés de chaque composant du mélange. En particulier, P(VDF-co-TrFE) conserve ses propriétés piézoélectriques fonctionnelles. De plus, une phase semi-conductrice avec absence de réponse piézoélectrique a été observée sous forme de domaines concaves et convexes à la surface.

L'électronique organique est issue de la découverte de polymères dotés de fonctionnalités semiconductrices. Cependant, il ne faut pas négliger une autre classe de polymères exceptionnels, les polymères ferroélectriques. La nature électroactive des polymères ferroélectriques, qui sont également pyroélectriques et piézoélectriques, combinés aux avantages intrinsèques des polymères, les a désignés comme éléments constitutifs d'une gamme étendue de dispositifs électroniques organiques.

La famille de polymères ferroélectriques la plus connue est celle du poly (fluorure de vinylidène) P(VDF) et de son copolymère avec le trifluoroéthylène, P

(VDF-co-TrFE)

. La récupération d'énergie, le stockage et la détection de données, principales applications de l'électronique organique, peuvent potentiellement tous être réalisés avec ces matériaux fonctionnels exceptionnels.

Cependant, les études de déconvolution des pics GIWAXS sont un travail en perspective car elles

sont nécessaires pour confirmer l'hypothèse proposée. Les corrélations entre les phases structurelles et les performances doivent être recherchées dans la rotation intramoléculaire lors de la polarisation. En effet, lorsque nous appliquons un champ électrique à un copolymère P(VDF-co-TrFE), nous induisons une rotation le long des chaînes pour aligner les dipôles. La phase intermédiaire F1-2 favoriserait plus la rotation intramoléculaire grâce à la présence de quelques défauts gauches servant de sites d'activation pour le début de la rotation contrairement à la phase ferroélectrique parfaite. D'autre part, une phase F2 trop défectueuse devrait montrer produisaient lorsque l'on passait d'un échantillon « edge-on » à un échantillon orienté de manière préférentiellement « face-on ». Cela suggère que l'orientation « face-on » agit comme un paramètre défectueux qui empêche la relaxation des dipôles. De plus, des applications potentielles de P(VDF-co-TrFE) en électronique organique sont explorées dans cette thèse. Le premier concerne la mise en oeuvre de P (VDF-co-TrFE) dans des capteurs médicaux piézoélectriques pour l'entrainement d'étudiants en laparoscopie. La seconde concerne l'utilisation de copolymères P (VDF-co-TrFE) dans des dispositifs photovoltaïques. Pour le dernier challenge de cette thèse, une étude des dispositifs électroniques dans lesquels P(VDF-co-TrFE) est mélangé avec le polymère semi-conducteur P3HT, poly(3-hexylthiophène), a été effectuée. En combinant le KPFM et le CFM, nous avons constaté que le pourcentage de rr-P3HT influait fortement sur la distribution des chemins semi-conducteurs. Au moyen du KPFM, nous avons dévoilé l'apparition de réseaux semi-conducteurs quasi superficiels (au moins jusqu'à 100 nm audessous de l'interface air-film) lorsque le pourcentage en poids de P3HT dépasse 10%. Ces réseaux n'ayant pas été détectés avec le CFM, ils n'agissent donc pas comme un chemin semi-conducteur. Nous avons conclu que le meilleur rapport pour les applications électroniques organiques est le rapport 90 : 10, en termes de taille de domaine semi-conducteurs et de reproductibilité de la nanostructure. Les dispositifs photovoltaïques ont été fabriqués et caractérisés en enregistrant leurs courbes J-V respectives dans l'obscurité et à la lumière afin d'évaluer la différence de comportement électrique. Même si nos résultats ne sont que préliminaires, ils représentent une preuve de concept selon laquelle un tel système pourrait être exploité en photovoltaïque organique.

Fu, Z. et al. Improved Thermal Stability of Ferroelectric Phase in Epitaxially Grown

Acknowledgments

This Thesis is to me not only the summary of the most interesting scientific results I have obtained during my PhD career, but additionally bears witness to my personal growth.

During these three years I have learned a lot about organic electronics, ferroelectric materials, how to face and organise a scientific project and how to deal with different problematics. I grew up as a small scientist willing to discover the physical motivation behind the data.

I am grateful to my supervisors Pr. Georges Hadziioannou, Dr. Mario Maglione and Dr. Eleni Pavlopoulou for giving me the opportunity to start this three years' fruitful experience in

(111) and ( 201) reflections, which spatially overlap with the second order reflections (220) and (400).

In the scattering image, the (110),( 200) reflection appears more intense on the meridian, which is consistent with a preferential orientation of the c-axis (that corresponds to the chain backbone) parallel to the substrate. 26 This crystal orientation favours ferroelectricity, since in P(VDF-co-TrFE) the dipoles that induce the ferroelectric property are perpendicular to the backbone and therefore in this case they are oriented parallel to the external applied electric field. All films under study exhibit this orientation, as apparent in Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7, except sample T-140 that will be discussed later on.

Chapter 3

Unravelling the P (VDF-co-TrFE) polymorphism by investigating its crystallisation from melt Chapter 4 The effect of crystallites orientation on the ferroelectric performance of P (VDF-co-TrFE) Normally in P(VDF-co-TrFE) films obtained by spin-coating, the strong centrifugal force of the deposition technique induces a preferred "edge-on" orientation of these crystalline lamellae. 2 In the edge-on orientation, as can be seen from Figure 4.1a, the polymeric chains lie parallel to the substrate and consequently the dipoles, orthogonal to the chain axis, are perpendicular to the substrate (the b-arrow represents the unit cell b-axis that corresponds to the directions of the dipoles), 2 and thus perpendicular to the applied electric field. As shown in Figure 4.1b, in a "face-on" orientation, the lamellae lie on the substrate and consequently the molecular chain c-axis and the polar b-axis are respectively perpendicular and parallel to the substrate. Several authors [2][3][4] have documented the occurrence of an inversion from the preferred "edge-on" orientation to a "face-on" orientation either induced by thermal annealing, either induced by film thickness variation. Park et al. proved that this inversion is induced when a heat treatment upon the melting point is performed. 2 Guo et al., 5 studying P(VDF-co-TrFE) ultrathin films, reported that the abrupt stand-up of the polymer backbone, formerly lying on the substrate, actually occurs at a critical temperature, around 140 °C, with a simultaneous reorientation of the polarisation axis. We herein display and describe the four samples in a sequence that follows the gradual variation of the intensity along the ring at q≈1.4 Å -1 , from an accentuated intensity along the meridian to one accentuated along the equator. Therefore, in In (a) the active area of the devices is of 4 mm2.

Ferroelectric hysteresis loops have been recorded for this kind of hybrid system as shown in Figure 5.9 where three ferroelectric loops recorded at 100 Hz at increasing voltages are shown. A clear improvement of the shape of the hysteresis lops is evident. The PFM height, the VPFM amplitude and the VPFM phase images are recorded simultaneously during scanning, and correspond to the same sample area.

When the electrical stress is applied to the film throughout the piezo-tip a mechanical response is recorded only from the piezoelectric P(VDF-co-TrFE) matrix (pink and blue regions in Figure 6.5b and Figure 6.5c). 23,24 The P3HT domains do not respond to the applied voltage as shown by the green regions indicating absence of displacement. Indeed, P3HT is not piezoelectric: the ferroelectric (piezoelectric) and semiconducting phases can be discriminated. This PFM characterisation demonstrates that P(VDF-co-TrFE) maintains its functionality and does not suffer from its blending with the semiconducting P3HT. It also shows that irregular P3HT domains exist in the FE matrix.

In Figure 6.5 circles evidence the same morphological features on the different PFM images. By comparing Figure 6.5a with Figure 6.5b we see that both red and yellow circle correspond to P3HT. In Figure 6.5a the red circle surrounds a superficial convex protrusion, while the yellow circle corresponds to a superficial concave depression. Therefore, in agreement with previous works, 4,19,20 we conclude that the SC domains at the surface can be either convex or concave, appearing as protrusions or depressions.

The correlation between topographic and electronic properties for blends with different weight ratios have been investigated by means of Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy, KPFM. KPFM enables the evaluation of the electronic behaviour of the two polymers by providing the surface potential map of the sample under study at the nano-scale. The potential measured between the tip and surface of the film is called contact potential difference, VCPD, 25 and is defined by Equation 6.1:

where Φsample and Φtip are the work functions of the sample and the tip respectively, and e is the electronic charge (e ≈ 1.6 • 10 -19 C). When the tip is brought close to the film surface, an electrical force is generated between the tip and the surface, due to the differences in their Fermi energy levels. 25 Therefore, regions where a larger VCPD is recorded indicate the existence of an electrical insulator material; vice versa when the measured VCPD is low, a semiconducting blends, in P(VDF-co-TrFE):rr-P3HT blends, an increase of the size of the SC domains occurs with the increase of rr-P3HT content.

By means of CFM we were able to detect the SC pathways crossing the entire film thickness from the air-surface to the bottom interface. We noticed that the rr-P3HT percentage strongly influence the distribution of the SC pathways and that quite a lot of pathways are "blind".

By means of KPFM we have described the presence of nearly superficial SC domains (at least until 100 nm below the air-film interface) for high P3HT contents, i.e. when the P3HT content exceeds 10%. Such networks were not detected with C-FM, which let us think that they are not involved in the current flow and therefore are buried under a dielectric layer. On the other hand, the 95:5 blend was found to generate a nanostructure where very few semiconducting pathways from the bottom to the top interfaces are formed. Then we conclude that the best ratio for organic electronic applications is the 90:10, in terms of SC domain size and number of SC pathways.

Next, devices with different weight ratio active layers have been fabricated and characterised by recording their respective J vs V curves in dark and under irradiation in order to evaluate their potential use as OPV devices. Our results show that such system could be promising for OPVs applications. Even thought our results are just preliminary and very low values of efficiency have been found, they represent a proof of concept that such a system could be exploited as active layer in solar cells. Future studies on the way to achieve an ordered and controlled 3D-phase separated nanostructure along the entire thickness are requested for understanding the morphological influences to the performance in view of a device efficiency optimisation. Moreover, investigations on the appropriate way to induce polarisation of the FE matrix in presence of the semiconducting material is required. If the opened questions will be answered the P(VDF-co-TrFE):rrP3HT blend could represent itself the new active layer in OPVs.

Chapter 7

General conclusions

P3HT

Regioregular rr-P3HT with a Mw of 610 kDa and a regioregularity of 96 %, was synthesised in our Laboratory by a former PhD student, Laurie Parrenin, according to Grignard metathesis method (GRIM) 1,2 polymerisation and then spin-coated and piled off in order to obtain films.

Thin films preparation

Every steps of the sample preparation as substrates cleaning, thin films deposition and thermal annealing were performed in a standard class 10.000 clean room with a relative humidity of 45 %. The spin-coating parameters were modulated in order to obtain P(VDF-co-TrFE) film with of a thickness of 1 μm and as measured by profilometry (BRUKER DEKTAK XT-A). In particular, this thickness was obtained for a 10 wt% solution by using an rpm (rate per minutes) of 1000, with an acceleration of 500 rpm s -1 , for 30 seconds.

Profilometer

The thickness of the thin films has been measured by means of a profilometer Bruker Dektak XT-A. A tip is let to scan the surface across a scratch previously created. The difference between the height of the film and the height of the substrate gives the thickness of the film.

Several measurements are performed in order to decrease the error in the evaluation.

Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)

The thermal analysis experiments were carried out by using a TA Instrument DSC Q100 RCS

Photovoltaic characterisation

The J vs V characteristics have been measured by means of a Keithley 4200 at atmospheric conditions in dark and under the illumination. The measurements under illumination have been performed by irradiating the sample with a solar simulator Sol2A, Oriel solartron analytical.