Keywords: Definiteness / Indefiniteness, Nominal determination, George Moore's The Brook Kerith

Completing my PhD degree is probably among the most challenging activities of my life. The best and worst moments of my doctoral journey have been shared with many people. It has been a great privilege to have two thesis supervisors,

Dedication

I dedicate my thesis to my sweet little daughters, Yasmina and Véra, whose presence has given my life purpose, meaning and significance. Upon writing these words, a vision of your laughter and playful behavior occupies my mind and heart, and I cannot but be tearful for being away from you, yet grateful to have you in my life.

I also dedicate this thesis to my devoted husband, Mohammad Chreim, who supported me through these three years of hard-work; who took care of our daughters compensating for my absence with patience and love; and who believed in me, appreciated the potentials I have going far beyond the devotion of any typical husband.

I dedicate my thesis to my loving mother, whose heart and mind were always with me; who prays for me and wishes me success at every occasion and even without an occasion -a person who gives devotion, sacrifice and dedication a new dimension.

This thesis is also dedicated to my father and siblings. Their words of encouragement urging for tenacity ring in my ears. They have been my cheerleaders.

A special feeling of gratitude goes to Mazeda. I do not know whether she is going to read this, but thanking her is not enough. I will always appreciate all she has done for my family. conferences. I would have been lost if she had not taken me by the hand on my first arrival on the UTLN Campus and guided me through the doctoral program and supervised the completion of my dissertation. I wish to thank her for the extensive list of resources, for the long hours of reading, rereading and rewriting, and for the time spent on researching. I am indebted to her for improving my style in writing and for providing a stimulating and fun environment in which to learn and grow. She has been a tremendous mentor for me.

My second debt of gratitude must go to Professor Mohammad Badawi Shahhal. I appreciate the fact that he accepted to supervise my thesis on linguistics while his interests and main field of expertise is in literature, more specifically in American poetry. I want to thank him for the time he dedicated to reading the thesis and make the arduous journey to France. I am especially grateful to Prof. André Joly, who helped me understand many linguistic terms, especially those related to the Guillaumian school. Not only did he patiently read and edited this thesis, but also encouraged me to pursue further research in different areas in comparative linguistics.

I would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Lebanese University, particularly the award of a Postgraduate Research Studentship that helped in paying for my traveling between Lebanon and France and other expense.

Introduction

The word "definite" is defined by The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics as "referring to a specific person or set of persons that can be identified in context by someone spoken to", and the "indefinite" as "not referring to, or indicating reference to, an identifiable individual or set of individuals." Yet, these terms do not cover the full range of functions assumed by the different articles. The article the does not conform to the above definition in Wordsworth's line "The child is father of the man"; the same is true of the article a in "There was a man waiting for you". It would appear, therefore, that these terms used should be carefully scrutinized, investigated, and redefined.

It is clear from the examples quoted above that the definite and indefinite articles can be used to refer to both the singular and the general, each in its way.

The intended meaning is greatly affected by the type of article used. Saying that the indefinite article indicates an intended singular or the definite an intended general is therefore misleading, as this only accounts for a limited range of occurrences. Moreover, the zero article -an essential member of the system -is overlooked. The absence of an article before a nominal form in English and in Arabic is meaningful and consequently, should be investigated and accounted for.

The use of the article shows its impact not only on the semantic level, but also on the syntactic level. In Arabic, the absence and/or presence of an article imposes changes in meaning and function of the lexical items following it. In other languages such as French, the article can only be omitted under special circumstances.

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These instances are just few of many that need to be highlighted to bridge the gap between the functions and terminology of articles. Without such investigations, the realm of article usage would remain a mystery to nonspecialists, and the frequent errors in translation would have little chance of being eliminated.

In this thesis, I shall attempt to pinpoint the nature of the article in Arabic and English, their uses, and how they reflect definiteness / indefiniteness in an attempt to find a correlation between the two languages. I shall then go on to investigate the impact on the semantic and syntactic level when the article is deleted from the noun phrase in the two languages. I will also devote a chapter to the way the article behaves when translating from English to Arabic and vice versa. The corpus which I have chosen to verify and test my hypothesis is the novel The Brook Kerith, by the Irish writer, George Moore.

Statement of the Problem

The system of the article poses ambiguities and challenges on many levels within the linguistic frame. The first problem is the dilemma of the definition: the terms definite and indefinite only cover part of what they actually do. Added to this is the fact that the ultimate meaning of a sentence hangs to a large extent on the choice of article. The article gives the sentence a new dimension and a final finish.

Another problem is created by the absence of precise linguistic correlation between the lexical items of every language. That is, the absence of an indefinite article in Arabic poses challenges when translating from and to English, which possesses definite and indefinite articles. In some cases, the indefinite article is replaced by a definite article to keep the meaning and/or to respect the system of the language. Such cases need to be investigated and highlighted.

Much of the Arabic analysis of the notion of definiteness and indefiniteness is inseparable from the inflectional theory. Definiteness and indefiniteness is not investigated from a semantic and pragmatic perspective. For example, the concept of definiteness is investigated in nominal sentences whether it is possible for the inchoative to be in the indefinite form or the predicate to be definite and the consequent result of this change of definiteness on parsing.

Purpose of the Study

One of the major purposes of the study is to show that the functions of articles do not always adhere to their labels. Like the other members of the class "determiners", the article determines the range of application of the nominal they modify. Reviewing determiners paves the way for a better understanding of the way the article fits into the system and the particular contribution it makes in defining the communicative intent of the speaker.

Another purpose is to show the discrepancy between the uses of the article when switching from one language to another. Due to the idiosyncratic features of every language, the articles undergo huge modifications; the article might disappear or a different type of determiner may be required when switching to the target language.

The major purpose of the study is to discover the impact of deleting and/or introducing the article into a sentence on the semantic level as well as the This thesis deals with the system of the article from the contrastive analysis approach, which shows the lexical correspondence between the two languages and in particular the system of the articles. My approach explores how a language like Arabic compensates for the lack of the indefinite article and how it reflects definiteness/ indefiniteness in the absence of a semiological mark.

Significance of the Study

This study is important because it accords much attention to the system of the article, especially in Arabic. Many of the primary resources that explore the system of the article in Arabic and its functions are only sections of chapters.

Besides, many researches like Al-şuy ti (1445-1505), and André Roman (2001), to list a few, present a survey of what has already been written about the subject. This thesis, on the other hand, studies, through linguistic analysis, the manipulation of the system of the article in a sentence and the consequent results of such manipulations on many levels, especially on the syntactic level where lexical items assume a new function.

This study links the articles in English to those in Arabic, highlighting where they meet and where they diverge. It also tries to find what in Arabic is equivalent to each of the three articles in English -namely a/an, the, and zero article -especially that there is only one article in Arabic, the definite article al.

It is the first study that considers George Moore's book The Brook Kerith as the corpus for the study. The pragmatic view, being concerned with actual uses of definite forms, considers the process whereby text-external clues, i.e., extralinguistic information, is used to infer the particularity of an entity. Situational use and associative use are substantive instances of pragmatic orientation to definiteness determined by general knowledge and/ or situational conditions [START_REF] Hawkins | Definiteness and Indefiniteness: A Study in Reference and Grammaticality Prediction[END_REF].

Research Hypotheses

My thesis will be organized around five research questions related to the system of the article in English and Arabic. The questions are:

1. Does the definite article display only definiteness and the indefinite article only indefiniteness?

2. Is definiteness / indefiniteness achieved in the same way in English and in Arabic?

3. Does the use of the article a/an correspond to the indefinite form in Arabic?

4. Does the use of the article the correspond to the use of the article al? Chapter 1

Determination

The system of the article and the notion of definiteness cannot be discussed without addressing the issue of determination. Among the numerous reasons for this, the main one is that the article is a determiner first and foremost, and definiteness / indefiniteness is achieved via determiners. Thus, to learn more about the article, we need to explore the concept of determination extensively.

The dilemma of definition

The article is defined in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics (CODL) as a "determiner whose basic role is to mark noun phrases as either definite or indefinite" (p. 27). This definition elicits three questions. The first is related to the meaning of the term "determiner" -its role, linguistic representations and syntactic positions. (cf. § 1.2.) The second is concerned with the extent to which the terms "definite or indefinite" adhere to the functions performed by the article. The third targets the difference between "determining" and "defining".

Traditionally, the articles in English are categorized as definite (the) and indefinite (a and an) according to the Port Royal in 1660 (as cited in Joly and O'Kelly, 1991) 1 . The label "definite" is defined by the CODL as "referring to a 1. The Port-Royal Grammar (originally "General and Rational Grammar, containing the fundamentals of the art of speaking, explained in a clear and natural manner") was published in 1660 by Antoine Arnauld and Claude Lancelot. specific person or set of persons that can be identified in context by someone spoken to", and the "indefinite" as "not referring to, or indicating reference to, an identifiable individual or set of individuals." Yet, these labels do not cover the full range of functions carried by the articles. It is made very clear that these labels are not applicable to a number of contexts in which the articles are used. They present sample examples of the uses of the article and apply the definitions provided for the articles in English. The examples and the analysis presented below show clearly the gap between the definition and the function of the article.

[1] A man is always a man. [2] There was a man waiting to see you. [3] The man who wanted to see you called again. [4] The child is father to the man. (Joly and O'Kelly, 1991, p. 371) While the label "indefinite" is applicable in example [1] in the case of the article "a", it is not in example [2]. Besides, the label "definite" may be suitable for the article "the" in example [4] since "the man" covers all human beings possessing the attributes connoted by the term man, i.e., male adult human being capable of begetting a child; however, it is unclear how it could apply to the same article in the third example in which "The man" in question is a particular individual known only by me. How can we use the same label or definition when there are two different functions? Thus, these labels are only adequate for certain cases, and the definitions are as misleading as they are confusing with respect to the actual meaning of determination. These definitions need to be reexamined and rephrased if they are to correspond to the felicitous use of the articles.

Port-Royal Logic (1662), both named after the Jansenist monastery of Port-Royal-des-Champs where their authors worked.

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Definition of Determination

According to CODL, a determiner is "any of a class of grammatical units

[…] limiting the potential referent of a noun phrase" (NP). Syntactically, it precedes the noun in an NP. In addition to a determiner and a noun, an NP is made up of pre-modifiers and post-modifiers. See Figure [1].

The term modifier in this context, covers adjectives, adjective phrases and adjective clauses. The order is fixed; 1) determiner, 2) pre-modifier, 3) noun and 4) post-modifier. However, an NP (noun phrase) can be realized by a single word -with the force of a noun -and still constitute a phrase, for example beauty, in Ø beauty is in the eye of the beholder, because this abstract noun needs no semiological mark, being actualized by what is known as the 'zero article", which means absence of a semiological mark in surface structure.

In fact, the rank of an NP has little to do with the number of words that enter into its composition. It follows that this definition and terminology raise certain questions regarding the identification of a "phrase" and the differentiation between a determiner and a modifier.

NP

What is an NP?

The noun phrase (NP) "typically functions as subject, object and complement of clauses and as complement of prepositional phrases" (Quirk et al, 1985, p. 245). This definition describes what an NP does (its function), rather than what it is (its nature). On the other hand, the definition presented by CODL of an NP as "headed by or having roles in syntax like those of a noun" creates ambiguity and, again, does no more than describe the positions occupied and the syntactic role played. Fortunately, the usage of the term NP in English is matched with another term proposed by Saussure -"nominal syntagma" (SN) -as cited in [START_REF] André | Grammaire systématique de l'anglais[END_REF]. They define it as:

Un syntagme nominal est une suite ordonnée de mots formant un tout sémantique et syntaxique dont le noyau est un nom accompagné de ses déterminants 2 (p. 372).

Thus, a nominal syntagma seems to be equivalent to a noun phrase as both share the same basic characteristics. The purpose of this terminology is to differentiate between a nominal syntagma and a nominal group. According to the "rank scale" of [START_REF] Halliday | An introduction to functional grammar[END_REF], who prefers "phrase" to Saussure's "syntagma", a "phrase is a reduced strain of clause, while a group is an enlarged strain of word" (xxi) elsewhere he admits that a "group is similar to a phrase" (p. 25).

However, on page 159, he makes a second attempt to distinguish a group from a phrase.

A phrase is different from a group in that, whereas a group is an expansion of a word, a phrase is a contraction of a clause. Starting from opposite ends, the 2. Translation: A nominal syntagma is an ordered sequence of words having full semantic and syntactic functions whose core is a noun accompanied by its determiners.

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two achieve roughly the same status on the rank scale, as units that lie somewhere intermediate between the rank of a clause and that of a word.

We can see the place of a group in the rank scale 3 in Figure [2], a hierarchy from the smallest (bottom of the figure) to the largest (top of the figure).

The group position is between a word and a phrase.

He clarifies this by saying that:

[…] although group and phrase are both of intermediate rank as constituents, they have arrived there from different ends: a group is a bloated word, whereas a phrase is a shrunken clause" (p.192). [START_REF] Hewson | [END_REF] presents the nominal group as part of a nominal syntagma/NP. In other words, an NP is made up of a nominal group and at least one determiner; this is referred to as a "formal determiner". The nominal group is 3.

Halliday follows the structural tradition, which sees language as a "hierarchical taxonomy", each component having its place or rank on a scale. The starting point being the phoneme and the term, the clause; the sentence, a unit of communication has no place on the scale. The relation between the components is seen in terms of container/contained: the raw material morpheme is the phoneme (one or several), and the raw material of the word is the morpheme (one or several). The system runs into trouble once one gets past the "word", which introduces a different kind of meaning (referential) and thus a new dimension. This partially explains the difficulty this theory has when it comes to dealing with the difference between the group and the phrase. composed of the noun and its modifiers. Figure [3] shows the nominal group as a subset of an NP. [START_REF] Halliday | An introduction to functional grammar[END_REF] uses the term "group" not only for the noun phrase but also for other structures like: the verbal group, the adverbial group, etc. In his terminology only one other structure is covered by the term phrase: the prepositional phrase. According to him and from a functional point of view, prepositional phrases are exocentric structures ("cannot be reduced to a single element"), related more to clauses than to words:

Clause

Prepositional phrases are phrases, not groups; they have no logical structure as Head and Modifier, and cannot be reduced to a single element. In this respect, they are clause-like rather than group-like; we are interpreting the prepositional phrase as a kind of minor clause -which is what it is. (p. 190) He proves his point by examples [5], [6], and [7] in which he replaces the preposition with a gerund or an infinitive. This modification is possible since a preposition is sometimes similar in meaning to a non-finite verb, with which it is interchangeable as Halliday himself points out.

[5] (He cleaned the floor) with a mop | using a mop. [6] (I'm preparing this) as my prize-winning entry | to be my prize-winning entry. [7] (The police arrested him) without evidence | not having evidence.

NP Determiner(s) Nominal Group

Pre-modifiers Noun Post-modifier In these examples, a prepositional phrase is transformed into a non-finite clause.

[5a] He used a mop in order to clean the floor.

[6a]

I'm preparing this, hoping/ in the hope it will be my prize-winning entry.

[7a]

The police arrested him, even though they did not have evidence.

Examples [5a], [6a] and [7a] all refer to the same events on the phenomenal level [5], [6], and [7] respectively, are viewed from a different angle.

In terms of the opposition given and new, the prepositional phrase seems to be the locus of the new information:

[5b] What did he use to clean the floor? / What did he clean the floor with? [6b] Why are you preparing this? [7b] Under what circumstances did the police arrest him?

The circumstantial information is presented more synthetically by the prepositional phrase. However, even though this question needs further scrutiny, the distinction that Halliday makes between a prepositional phrase and other structures is verified. However, claiming that "prepositional phrases... cannot be reduced to a single element" is not ultimately true. (Quereda, n. p.) objects to this, claiming that there is at least one case where this occurs -when the preposition functions as both a preposition and as an adverb, and perhaps, that would include a deictic sign. Consider examples [8] and [9].

[8] He was in the restaurant | He was in. [9] He went through the park | He went through.

However, Halliday would answer Quereda's objection, pointing out that "in" is not necessarily a substitute form for "in the restaurant", nor "through" an elliptical variant of "through the park"; to "be in" and to "go through" are collocation open to all kinds of interpretation according to context ["he was in last night" = he did not go out; "Obama is in" = he has won the elections; "he went through the papers" = he read the papers; "she went through her drawer" = she sorted out the contents"]. As for the argument that the adverbial use is "deictic" (Halliday would define this particular type of deixis as "exophoric", implying that the speaker and hearer are within the range of vision of the park or the restaurant.

Perhaps, in a conversational situation, examples [8] and [9] would be accompanied with pointing a finger in the intended direction; however, the verb would necessarily be in the present tense. If not, these forms could only be anaphoric, in which case, we should be dealing with ellipsis or zero substitution.

This type of examples suffers from being invented out of context to prove a theoretical point.

Though such examples may possibly occur, we should consider an important point here. When phrases are reduced to one word, they retain their own part-of-speech. That is, when a noun phrase is reduced, it is still a noun. Whereas, a reduction of a prepositional phrase results in an adverb phrase whose head is an adverb. Consequently, Halliday's distinction between a prepositional phrase and other structures, such as groups, is verified. Thus, in this study, we will use the term "noun phrase" rather than nominal group as it encompasses the group within and matches Saussure's "nominal syntagma".

The Noun in an NP

A noun is usually contrasted to a verb. According to [START_REF] Givon | On Understanding Grammar[END_REF] "timestability" scale, verbs denote "rapid change" and tend to show "temporary-state

properties", while nouns denote stable phenomena having "inherent-permanent

properties" with adjectives at an intermediate level between verbs and nouns in the continuum. In other words, nouns are "entity-specific" and verbs are "eventspecific" [START_REF] Anderson | A Notional Theory of Syntactic Categories[END_REF].

The noun is also referred to as a substantive, which comes from Latin "nomen substantivum", meaning "independent noun", as opposed to "nomen adiectivum", meaning "noun adjective" or, roughly speaking, "dependant noun" (CODL, 2007).

Linguistically speaking, "nouns are ITEMS which display certain types of INFLECTION… have a specific DISTRIBUTION… and perform a specific syntactic function…" [START_REF] Crystal | A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics 5 th ed[END_REF]. [START_REF] Mulligan | Exposition of the grammatical structure of the English language[END_REF] explains that "Nouns are words which express the subjects of propositions" (p.21). He adds that "Grammarians call them SUBSTANTIVE NOUNS, to distinguish them from other class of nouns, which is not used to express the subjects of propositions" (p.18).

As cited in Michael (1970, p. 283), "A noun is a word that signifies a person or thing, as an author, a book, learned, gilded. It is either a substantive or an adjective (Wharton, 1954, p. 32 as cited in [START_REF] Michael | English grammatical categories and the tradition to 1800[END_REF])". This same categorization is considered by other linguists like [START_REF] Adam | The rudiments of Latin and English grammar: designed to facilitate the study of both Languages by Connecting Them Together[END_REF]: "A noun is either substantive or an adjective (p. 6)." This leads to the conclusion that substantive is a subset of the noun class and not an equal. This difference, however slight, is a factor leading to favoring the term substantive. Some linguists tend to use the terms substantive noun and substantive adjective. Thus, in this research, the term substantive is used rather than a noun since an NP has a substantive as a core constituent. At this stage, the next question which needs to be answered is: what is a substantive?

On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 24 [START_REF] Guillaume | Leçons de linguistique 1948-49, LL 2[END_REF]as cited in Hirtle, 2007a) defines the substantive in terms of incidence 4 .

The substantive…has its incidence in the very field of what it signifies; that is to say, the support it is to characterize is, insofar as its nature is concerned, declared in advance by its import. (p. 137)

That is, a substantive is characterized by its internal incidence, which is the "actual extent of reference" that the substantive brings about to itself. Hirtle gives the lexeme dog, a substantive, as an example. Dog calls to mind the nature of what is being talked about and "determines its range of possible reference, its extension: anything we perceive as canine by nature, to the exclusion of anything feline, bovine, chevaline, or whatever other conceivable nature" (124). He continues that every substantive is an import 5 of meaning in reference to Guillaume's (1990, p. 122) formula: "every lexeme is an import of meaning which must find a support 6 " (p. 208) (See Figure [4]). "In more technical terms, for a substantive the import of meaning and the support for this import are both word-internal, represented inside the word" (p. 124). This is different from the adjective "big" which is more general in its meaning as it can be applied to an infinite number of substantives. Thus, semantically, adjectives usually depend on substantives to limit a field of possible referents. An adjective "requires an outside support for its import" (125), so it cannot stand on its own. This process is 4. Incidence comes from Latin incidens which means "falling upon". It involves the process of bringing the meaning of a term into relation with that of another. It "refers to the movement, absolutely general in language, whereby, always and everywhere, there is an import of meaning, and referring of the import to the support. The relation import/support is covered by the mechanism of incidence" (Guillaume, 1971, p. 137) 5.

Import is the meaning that a linguistic item brings about to a sentence.

6.

Support is what an import characterizes when it (import) is made incident to it.

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SABRA 25 referred to as external incidence. Figure [4], which is an adaptation of the figures presented by Joly and O'Kelly, shows external and internal incidence in relation to import and support.

Import and support are also applied on the sentence level. NP is a support that finds its import in the predicate, in the same way as an adjective is an import to the substantive. Figure [5] shows this relation. An NP is made up of a Noun and

Adjective. Noun has its internal incidence (the arrow from and to the Noun) developed by the choice of the lexical item. Adjective is an import that needs a support and the support is Noun. The whole NP becomes a support and a Predicate, the import, is made incident to NP on the sentence level.

Adjective import

Noun support

Predicate import On the other hand, a substantive is an amalgam of its linguistic sign and what this sign represents or as Hirtle (2007a) puts it, there can be "no expression without representation" (p. 40). This representation is on two levels: what the linguistic sign evokes and what it actually represents in discourse in relation to experience. What it evokes is represented by its "extension", which is defined as "the range or field of possible applications over which the designating capacity of a substantive's lexeme can be extended or exercised" (Hirtle, 2007a, p. 123). In terms of extension, whether the lexeme dog refers to a single dog, to the species or to any type, the referent primarily enjoys the nature of a dog. That is, it is "anything we perceive as canine by nature, to the exclusion of anything feline, bovine, chevaline, or whatever other conceivable nature" (Hirtle, 2007a, p. 124).

NP = support

Yet, what the sign actually refers to when actualized in discourse is referred to as "extensity". According to [START_REF] Guillaume | Leçons de linguistique 1956-57, LL 5, "Systèmes linguistiques et successivité historique des systèmes II[END_REF], "extensity is a variable of discourse; extension 7 , imposed by the comprehension, is a constant of tongue" (155). It can be said that extensity is a subset of extension; it is citing an individual or a portion of the extension of dog, which is intended by the speaker.

Figure [6] shows the value of extensity in terms of extension. The figure shows that out of the many references or fields that extension of a dog presents, only one is specified by the dog, meaning the targeted individual or extensity.

7.

The American pragmatist Peirce , when discussing the terms extension and comprehension, observes that "Sir William Hamilton has borrowed from certain late Greek writers the terms breadth and depth, for extension and comprehension respectively. These terms have great merits. They are brief; they are suited to go together; and they are very familiar. Thus, "wide" learning is, in ordinary parlance, learning of many things; "deep" learning, much knowledge of some things. I shall, therefore, give the preference to these terms. Extension is also called sphere and circuit; and comprehension, matter and content" (Chance, Love and Logic: Philosophical Essays, ed. 1923, Cohen).

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But, to indicate the extensity of a noun or substantive, this noun should be accompanied by a determiner. Thus, by saying the dog, we have limited the reference to one single dog which the speaker and the hearer both know, disregarding the species, other dogs, or types of dogs. We can even conclude that the referent might not be a dog after all, but has the nature of a dog since extensity is a "variable of discourse", which depends on the intention of the speaker.

In terms of incidence, extensity is equal to the internal support of the substantive, which attains its internal incidence when the import of the substantive is made incident to it. It is the article the in the dog that attains the NP its extensity, when the import dog is made incident to it.

The term extension reminds us of Wilmet's use of Nichola Beauzée's distinction between "extension" 8 and "intension". Wilmet uses the term extension in the same way as Guillaume as both define extension as the range or fields to 8. The terms, "intension" and "extension", were first introduced by [START_REF] Wilmet | La détermination nominale: quantification et caractérisation[END_REF] as a result of lengthy discussions with André Joly, who introduced him to the French 18th century philosopher-grammarian Nicholas Beauzée. « L'intension est la somme des traits sémiques formant le signifié d'un substantif, d'un adjectif ou d'un syntagme nominal. » et « L'extension est l'ensemble des êtres ou des objets auxquels un substantif, un adjectif ou un syntagme nominal sont applicables. » That is, intension refers to the properties that define a word or concept. Extension defines the range to which a term applies (more like hyponymy). which a term potentially applies. Wilmet (1983, as cited in Goes, 1999) states that everything that circumscribes the substantive in an NP, which is referred to as "determiners", makes a contribution to the definition of the extension or the extensity of the substantive:

[…] tous les constituants du syntagme nominal circonscrivent bel et bien le noyau dans son extensité ou dans son extension.

Nous avons choisi d'appeler détermination cette fonction unitaire… (p. 31)

Here, determiners are considered in the larger sense as they include modifiers as well as the class of determiners. He reveals that determiners, as are considered in this study, modify the extensity of the NP while modifiers (adjectives) modify its intension. To illustrate, the NP black dogs has more intension and less extension than dogs.

Beauzée (1974) states clearly the function of each. The adjectives modify the "intension" of the substantive and, consequently, its "extension" as well. Yet, the articles only modify the extension of the noun, rather its intension (as cited in [START_REF] Goes | L'adjectif: entre nom et verbe, Linguistic collections of Duculot Department[END_REF]. But, as it is said earlier, determiners, articles included, modify the intensity of the substantive -noun substantive rather adjective substantive.

[…] les adjectifs physiques modifient l'extension du substantif, et par conséquent aussi son extension, tandis que les articles ne modifient que l'extension du substantif, sans toucher à son intension (p. 207)

An extended discussion about the role of article in terms of extension, extensity, and intension is discussed in Chapter 2.

The relation between extension, intension and extensity revolves around the interrelationships between the substantive with the other constituents in an NP. In the case where the substantive is a proper noun, extension and extensity coincide since the extension of the substantive is limited to one which is intended by the speaker in discourse -meaning extensity. That is why, with proper nouns, no need to have determiners. On the other hand, a proper noun has maximum intension but minimum extension. The fact is, extension and intension are complementary; when intension increases, extension decreases and vice versa. [START_REF] Goes | L'adjectif: entre nom et verbe, Linguistic collections of Duculot Department[END_REF] determiners and modifiers that accompany it.

The Rank of the substantive in an NP

In an NP, the noun is usually referred to as the "head' or 'nucleus" as it is the most important element, semantically, in the NP. Another explanation comes from the theory of projection. In examples [10], the verb is agrees with a subject in the third person singular and are in [11] agrees with a subject in the plural.

Thus, the phrase in the subject position projects its number features on the whole utterance. In these examples, the substantive is the one that projects its number on the verb and, thus, it is the head. Jespersen (1913) gives an alternative rank to the noun in his theory of ranks. His ranks are three: "primary", "secondary", and "tertiary". Primary word is a "principal" word; secondary is an "adjunct 9 "; and tertiary is "subjunct 10 ". To illustrate, in example [12], weather has the highest or "principal" rank, so it is "primary". The adjective hot is "secondary' as it modifies weather, and extremely has the lowest rank since it modifies the adjective hot;

thus, it is "tertiary".

[10] the mouse is in the closet [11] the mice are in the closet [12] extremely hot weather (Jespersen,p. 96) [13] a cup of tea [14] the idea of going to the beach [15] the rich However, the noun does not always occupy the "primary" rank. In example [13],

9.

Adjunct is a "term used in GRAMMATICAL theory to refer to an optional or secondary element in CONSTRUCTION: an adjunct can be removed without the STRUCTURAL identity of the rest of the construction being affected" [START_REF] Crystal | A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics 5 th ed[END_REF] 10. Subjunct is a term used in QUIRK GRAMMAR to refer to a subclass of ADVERBIALS along with ADJUCTS, DISJUNCTS and CONJUNCTS. In early work, "subjuncts" were grouped within the category of "adjuncts"; in later work, however, they were felt to be sufficiently different in SEMANTIC and SYSTACTIC behavior to warrant their 'equal' status with the other subclasses. tea is more important than cup though cup is the noun and the prepositional phrase of tea is its Modifier. Thus, cup is "secondary" and tea is "primary". The same applies to example [14]; semantically, going to the beach is more important than idea.

It is worth mentioning that Jespersen applies ranks to other parts of speech as well as to word groups. That is, adjectives, as an example of other parts of speech, are usually "secondary", but in example [15], rich is primary. This ranking can be also applied to word groups. Jespersen gives the word group "Sunday afternoon" as an example. "Sunday afternoon" can function as a "primary" in "Sunday afternoon was fine", as "secondary" in "a Sunday afternoon concert", and as "tertiary" in "he slept all Sunday afternoon" (p.102). We should not confuse Halliday's ranks with Jespersen's. Halliday's ranks are based on units of language, while Jespersen's on the importance of a unit in an utterance.

Types and Sequence of Determiners

Having identified what a noun phrase means in comparison to a nominal syntagm and a nominal group and having identified what is meant by a noun in comparison to a substantive, we continue investigating the determiners and their types. [START_REF] Quirk | A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[END_REF] distinguish between three classes of determiners. He considers the syntactic position as the criterion for his division.

(1) PREDETERMINERS, eg: half, all, double;

(2) CENTRAL DETERMINERS, eg: the articles the, a/an This classification of determiners, although it goes some way to telling us about determiners, does not go all the way. Some determiners cannot co-occur in the same noun phrase. Other determiners collocate with substantives or with other determiners rather than with others. To illustrate this, consider the examples below.

[16] all the many successes [17] *the all many successes [18] the first ten examples [19] *this the example [20] the only kid [21] only the kid [22] such a surprise [23] all such ideas Example [16] shows the order of determiners that precede the head as set out by Quirk et al. Figure [8] shows this order. On the other hand, example [17] violates this order; the post-determiner all precede the central determiner, and, consequently, the result is incorrect.

The NP in [18] is made up of a central determiner the, followed by two post-determiners first and ten and then the noun. The existence of two postdeterminers in the same noun phrase is correct as long as the ordinal comes before the cardinal. So, there is another sequence in the sub-classes to consider in the order of determiners. As to only, some linguists consider it as an adverb. Example [20] shows that it cannot be considered as an adverb and nor a determiner. According to Quirk et al's division, only is a pre-determiner and, consequently, cannot be preceded by a central determiner which is the. In [21], only functions as a "limiting" tool and abides by the before mentioned division; thus, it is a determiner. Though only seems like some other determiners, Quirk et al considers it, along with some, as separate cases or exceptions for many reasons among which the fact that they take on a different part-of-speech based on the context they appear in.

As to examples [22] and [23], such is a "pro-form" since it can be a predeterminer in some structure and a pronoun in others. Thus, such can also come after a central determiner like no.

We come to the conclusion that no ultimate sequence can fully account for the arbitrary order that some determiners impose, and Quirk et al's division is not a sufficient enough criteria for sequencing determiners.

On the other hand, [START_REF] Wilmet | La détermination nominale: quantification et caractérisation[END_REF] classifies determiners, which he refers to as "formal determiners" in contrast to adjectives or "material determiners", in the light of extensity and extension, rather than syntactic position. He also takes into consideration the semantic function they bring about to the NP. He divides them into four major classes:

(1) the "bi-polar" which are the articles: a, an, the, and zero article. They attain the extensity of the substantive on two opposite extremes: the general and the specific, which are investigated in the following chapter.

(2) the "numerical" determiners which include cardinal numbers. They yield discontinuous state of extensity. For example, in an utterance "he counted nine persons", the extensity is nine.

(3) the "strict" that produce an approximate extensity. He refers to them as the "indefinite adjectives", and they include several micro-systems: any, some, no, each, every, all, many, much, more, few, little, less, a few, little, several, a lot of, etc.

(4) the "quantifiers-characterizers" which, according to Wilmet, both function as quantification and characterization. The class includes demonstratives (this, that, those, and these), the possessives (my, your, etc.), and other determiners (such, other, different, what, which…). They function as indicators of both extensity and extension.

Wilmet's division of the determiners inspired many researchers, among whom is Coralia [START_REF] Ditvall | Revue Romane v.33, Sur l'expression du genitif de tot roumain en langue ancienne et moderne[END_REF], to investigate other possible divisions. She reclassified them into three categories: (1) the class of "quantifiers" that function as indicators of the extensity of the substantive. This class includes "bi-polar" quantifiers, "numerical" quantifiers, and "indefinite adjectives" such as any, every, no, several, some, etc.

(2) the class of "characterizers", indicators of extension. It includes numerical characterizers or ordinal numbers, the (tonic) possessive adjectives, the "strict" characterizers such as the indefinite adjectives (other, even, etc.) and qualifiers (qualifying adjectives).

(3) the class of "quantifiers-characterizers" which is a replica of Wilmet's fourth class of the determiners discussed above.

Wilmet's classification considers a crucial linguistic criterion -the functionality of determiners in the NP. However, it does not give an account of a sequenced syntactic position of determiners, especially when two or more determiners precede the substantive. In contrast to adjectives, researchers and linguists have, more or less, reached a consensus on the syntactic position of adjectives in an NP. All this leads to the conclusion unless we question the authors cited above, that determiners, though a closed-group, are arbitrary in their behavior.

Difference between determiner and adjective

Due to the arbitrariness of determiners and the way they overlap with adverbs and adjectives, some linguists consider adjectives, adjective phrases, and adjective clauses as determiners in the larger sense. Their consideration could be verified by considering the definition of a determiner mentioned above.

Adjectives, as well, play the role of "limiting the potential referent of a noun [24] the men in the yard are asked to leave [25] the young men in the yard are asked to leave

In [24], the determiner the limits the potential reference of men to men rather than women. In [25], the adjective young limits the noun phrase men excluding senior men, senior women and young women. With the adjective, the level of specification and limitation increases, and the targeted group is made narrower. Our specification and limitation can be extended even further to comply with our purposes by adding modifiers and determiners. Example [26] can be extended as follows:

[26] the young men in the yard… the young Russian men in the yard … the trendy young Russian left-handed men in the yard … the two trendy young blonde Russian left-handed men in the yard … the two tall trendy young blonde Russian left-handed men in the yard…

In this example, an NP can be extended without leaving the boundaries of one single NP. What is interesting is that the adjectives "tall trendy young blonde Russian left-handed" follow a specific order.

On the other hand, determiners are labeled as "formal determiners" and adjectives as "material determiners". Material determiners occur before and after a substantive; thus, they can be pre-and post-the substantive. [27] the best way possible (is to cancel the meeting) [28] the best possible way (is to cancel the meeting)

In [27], there are many possible ways and we have chosen the best, while, in [28], there is only one way possible, and it is the best. Thus, dividing determiners as pre-and post-is not enough; the sequence is also important. The adjectives best and possible are "material determiners", regardless of their syntactic position. The formal determiner the is always a pre-determiner. In the light of this, we can edit Figure [8] by Figure [9] to represent formal and material determiners.

In Figure [9], Formal determiners correspond to determiners (as in Quirk et al), and material determiners correspond to pre-and post-modifiers (adjectives).

According to Port-Royal, "l'adjectif faisait partie de la classe du nom, et pour cette raison il était séparé de l'article" (as cited in Goes, 1999, p. 206) an adjective is different from a substantive in terms of incidence; an adjective is usually referred to as a support to the import of a substantive. Besides, an adjective is different from a determiner in terms of affecting the extensity and intension of the substantive; an adjective affects the intension and, consequently, the extension, while a determiner affects the intensity and not the intension.

At this stage, it is worth highlighting the morphological, semantic and syntactic properties which differentiate determiners from other syntactic categories such as adjectives and adverbs. In addition to the above mentioned differences between an adjective and a determiner, there are, roughly speaking, four criteria that distinguish a determiner from an adjective.

i. Adjectives can be gradable while determiners cannot. An adjective undergoes many changes when used in its gradable form. Morphologically, it gains a morpheme at the end (-er and -est). We can say pretty, prettier, prettiest but cannot say *some-r, nor *some-st. In some exceptional cases, an adjective is transformed as in good > better > best, and yet retains, more or less, the same ending. In other cases, lexical items are added to show comparative (more than) and superlative (the most) cases. Morphologically speaking, comparatives and superlatives are identically patterned. Semantically, the level of modification is augmented by using the comparative and superlative of an adjective.

ii. Determiners are necessary is some cases while adjectives are not. It is incorrect to say *boy carried luggage. Such an utterance is in need of determiners; thus, we should say a/the boy carried the luggage. iii. Determiners have corresponding pronouns while adjectives do not. We can do without the noun (flowers) in such an utterance: these (flowers) are beautiful.

Sometimes, these can be anaphoric referring to a substantive, a nominal phrase, or even a sentence. In other cases and to avoid repetition, a determiner is sufficient.

Again and again, examples as [29],

[30], [31] and [32] show that there is no clear cut line between an adjective, a noun and a verb as adjectives can be used as nouns and/or as verbs.

[29] a 30 year old man [30] a reading lesson [31] a good reading is… [32] refer to a solved exercise In [29], year is used as an adjective and, consequently, it is not inflectedno plural "s". In [30], reading is also used as an adjective modifying the substantive lesson, while reading in [31] is used as a substantive. Example [32] presents the past participle of the verb solve as an adjective. It is worth mentioning that many adjectives and nouns like reading and solved are derived from the verbs. Such usages of verbs or nouns as adjectives make the differentiation line between them blurred.

On the other hand, no determiner plays the overlapping role of adjectives.

Determiners can replace the substantive but cannot act as verbs.

All in all, identifying determiners and adjectives as separate groups finds justification despite the many similarities they enjoy. Such distinction creates better opportunities for linguistic analysis. Chapter 2

The System of the Article in English

This chapter aims at reviewing and discussing the theoretical findings concerning articles in English along with their distribution and various functions.

The Study of the Article

The general interest in the article as a separate part of speech can be traced to the seventeenth century, when grammarians, who up until then had concentrated more or less exclusively on classical languages, turned to studying the vernacular languages of Europe. Up until this point the main reference for these scholars had been Latin, which, unlike Greek, is an articleless language.

"Our language (Latin) does not need articles" says the first-century Roman grammarian Quintilian when comparing Latin with Greek (Lyons 1999, p. 48).

Throughout the nineteenth century, the importance of Latin as the ultimate reference in the teaching of grammar is evident in most school grammars "one part of speech more than the Latin, namely, the ARTICLE" (Adam, 1818, p. 4).

According to [START_REF] Chesterman | On definiteness: a study with special reference to English and Finnish[END_REF], Lowth (1762) was the first to recognize articles as a separate category. Grammarians used different terms to refer to them like "nominal note" and "particle". As cited in [START_REF] Chesterman | On definiteness: a study with special reference to English and Finnish[END_REF], the term "article" is derived from the Greek "arthron", which was used to denote the relative pronouns. However, [START_REF] Christophersen | The Articles: A study of their theory and use in English[END_REF] remarks that "the origin of articles is obscure" (p.19). He examines the origins of the form from a different perspective and criticizes the theories that relate cultural maturity to the presence of articles.

Other theories suggest that there is a relation between the possession of articles and geographical location. Hewson (1964) and [START_REF] Kaluza | The Use of Articles in Contemporary English[END_REF] analyze the morpheme from a diachronic perspective. The article "the" is derived from the Old English demonstrative sē, and "a" from the numeral one. This change was gradual. In English, the articles are a subset of determiners (as discussed in the previous chapter), yet they do not "determine" in the same way as the other determiners, such as numerals, possessives, etc. do. For that reason, Hirtle (2009, p. 163) finds that they are "the most abstract of the determiners" as they are "distinguished by their degree of dematerialization".

The research and studies following the contrastive approach give insight into the usage of articles and the understanding of the notion of definiteness. They shed light on how every language achieves definiteness and the tools they use to do so. To list some, Chesterman's book On Definiteness: a Study with Special

Reference to English and Finnish compares English, an article-possessing language, to Finnish, an articleless language. Another publication by Szwedek entitled Word order, sentence stress and reference in English and Polish (1976) compares diverse aspects of the language between English and Polish with a section about articles.

Classification and Division of articles

Various parameters are called on when classifying articles, and this naturally leads to different interpretations. One classification is based on lexical criteria. This involves distinguishing between languages where the articles are, lexically, separated from the noun, as in German and English; these are referred to as "free articles". In other languages, articles appear in the form of bound morphemes, as in Bulgarian; these are referred to as "bound articles" [START_REF] Lyons | Definiteness[END_REF].

Another classification considers the presence and/or absence of articles on the surface level, in other words whether or not they have a corresponding semiological form. For example, the English articles the, a and an are referred to as "surface articles" and the zero article as "non-surface articles" (Chesterman, 1991, p.17).

Other linguists categorize the English articles with respect to the function that the substantive they determine acquire. One of the major traits is definiteness.

For example, [START_REF] Chesterman | On definiteness: a study with special reference to English and Finnish[END_REF] distinguishes five articles: a/an, unstressed some, the, zero article, and null article. These five articles are divided into two:

a/an, unstressed some, and zero article are indefinite articles and the and null article are definite. The difference between the definite null article and the Joly and O' Kelly (1991), who adopt a psychomechanical approach 11 , identify the presence of three articles a/an, the, and zero article. They divide them, first, into two "systems": "semiologically marked" (a/an and the) and "not semiologically marked" (zero article). Then, they divide the semiologically marked articles into two: extensive (the) and anti-extensive (a/an). This is due to the fact that the articles are regarded as being "bi-polar" (as discussed in Chapter One). Figure [11] shows that the articles a /an and the form a single system, moving from the universal to the singular and back again. It is seen as starting starts from the general, labeled "U1"(Universal) and descending to the particular labeled S (Singular); this movement forms the first tension / pole: the tension of particularization expressed by a (n).

Most indefinite

Then, the second tension / pole, the tension of generalization expressed by the definite article "the", is the mirror image of the first; this is seen as having as its point of departure [starts from] the particular "S" (Singular), at the reverse 11. The term psychomechanics, used more recently in the discipline of psychoacoustics, was first coined by the French linguist Gustave Guillaume (1883Guillaume ( -1960)). It covers a mentalist approach to linguistics, based on the idea that language is a systemised representation of man's collective perception of experience: "Science is founded on the insight that the world of appearances tells of hidden things, things which appearances reflect but do not resemble. One such insight is that what seems to be disorder in language hides an underlying order -a wonderful order (quoted by Walter Hirtle, Language in the Mind, McGill-Queen's University Press: Montreal, (2007). This conviction led Guillaume to declare that in order "To study a language in circumstances as close as possible to the real circumstances of usage, one should, like a speaker, start with the language in a virtual state and trace how the speaker actualizes that virtuality" (Temps et Verbe, p. 121, 1929). point where the first tension ended, and [with] moving toward the general "U2" (the Universal). [START_REF] Quirk | A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[END_REF], Hewson (1964), in addition to many other linguists, also identify the presence of three articles a/an, the and zero article. However, they admit that some, in certain cases, can be considered as an article. Kaluza (1977) identifies four articles: a/an, the, zero, and no article. The difference between the zero article and no article is the same as the difference between the zero and null articles presented by Chesterman. Hawkins (1978) considers a and some as indefinite articles and the as definite. He does not include the zero article in his theory of definiteness.

On the other hand, other linguists investigate the legitimacy of the zero article, calling it "a myth". For example, [START_REF] Berezowski | The Myth of the Zero Article[END_REF], in his introduction, states that the articles have been recognized as a separate group "more than two millennia ago", while the existence of the "zero article had not been posited until mid-twentieth century" and "is hardly inquired into" (p. 1). He argues that Jespersen has never used, nor intended to use, the term zero article, and that the person who introduced this terminology was Niels Haislund, who continued his work. He also argues that Paul [START_REF] Christophersen | The Articles: A study of their theory and use in English[END_REF] does not consider the zero form as an article, but recognizes the "existence of only two articles" and the zero form is used when "neither of the articles is admissible". He relies on structural linguistics to identify of the zero article. This research will limit the discussion and review of the most common identified articles, and they are: a/an, the, and zero article. The first stage is relevant to the noun itself; a noun brings to mind "its import of comprehension formed by gender, number and case". At this stage, "internal incidence" is achieved but "incidence to its own extensity" is yet to come. This is not achieved until "effecting" an article to the substantive.

Articles and Incidence

In the second stage, the adjective is added to the substantive, and not the other way around, because an adjective requires an outside support for its import - external incidence. As Guillaume (1990, p. 122) puts it: "every lexeme is an import of meaning which must find a support" (as cited in Hirtle 2007a, p. 208).

Stage three is concerned with "effecting" the adjective old to tiger. This has more to do with "collocation" 12 . Hirtle (2007a) does not mention the process of collocation directly; he explains that the import of one or more adjectives is made incident to the import of the substantive if "the meaning complex is judged adequate as a representative of the experiential entity in the intended message" (p.

209). At this stage, old and tiger are seen as one entity "old+tiger", as a single complex lexical whole.

In stage four, the psychogenesis 13 of the article, an is added to "old tiger".

The article adds "additional notional content" as well as "formal support" to represent the extensity of the substantive. The article is needed to give the substantive an extensity to "make sense" of the noun phrase.

Stage five is concerned with "effecting" the article an to oldtiger. Hirtle does not mention anything about this stage. One can speculate in reference to [START_REF] Quirk | A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[END_REF] that it might be related to the compatibility of the article with the noun; that is, if the substantive is non-count, the "effecting" process with a/an cannot be implemented. Another speculation is related to the range of extensivity 12. According to Halliday (2005, p. 61), "Collocation is the syntagmatic association of lexical items, quantifiable, textually, as the probability that there will occur at n removes (a distance of n lexical items) from an item x, the items a, b, c … Any given item thus enters into a range of collocation, the items with which it is collocated being ranged from more or less probable; and delicacy is increased by the rising of the value of n and by taking account of the collocation of an item not only with one other but with two, three or other items. Items can then be grouped together by range of collocation, according to their overlap of, so to speak, collocational spread." He makes the idea clearer via the adjective strong, which belongs to a set that includes powerful. He maintains that "Strong does not always stand in this same relation to powerful"; saying strong tea is accepted while powerful tea is not. It all depends on the noun in this example.

13. This refers to the genesis/origin of the mental content (Hirtle, 2009, p.178). (1939) puts it: "To receive an article, a word must stand for something viewed as having precise limits" (p. 69). The whole process, which is related to his "Substantiation theory", evolves from the fact that an idea has only "intention:

On Definiteness and

only quality is considered", and "its realization in a given situation must also have a certain extension (quantity) in space and (or) time, and this extension is a quality in its substance" (p. 67).

It is worth mentioning that the order in which the elements are represented in the previous figure, which is the order of construction in the mind (the genetic order), is the opposite of the order of pronouncing them in speech.

The Dilemma of definiteness

The term definiteness might seem, at first view, easy to define; however, it is surprisingly difficult. Many linguists have attempted to define definiteness or indefiniteness and the result is both confusing and contradictory.

To start with, [START_REF] Lyons | Definiteness[END_REF] states that though definiteness "seems empirically to be a unified phenomenon on the evidence of the way languages represent it, it is not straightforwardly characterized". He distinguishes two characteristics of definiteness: "identifiability" and "inclusiveness". Identifiability is for "referential use, especially where the referent is a physical entity locatable in a physical context". It is preferred mostly by pragmatists. However, inclusiveness is for "non-referential use", and is preferred mostly by logicians and semanticists. It is also referred to as "uniqueness".

On the other hand, [START_REF] Chesterman | On definiteness: a study with special reference to English and Finnish[END_REF] considers that the category of definiteness is made up of three sub-categories: "locatability", "inclusiveness" and "extensivity". Locatability means that the referents can be located or not. It is similar to "identifiability" introduced by [START_REF] Lyons | Definiteness[END_REF]. Inclusiveness refers to "a set of all objects which satisfy the referring expression" and is in opposition to exclusiveness that refers to "a subset of the potential referents of the referring expression" (p. 22). [START_REF] Hawkins | Definiteness and Indefiniteness: A Study in Reference and Grammaticality Prediction[END_REF], as cited in [START_REF] Chesterman | On definiteness: a study with special reference to English and Finnish[END_REF], "sees locatability as a pragmatic feature and inclusiveness as semantic". The third subcategory is extensivity, which Chesterman borrows from his reading of Gustave Guillaume. What differentiates definite and indefinite articles is measured in terms of extensivity. Chesterman reaches the conclusion that "definiteness is ultimately not a binary phenomenon at all, but a scalar one" (p.

182).

On the other hand, there is a difference between what is definite and what is specific. A referent could be indefinite but specific and vice versa. [START_REF] Thu | Vietnamese Learners Mastering English Articles[END_REF] presents examples [1], [2], [3], and [4] with the articles conveying different combinations of definiteness and specificity.

[1] specific + definite: I'm going to clean the house tomorrow.

[2] nonspecific + definite: I'm going to interview the first person who wins this contest.

[3] specific + indefinite: I met a survivor from the Asian tsunami yesterday.

[4] nonspecific + indefinite: I dream of buying a luxury house. (p. 24) 15 15 . In a private conversation, D. Ni Cheallaigh has pointed out that two important central issues have been neglected, (i) the position of the speaker, who knows exactly what he is talking about, with respect to the hearer, who has to interpret what the speaker is saying from the sum of "clues" made available from the linguistic and situational elements. In example [6], both speaker and hearer know that the speaker is referring to his own home, whether the hearer has actually visited it is immaterial. This use of the definite article is defined by Halliday as exophoric -defined by the situation and cultural conventions. In [3], the speaker who has met the survivor in question, should (unless his memory is faulty) be able to point him out among other survivors in a crowd, even though he does know his name; the hearer, on the other hand, only knows that the person referred to is a member of the subset of survivors that the speaker has met personally. and/or logical expression (see 2.5.2.5.), is not specific. In [3], the speaker met a specific person, a survivor, yet the identity of the survivor is not known -is indefinite. In [4], a luxury house is both non-specific and indefinite.

To Hawkins, the dilemma of definiteness resides in the fact that achieving definiteness is not achieved by using the, but rather in providing "a linguistic trigger" or "a situational" one. He illustrates his point by providing an example:

saying pass me the book when there are many books on the table does not make a definite reference, and the article a is supposed to be used unless "an alternative definite description" is provided: pass me the book with the red cover. The idea of definiteness is achieved when there is enough reference either through "an immediate situation, one of a fair number of larger situation, or else one of a vast number of sets of associated objects" (p.129).

Another problem with definiteness resides in the intersection of definite and generic. That is, the articles a/an, the, and zero article can have generic reference as illustrated in [5] and [6].

[5] Generic + definite: The house is the largest purchase you will make in your lifetime.

[6] Generic + indefinite: Houses are expensive. / A house is expensive. (Thu, 2005, p. 25) The The consensus of opinion would seem to be that though definiteness might seem an easy term to define, it is not so, in actual fact, as it includes notions such as uniqueness, identifiability, extensivity, locatability, and inclusiveness and overlaps or intersects with other notions such as specificity and genericity.

Approaching the Articles

The usage of articles by non-natives is not an easy task. The whole message communicated between the hearer and speaker sometimes depends on the choice of the article. For this reason, [START_REF] Kaluza | The Use of Articles in Contemporary English[END_REF] calls for establishing a set of rules that explain the usage of each.

A paradox about the articles in English is the fact that while presenting one of the most difficult problems to foreigners ... they are never taught to the native speakers of English because of their obviousness. How do they acquire this knowledge? ... The explanation that the articles come to them 'by themselves' as part of the English idiom is superficial because, except for fixed expressions, in the majority of cases they have to make some rational choice among the, a, or no article with a noun in its particular context... There must be few very simple rules governing the whole usage (p. 7).

To investigate the idiosyncratic features of the articles, linguists approach them in different ways. [START_REF] Quirk | A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[END_REF] start the analysis by distinguishing between "specific and generic reference" of articles. Then they survey the uses of each of the three articles first taking the criterion of the specific reference and then that the generic reference. [START_REF] Hirtle | Lessons on the Noun Phrase in English: From Representation to Reference[END_REF] follows Quirk et al's approach, but borrows Gustave Guillaume's analysis based on incidence and extensity. On the other hand, Joly and O' Kelly (1991) start the analysis by identifying the Universal and Singular functions of the marked articles (a/an and the), which could be compared to Quirk et al's "specific and generic" functions.

Then they analyze each of the three articles independently.

Other linguists, like [START_REF] Chesterman | On definiteness: a study with special reference to English and Finnish[END_REF] and [START_REF] Hawkins | Definiteness and Indefiniteness: A Study in Reference and Grammaticality Prediction[END_REF], approach the articles by choosing function as their main criterion. That is, they introduce the referential function, for example, and then, analyze how the three articles maintain deal with such a function.

In this research, each of the articles will be dealt with separately. I will start with the article a/an, then continue with the article the, and end with the zero article.

The Article a / an

Traditionally, the article a/an is referred to as the indefinite article. "a" pronounced /ə/ before consonants and "an" pronounced /ən/ before vowels. [START_REF] Herslund | Essays on Nominal Determination: From Morphology to Discourse Management[END_REF] finds that "the indefinite article 'points inward' by determining the semantic referential value of a noun" (p. 34). [START_REF] Quirk | A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[END_REF] state that it is "notionally the 'unmarked' article in the sense that it is used (for singular count nouns)" (p. 272). However, this is just one of the many uses and functions of the article a/an, which is also able to express both the singular and the universal.

First introduction

The article a/an is used when the referent is introduced for the first time and is not familiar to the hearer or speaker; it "makes no assumptions about an earlier mention" [START_REF] Quirk | A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[END_REF].

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[1] A house on the corner is for sale.

[2] The house on the corner is for sale. (p. 272)

Quirk et al explain that the only difference between [1] and [2] is that in

[2], it is supposed that the hearer knows which house is meant, while in [1], there is no implied assumption. [START_REF] Harris | Hermes: Or, A Philosophical Inquiry Concerning Language and Universal Grammar[END_REF] states that "A respects our primary perception, and denotes individuals as unknown; THE respects our secondary perception and denotes individuals as known" (as cited in Lyons 1991, p. 312). By "primary perception", he means first introduction where the referent is still not made known (in this way James Harris, as early as 1751 was able to see the importance of the distinction between the mental and experiential referent). (The use of the as illustrated by Harris is reviewed in 2. . .) [START_REF] Guillaume | Foundations for a Science of Language[END_REF] considers that the usage of a/an in the introductions of "narrations" intends to "present the characters" and situate them in "place and time" to form "fond de tableau". That is, a/an places the reader in a certain context, a certain picture. When writing a narration, the author performs two actions: "extraction" and "actualization". The author extracts from the class of concepts a specimen and makes it "a concrete case" in the "universe of experience" with the help of the article a/an.

[3] "Has any of you," cut in a Miss Gardiner, a schoolmistress of heavy limbs and formidable eye, "studied the psychology of the practical joker?" (N.

Blake)

The universe". In this way, the reader would be plunged immediately into "the fictional world".

The other case when a/an may precede a proper noun as in [4] and [5] is to have the meaning that "a certain person called X but otherwise unknown" (Quirk et al,p. 289):

[4] I used to know a Mary Roberts, too.

[5] A Mrs. Robertson was trying to contact you this morning.

The article a/an has also the value of "first introduction" when used with titles of books. In [6], the article a plays the role of "presenting" the book. Joly and O'Kelly contrast the usage of the article the and the zero article to the article a;

titles with the zero article or the tend to determine the nature of the book as in [7] and [8] rather than "present" it.

[6] A new English Grammar [7] The New English Bible [8] ᶲ English Grammar, Past and Present

The article a/an disappears in the genitive case as the possessive noun becomes the determiner as in [9] a and b.

[9] a. A Modern English Grammar by Jespersen. b. Jespersen's Modem English Grammar

A/An Equals One

As mentioned earlier, the article a/an is derived from the unstressed form of one. Thus, the article a/an in [10] and [11] can be replaced by one as follows:

[10] The Wrights have two daughters and a son. (Quirk et al,p. 274) The Wrights have two daughters and one son.

[11] A tiger is sleeping in the cage. (Hirtle 2007a, p. 163) One tiger is sleeping in the cage.

A/An Equals Any

As a/an conveys a singular function when meaning one, it conveys the universal function when meaning any. The article a/an can mean any in the following cases:

a) It has a generic function and can pick out "ANY REPRESENTATIVE OF THE CLASS". Thus, any can be its substitute as in the following.

[12] A tiger can be dangerous. (Quirk et al,p. 265 and Hirtle,p. 163) [13] The best way to learn a language is to live among its speakers. (Quirk et al,p. 281) In [12] and [13], we can say any tiger and any language in that general sense, but the generic a/an is "restricted" as "it cannot be used in attributing properties which belong to the class or species as a whole" (Hirtle, 2007a, p. 281).

That is, we think of the class 'tiger' without specific reference to particular tigers. Hirtle (2009) finds that obtaining a generic reference via a "singular"

substantive needs an explanation. In his investigation, he finds that "scope" is what permits the article to perform such a function. He discusses the three scopes generated by the article:

(1) in the 'generic' use the noun phrase expresses as wide a scope as possible for the lexeme, a universal scope, so it is referable to all possible tigers; (2) in the 'specific' use the noun phrase expresses as narrow a scope as possible for the lexeme, referable to a single tiger; and (3) in the 'non-specific' use the noun phrase expresses some scope in between these two extremes, referable to a subset of tigers… In these three uses, then, we have different extensities of the lexeme 'tiger' … the lexeme's extensity… is represented outside the substantive, in the article. (p. 165) (Italics and numbers in this quotation are mine)

b) The article a/an can also mean any, yet the speaker refers, indirectly as an "understatement", to a specific referent.

In is variable depending on the speaker's intention who might want to ridicule or praise the hearer.

[14] "A cup of tea always helps," said Mrs. Mayhew in a rather high, fluty voice. "It can never come amiss." "I shouldn't like to contradict a lady," said Mr. Oliver, "but I do feel that this is perhaps not quite the moment (as cited in Joly and O'Kelly).

c) The article a/an can also mean any without generic reference. It is referred to as "non-specific" and as an intermediate case between the two opposing functions: "specific" and "generic".

[15] My project is to photograph a tiger in the wild. (Hirtle, 2009, p. 164) [16] A tiger in captivity is a sorry sight.

In [15], a tiger means "any tiger we happen to see" in that particular area.

Thus, it does not refer to the whole species but it is restricted to the area corresponding to the wild. The same applies to [16]; the reference is restricted to any tiger in captivity, but the scope of generality is not wide enough to include "the whole species" in the planet. The reference is more like to "a subset" of the species of tigers: those found in the wild. Consequently, it is not generic. At the same time, it is not specific enough to be replaced by one. For that reason, such uses are referred to as "non-specific".

The Descriptive Role of a/an

One of the non-referring roles of the article a/an is description. exceptional musical skill. If the utterance is said without the article a, the referent is identified as not being Mozart, the person.

[17] He is not a Mozart. (Hewson, 1972, p. 88) [18] Paganini was a great violinist. (Quirk et al, 1997, p. 273) [19] She played the oboe with (a) remarkable sensitivity.

What is interesting here is that the article a is used before a proper noun. In [18] as well as in [19], the article tends to describe, yet in [18], it is used before a (common) count noun, while it is used before a non-count noun in [19]. What validates the usage of the article a before a non-count noun is the intention of attributing to a person a quality or other abstraction. Another explanation is the one based on the availability of modification. That is, if the adjective remarkable is deleted, the article a has to be deleted as well. However, the article becomes absolutely necessary if the head is post-modified as in [19c]. That is, "the greater the extent of modification, the greater the acceptability of a/an".

[19a] She played the oboe with *a sensitivity.

[19b] She played the oboe with sensitivity.

[19c] She played the oboe with a sensitivity that delighted the critics. (Quirk et al,p. 287) Although all these observations are accurate, structuralists like to another is controlled by the speaker's communicative intent. In [19b], the oboe playing is qualified by the abstract noun "sensitivity", actualized in continuity, in its full extension, disregarding any idea that there might be variants or gradation within the notion "sensitivity" applied to oboe playing. In [19c] several types of sensitivity are envisaged and it this mental initiative that introduces the discontinuity into the continuity. The determiner is the natural consequence of the mental circumscription that goes with the narrowing down of the idea to, in this case, the type "that delighted the critics. What is interesting is that the conventions of English require some semiological trace of this narrowing down in order to legitimize the contradiction between "nature" and temporary "function" allotted to the abstract noun. For example, it would be perfectly in order to say "She played with a delightful sensitivity", or even "She played with a sensitivity! stressing the abstract noun to convey that the sensitivity with which she played was exceptional. In all these examples, it would appear that this deviation from the norm is for expressive purposes, i.e., to insist on the exceptional quality of the sensitivity.

A/An as a Classifier

The article a/an also plays the role of a classifier; it classifies the noun that it is made incident to. Joly and O'Kelly explain this process in details; they refer to it as "mise en rapport" (meaning "to report"). In [20], a fool is extracted and actualized in this utterance and is made incident to He; and is is the sign of movement of "temporal" incidence of a fool to He.

[20] He is a fool.

[20a] He, a fool? This temporal incident can be substituted by a pause and intonation as in [20a]. In other contexts, the zero article is used rather the article a/an since the referent is no longer an individual representing the class. In [21], a carpenter classifies He as it designates an individual belonging to the class of carpenters.

[21] He is a carpenter by trade; he was also one time perish clerk.

On the other hand, perish clerk does not refer to the class but rather the function or post that he occupies -perish clerk. [START_REF] Jespersen | A modern English grammar on historical principles[END_REF].

[22] ... you called me fool.

In [22], fool is not used as a classifier but the attribute of fool is inflicted or made incident to you.

The Article the

Christophersen argues that the is not the counterpart of a/an; both forms have totally different kinds of meanings. Yet, the article the is referred to as the definite article in opposition to a/an, the indefinite. Historically, the is derived from the demonstrative that and is pronounced as /ðə/.

There are many uses of the; [START_REF] Hawkins | Definiteness and Indefiniteness: A Study in Reference and Grammaticality Prediction[END_REF] acknowledges that familiarity is a loose concept covering the instances when "the exact individual that the speaker is thinking of" (p. 28) to instances when "something else" is associated with the referent. Thus, the concept of familiarity can be considered to cover contextual reference. That is, the use of the in [23a] relies on previous mention using the article a/an as in [23]. The usage of the book in [23a] is understood as referring to the same book mentioned in [23] using indefinite description, an interesting book.

[23] Fred was discussing an interesting book in his class.

[23a] I went to discuss the book with him afterwards. (Hawkins 1978, p. 86) Such reference is also referred to as unique; the referent denoted by the book in [23a] is unique because it is the particular one mentioned in [23].

However, familiarization is challenged by Perridon (1989) (as cited in [START_REF] Thu | Vietnamese Learners Mastering English Articles[END_REF] through [24].

[24] You have a fine daughter.

The hearer knows that he has a daughter and still the speaker uses a rather than the. Thus, an NP marked by a can denote a familiar entity. There are several factors here that Perridon has failed to take into account. In the present context, it is enough to point out that "an interesting book" is the direct object of a process and the new information concerns the predicate in its entirety, i.e., "discuss an interesting book". In [24] "have" is a stative verb and "a fine daughter" is attributive; the new information is restricted to "fine"; the speaker could have reformulated his utterance as "Your daughter is a fine girl", where "girl" is a hyponym of "daughter. In an example such as "He was talking to a handsome woman when I came in", it would be quite in order to answer: "That handsome woman is my wife", whereas if the focus was on the attribute, one might expect, "Yes, I know who you are talking about, there is no doubt about it, but she is a handsome woman". Syntactic function is crucial to the understanding of the way the article functions.

Quirk et al refer to cases where a nominal group, determined by "a" is reiterated, determined by the definite article "the" or "that" as "direct anaphoric reference". It is direct since "the same noun head has already occurred in the text" (Quirk et al,p. 268). This leads to a relation of "coreference" since the two noun phrases have the same reference. They comment on the "complementary" role of the definite and indefinite article; the article a/an introduces the noun and makes it "contextually known" paving the way for the article the. [START_REF] Jespersen | A modern English grammar on historical principles[END_REF] terms it "explicit contextual basis" since the text provides the reference in a direct way.

On the other hand, [START_REF] Hawkins | Definiteness and Indefiniteness: A Study in Reference and Grammaticality Prediction[END_REF] calls for "hearer orientation"; that is, the speaker must "constantly" take into consideration the knowledge that he assumes his hearer to have and exploit this "shared knowledge" which the use of the relies on.

[25] Fred was discussing an interesting book in his class. He is friendly with the author. (Hawkins 1978, p. 86) In [25], though there is no first mention of an author, Hawkins explains that a native speaker understands that the author in [25] is the author of the book mentioned since the mention of an interesting book, "a linguistic reference", is sufficient to permit such an understanding; author is an "associate" of book.

This is also referred to as "indirect anaphoric reference" in article an, the book is known to have an author from "GENERAL KNOWLEDGE"; thus, the author refers to the already mentioned book indirectly.

This first introduction of book using a permits the reference to the group of words evoked by this noun. One can go on to talk about the cover and the pages as in [26]. George Kleiber refers to this as « l'anaphore associatif »

[26] I lent Bill a valuable book, but when he returned it, the cover was filthy, and the pages were torn. (Quirk et al,p. 268) This type of reference is referred to as "implicit contextual basis" by [START_REF] Christophersen | The Articles: A study of their theory and use in English[END_REF] and [START_REF] Jespersen | A modern English grammar on historical principles[END_REF]. This idea was first introduced by Guillaume, who gives "countryside" as an example. When "countryside" is mentioned, a host of many ideas are automatically conjured up, such as "green grass, tree, wood, field, road, peasant, etc." Guillaume calls this mechanism "extension impressive", which has the same meaning as "collocation" given by [START_REF] Halliday | Cohesion in English[END_REF].

Familiarity theory could also be applied to narrations that commence with the as a first mention. This action breaks the tradition in an attempt to immerse the reader directly into the narration without the aid of the article a/an in the beginning to pave the way. This method also creates a sense of continuity. [START_REF] Heim | The semantics of definite and indefinite noun phrases[END_REF] finds that both deixis and anaphora presuppose familiarity since these two are among the possible uses of definite noun phrases, but neither is possible with an indefinite one. She indicates that a possible explanation for this might be that the pragmatics of "deixis and anaphora are intrinsically similar, and definiteness correlates with the property they share" (p. 200).

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Situational reference

According to Hirtle (2009, p. 162), the import of the noun phrase has "an extra-linguistic referent… which permits us to relate the linguistic representations constituting the meaning of a phrase or sentence to 'mental spaces' outside language, i.e. to our experience." He refers to this process as "referential incidence".

Linguists indicate several situations that make the referent determined or "recovered" despite the absence of a "first-mention". They identify two situations:

the immediate and the larger.

Immediate situation

In the case of immediate situation, the referent can be identified by the In [27], roses are identified by the hearer as the ones seen in the gardenthe immediate situation of the hearer and speaker. The same can be said about [28]. Being in a town, maybe as a tourist, the castle, though not mentioned before, can be identified. However, it is always possible that the hearer may not identify the referent and seek clarification. It all depends on the situation, and the hearer might ask "which castle?" Some linguists, [START_REF] Lyons | Definiteness[END_REF], refer to immediate situation as "identifiability" theory. According to identifiability, the hearer can identify the referent from the speaker's utterance of the expression. However, this does not mean that the hearer exerts no effort. In [29], the hearer does not know that there is a hammer, but the article the tells the hearer that he can find it. So, he/she has to look around to find it and pass it. It is similar to beware of the dog; the hearer has to look around and identify the threat.

Larger Situation

Jespersen (1949) calls Larger Situation "wider situation". The referent in this case may be identified from knowledge in the larger situation. The larger situation can be in a country like the president, worldwide like the Pope, or can be extended to include the whole universe like the sun. Quirk et al find that the larger situation is hardly distinguished from "general knowledge".

In the note section, Quirk et al (p. 267) present the label "UNIQUE DENOTATION" which is used to refer to "classes, groups, etc. of human beings" such as the working class and to "clans, tribes, races, etc." such as the Romans, the Italians, and the masses.

This case is also referred to as "implicit situational/contextual reference" since the referent is identified not in the text but outside it. In [30], identifying which queen is referred to is sought outside the text; the Queen refers to the Queen of England.

[30] The Queen does not appreciate all the exposure her family gets from the Press.

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However, for a non-British Anglophone, the identification is not straight forward and may result is seeking further explanation like "which queen?" 16 . Jespersen (1949, p. 482) adds a third situation -"constant situational basis"when the referent is "unique" denoting one-member like the air, the sun, etc. He considers that "all singulars with the definite article are unique in so far as only one member of the class in question is considered in the context" (p. 482).

The Cataphoric Reference of the

Cataphoric reference is the opposite of anaphoric reference. The is used when what follows the noun identifies it as in [31]; president is preceded by the because the post-modification Mexico identifies it.

[31] The president of Mexico is to visit China.

However, Quirk et al argue that there is no difference between postmodification and pre-modification, and [31] can be re-formulated without any change in meaning as the Mexican president. This is not strictly accurate as is illustrated by the difference between The England team (the team representing England and the English team, the team composed of English nationals. There are subtle variants that have to be accounted for.

In other instances, cataphoric reference entails some degree of anaphoric reference as in [32] and [32a].

[32] The bicycle John bought has been stolen.

[32a] A bicycle John bought has been stolen.

16 . This question may also be asked by someone who refuses to recognised the person referred to in their role: The Queen = the reigning monarch of my country.

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In [32], the reference is unique and it means John's bicycle, whereas in

[32a], it means that John has many bicycles and one of them is stolen.

The Potential for Infinite Reference

The Potential for Infinite Reference refers to the theory that the number of objects to which an NP is capable of referring to is potentially infinite. [START_REF] Hawkins | Definiteness and Indefiniteness: A Study in Reference and Grammaticality Prediction[END_REF] emphasizes the great importance of having this potential considering that:

there would be little point in having referring predicates in our language which did not have this potential for infinite reference, for the same reason that a language which did not have the power to express an infinite number of meanings in general would be more of a hindrance than a help in meeting the needs of new situations, in expressing original ideas, etc. (p. 172)

The reason for using a definite article is to "impose a pragmatic blanket on the potentially infinite number of referents of a referring expression" (202).

Everything falling outside this 'blanket" is excluded and all the relevant objects falling under this blanket are "inclusive".

With the, the singular is "achieved and exceeded"; it favors the general, "absolute universalization". The reference is not to an individual in a class but rather to the whole class. That is, the "notional class" is evoked. In [33], the policeman does not refer to one policeman, but rather to the set of policemen, as a class. The article the refers "inclusively" to all the nouns falling under it.

[33] The policeman is a permanent public defiance of Nature. (Jespersen) [34] The child is father of the man.

Hawkins maintains that it is different from using a or some where "the exclusion of potential referents becomes a permanent part of the meaning of the indefinites" (p. 202). All this is of course dealt with by the psychomechanical approach in a way that is far more satisfying intellectually.

The in logical expressions

Logical expressions are "inalienably" associated with uniqueness. These expressions include: ordinals as in [35], sequence determiners as in [36],

superlative adjectives as in [37], and other words like same, only, sole, etc. The use of a/an or zero article instead of the with these expressions sounds absurd except in [3] in case best man is referred to as "groomsman".

[35] She is the first person in the list. (Thu, 2005, p. 27) [36] We must catch the next bus. (Quirk et al, 1997, p. 270) [37] He was the best man.

2.5.2.6. "Establishing Relatives" Hawkins (1978, p. 131) the is used as a first-mention and is accepted, which is not the case in [39] and

[40] that "require a preceding indefinite description".

[38] What's wrong with Bill? Oh, the woman he went out with last night was nasty to him.

[39] The woman was nasty to him.

[40] The woman who was from the south was nasty to him.

What makes the acceptable is the "referent-establishing relative clause" as it establishes "a definite referent for the hearer without the need for previous mention". Other expressions like the fact and the conclusion can be first-mention definites. He explains the definiteness of such expressions by grammatical verification. The use of a in [41] is accepted as a first-mention. An inversion of [41] is [42], but it is not accepted because of its "ungrammaticality" (p. 142). Thus, The fact replaces A fact and is accepted as a first-mention definite because "ungrammatical origins should be avoided".

[41] That there is so much life on earth is a fact.

[42] *A fact is that there is so much life on earth.

[43] The fact is that there is so much life on earth.

Thus, the indefinite article in a predicate nominal position can be converted to a definite article in subject nominal position as in [43]. We should object (i) that it is quite possible to say: It is a fact that there is so much life on earth, (ii) "the fact" is indeed anaphoric, referring back to an argument that is ongoing.

Inclusiveness of the

The term "inclusiveness" is used by [START_REF] Hawkins | Definiteness and Indefiniteness: A Study in Reference and Grammaticality Prediction[END_REF]. He explains that "just as the definite article refers 'inclusively' to all objects, we might say that the indefinite determiners refer 'exclusively' to some only" (186). When the object in question is unique, inclusiveness applies and is shown through using the.

[44] Bring us the wickets in after the game of cricket.

In a game of cricket, there are six wickets, and by saying the wickets, the speaker refers not to one or two or three but to all the wickets inclusively. The totality is targeted here. The plural noun with the is evoked here as one unique entity. It is from this perspective that inclusiveness is equal to uniqueness. This is made clearer with example [45].

[45] Ten students were standing outside the factory gate. Bill kept an eye on them.

[45a] After a little while some students came up to Bill and asked him his name.

[45b] After a little while two students came up to Bill and asked him his name.

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[45c] After a little while three/four/five/six/seven/eight/nine students came up to Bill and asked him his name.

[45d] After a little while ten students came up to Bill and asked him his name.

[45e] After a little while a student came up to Bill and asked him his name. (Hawkins, 1978, p. 183) If a number of students, less than ten as in [45a], [45b], and [45c],

approach Bill, it implies that this number is a subset of the ten students who were standing outside the factory gate and watching Bill. However, if the whole number, ten students, as in [45d], is said to approach Bill, ten students do not refer anaphorically to ten students in [45]. To show the hearer that the total number is evoked here, the should be used to communicate the appropriate message. The total here is dealt with as one unique unit. If the article a is used as in [45e], the reference would be to any one of the students excluding the others. To sum up, the is used inclusively and a/an is used exclusively.

Generic Reference

The article the is used to indicate THE CLASS AS REPRESENTED BY ITS TYPICAL SPECIMEN (Quirk et al,p. 282). This is mainly presented with "singular noun phrases" as in [46].

[46] No one knows precisely when the wheel was invented.

The use of the generic the with "plural noun phrases" occurs in two cases:

 with nationality names, such as the Chinese, the Americans, etc. but with the name of a language, the is alternately used with the zero article, such as a word borrowed from (the) French.

 with nouns referring to groups of people, such as the unemployed, the rich, etc.

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However, nouns ending with man and men are non-generic.

[46], [46a],

and [46b] illustrate this idea.

[47] The Welsh are fond of singing. (generic)

[46a] Welshmen are fond of singing. (generic)

[46b] The Welshmen are fond of singing. (specific) (Quirk et al, 1977, 284)

Emphatic Use of the

When the is used to emphasize the noun it precedes, it is pronounced /ði:/.

The emphatic the can precede proper noun to communicate the impression "the well-known person / place named X" as in [48].

[48] A: I used to know John Lennon quite well. B: Surely you can't mean the John Lennon?

Otherwise, proper nouns are usually preceded by the zero article.

Zero Article

The zero article is a "newcomer" to the system of articles since most literature, before twentieth century, deals with the definite and indefinite articles and overlooks it or takes it for granted. Noun phrases without a determiner (and no article consequently), are referred to as bare NPs. When the articles the and a/an are not applicable, the zero article is sometimes used. I use sometimes because it is not applicable in all the cases, and the determiner some is used instead. Consider example [49].

[49] I've just bought a melon./ some melons./ some melon./ ?melons. If melons is used with the, it means that the hearer knows which melons are being referred to. If not, it is illogical to use the then since it violates the familiarity theory. The unstressed determiner some is the most appropriate; it is the equivalent of a/an but with plural nouns. some is considered by many linguists as a plural article (as mentioned before) and is used quantitatively.

The Categorical Function of the Zero Article

In certain contexts, some is more appropriate than the zero article (as shown above), and in other contexts, it is the other way around, especially when the zero article is used to categorize.

[50] Joe's been chasing women ever since he was young.

[51] I've always preferred coffee to tea.

[52] Would you like (some) coffee or (some) tea?

In [50], some women would show that Joe has been chasing the same group of women, which is not the intended meaning -Joe is an "incorrigible Don Juan". At the same time, the zero article here is not generic; Joe cannot possibly be chasing all women. Here, the category of women is evoked, the quality rather than the quantity. In [51], the zero article is the most appropriate in this context,

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Zero article Designating a Unique Role

[53] John F. Kennedy was (the) President of the United States in 1961.

The zero article alternates with the in constructions such as [53] where the referent enjoys a particular position, a unique role.

The Sporadic Reference of the Zero Article

The article the is usually used in sporadic reference identifying an institution of human society as in [54] or aspects of mass communication as in [57] and transportation as in [56]. However, the sporadic reference has become so "institutionalized", like idiomatic expressions, that the article is not used anymore (depending on the context).

[54] My sister goes to (the) theatre every month.

The zero article is used in "quasi-locative 17 " phrases (Quirk et al,p. 277) mainly where the referent is not the actual building or place but rather the institution associated with it. That is, to be in prison does not mean a casual visitor but rather to be a prisoner.

Joly and O'Kelly present a similar example about the school as an institution and as a building.

[55] She met me with her pleasant smile, and asked me how I liked the school… "You have never been to school", I said, "Have you?" (C. Dickens) 17. "quasi locative" phrases mean that some phrases appear to have locative meaning, but their function is rather abstract.

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Quirk et al list cases when the zero article is used: with times of day and night, seasons, meals, illnesses, and parallel structures (treated as idioms).

[56] He travels by bus.

[57] He communicates by telephone.

[58] At dawn/ daybreak…

[59] (The) winter is coming.

[60] Where are we having dinner tonight?

[61] They talked face to face?

The Generic Meaning of the Zero Article

The zero article has a generic reference when it identifies the class as an "UNDIFFERENTIATED WHOLE". That is, when man or mankind is used to refer to the human race rather than to a "male human being", the generic zero article is used.

[62] This book is an attempt to trace the history of man /mankind. Christophersen (1939, p. 33) states that the zero article is used with continuate 18 words only, and differentiates between three generic uses of the zero article "toto-generic", "parti-generic" and "nulli-generic". The first, toto-generic, denotes not the class as a whole (as an individual) but rather all its members -the whole genus. Parti generic denotes an indefinite number or quantity -an indefinite amount of the genus. Nulli-generic is used in negative phrases where nothing of the genus is targeted.

[63] Lead is heavier than iron. (toto-generic) [64] We are going to have tea soon. (parti-generic)

[65] They never get rain in summer. (nulli-generic)

18. Christophersen identifies two types of nouns: unit-words (girl, day, event, etc.) and continuate-words (butter, iron, music, leisure, fish, etc.). The articles a/an and the are used with unit-words and the zero article is used with continuate words.

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Other Functions of articles

Articles are pre-determiners as discussed in chapter I and, thus, precede a

noun. Yet, we see articles preceding other parts of speech like adjectives;

consequently, these adjectives function as nouns. This process is referred to as "nominalization". For example, adjectives like human, disabled and wounded take the article the and act as nouns. It is worth mentioning that the adjective human also acts as a noun if it receives the plural morpheme s.

Jespersen (1992) refers to this process as "substantivizing" (p. 77).

Adjectives undergoing this process lose something and gain something in return.

Jespersen finds that you are a dear becomes more emotional.

All in all, the articles carry more functions than what their names entail.

The assumptions governing them need to be cautiously rephrased and reconsidered. For example, the general assumption that indefinite articles do not precede proper nouns or non-count nouns is not accepted anymore. What determines the use of each is the context in which they appear.

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Chapter 3

The Notion of Definiteness and Indefiniteness in Arabic

This chapter offers a review of the literature on the system of the Arabic article. The first section presents the concept of definiteness in Arabic. The second section describes the type of romanization adopted in this thesis. The next sections investigate how nouns and adjectives are made definite or indefinite and what semantic, syntactic, and inflectional changes they undergo. The final section presents a hierarchy of the various ways used to achieve definiteness.

Definiteness ف ع ل in the Arabic Language

Al-Suy i 19 (1445 -1505) starts the section on "Indefinites and Definites" by stating that nouns, by default, are indefinite, and that definiteness is a branch of indefiniteness (p. 34). He specifies that nouns are originally indefinite and that they are made definite by the addition of a sign. He presents the four phases 20 , as stated by Iben , setting out how indefiniteness precedes definiteness:

Phase one: The concept of indefiniteness precedes that of definiteness in the mind (thought) as definiteness is applied to indefiniteness (happens to indefinites).

Phase two: Definiteness is a subset or a branch of indefiniteness since it needs a tool, a syntactic structure or a sign, unlike indefiniteness. See Figure [14].

Phase three: The definite term is considered as a hyponym to both the definite and indefinite forms. For example, "man" is a hyponym of "animal" since it is a member of class or species; thus, "animal" becomes the 'general' and the hypernym of "man". Similarly, indefiniteness is a hypernym to definiteness.

Phase four: The benefit from (or the objective of) of identifying a name is to specify this name for the listener. The specification depends on the structure of the name (adding the definite article to the noun or adjective, for example), which is formed upon communicating this knowledge. Thus, prior to the actualization of the structure, there is no specification, nor any identification/ specification. (p. 34)

He goes on to explain phases 2, 3 and 4, which have already been presented.

The indefinite is more general or more generic than the definite, and the general dominates the specific. The specific differs from generic in the added traits to its

كيب. ل ل ق يف ت فا خ ا كيب ل

The translation is done by the researcher and checked by Imane M. HAMIEH, a member of the syndicate of sworn translators in Lebanon.

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SABRA 80 original general truth. He adds that the term "thing" is to be found everywhere, and to specify one particular "thing" (to circumscribe the referents associated to it), the "thing" in question is modified by adding an adjective or a sign. Thus, the Modified precedes the modification making the indefinite as the origin / base. He also asserts what is mentioned in the second phase that definiteness needs either a phonetic or a syntactic 21 sign.

Though indefiniteness is the standard case, definiteness dominates indefiniteness when they occur together. In example [1], the noun man جل / rajulu/ is indefinite 22 and the noun Zayd ي /zaydu/ is definite since it is a proper name.

[1] ھ ي و جل ين ح ض / ḩikīn/ /zaydu n / /wa/ /rajulu/ /hadha/ (laughing zayd and man this) this man and Zayd are laughing

The word laughing ين ح ض / ḩikīn/ functions as an adjective and should be in the nominative case. Yet, because of the definite noun, it is in the genitive case and is parsed as an adverb of manner ح /ḩ l/. In other words, case changes as a consequence of definiteness. The general rule is that the clauses 23 following indefinite nouns are parsed as adjectives ص /şif t/ and those following definites are parsed as adverb of manner ح /ḩ l/. However, Al-Anş rī (1938) inaccurate; he maintains that the clauses following pure indefinite nouns are parsed as adjectives and those following pure definite nouns are parsed as adverbs of manner.

Iben p. 85) agrees with Sibawayhi (760-796) that nouns are fundamentally indefinite and that definiteness is a branch of indefiniteness. Iben

Ya'īsh maintains that indefiniteness precedes definiteness because there exists no definite noun without its indefinite counterpart (except for the name of God).

Sibawayhi considers that indefiniteness is 'lighter' than definiteness because it exists before definiteness, and most indefinite words are declinable. He analyzes it from an existential point of view, which is valid, in so far as indefinites exist before definites.

To every definite noun, there is an indefinite counterpart, but there are many indefinites that have no definites. Sibawayhi does not provide an example to clarify this instance.

However, some linguists, such as Ahmad Afifi (as cited in Al-Handud 2004), disagree with this line of thought. They consider that many words that are definite do not have an indefinite origin, such as pronouns and demonstrative pronouns, whereas there exist many indefinite nouns that have no definite counterparts (such as غا as cited in Samira Ashour (n.p.). Moreover, both, Iben Ya'īsh and Sibawayhi do not explain how the subsets, which are the definites, dominate the original, in other words, the indefinites.

Al-Afgh nī (1981, p. 92) explains definiteness in terms of its function in specifying the intended entity in the mind of the speaker. He states that "every noun that signifies a specific item of its category is considered definite, such as you, Khalid, Beirut, this, the a specific entity in its category, it is indefinite, such as man, country, prince, and brother, whether with the definite article or without" 24 . That means, the term the man in the general, generic sense is indefinite as it does not specify the man in question;

on the other hand, the term you signifying a specific person, the person I am talking to, is definite. This leads to the conclusion that definiteness is associated with the idea of specifying the noun in the message communicated between the speaker and listener, which means that the context plays a major role.

Ashour (n.p.) notices that many Arabic linguists highlight no difference between a common noun and an indefinite one. They classify an indefinite noun as common. "Indefiniteness sets the limit when a noun does not specify one of its species, as in the case of man, mare, house, etc." (Al-Anb ri, 1957 as cited by Ashour, n.p.). IbenYa'īsh, as cited in Ashour, speculates whether the word "man fits for any male human being and mare for any neighing animal walking on four". This means that a common noun evokes indefiniteness since it does not specify any particular entity of its category. At the same time, this indefinite noun names one category rather than another, this, by the way, corresponds to the definition proposed by English grammatical tradition for the common or general noun (see Henry Sweet, 1891, A New English Grammar). Ya'q b (2006, II, 97) defines the indefinite noun as that which does not specify one of its species. He lists pronouns, demonstratives, and relative pronouns as cases of the common noun. He then defines the proper noun as that which specifies one of its species, but he lists the same group already listed for the common noun, in other words, pronouns, demonstratives and relative pronouns. This is not a mistake on his part. He states clearly that "the intention is not to find what matches the common noun with the proper noun, but to find what is valid to every member of the species of the common noun" 26 . This is quite applicable to pronouns, demonstratives and relative pronouns. The pronoun, you for example, can be used for any person spoken to and the pronoun I refers potentially to a referent to any speaker. At the same time, when each of these pronouns is used in discourse, a unique person is referred to in the speech act. Jespersen (A Philosophy of Grammar, 1924), following the tradition established by [START_REF] Sweet | A New English Grammar, Logical and Historical[END_REF], refers to these forms as "shifters".

Definiteness, on the other hand, eliminates commonness 27 and eradicates vagueness as it specifies one unique individual within the set of the common nouns.

In conclusion, Arabic linguists and grammarians identifiy definiteness and indefiniteness in their relation one to the other and to the difference and similarity of their internal structure.

Transliteration / Romanization 28

There are many systems of romanization of Arabic in use. represent the written traditions of very different historical and cultural eras" (Ryding, 2005, p. 4). Yet, both are referred to, in Arabic, as formal language ل ل غ /allugha al-fuşḩá/. Some linguists dwell on finding suitable terminology to distinguish between the two; Classical Arabic is referred to as

ل

ف /fuşḩá t-tur th/ -the language of heritage, and the Modern Standard Arabic as ل ف /fuşḩá l-'aṣir/ -the language of the modern era. This leads to another distinction, which is concerned with the fact that Modern Standard Arabic is different from the language spoken in every country and sometimes in regions in every country, where each enjoys its own dialectical Arabic.

Arabic is written from right to left. The Arabic alphabet consists of 28 consonants and 3 vowels. The consonants are joined together in writing, except for 29. The countries participating at UNGEGN are: Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria Arab Republic, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

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SABRA 86

six letters (numbers 1,9,10,11,12 and 28 in Table [2] below) which can be joined only from the right side. Three vowel signs are used to write both long and short vowels, in addition to other diacritics presented in Table [3]. There is no capital letter in Arabic.

In the romanization table recommended by the UNGEGN below (Table [2]), column 1 denotes an independent consonant character; column 2 the initial, column 3 the medial and column 4 the final form of a character. Column 5 gives the romanization equivalent. along with the diphthongs and diacritical marks. The first column is the sign in Arabic and the second column is the romanization.

Parts of Speech

The parts of speech in Arabic are three: noun سم /'isem/, verb ل ف /fi'il/, and particle ف ح /ḩarif/ (Sibawayhi,. (See Figure [15].) In this thesis, only

1 ◌ a 6 ◌ (A) 11 ◌ á 2 ◌ u 7 ◌ 12 ◌ a n 3 ◌ i 8 آ 13 ◌ i n 4 ◌ و aw 9 ◌ ī 14 ◌ u n 5 ◌ ay 10 و ◌ 15 ◌ (B)
 ׄ ◌ stands for any consonant.

 A Marks absence of the vowel.

 B Marks doubling of the consonant. nouns are investigated because definiteness / indefiniteness is one of their characteristic feature.

A noun "demonstrates meaning in itself and is not associated / restricted by time" 30 [START_REF] Ghalayini | بي ل و ل مع ج /J me' al-Dur s al-'arabiyyah/ The Inclusive of the Arabic Lessons[END_REF]; that is, it signifies a name outside the boundaries of time.

The noun man means and signifies the same category of human males regardless of time.

A noun is an "agent or object" or "what occurs in the context of agent or object" [START_REF] Owens | The Foundations of Grammar: An Introduction to Medieval Arabic Grammatical[END_REF] the noun more extensively, adding the feature of "nunation" and the case of being the object of a preposition /'isem majr r/ as some of the other indicators of a noun.

Ya'q b (2006, I) adds to the list of what qualifies a word to be considered a noun: its appearance in the plural form. (Jurj nī, 1969, p. 24) In [2], the adjective merciful evokes the name or noun referred to -God, who is sought for forgiveness, while in [3], it appears that the adjective in itself is sought as if it is the source of forgiveness, which is erroneous. Forgiveness is not God, but a trait of God / one of God's attributes. [START_REF] Alosh | Using Arabic: A Guide to Contemporary Usage[END_REF] [4], the word يل ج is a noun while in example [5], يل ل is an adjective.

[4] The weather is beautiful. (n.)

س ل يل ج

/'a -taqsu/ /jamīlun/ (beautiful the-weather )

[5] I like beautiful weather. (adj.)

أحب يل ل س ل

/'uḩibbu//'al-jamīlu/ /'a -taqsu/ (the-beautiful the weather I-love)

Adjectives, like nouns, are marked for definiteness. Adjectives, in Arabic, immediately follow the noun and agree with it in "definiteness", in case, number and gender [START_REF] Wickens | Arabic Grammar: A First Workbook[END_REF], except when the noun is non-human 35 (Abu Chacra, 2007).

Figure [17] presents the phrase ت ي ب يل ج (a beautiful house) in both the singular and the plural forms. In Part I of the figure, the adjective يل ج /jamīlu n / (beautiful) agrees with its Modified -the non-human noun ت ي ب /baytu n / (house) -in gender (masculine), number (singular), case (nominative case) and indefiniteness. On the other hand, when the adjective functions as "predicate" in a nominal sentence 36 , it is always "indefinite, even when the subject is definite".

[10]

ت ي ل أ ع س و /'albaytu w si'u n / The house (is) 37 large. [11] ع س و ت ي ب /baytu n w si'u n / large house [12] ت ي ل أ ع س ل /'albaytu-l-w si'u/ the large house (Abu Chacra, 2007, p. 33) Examples [10], [11], and [12] are nominal sentences. In [10], the noun ت ي ل أ (the-house) is definite and functions as head of the nominal sentence, أ م 38 /mubtada'/. The adjective ع س و /w si'u n / (large/ spacious) functions as predicate for this nominal sentence خ /khabar/. In such "indicative constructions", the adjective is always indefinite, with the nunation sign displaced at the end. If it ( س و ع ) is made definite, parsing of this sentence change.

36. There are two types of Arabic sentences: nominal sentences ي س ج /jumlatun ismiyyatun/, that start with a noun, and verbal sentences ي ف ج /jumlatun fi'liyatun/, that start with a verb. 37. When a nominal sentence refers to the present tense, the copula, verb to be, is not required. In [11] and [12], the adjective is "attributive". It agrees with the noun in definiteness / indefiniteness. Abu [START_REF] Chacra | Arabic: an essential grammar[END_REF] considers that:

There is no formal difference between the predicative and attributive construction of an adjective when the head noun is indefinite (p. 34) But when the head noun is definite, not necessarily with the definite article, the adjective is made definite by prefixing the definite article to it.

[13]

و ل ئ ي ل

/'as-s'īdu/ /wa'ilu/ (Wael the-happy)

The noun Wael is definite since it is a proper noun. So, the adjective ي س (happy) should be made definite, by adding the definite article. If it is not made definite, it is no more an adjective.

The adjective plays the role of limiting the possible referent if the Modified is indefinite as in [11], clarifying if the Modified is definite as in [13], and emphasizing as in [14], where the number sounded by the trumpet ,ن which is one, is emphasized by the word ح و single. The adjective can be one word, as presented in the previous examples, or a sentence. In the first case, no restrictions are imposed on the Modified. In the second, the case of a sentence, the Modified must be indefinite 39 and the sentence should 39. The Modified must be indefinite. If the definite article is prefixed to the Modified, the definite article should be generic to parse the sentence after it as adjective. Refer to § 3. 4. 7. The discussion about the adjective is bounded by its relevance to the topic of this research; otherwise, the discussion would have been extended as there is obviously much more that can be said about this part of speech.

Indefiniteness ل

In Arabic, "there is no indefinite article but an indefinite form" (Abu Chacra, 2007, p. 31) In all the above cases, except for the introduction of the definite article, the noun has the "nunation sign" (explained in 3.4.1.). Thus, a noun, in most cases, can be considered indefinite if it displays the nunation sign.

Besides, the position of a noun in a sentence decides whether it be definite or indefinite. If the noun is in the position of ح /ḩ l/ a circumstantial adverb 40 /an adverb of manner, it should be indefinite. The word ح describes the state of the agent, which is supposed to be definite, under which the verb is enacted. It should be indefinite because it clarifies what precedes it (Ashour,p. 16).

[20] He walked fast towards his daughter.

ه ب ن ع م م

/masha musri'an naḩwa 'ibnatihi/ (Alosh, 2005, p. 199).

The circumstantial adverb ع م /musri'a n / fast describes the manner of walking the agent the father took on when heading towards his daughter. The agent He is definite; it is a separate personal pronoun (Refer to § 3.5.).

Similarly, a noun taking the function of the "Specification" يي ل . ب ك ع ح يت ش /'ishtaraytu 'aḩada 'ashara kit ba n / (Alosh,p. 200) The noun book ب ك is parsed as "Specification" as it specifies the type of the speaker's merchandise.

The same way some nouns are indefinite when they occur in a certain position in a sentence, others are meant to be definite. Linguists agree that the topic / inchoative 41 أ م /mubtada'/ is, by default, definite as it is governed by/doomed to have a predicate, which, in turn, is indefinite if it is a noun, and a governed inchoative must be known -thus, definite 42 . Refer to Example [10].

On the other hand, there are levels of indefiniteness; there are nouns that are more indefinite than others. For example, the noun thing is more indefinite than body since every body is a thing but not every thing is a body. Add to this, body is more indefinite than animal as every animal is a body but not every body is an animal. In its turn, animal is more indefinite than man and man is more indefinite than male and female. ('Iben Ya'īsh,. In such a manner, the more a noun is common and general, the more indefinite it becomes. Again Aristotelian logic discusses this in terms of extension and comprehension; the archi-genus -the largest in terms of 41. There are two types of sentences in Arabic: nominal sentences, as they start with a noun, and verbal sentences, as they start with a verb. In nominal sentences, the noun, which is the first word, is called inchoative أ م /mubtada'/ -meaning the first word used to commence a sentence -and is always in the nominative case. Every topic or inchoative has its خ /khabar/ predicate of the nominal clause / comment, which can be nominal or verbal.

42. The inchoative occurs in the indefinite form in limited instance (around 40 instances according to Ashour). Some of the common instances in the indefinite form are:

-being useful as implying praying in this example: م ي ع سا Peace be upon you.

-being annexed or modified by an adjective. For example: ھ ي م س ش a luminous sun appeared and م ب من خي م ع ب seeking knowledge is better than seeking fortune.

-being preceded by its predicate. For example: لص ل في A thief is in the house.

-being preceded by an interrogative particle. For example: ؟ ح ل في أح ھل is there anyone in the square?.

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SABRA 98 extension is "thing" as is embraces all other concepts, it follows that its comprehension is theoretically null. This is again a clear indication of the relation (or the confusion) between common nouns and indefinite nouns.

Linguists divide indefiniteness into two: inclusive (or total) indefiniteness ل ل /'annakiratu-l-maḩ atu/ and exclusive indefiniteness ل غي ل /'annakiratu ghayru-l-maḩ ati/. Inclusive indefiniteness occurs when its meaning is common among all the members of its species and is applied to each member, such as the noun man, which signifies any member of the human species as there is no 'restriction' limiting the possible referents. On the other hand, exclusive indefiniteness is bounded and has specific referents. The phrase a good man refers to specific referents of the man group and they are the good ones only. With this, such a phrase has gained some specification or comprehension, and the number of potential referent has decreased. Thus, it has become less indefinite; in other words, its extension has been reduced. Because of this, the exclusive indefiniteness is referred to as lacking indefiniteness.

Nunation as a sign of Indefiniteness

In English, the article a/an is considered the sign of indefiniteness. In Arabic, there is no one lexical item to denote indefiniteness. Some linguists, especially classical ones, interpret the usage of nunation 43 as a differentiating sign between nouns and verbs. Only nouns receive this sign (Zajj jī, 1984). This sign, 43. Nunation has other roles in Arabic. In this thesis, only the function of indefiniteness is investigated. Some linguists contest the fact that nunation is a sign of indefiniteness. They provide the example of proper nouns that accept nunation. This is explained below. In the accusative case, a noun ends with a /fathah/ « ◌ ». With nunation, the /fathah/ is doubled « ◌ » and "often an extra «» /alif/, which is not pronounced as a long vowel « ā », is added at the end: م /malika n / (king) (as object).

In the genitive case, a noun ends with a /kasrah/ « ◌ ». With nunation, the noun ends with a "doubled /kasrah/ « ◌ »: ك م /maliki n / (king's), (of a king)."

When a noun or an adjective are made definite, the nunation sign disappears. Proper nouns and words used for emphasis (explained below) belong to the group of words made definite in themselves. The other types of definites, namely pronouns, demonstratives, relative pronouns, the vocative mood, annexation, and words with the definite article, make the category of words of definites with a tool. Al-Suy i adds an eighth type -words used for emphasis كي ل /'atta kīd/ like ع أج /'ajma'/, أج /'ajma' n/, ء ج /jam' '/ and ع ج /jami'/ meaning all. His verification is that these words do not turn into indefinite upon appearing in the plural forms, like proper nouns (Refer to § 3.4.2). This kind reassures the inclusiveness of the definite entity, and, thus, it is one of the definite types. (Sibawayhi,. Pronouns in Arabic are of three types: separate, suffixed and concealed.

Separate Personal Pronouns

ف ل ئ ﱠ ل أ /'aḑḑamā'iru-l-munfaşilatu/

The separate personal pronouns stand alone (as separate lexical items). The common known type is pronouns in the nominative case and they are 14 in number.

See Table [ pronouns, the first and second person pronouns, are in the definite form as the "thing meant" by the pronoun is explicit [START_REF] Abdul-Raof | Arabic Rhetoric: A Pragmatic Analysis[END_REF]. However, when a pronoun of each of these two groups occur in a sequence of one pronoun after the other as in Example [23], the more definite one is presented before the other.

[23]

ق أنت و أن ق ي و أنت و /an wa anta qumn wa anta wa zaydu n qumtum / I and you stood up, and you and Zayd stood up. (Al-Suy i, p. 35)

In this example, the first person pronoun I أن is more definite than the second person pronoun you ,أنت and the second person pronoun is more definite than a proper noun. That being said, the first person pronoun is mentioned before the second person pronoun, and the second person pronoun is mentioned before a proper noun, which is the reverse case in English.

The third row includes the third person pronouns 48 ب ئ غ ل ئ ض / am iru-lgh ibi/. They are divided into masculine and feminine in the singular and plural forms but share the same form in the dual. These pronouns are definite due to anaphoric reference [START_REF] Abdul-Raof | Arabic Rhetoric: A Pragmatic Analysis[END_REF]. That is, they refer or point back to a noun phrase mentioned before.

[24]

ل م ل ي ي وھ ق ل ي م ل /'almu'allimu yaq lu-l-ḩaqqa wa huwa yurīdu lakumu-nnaj ḩa/ The teacher says the truth and he wants you to be successful. (p. 138)

In example [24], the pronoun he ھ refers anaphorically to the "explicit" noun phrase the teacher م ل . This noun phrase is definite by the definite article.

48. The name of the third person pronouns ئ ض ب ئ غ ل means "the pronouns of the absentee".

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The third person pronouns can also refer anaphorically to "implicit" noun phrases as in Example [25].

[25] م ل ل أف ھ و ت /'ittaḩidu huwa 'afdala lakum/ Be united, it is better for you.

The pronoun it ھ refers to the implicit noun unity إت that is implied by the verb phrase be united و ت .

A pronoun can also denote affirmation. In the example [26] below, the pronoun he ھ affirms and asserts explicit information about his deeds -being criminal.

[26]

ل ھ

/huwa-l-mujrimu/ He is the criminal.

[27]

أس أن

/'an -l-'ust zu/ I am the teacher. (Abdul-Raof, 2006, p. 139) In [27], the communicator uses the pronoun I أن to "assert his or her authority in the class and put an end to students' involvement in the teaching or the syllabus of the course".

Separate pronouns can also be used to denote a general reference to everyone or anyone, as in:

[28] نك ي ل ل ت ق أنت و نك م ي ق ل ت ق أنت /'iz 'anta qulta-l-ḩaqqa yal m naka wa 'iz 'anta qulta-l-b ila yuḩibb naka/ If you say the truth, they will blame you, and if you do not say the truth, they will like you.

The second person pronoun you أنت does not refer to any present addressee but it "makes a general reference that applies to all people". To Al-Afgh nī, ي is inflected as object in the accusative case for the verb ن and takes the front position in the sentence for emphasis, and the « » /ka/ has the function of indicating the second person, but is not parsed. As to Abu Chacra, ي is just a particle and « » /ka/ is a suffix pronoun functioning as object.

Upon analysis 49 , this sentence could be expressed with the « » /ka/ in its standard position, suffixed to the verb as in [30]. Then, /ka/ is inflected as object.

[30]

ن

/na'buduka/ we worship you That being said, Abu Chacra's explanation and inflectional categorization appears to be sounder.

Suffixed Pronouns

Suffix pronouns are pronouns affixed to various parts of speech. They are also referred to as enclitic pronouns.

ئ ل أ ل

The first row in Table [7] contains the first person suffix pronouns. There are three suffix pronouns representing the singular me and my and one representing the plural us. The singular « ـي » /ī/ becomes « ـي » /ya/ when it is attached to a noun in the dual or "sound" 50 masculine plural. م and ين م teachers (all cases) → ي م my teachers

In [31] and [32], the « » is dropped and « » is added while keeping the whole structure as it is. In [33], the « » and the « و » from the sound nominative plural are dropped while only the « » from the sound accusative and genitive plural is dropped and « » is added.

The second and the third rows contain the second and the third personal suffix pronouns respectively. When any of these pronouns is attached to a noun, it undergoes some changes (if the noun is in the dual or sound masculine plural) very similar to the first person suffix pronouns' changes.

50. There is "sound" plural and "broken" plural. The first could be referred to as 'regular' and has a rule of conjugation for each of masculine and feminine. [34] ي ق /qalamī/ my pen

In example [34], the noun م ق (pen) is made definite by the suffixed pronoun « ـي » /ī/. Inflection wise, pen is considered "mud f" (regardless of its other inflection in the sentence, as it may be subject, object, etc. and accordingly, the case is decided). On the other hand, « ـي » /ī/ functions as "mud f 'ilayh" and is in the genitive case.

Proper nouns م ع ل م س

Proper nouns are definite in themselves; they do not need the definite article, to become definite. The names of places like م Mekka and ل London, the names of people for example, ح أ Ahmad and م Muşţafa, the names of animals, for example, احق Lāḩiq (for a mare), and the names of things, for example, يم ت Tamim (for a tribe) are all proper nouns.

If proper nouns appear in the dual or the plural form, the definite article needs to be prefixed, if definiteness is to be retained (Al-Fawzan, vol II, p. 107).

[35]

ل أت Khaled to Jaafar. However, this is not the case with common nouns. If the noun man is given to the species mare and vice versa, a change in language happens.

Another example, where a proper noun does not name one particular person or entity, explains this overlapping between proper and common nouns. In Example [37], no one person is specified. The same happens in Example [38]. However, the proper noun, Sibawayhi, carries the nunation sign, which seems contradictory to the function of nunation mentioned in section 3. 3. 1.

[38]

آخ يه وسي يه ي ب م

/marartu bi Sibawayhi wa Sibawayhin ' khar/ I met Sibawayhi and another Sibawayhi. [START_REF] Ghalayini | بي ل و ل مع ج /J me' al-Dur s al-'arabiyyah/ The Inclusive of the Arabic Lessons[END_REF] In this example, Sibawayhi is mentioned twice. In the first mention, the noun Sibawayhi is the name of a person, and thus, it is a proper noun. It carries the sign of the accusative, the short vowel ◌ « » (refer to Table [3]), as it is the object of the preposition « ب » /bi/. In the second mention, it has the nunation sign « ◌ » because it is indefinite, meaning "a person named/ with the name of Sibawayhi" means. It can also mean that he met a person with the same influential linguistic skill as the famous

Sibawayhi.

With such examples, it can be said that when introduced into the proper noun, nunation can bring about changes in meaning.

Demonstrative pronouns

ش إ ء س أ /'asmā'u-l-'ishārati/

Demonstrative pronouns, as their name implies, identity the referent by locating it on a scale of proximity. With respect to this scale of proximity, there are As shown in Table [8], there is one form of this, ھ /h dh / for masculine and ھ /h dhihi/ for feminine, used in all cases in the singular. In the dual, there are two forms for each gender: one in the nominative, ھ /h dh ni/ for the masculine and ت ھ /h t ni/ for the feminine, and one in the accusative and genitive, ين ھ /h dhayni/ for the masculine and تين ھ /h tayni/. However, in the plural, there is one form, اء ھ /h 'ul 'i/, for all cases and both genders.

The second kind of demonstrative pronouns is divided in the same way as is shown in Table [ In Example [39], the demonstrative pronoun ھ this is an adjective specifying the proper noun ي Zayd especially when there is more than one person with the same name.

Though they are definite by default, they need some specification when there is some vagueness. In this case, the Modifier should be defined by the definite article.

[40] يل ج جل ل ھ /hadh -r-rajulu jamīl/ this man is handsome 52. The adjective should not be more definite than the Modified. It can be of the same level of definiteness or less (Ya'qub, 2006, II, 160). The nouns جل ل the man and لب ل the student are adjectives to the demonstrative pronoun ھ this. In other words, structurally, the demonstrative pronoun functions as Head and the noun as Adjunct. Each of these adjectives specifies the entity referred to in the speech act and, consequently, achieves definiteness. These adjectives can be replaced by a deictic sign to obtain the same result -definiteness -unless the objective is to add information about the person in question.

On Definiteness and

Relative Pronouns

إ ص ل م س /'al-'isim l-mawşūl/

A relative pronoun is called in Arabic a "noun of the connected". It is always definite and acts as a noun in terms of number, gender and grammatical case.

The Arabic relative pronouns ل /'alladhī/ for masculine and ي ل /'allatī/ for feminine and their declensions as shown in Table [10] mean "the one" and stand for the English relative pronouns which, who, and that only.

There are two forms of the relative pronoun in the singular, ل أ for masculine and ي ل أ for feminine, and two in the plural, ين ل أ for masculine and تي ل أ for feminine, used in all cases. There is, as well, one form in the plural feminine, تي لا ,أ which is rarely used.

In the dual case, there are four forms: two forms, ل أ for masculine and ل أ for feminine, used in the nominative case, and two forms, ن ي ل أ for masculine and ن ي ل أ for feminine, used in the accusative and genitive. The plural forms are used only for human beings. For non-human plural forms, the feminine singular is used.

As seen in Table [10], the relative pronouns in the masculine and feminine singular and the masculine plural are written with one « » ( )ا /l m/ while the others with two, though, all are pronounced the same without any difference.

No. ل ج ل the man, in gender (masculine), number (singular), and definiteness.

Case

To form such a clause, the antecedent must be definite, as is the case with ل ج ل /the man in Figure [21], because the relative pronoun is always definite. The relative pronoun is considered as an adjective in this case. A better way of expressing this might be to say that, in structural or functional terms, the definite noun is the Head and the relative pronoun the adjunct in external incidence. If the antecedent is not definite, the relative pronoun cannot be used. Consequently, the relative clause is introduced without a relative pronoun and could be referred to as an indefinite relative clause 53 .

53. One comes to the conclusion that such a clause (figure [21]) is indefinite. However, Abu Chacra (2007, p. 202) presents only the term definite relative clause. The logical conclusion is: if there is a definite relative clause, there must also be an indefinite relative one. Otherwise, labeling is not appropriate. To illustrate, Figure [22] shows the same example given in the previous figure, Figure [21], with the same noun/ antecedent but indefinite, ا ج a manwithout the definite article prefixed to it but with the nunation sign « ◌ » -and without the relative pronoun, as a result.

Relative clause

Abu Chacra does not dwell on the parsing of the sentence with and without the relative pronoun, neither does he comment on the inflectional changes that the words that follow the relative pronoun undergo. He just mentions that:

Observe that, in contrast to Arabic, when you leave out the relative pronoun in English, the antecedent becomes object in the relative clause, e.g. 'This is the man you saw.' (Abu Chacra, 2007, p. 202.

The italics are mine)

In the example this is the man you saw, the noun the man plays the role of grammatical object for the clause you saw. When translated into Arabic, this sentence becomes ي أ ا ج ھ ه this man you saw him 54 (without the definite antecedent, nor the relative pronoun as a result), which does not convey the meaning, since the focus in on what I saw and not on man. Then, though the relative pronoun is deleted in English, the Arabic translation retains it, and the translation goes as: ھ

ي أ ل ل ج ل ه

where the focus is on the man.

Another feature that is lost in translation is the anaphoric suffix pronoun. It is called in Arabic ئ ل /'al' 'id/ the returner, and it is attached to the verb, the preposition or the noun coming after the relative pronoun in Arabic and refers back to the noun Modified /antecedent. In English, the relative pronoun replaces the 54. This is the literal translation.

On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic

SABRA 119 lexical item that refers back to the antecedent. Below is an example illustrating each case.

In example [42], the anaphoric suffix pronoun « ه » (him) is attached to the verb ت ك talked and refers back to the antecedent جل man.

[42] ه ك و جل ب م /kallamtuhu/ /wa/ /bi-rajulin/ /marartu/ I-talked-to-him and with-man I-met I met a man and talked to him ه وك جل ب (مAl-Sir fi, 277, 2)

It is worth mentioning that the returner in [42] refers back to an indefinite noun, making this pronoun indefinite as well, since it does not specify one single man out of the class of men.

In example [43], the anaphoric suffix pronoun « » (it) is attached to the preposition ن ع for and refers back to the antecedent ل the book. And again, in English, it is obscured by the relative pronoun that.

[43] ه ع ت ل س ل ل ھ ھ /hadh huwa-l-kit bu-l-ldhī sa'alta 'anhu/ This is the book that you asked for (literal: …that you asked for it)

In example [44], the anaphoric suffix pronoun « » (his) is attached to the noun سم name and refers back to the antecedent في ل the journalist. The relative pronoun used in English is whose while the literal one is who. It is noticed that the pronoun his is eliminated in English since it is replaced by the relative pronoun.

[44]

ھ ھ ي ع ه س ل في ل

/hadh huwa-şşaḩ fiyyu-l-ladhī 'ismuhu 'ali/ This is the journalist whose name is Ali (literal: …who his name is Ali)

On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 120

The above mentioned relative pronouns are also known as particular or specialized relative pronouns as there is one pronoun for each number and gender.

There are other relative pronouns, other than the ones mentioned in In example [45], the relative pronoun « ن م » does not specify the entity referred to but limits the potential referents to anyone who speaks Arabic (and not to those who speak Arabic).

In Relative pronouns, as explicated, occur with a definite antecedent. If it is not definite, no relative pronoun is used. As to for the relative clause, it could be nominal as in Example [44] or verbal as any of the examples in this section.

The Vocative mode ء ﱢ ل /'annida'/

The vocative mood is the act of calling upon or summoning someone or an entity. A vocative sentence has two components: the particle of the vocative and the /y / is the most common 57 and is used for calling upon the near and far 58 . The particle can also be omitted in some cases 59 without affecting the vocative construction. See examples [48].

[48]

ھ عن أع ف س ي ) ي ( Joseph, let this pass! (Quran 12:29)

In this example, the particle « ي » can be used or omitted without affecting the meaning. Ya'q b states clearly that omitting the particle can be applicable for the particle « ي » only (other particles cannot be omitted). From an inflectional point of view, the particle « ي » is used for both genders whereas the particle « أي » appears as « ھ أي » for masculine and « ھ أي » for feminine regardless of the number (Abu Chacra, p. 172).

Linguists investigate the object of the vocative by using different systematic methods. Al-Fawzan tackles it from the inflectional point of view, dividing the explanation into four parts based on the case of the object of the vocative:

1. when it is considered indeclinable but appears in the nominative caseفع ل م في ي ,م 2. when it is in the accusative case ,م 3. when it is considered indeclinable and appears in the accusative or nominative case فع و ب ن ل م في ي م 56. Ya'q b lists the seven particles with a footnote for each in which he provides an explanation.

They are ، ھي آ، ، أ ، أي ، ي أ، and .و 57. According to many linguists, « ي » is the only particle used in the Holy Book, Quran.

58. Al-Fawzan considers that « ي » is a particle used for far summoning beyond what is considered close proximity and provides an explanation for using it for both situations (footnote 2, p. 250). He indicates that this happens when the object of vocative mode is near but treated as far due to his/her great statue or position.

59. Then, he divides each part into subcases. Ya'q b (2006, IX), on the other hand, sets out to explain this section depending on the type of the object of the vocative and divides it into three:

1. when it is a single word ,م 2. when it is Annexed (not a single word) ف ,م and 3. when it is similar to an Annexed ف ل ب ه .م Then, he divides each section into subsections.

The methodology of tackling the object of the vocative followed in this thesis is triggered by the issue of definiteness/indefiniteness. In this light, all explanations related to parsing of the object of the vocative are beyond the scope of this thesis.

The explanation is reserved to the issue of how the vocative mood renders a noun definite. Thus, it is divided into two sections: 1. when the object of the vocative is indefinite and 2. when it is definite.

When the Object of the Vocative is Indefinite

If the object of the vocative mood appears indefinite (without any of the seven signs of definiteness mentioned in this section) but it is intended in the action of the vocative, the object becomes definite. Example [49] clarifies this.

[49] أجب لب ي /y libu 'ajib/ Student, Answer.

In such an example, student is not definite, but after adding the vocative particle, he/she becomes definite as it is intended and specified in the action of addressing him or her. If the object is indefinite and is not the Intended in the act of the vocative, it is then used to refer to the class or the species in general and not to one particular member. The potential referents are not limited and the object takes the nunation sign.

[50]

بي خ جا ي /y rajulan khudh biyadi/ O man, take my hand.

In example [50], the object ج ا man is indefinite and has the nunation sign.

The speaker, who is probably blind, asks any man passing by to take his hand to help him in his way. The speaker does not specify any one person.

When the Object of the Vocative is Definite

If the object of the vocative is definite, the vocative mode emphasizes this definiteness. For example, if the object of the vocative is a proper noun as in Example [51], it is already made definite. The noun Khalid is a proper noun and is summoned in this act to obey his parents.

[51] يك ل و ع أ ل خ ي /y kh lidu 'a i' w lidayka/ Khalid, obey your parents.

The vocative here does not play the role of making the object definite but rather to address him in an attempt to get him into doing something.

The object of the vocative can also be definite when it is the Annexed (See 3.

4. 6). The extent of its definiteness is already limited by annexation. In example [52],

the object لب seeker is annexed to م ل knowledge. Thus, vocative here targets those who seek knowledge. This group is limited but not specific to the extent of choosing one member. It indicates any one member of this group. تي ا به ك ئ ض ي / y 'i'an kit buhu l tay'as/ Whosoever lost his book, do not give up.

In example [53], the object ئ ض lost means something else without the addition 60 of به ك his book. It means that the person in question, who is called upon, is lost. Thus, this addition is necessary to clarify the meaning on one hand, and to limit the range of potential referents to one of those who lost their books. Without the particle of vocative, this sentence is not considered grammatically and semantically correct.

The fact that the object of the vocative can also be prefixed with the definite article is a matter of debate. There is no consensus on whether two definites can coexist in the same sentence. Linguists consider that both the definite article, and the particle « ي » define. Thus, two definites cannot coexist in the same word. This is different from a vocative that consists of a proper noun and the vocative particle.

They exclude this type of double definition on the grounds that a proper noun is not made definite with an added sign or tool, whereas the introduction of the definite article into a noun is a clear sign. The conclusion is that two definites with a sign each cannot coexist in the same sentence (Al-Fawzan, vol. II, ps. 260 and 261and Ya'q b, 2006, IX, 282).

Linguists highlight the three possibilities below where a noun with the definite article can act as object in a vocative mode: 60. The addition / complement here is an active participle عل ف سم . The noun جل ل is modified by the adjective ق ل and both words form a trait of the character as the protagonist is described in the context of the narration. This trait becomes like his name. On the other hand, if the particle of the vocative is followed by ھ أي or ھ ,أي the object should be prefixed with the definite article as in Example [57]. The noun س ل soul is definite as it is preceded by ھ .أي The vocative mood cannot be applicable when the object is annexed to a second person suffix pronoun ب ل ي .ض The vocative summons the object of the vocative, which is the Annexed in this case, and if the Annexer is addressing a second person, then this vocative would be addressing two different persons, which is logically impossible.

On Definiteness and

[59] * مك خ ي /y kh dimuka/ O your servant* (Al-Fawzan, II, 257)

The object in this vocative sentence is خ servant, which is the Annexed to « » your, the Annexer. Here the vocative is split into two addressees: the servant and your, which violates the structure of the vocative mood.

The vocative mode could be genuine or rhetorical. Example [48] is genuine because the object of vocative, Joseph, is expected to follow the required demand, while in Example [60], it is just to lament the loss of his daughter.

[60] ھ ل و ت من عت ن ي /ya durratun nuzi'at min t ji w lidih / O precious (daughter) ripped from her father's crown

Rhetorical vocative mood is used to express praise, complement, assault, disparagement, pain, soreness, exclamation, seduction, appeal and other emotion-like activities.

Annexation

Annexation is "a term used in the grammars of certain languages to denote a construction in which a noun is possessed or modified by another noun or noun phrase, particularly when an overt marking of the relation occurs on the noun which is possessed or modified" (Trask, 1993: 149 as cited in [START_REF] Gadalla | Genitive Constructions in English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study[END_REF].

This structure is referred to by linguists using different names such as construct, genitive construction and subjunction. It "typically expresses a possessive relation" Crystal (1985) equal to the English possessive form, where a noun or a pronoun is added to another noun specifying it or its nature.

Annexation consists of two parts: the Annexed or the head noun ف ل Total or real annexation renders the Annexed more specific and definite because the relation between the Annexer and the Annexed is strong. This kind of annexation depends on the Annexed (Ya'q b, II, 252):

When the Annexed is م ف an adverb of place like ع at, the Annexer is needed to continue the idea of the sentence. An adverb of place cannot stand alone.

[61]

ھ ل ع تك [67]

ي بي ل

/'a ribī zayd / the two hitters of Zayd (Ya'q b, 2006, II, 254) On the other hand, when the Annexer is indefinite, the entire construction is said to be indefinite, as in Example [68], and when it is definite, the entire construction is said to be definite, as in [69] [START_REF] Gadalla | Genitive Constructions in English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study[END_REF].

[68] ي ن ي م provides a definite Annexer the prophet making the city in question specific, to the extent of being equivalent to the specification achieved via a proper noun.

Although the number of annexations is theoretically not restricted, there can be only one Annexed or head noun. In phrases like the director and the teachers of the school م ھ وم س ل ي , the Annexed is director and thus, the genitive follows it. The second annexed noun comes after the genitive and takes a suffix pronoun /h '/ ( ) attached at the end of the noun teacher /mu'allim--h / referring to it (school). The word by word translation would be the director of the school and its teachers. Annexation can also happen with a suffix pronoun. This pronoun like his refers back to a referent identified by the speaker and listener. The Annexed Lord has the pronoun « » your as the Annexer.

[71]

أم ء ج ك ب /j 'a 'amru rabbika / the decree of your Lord comes (Quran 89: 22)

The Annexer in annexation can be formed with either nouns or pronouns and the relation between the Annexer and the Annexed is aimed at adding some definiteness to the Annexed.

The Definite article

The only definite article in Arabic is /al/ ;أ this particle is referred to as /al atta'arīf/ يف ل .أ It is "prefixed to its constituent, e.g., /bayt/ 'house', /ʾal-bayt/ 'the house'" (Rubin, 1976, p. 66). In Lyons' terms (1999), the Arabic definite article is a "bound article" as it is a bound morpheme attached at the beginning of nouns and adjectives regardless of noun cases, genders and numbers.

The definite article al is composed of two components: the letter 61 « أ » ( )ھ /hamzatu/ and ( )ا /l m/. These two components are the subject of debate as to which one is the agent of definiteness. The first school 62 led by Sibawayhi points out that the /l m/ is the tool / sign of definiteness. The second school 63 argues that the /hamzatu/ is the main component. The third school considers that both components each make a contribution to the tool. This school of thought is the most common.

When introduced into a word, al undergoes phonetic variations depending on the consonant's type, the first letter in this word. The definite article appears in four different forms:

61. Hamza ( ) is called a consonant letter, which is different from the long vowel ( ). There are two types: ع ل ھ /hamzatu-l-qat'i/ )أ( and ل ص ل ھ /hamzatu-l-wasli/ ( ); these are discussed in footnote 59 and 60 below.

62. Sibawayh considers that the /l m/ is the main component and the /hamzah/ is just an addition that intends to make the /l m/ silent (with the sign ◌) because if it carries any sign, it will be confused with other /l m/s. He adds that the /hamzah/ can be dropped in pronunciation (=volatile) while /l m/ is not.

63. This school considers that the /l m/ is an addition to the /hamzah/ so not to confuse the definiteness tool with interrogative tool, which is /hamzah/ as well but without the /l m/. Supporters of this school add that the definite article in Hebrew is /ha/ which is very similar to the /hamzah/ phonetically. (The comparison between these two languages is due to the fact that they are of the same origin -Semitic languages). Another theory concerning the etymology of the Arabic definite article considers the negative particle ا /l / no as the origin [START_REF] Testen | Parallels in Semitic Linguistics: The Development of Arabic La-and Related Semitic Particles[END_REF]. Table 12. The differences in pronunciation when the definite article is prefixed to a noun with a sun letter to that with a moon letter Table [12] shows the difference in pronunciation when the definite article is prefixed to a noun starting with a sun letter to that with a moon letter. It presents two situations: when this word is at the beginning of the speech act and when in the middle of it. In the first situation, the definite article is assimilated with the sun letter « » of س ل only. Thus, this sun letter is doubled with the /shaddah/ sign « ◌ » above it. In the second situation,

On Definiteness and

ھ ع ل

65 /hamzatu-l-qat'i/ »أ« is replaced with ھ ل ص ل 66 /hamzatu-l-wasli/ « » because the noun is preceded by a word. This ھ ل ص ل connects these two words. In the case of a sun letter, the pronunciation of the definite article is assimilated into doubling of this letter. However, with the 65. In this thesis, when it comes to the definite article, discussions on ع ل ھ /hamzatul-qat'i/ is are limited to its presence in the initial position. It takes the form « أ » /'a/ or « » /'i/. It is a part of the definite article when the word is used in the beginning of the speech act.

ل ص ل

ھ means "joining hamza"; it is a small sign written above the /'alif/« », which is not pronounced and appears at the beginning of the word. Its role is to connect two words together in one pronunciation without an intervening glottal stop, unlike ع ل ھ /hamzatul-qat'i/. 'It may be compared to the French apostrophe in l'homme (instead of le homme).

On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic

SABRA 137 lunar letter, hamzatu-l-qat'I changes into hamzatu-l-wasli, which is not voiced, and only the /l m/ of the definite article is pronounced.

The definite article is annexed for both masculine and feminine with no idiosyncrasies.

Functions of the Definite Article

Many linguists, like , Ibn Hich m (2001) and [START_REF] Abdul-Raof | Arabic Rhetoric: A Pragmatic Analysis[END_REF], highlight two roles played by the definite article: defining and nondefining.

The Defining Role

The defining role is based on two major functions: to indicate previous knowledge ي ھ ل أ and to encompass a genus أ قي غ إس , as explicated below. it is identifiable by the addressee. It is further defined by the context of their discourse where both are talking about the university and issues related to their studying. Furthermore, the definite article signals to the listener that the object of their discourse has been pre-identified, in this case by both the context and the shared knowledge.

The same could be said about example [74]. The speaker and the addressee are in the room. The reference to the room ف لغ , in the definite form, in the speaker/listener communication makes the room in question evident.

Example [74] can be confused by the case of knowledge based on presence (Refer to § 3.5.7.1.1.1.3.) as this knowledge depends on the immediate situation to verify the usage of the definite article.

Knowledge by Virtue of Presence لح لعھ /'al'ahid 'alḩuḑūri/

The definite article can also render items definite (to the listener/speaker) relative to the "hear and now" of the speech act.

In example [75], the day in question is today لي , which occurs in the definite form, as it is known to the speaker and the addressee in the context of speaking and its reference is relevant to the time of speaking. Both, speaker and listener, can experience the heat in today's weather.

[75]

ج ح لي /'alyawmu ḩ ro n jidda n / Today is very hot.

(literal: the today)

[76] جل ل ھ ءني ج /j 'ani hadha-r-rajul/ This man approached me (lit. this the man)

SABRA 140

In Example [76], the man جل ل is present in front of the speaker and listener.

His presence is made even more definite with the demonstrative pronoun this .ھ

This case of definiteness is similar to definiteness achieved in the Immediate Situation case in English.

Uniqueness

The definite article is also used to denote that someone or something is known to everyone because "there is nothing else other than this one or this thing". This is illustrated in example [77].

[77]

ع ل وصل

/waşala-shsh 'iru/ The poet has arrived.

If there is only one poet in an area, as is the case in such an example, then the definite article is prefixed to it indicating the uniqueness of such a person.

This uniqueness can be extended to names that are one of its kind like the name of oceans and rivers The Nile يل ل and the names of places The Ka'bah ل .

Prevailing Definite Article لغ أ

The definite article is introduced into a word and gives it a new reference because it has been associated with this noun. This reference is identified by the listener/reader because it is frequently used as such.

For example, the noun يت ل the House refers to the Ka'bah and ي ل the prophet refers to Prophet Mohammed. This definite article becomes a part of this word whenever it is used with this specific meaning except in the vocative mode

where it has to be omitted (Ya'q b, 2006, II). These nouns act like proper nouns sustaining definiteness. To some linguists, this case is related to knowledge yielded from situational context ي ھ ل و ي ل ھ ل (Refer to § 3.5.7.1.1.1.2.).

Non-Defining Role

The definite article is prefixed to nouns without achieving definiteness: This totality does not leave any one member outside the group.

3.5.

Denoting a Trait

اف ئص ل أ قي غ إس However, if the definite article carries this generic sense but cannot be replaced by all, it tends to evoke a trait which is the general truth about the class.

In Example [80], both words جل ل the man and أ ل the woman carry the definite article out of the fact that "the truth about man and his species is better than the truth about woman and her species 67 ".

[80] أ ل من ل أف جل ل /'ar-rajulu 'af alu min-l-mar'ati/ Man is better than woman.

(Al-Fawzan 1995, I, 152)

[81]

ح إن أنت

/'anta-l-'ins nu ḩaqqan/ You are the human indeed.

This trait of superiority is considered by Al-Fawzan as a fact while by Ya'q b as a metaphor and exaggeration. Yet, this trait cannot be generalized to encompass the whole genus as in 3.4.7.1.1.2.1. The definite article cannot be replaced by the word all because there are women who are better than some men as Al-Fawzan explains.

67. The Arabic script as presented by Al-Fawzan (1995, I, ps. 151 and 152) إن the human and prevails in the addressee. The use of the definite article is to highlight this trait in this person. Thus, the word all cannot replace the definite article.

Denoting Common Knowledge Fact أ ي لح / ھي ل يف ع ل

Nouns with the definite article are also used to denote common knowledgeknowledge or a fact about this noun that is formed in the mind about its characteristics regardless whether these characteristics are valid to some or few members and regardless of any new emerging trait 68 . This definite article cannot be replaced by the word all. Example [82] demonstrates this usage.

[82] ف ل من ل أث ي ل /'alḩadīdu 'thqalu min-ss fi/ Iron is heavier than wool. (Abdul-Raof, 2006, p. 137) The nouns ي ل (the) iron and ف ل (the) wool occur in the definite form because the truth about these nouns is evoked. The truth about iron is being heavier than wool. Yet, this fact is not applicable if the weight of wool is more than that of iron. So, this definite article indicates the general truth regardless of quantity or additional attribute. When a noun expresses common facts, it is prefixed with the definite article.

In the English translation, the noun is with the zero article rather than the definite 68. The arabic script about using the definite article to denote facts by Ya'qub (2009, II, p. 390) article. Abu [START_REF] Chacra | Arabic: an essential grammar[END_REF] specifies that the definite article is used in Arabic more frequently than it is used in English because nouns "referring to abstract things, whole collectives and generic terms, generally take the definite article" (p. 32).

While in English, the indefinite article and the zero article are used to identify such functions (refer to Chapter Two).

Other Uses of the Definite Article

The definite article is used for many other purposes. Some of them are below:

Hierarchical Levels of definiteness

Although linguists arrange definites and indefinites differently, all of them agree that the name of God and the pronouns referring to Him are the most definite because there is no discrepancy as to who is referred to, unlike personal pronouns, for example, I or we that that depend on role of locution and are therefore shifters.

There are three levels of ordering definite nouns: internal, external, and internal -external. Internal ordering is concerned in ordering the definites in the same group, like considering the first separate personal pronouns more definite than second ones. External ordering, on the other hand, is relevant to ordering the above mentioned seven types of definites in a certain order. The last type is the overlapping between the internal and external ordering, as is shown below.

As is noted, not all definites have the same level of definiteness. Some are more definite than others. After the name of Allah comes the personal pronouns.

Al-Afgh nī (1981, p. 95) classifies the pronouns from the most definite to the less definite. The first personal pronouns, separate and suffixed, are the most definite of all, and then come the second person pronouns followed by the third ones. When two or three pronouns appear in the same phrase and in subject position, these pronouns are arranged in the order of the most definite. Refer to Example [23].

Besides, the separate pronoun is more definite than the suffixed one. In Example [84], the separate pronoun أن /'ana/ I precedes the suffixed pronoun ھم ي /'iyy hum/ them.

[84] ھم ي و أن ق Even with suffixed pronouns, definiteness is a question of degree. The pronoun in the nominative case is more definite than that in the accusative case. In The suffix pronoun in the second group you precedes that in the third group it. 69 Some linguists, as is the case for Al-Fawzan, take the issue of which pronoun to be mentioned before the other one step further. This scholar proposes the situation where two suffix pronouns of the same group coexist within the same verb.

For example, if two suffix pronouns of the third group coexist within the same verb, they have to be separated as in Example [86].

[86]

ي ه ي أع /'a' aytuhu 'iyy hu/ I gave it to him.

(Literal) I gave him 70 to him 69. This explanation is the result of the personal initiative of the researcher.

70. All objects in Arabic have gender; thus, there is no neutral. An object in the masculine case takes the masculine pronoun.

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In such a case, any one of the suffix pronouns is suffixed to the verb and the other is suffixed to the particle « ي ». However, if one of these suffix pronouns is of another number, both pronouns can be suffixed to the verb as shown in example [87].

[87]

ھ ي ع ف ل و م ل عن ي مي س /sa'ala zamīlī 'an-l-qalami wa-l-kitabi fa'a' aytuhum hu/ My colleague asked for a pen and a book, so I gave them to him.

The suffix pronouns « »ھ them and « » him are of the same group -third person. The first « ھ » is dual and the second is « » him singular. Both are attached to the same verb يت أع give. That is, in such a case, the pronouns can be either attached or separated.

Al-Fawzan places proper nouns after the first and second personal pronouns but before the third ones. The verification is that the third person pronouns refer back to a noun mentioned before, where this noun may not be definite (proper noun) leaving some ambiguity as to his identity. The most definite proper nouns are the names of places since they rarely share the same name with other places. Names of people come next followed by names of species.

Next in line are demonstrative pronouns and the vocative (the consciously motivated kind) come. They share the same level of definiteness since both need a deictic sign (pointing at the object in question) when used. Demonstrative pronouns used for near deictic are more definite than far deictic. Al-Handud ( 2004) finds that demonstratives and any kind of definites that includes a deictic sign should be considered more definite than the proper noun. This hierarchy that fuses internal and external types of definites is acknowledged by many linguists and provides a tentative approach to identifying definiteness. It is worth mentioning that there is, as well, a hierarchy of indefiniteness.

Part 2 -

Corpus Analysis

The ambition of this second section is to provide a concrete illustration for the theoretical points set out in the previous section. The choice of corpus for this comparative study is the first chapter of The Brook Kerith: A Syrian Story (1916), a fictional reconstruction of the life of Jesus, imagined by the Irish writer George

Moore. The chapter begins with a presentation of the methodology used in the analysis, aimed at testing the validity of the research questions. The next point examined is the socio-cultural-religious background of the novel which has been chosen as corpus. This will also include a brief summary of the work as well as its importance as a work of literature. For this micro-analysis, I have had to limit myself to the analysis of the first chapter of The Brook Kerith. The main focus will be on the means used by the two languages to express nominal definiteness and indefiniteness in the English original and the Arabic translation.

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Chapter 4

The Methodology and the Corpus

This chapter presents the methodology that has been adobted in this thesis. It introduces the particular type of contrastive analysis that has been undertaken. It also gives a brief guide on how to interpret the examples in this section. Finally, the extract chosen for analysis is presented with a brief account of the reasons for choosing it as the corpus for the contrastive analysis

Methodology of the Analysis

The methodology presented here is that of contrastive linguistics.

"Contrastive linguistics is the systematic comparison of two or more languages, with the aim of describing their similarities and differences" [START_REF] Johansson | Languages in Contrast [Reports from the project[END_REF].

Depending on the approach to language research and the interest for language as phenomenon, two disciplines are distinguished: micro disciplines where language is viewed in isolation, per se and macro disciplines where language is viewed relative to its surrounding realities. In this research, the macro discipline approach is followed.

Charles Carpenter Fries from the University of Michigan instigated the program of contrastive linguistics in the 1940s. Fries (1945, p. 9) adopted a pedagogic perspective contending that the "most effective materials are those that are based upon a scientific description of the language to be learned, carefully compared with a parallel description of the native language of the learner". As a result of his pioneering work, many other researchers followed in his footsteps basing their work on the methodology of comparative description by contrasting and comparing language systems of related and unrelated languages.

In this particular contribution, the starting point is the observation of the system of the article and description of how it works in the specific context of English. This involves the observation of meaning in relation to form and context.

The second step includes understanding how the system works and finding out what lies beyond the scope of direct observation, as well as explaining its purpose and what it purports, especially if it is arbitrary or even contradictory. The third step is concerned with presenting its equivalent in Arabic and analyzing how the system of the article works, highlighting the similarities and differences considering the idiosyncrasies of each language. It is at this stage that data and hypotheses are confronted, often through manipulating and exchanging the articles to study the results. This experimentation may confirm the hypothesis or invalidate it or even lead to its modification. It is as Guillaume (1984, p. 22) puts it "A theory -any theorymust necessarily confront the facts. And this confrontation with fact is the critical moment for a theory" (as cited in Hirtle, 2007a).

The entire first chapter of the story The Brook Kerith is submitted to a detailed analysis. Each paragraph, as divided by Moore, is taken as a separate unit, fourth line, the straight Arabic script along with its transliteration is written with the literal word-to-word English version. A fifth line is sometimes added it it is felt that notes are needed. This protocole has been considered to avoid the confusion resulting from the fact that Arabic is written from right-to-left, unlike English, which like all European languages is written from left-to-right.

An Introduction to The Brook Kerith

In his short preface to The Brook Kerith (1916), George Moore offers his own explanation for the circumstances which gave rise to the composition of the work (see § 4.2.3.). He says, however, nothing at all about the popularity or the significance of the theme at the time, and omits to mention the many other fictional, semi-fictional and non-fictional attempts, made by his contemporaries, to explore what, for some, was the seminal myth of modern Western civilization, and, for others, the most important event in the history of the world. If we take Moore as a representative of the former attitude and the French writer Ernest Renan as the most distinguished exponent of the latter, we note, in both men, an overriding earnest and industrious effort to lay bare the facts and dissipate the institutionalized version of nineteenth century pulpit, school-room and drawing-room Christianity.

The Quest for Jesus

As a necessary prelude to an in depth analysis to The Brook Kerith, a certain amount of space should therefore be devoted to placing the work in its socio-cultural context. This will be done by giving a brief look at four major literary contributions be sure that he had read, not only the scholarly German research on the topic that had been translated either into English or French, but also the theories of theologians at home in England and Ireland. He would also have been au fait with the various French intellectual movements, and would have been familiar with the teachings of Saint-Simon and Auguste Comte. Finally, he could not have ignored the more psychologically imaginative production of Renan, not to speak of Wallace's fictional blockbuster, Ben Hur.

In The Quest, Schweitzer goes back over all previous studies on the "historical Jesus", picking up the thread towards the end of the 18th century. He

shows how the representation of Jesus varies with the changing times and points of view of the different authors. He concludes by giving his own interpretation of the findings in the previous century, maintaining that the life of Jesus should be examined in an eschatological context, and understood in the light of Jesus' own convictions, which reflected the later Jewish view of the afterlife and the Creator.

His final conclusion is surprisingly uncompromising:

The Jesus of Nazareth who came forward publicly as the Messiah, who preached the ethic of the kingdom of God, who founded the kingdom of heaven upon earth and died to give his work its final consecration never existed. (p. 373)

It is not exactly the conclusion that corresponds to George Moore's interpretation of the events leading up to and following the passion on the Cross. We conclude that, if he did consult Schweitzer -and it would have been strange if he had not -he was not influenced by the latter's rather contemptuous dismissal of Ernest Renan. For Moore's imaginative rewriting of the New Testament seems more in keeping with Renan's interpretation, i.e., the theory that towards the end of his life, the man we know of as Jesus did in fact come to believe that he was the manifestation of God on earth -the "son of God made Man".

The pioneer in the approach adopted by Renan was the German theologian David Friedrich Strauss, who published in 1835 Das Leben Jesu, Kritisch

Bearbeitet 72 ("The Life of Jesus, critically examined"). The book, when it first came out, created a sensation and was castigated by practically all Strauss's colleagues, whether they were "rationalists", who found logical, rational explanations for the apparently miraculous occurrences, or "supernaturalists", defending not only the historical accuracy of the biblical accounts, but also the element of direct divine intervention. On the other hand, the Christian world was shocked by his by denying

Jesus any divine nature. The negative response was so profound that it destroyed his academic career.

The difference between Strauss and Renan is that Strauss is writing an essay, while Renan is telling a story. The theme of the former's work is the conflicting accounts in the various contemporary accounts, which, in his view, shed doubt on the very existence of Jesus. The theme of Renan's narrative is the man Jesus, whose existence is established existentially and ontologically. Whether or not Jesus believed himself to be the Son of God was crucial to both Strauss's and Renan's purposes.

Neither believed in the God proposed by Christian theology, neither believed that Jesus was the Son of God; their problem was that everything in their research pointed to the fact that Jesus had obviously been under this delusion in the latter part of his shaken.

Like both Ernest Renan and George Moore, Wallace was determined to identify correctly not only the flora and fauna, but the architecture as well and the toponymy of the Holy Land. However, Wallace's knowledge came solely from charts, archaeological and topographical papers. In later years, he was delighted, when visiting Syria and Palestine, to discover that his work gave such an accurate representation of the places and people and rejoiced that he could: "find no reason for making a single change in the text of the book" (p. 937).

For some unknown reason, the historical character, Jesus, is systematically referred to as "the Christ"; there is not a single occurrence of the name "Jesus" in the whole novel Ben Hur. The word "Christ" occurs 47 times, "Saviour" 9, and "God" 381. We can only speculate on the meaning of this omission, but it seems to imply a desire to keep the historical man in the background and to focus on his divine nature and mission. The contrast with both Strauss's and Renan's treatment is striking: in Strauss's work, the word "Jesus" occurs 2,486, "Christ", 337, "Saviour", 7 and "God" 390 ; in Renan's narrative, "Jesus" is mentioned 929 times, "Christ" only 9

George Augustus Moore

At first view, the Irish novelist and man of letters George Augustus Moore is perhaps the most eccentric and certainly the least expected of the contributors to the literature surrounding the 'quest for the historical Jesus'. However a brief look at his bibliography will reveal that the dilemmas of religion are central.

In fact, The Brook Kerith was by no means his first venture into religious territory. England, where he spent five unhappy years before being expelled. (Moore, 2004, ch. I) In actual fact, if we are to believe a leading George Moore specialist, Adrian

George Moore's The Brook Kerith: Experience and Representation

In his book The Brook Kerith, published in 1916, George Moore finds an opportunity to present fiction through facts, to communicate his own preoccupation since childhood with Christian theology, to satisfy his passion for trouble making, and to write the gospel of his life, opening the door to other authors to challenge and debate theology.

In the dedication section of his book, Moore reveals the source of inspiration Susan Michell continues, the "great errand of his life in such ignoble shape" exhausted him "till each several bone in George's body shrieked for mercy" (p. 128).

Despite this, he refused to abandon his mule and insisted on riding on until he reached the Brook Kerith, where he prayed, if one is to believe him, for the second time in his life.

But what was the literary purpose behind such an arduous journey?

According to the 4th century theologian Augustine, physical or sensory experience is imprinted permanently in the mind in the form of visual images. In other words, memory is a repository of mental images, which can be retrieved at will to relive the past and to imagine the future. Seen in this light, Moore's pilgrimage to Syria can be explained as a conscious attempt on his part to become impregnated with the same Picture 1. The land of the Benjamites, the land of Shalisha and Arimathea Other places mentioned in the rest of the story, such as Tiberias, Babylon, Galilee, Nazareth, Jerusalem, Magdala, Jericho, etc. are also mentioned in the Gospels. In fact, the whole story takes place in what is known as the Holy Land.

Yet, though the proper place-names correspond to real-live places, the fictional element should not be underestimated. To start with, we find that the way the spatial-temporal frame established at the beginning of the narrative is reminiscent of the incipit of a legend. This is achieved through Moore's own particular mode of narrative which interweaves reality and storytelling.

The reader's first introduction to the main character Joseph through whose perceptive consciousness the story will unfold, is as a small child sitting on his grandmother's knee. This specific spatial location where the protagonist is sitting and listening to her stories has a symbolic significance as it sets a story-telling frame where the author-narrator discretely can establish himself as story teller and the reader as a naïve listener. This intimate interpersonal space is unrelated to any identifiable geographical reference point, unlike the places already mentioned that can be located on charts and maps. However, this place is highly charged with implications. It is a cozy place, in an ordered, caring family, the proto-typical position for the nurturing atmosphere, which is ideal for the calm, affirming beginnings of traditional tales. An explanation for George Moore's choice of telling Jesus's story through the eyes of Joseph of Arimathea is that he knew that he could not rival Strauss and Renan in scholarship. He would of course have known all about the success of Ben-Hur. The artist in him needed a point of view and as that point of view for technical reasons could not be that of an omniscient narrator, the choice of Joseph was both judicious and imaginative.

Choosing Joseph, a universally recognizable and reassuring figure, as the perceptive focus of his fiction is just another way to attract the reader's attention to an adventurous story. At the beginning of the story, he is pictured as a domestic stereotype: a child sitting on his grandmother's knee listening to a story about Kish and Saul 82 , which is also a legend. In this way, the reader is invited to take up the same position as the child and listen with rapt attention to the story-teller -George Moore.

One might wonder why he chooses Joseph of Arimathea as the protagonist.

Mitchell answers this question considering that "Joseph of Arimathea's quest is Mr. Moore then introduces another character into the fond de tableau -the servant who went with Saul on his quest. He introduces him into the narration by using the definite article. Usually, the indefinite article is used upon the first introduction of a noun in a narrative, especially when this noun is not known to the reader (Joly et O' Kelly, 1985 and[START_REF] Quirk | A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[END_REF]. However, Moore plunges the reader directly into the narration by the use of the definite article the servant, though there is no first mention of the character.

On the other hand, when Moore introduces the character of the seer, whom

Saul and his servant sought on their errand, he uses the indefinite article -a great 84. According to Halliday (2005, p. 61), "Collocation is the syntagmatic association of lexical items, quantifiable, textually, as the probability that there will occur at n removes (a distance of n lexical items) from an item x, the items a, b, c … Any given item thus enters into a range of collocation, the items with which it is collocated being ranged from more or less probable; and delicacy is increased by the rising of the value of n and by the taking account of the collocation of an item not only with one other but with two, three or more other items. Items can then be grouped together by range of collocation, according to their overlap of, so to speak, collocational spread." He makes the idea clearer via the adjective strong, which belongs to a set that includes powerful. He maintains that "Strong does not always stand in this same relation to powerful"; saying strong tea is accepted while powerful tea is not. It all depends on the noun in this example.

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seer. Why is that? Why does Moore use the definite article before seer but not before servant although both are mentioned for the first time? Perhaps Moore considers that Saul, who is the son of a king 85 , cannot just go alone on his errand without some escort; he needs company and servants. It is something taken for granted, and consequently, servant is used with the definite article. This is unlike the case of a seer; this addition needs to be first extracted from reality, and then introduced into the narrative to be actualized. To do so, the writer uses the indefinite article for first mention. In the subsequent mentions of seer, the definite article is used. This is, of course, to maintain coherence, which is also achieved through three major ways:

repeating the seer (5 times); using a variety of pronouns referring to him as he (repeated 10 times), him (3 times), me (twice) and my (once); and using synonyms like an old man.

The grandmother refers to the person who is sought by Saul and his servant as "a seer". In the Scriptures, "he that is now called a Prophet was beforetime called a

Seer" (King James Version 1 Samuel 9: 9). That is, in the Bible, Samuel, the seer, is considered a prophet and is referred to as "a man of God". The Scriptures explain this change in the naming, but why does the grandmother use the term "seer" rather than "prophet"? Where did the grandmother get her knowledge from? Does she really believe in the literal truth of the story she is telling, or for her, is it just a "story" -a folktale or legend? What is certain is that the story of Kish and Saul is very much a replica of the story in the Scriptures, and even follows the same method of narration -both the grandmother and the scribe provide explanations guiding the You understand me, Son, the old woman crooned, the Lord had been with Samuel beforetimes and had promised to send the King of Israel to him for anointment, and the moment he laid eyes on Saul he knew him to be the king; and that was why he asked him to eat with him after sacrifice. (The Brook Kerith, p. 2)

Another place is added to the frame of this story. Saul and his servant seek the seer up on the high rock as guided by the maidens. The usage of the definite article in this nominal phrase shows that the reader / listener is able to identify the rock in question. This identification is virtually feasible after mentioning that the seer was going to "offer sacrifice that morning". From this previously mentioned knowledge and from general knowledge about sacrifices, this ritual is usually held up on a high place, such as a hill or a mountain which is commonly known to the followers in that particular area. Yet, identifying this place in actual life is beyond our reach.

One wonders: why did Moore chose this particular story, the story of Kish and Saul, to start his narrative? The answer to this question can be traced in the effect of this story on the first listener, Joseph. The story has been chosen to trigger Joseph's imagination. Not only did he listen to the story attentively and curiously, but he also developed an obsession. It inspired the dream of becoming a prophet that was at the origin of his vocation:

I heard all you said and would like to be a prophet changed; he deplores his "pretentions to Messiahship" 90 (Gilman, 1916, p. 934) and his life takes a new direction. His thoughts about God and heaven become obscure; he considers them as "are our old enemies in disguise … God is but desire, and whosoever yields himself to desire falls into sin. To be without sin, we must be without God" (The Brook Kerith,. This line of thought is not accepted by Paul, his disciple, who has also taken refuge in the Brook Kerith. Paul "believes him mad, for Jesus explicitly sets forth the story of his delusion" [START_REF] Gilman | The Book of the Month: Mary Hunter's Bible[END_REF]. He does not accept Jesus's story but accepts his aid in finding the way to Caesarea. At the end of the book, it is suggested that Jesus joins the Buddhists in India.

The Brook Kerith: a search for a Messiah and answers

Susan [START_REF] Mitchell | [END_REF], in her biography of George Moore, analyzes the reasons for the writing of The Brook Kerith. She links it to the fact that his life did not satisfy him; "Mr. Moore came to Ireland in search of a Messiah … for in "The Brook Kerith,'' he starts the quest anew. (p. 120. Italics are mine). It is revealed by a member of his family that "he would end his days as a monk". This can be proved in his later writings that "show the attraction of religion drawing him closer and closer." (Mitchell, 1916, p. 121).

Moore himself was in the peculiar position of belonging to one of the few aristocratic Catholic families in the West of Ireland. The little schooling he had was in a Catholic boarding school in England, where he was unhappy and from which he was eventually expelled. Moore had never been a devout Catholic, or as Susan Mitchell puts it, had "a good deal of the Protestant protest against faith in any shape 90. Gilman, Lawrence. "The Book of the Month: Mary Hunter's Bible". The North American Review, Vol. 204, No. 733 (Dec., 1916) ] accepted the theory that the soul was created before the body and waited in a sort of dim hall, hanging like a bat, for the creation of the body which it was predestined to descend into, till the death of the body released it. He was, however […] great souls could not abide like bats in the darkness, but are ever desirous of contemplation and learning. And on pursuing this thought in the Greek language […] he discovered that there are three zones: the first zone is reason, the second passion and the third appetite (p. 101-102).

3.

[…] it would be a great misfortune, for the greater part of men would be as drunk as Noah was when he planted a vineyard, and we know how Lot's daughters turned their father's drunkenness to account. Moreover […] there would be no miracle, for a miracle is a special act performed by someone whom God has chosen as an instrument. (p. 128)

Moore also supplied "fictional answers" to questions that puzzled theologians. "The spear in Christ's side (mentioned only in John) is explained away as a ploy by the centurion to convince Pilate that Jesus was indeed dead when taken down from the cross" (Stevens, 2010, p. 254).

This mixture of "borrowing" and pure invention suited Moore's purpose perfectly. It was the means that paved the way to communicate his criticism and express his opinion. His character and intentions embodied this work and Stevens'

(2010) words are the best expression in this concern:

Moore was also a compulsive controversialist, never happier than when causing offence to some form of authority or another. Writing a heterodox fifth Gospel offered Moore the opportunity to engage with his life-long fascination with the religious temperament and to satisfy his instinct for troublemaking. (p. 185)

The Imprint in The Brook Kerith

The work itself is considered his greatest achievement -an imprint, a mark in literature. It enhanced his reputation and increased his renown. It was of course highly controversial: while many critics and researchers regarded The Brook Kerith as a daring stylistic feat, others condemned the contents as blasphemy. In fact, the texture of Moore's prose played a major role in attenuating the force of the attack. Brooks (1969) attributes great importance to the language used: "The lulling effect of Moore's rhythms and the calm gravity of his tone dampen any suspicions of blasphemous intent" (p. 21).

An outstanding praise came from [START_REF] Mitchell | [END_REF], who found the book such a rare "literary innovation" that Moore's inspiration was celestial. "It is possible that the light which fell from Heaven on Moore was in the nature of a literary inspiration, and he saw as in a vision the book which he, a Messiah, should write about an

Apostle" (p. 111). She considers that his tale "must inevitably seem to compete with the scripture story" (p. 134).

The Brook Kerith was credited, above all, for its style. An article that was published in The New York Times in 1916 pays tribute to Moore's style considering that the "sentences, passages, chapters, composed apparently without an effort, that are so clear, so balanced, so liquid that when one has finished the book, one can turn pages and read them for their sake." It is like a "portrait" because "the landscape dominates the story." 91 This fluency and smooth flow is also remarked on by Stevens (2010, p. 273).

She quotes from the novel to describe Jesus's speech, which is "moving on with gentle motion like that of clouds wreathing and unwreathing" (p. 122). She impeding the narrative flow", as when he "omits speech marks, composes paragraphs of unusual density and keeps upper-case letters to a minimum." However, this flow is interrupted by "the frequent inclusion of reporting verbs" since the standard punctuation of direct speech has been removed. So the reader has to find who is talking. Moore compensates for the lack of punctuation by including phrases such as "Jesus said to himself" and '"as these thoughts passed through his mind".

The musicality in Moore's voice has been much praised; it was as [START_REF] Mitchell | [END_REF] puts it "a recital in a musical undertone such as those that beguiled 'The Arabian Nights'". This musicality is interrupted "when Paul talks noisily to Jesus on the road to Caesarea, and then the tones fall again into a murmur." She presents a beautiful simile of how his voice flows like "the sand in the hour-glass" (p. 133).

The story is also commended for its structure. [START_REF] Blissett | George Moore and Literary Wagnerism[END_REF] gives an evocative description of how the story is organized: The Brook Kerith is compared to a brook; "the old woman telling stories to her grandchild". Then, "the brook widens out as it flows, a smooth current, not very rapid, but flowing always, turning sometimes east, sometimes west, winding, disappearing at last mysteriously like a river" (p. 69). It is just like a delta of a river.

Another comment about the structure of the novel comes once more from [START_REF] Mitchell | [END_REF]. She uses geometrical terminology to describe it. She divides the book into sections: "the first 442 pages" might be described as "horizontal"; then, the level "rising suddenly … into one vertical peak and subsiding at page 466 to the horizontal again and continuing at this level up to its close on page 471".

Reaction towards The Brook Kerith

The book's popularity did not only result from its much-praised style, but also from its controversial ideas and theological content. As previously mentioned, many attacked The Brook Kerith on religious grounds, condemning it as blasphemy.

The "raging controversy" filled many columns in the Westminster Gazette and the Daily Express. "One reviewer writing in the Manchester Guardian …concludes that of all the legends circulating about Jesus, Moore's is 'the most offending'" (p. 248).

Some even called for legal action; "Lord Alfred Douglas tried -but failed -to bring a charge of blasphemy against the author" (Stevens, 2010, p. 248).

But Moore, was, as usual, quite indifferent to the criticism his story was provoking because, of course, it increased his sales. It even made him brag about it saying he had produced "the only prose epic in the English language" (Moore and Magee, 1942, p. 75). It even encouraged him to rewrite the story in the form of a play -The Apostle -in 1923.

Some severe criticism came, however, strangely enough from his old friend Frank Harris, who criticized him of for the lack of scholarship and even accused him of having borrowed his idea from elsewhere. [START_REF] Stevens | The Historical Jesus and the Literary Imagination 1860-1920[END_REF] Kerith is a blind patch in your mind 92 " and adding that he writes "better about men" than about books" (p. 14).

Again, Moore was writing something that had always occupied his mind and heart -religion. This book offered him the opportunity to engage with what dominated his whole life since childhood.

Whether praised or attacked, this book, unlike his earlier publications, reinforced the elevated position he already held among writers. It is "an art few writers possess", Susan Mitchell concludes in her praise of his style and and deserved him the title of: "the greatest master of English since Thackeray" [START_REF] Sherman | On Contemporary Literature[END_REF].

Whatever the critical long-term assessment, the novel has opened the door for a fictional genre that takes on board theological theories, even if it incited a certain amount jealousy and controversy. With The Brook Kerith, neither Moore, nor the literary world has remained the same since its publication. To all intents and purposes, The Brook Kerith has left a profound imprint on the hearts and minds of the reading public. Chapter 5

The Analysis of the First Chapter of the Corpus

The first chapter of The Brook Kerith is divided into four sections: (1)

Introduction of the Narrative, (2) A Dream, (3) Going to the Hills, (4) His Scribes.

This division is not George Moore's. The division of these sections is based on themes governing a group of paragraphs. This division is not made by George Moore.

The introduction of this narrative

The incipit or opening sentences of The Brook Kerith starts by establishing the narrative frame or fond de tableau, as Guillaume 1946puts it (Leçons de linguistique, 1985, vol. 6, p. 84); that is, it creates the context or the picture for the narration. The story starts by identifying the setting -namely time and place -and then person, in other words, the protagonists or the characters. This process is gradual.

It was at the end of a summer evening, long after his usual bedtime, that Joseph, sitting on his grandmother's knee, heard her tell that Kish having lost his [assets] sent Saul, his son, to seek them in the land of the Benjamites and the land of Shalisha, whither they might have strayed. But they were not in these lands, Son, she continued, nor in Zulp, whither Saul went afterwards, and being then tired out with looking for them he said to the servant: we shall do well to forget the asses, lest my father should ask what has become of us. But the servant, being of a mind that Kish would not care to see them without the asses, said to young Saul: let us go up into yon city, for a great seer lives there and he will be able to put us in the right way to come upon the asses. But we have little in our wallet to recompense him, Saul answered, only half a loaf and a little wine at the end of the bottle. We have more than that, the servant replied, and opening his hand he showed a quarter of a shekel of silver to Saul, who said: he will take that in payment.

If we were to compare the prose version of a fictional or factual account of events with their theatrical equivalent, the opening sentence could be compared to the curtain that is raised at the beginning of each performance to reveal the stage to the audience. In this way the role played by the opening or incipit sentence of a story is vital when it comes to determining the relation between the reader and the author-narrator of the story. In choosing to focus in the first sentence on a precise moment in time the end of a summer evening [line 1] 93 , the narrator of the Brook Kerith immediately signals to his reader the subjective nature of the story that is about to unfold. We note that no precise calendar time is specified. The reader must take his bearings from the cycle of the days, months and years that go to make up the idea of circular time -the cycle of the seasons. The indefinite article in a summer evening avoids locating the evening in linear or calander time, as one might expect in a story that sets out to make a major contribution to the quest of the historical Jesus. It leaves the reader under the impression that it could be any 93. This way of opening a narrative is not unusual ; Virginia Woolf's last novel The Years (1937), opens in this way: "It was an uncertain spring. The weather, perpetually changing, sent clouds of blue and of purple flying over the land."

On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic

SABRA 182

summer evening. And if we want to locate this summer, it can be only by reference to the seasons preceding and following any or every summer: summer comes after spring and before autumn. The frame is obviously the cycle of the seasons.

The phrase the end of a summer evening creates, in this way, an isolated moment in time, but again, there is no way of locating this moment specifically with respect to "calendar time" -linear time -except in the cycle of day and night. The use of iterative non-specific time is further reiterated by the addition of his usual bedtime. Once again, we note that the time of the boy's going to bed is not indicated; however, it is recurrent as it is the usual bedtime. It is identified by the grandmother and Joseph.

In the Arabic version of the first phrase (See Figure 26), the article the in the phrase the end of a summer evening is dropped in Arabic ي نھ /nihayati/ (end).

In this phrase, the definite article is omitted because ي نھ (end) is already made definite by annexation ف إض /'a'-'i fatu/, where ي أم /'umsiyatin/ (evening) is the Annexer

ف م ليه

/mo f ilayh/. This case is equivalent to the possessive structure in English. However, the phrase ي صي ي أم /'umsiyatin ṣayfiyyatin/ (evening summer) displays indefiniteness by declension through "nunation" -the doubling of the last sign, which is the ك /kasrah « ◌ » here -because the whole phrase is in the genitive case ( ل aljar) due to the preposition at في=( named in Arabic:

ل ف ح /harf aljar/) -that precedes the phrase making the noun the object of the preposition.

Inflectionally, the noun ي نھ /nihayati/ (end) is the object of a preposition و م سم /isem majr r/ (meaning dragged) and is the Annexed ف م /mod f/.

The noun ي أم /'umsiyatin/ (evening) is the Annexer ليه ف م mod f ilayhi (meaning added to the previous noun -a post-fixed element governed in the genitive case); and ي صي /ṣayfiyyatin/ (summer) is an adjective ت ن ̸ ص /ṣifah / na'it/ modifying ي أم /'umsiyatin/ (evening).

The phrase, as a whole, is indefinite as it implicates any summer evening.

However, if the article the replaces a in a summer evening, the Arabic definite article al is added to both words ي صي ي أم /'umsiyatin ṣayfiyyatin/ (evening summer) and the whole phrase becomes ي ي ل ي ام ي نھ في /fi nihayati-l-'umsiyati-ṣ-ṣayfiyyati/ (at end the-evening the-summer). The change thus achieved has no impact on the syntactic level, but rather on the semantic one. As noticed, "nunation" disappears once the Arabic definite article al is introduced.

Consequently, it means that the summer evening in question is identifiable by the reader.

On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic

SABRA 184

In this first paragraph of The Brook Kerith, as mentioned earlier, the writer extracts from the class of concepts two specimens, a summer evening [line 1] and a great seer [line 9], thus building "a concrete case" in the "universe of experience" with the help of the article a to create a fond de tableau for the story.

The use of the indefinite article a can also be interpreted as "first introduction".

That is, when a substantive is introduced for the first time, the article a/an is used.

Here, a great seer introduces a new character into the story. The same phenomenon can be observed in Arabic ھ م ف ع /'arr fa n m hira n / [line 8] (seer great) and ع جا /rajula n 'aj za n / (man old) [line21], where these nouns and adjectives enjoy the sign of indefiniteness -"nunation".

In both English and Arabic, the definite article /al/ the is not used whenever a pronoun is added to the substantive. For example, the possessive adjective pronoun precedes each of these phrases his grandmother's knee [line 2] and his asses [line 3]. Syntactically, an article cannot be added to any of these phrases. The same rule applies in Arabic as illustrated in [1] ته ج ك ع /'ala rukbati jaddatihi/ -The suffix pronoun ه /hi/, which is attached at the end of the word ج grandmother, is equivalent to the possessive adjective pronoun his.

However, the substantive servant [line 6] is preceded by the article the though it is mentioned for the first time. The use of the definite article in the servant can be interpreted as part of the fond de tableau; the writer wants to plunge the reader directly into the story without breaking the narrative flow. It is worth mentioning that such a use of the article the cannot be accounted for as the result of an "immediate situation". There are no contextual clues that would support this conclusion. This is what Bühler (1934) Furthermore, the situation of the servant is different from the salt in Pass me the salt said over a meal, though both are mentioned for the first time. In Pass me the salt, the hearer is able to "identify" the item salt upon using the article the in the situation. This is rather interpreted in the context of the "familiarity theory"

where the reader is able to identify the referent of the substantive. On the other 94. "Deixis is a linguistic mechanism which allows the participants in a speech act to communicate effectively. Deixis works in the context of what is called the "deictic field" (Grenoble, 1998, p.28), an area constituted by the convergence of three coordinates: the participants in the speech act, the space in which this act takes place, and the time in which it occurs. (Grenoble, 1998, p.13)" [START_REF] Nelli | Space, Deixis and Stage Management in Sophocles' Trachiniae[END_REF]. Deixis and deictic field are dependent on a nuclear reference point, a center providing meaning to every single utterance pronounced in the course of the communication. This center, called origo or zero-point, is constituted by the axis "I-here-now" (Bühler, 1990, p.s. 117-8).

"In perceptual deixis the reference point can be seen or perceived in the extra-textual context of the speech act, what is called "Deixis ad oculos". The participants in the communication act can give deictic expressions a meaning by retrieving their references from the real world, from what they can actually perceive/see: i.e. they themselves and their respective locations in space. Deixis ad oculos, or ocular deixis: where the system of deictics points (exophorically, extralinguistically) to what is ad oculos or ad aures, before the eyes or ears of the listener/cognizer/addressee" (Nelli, 2006, ps. 5-6). In The Brook Kerith, the use of the before land in the land of the Benjamites [line 3] and the land of Shalisha [line 4] is considered to be cataphoric. In each case, the post-modification, of the Benjamites and of Shalisha, identifies the noun preceding it, land. Yet, Benjamites is preceded by the while Shalisha is not. This is because Benjamites is a proper adjective functioning as a substantive, as when we say the poor to designate the class as a whole. On the other hand, Shalisha and Zulp [line 5] are preceded by the zero article because they are already definite. مين ي ب با في /fi bil di biny mīn/ However, if instead of the proper noun, a common noun and/or an adjective (proper or common) are used, the definite article or an adjunct 97 is added. For example, to say in Arabic in the land of the Arabs ل با ,في the definite article al is only added to the word Arabs ل and not to land .با See 97. By definition, an adjunct is: "Any element in the structure of a clause which is not part of its nucleus or core" like adverbials and adjectives. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics (2007).

Part Here, the Arabs ل is the Annexer ليه ف م /mod f ilayhi/, and the Annexer must be definite; thus, the definite article is prefixed to the Arabs ل . This is different from saying in the Arabic lands بي ل ا ل في /fi-l-bil di-l-'arabiyyah/, where the definite article al is added to both words بي ل /'al'arabiyyah/ (the-arabic) and ا ل /'albil di/ (the-lands), where ا ل (thelands) is an object of the preposition in في /fi/ ( و م سم /isim majr r/) and بي ل (the-arabic) is an adjective ص /sifah/ modifying lands ا ل . The use of the definite article in the phrases the asses [lines 7 and 9] and the servant [line 8] can be described as "direct anaphoric reference" since these two substantives are already mentioned earlier in the text [lines 3 and 6]. The same principle applies in Arabic. That is, whenever a substantive occurs as a second mention, the definite article al is used.

Saul and his servant take their journey and seek the right way to the seer.

The nominal phrase the right way [line 10] is definite in both English and Arabic يح ل يق ل ل [line8] /'ila--arīqi-ş-şaḩīḩ/. See Example [3]. The definite article does not intend to make the entity right way definite or specified. The reader cannot identify this way on a map, yet he/she understand that Saul and his servant are guided to the way leading to the lost assets. The definite article along with the adjective right excludes from the body of referred ways wrong ways and, at the same time, makes this way unique -that there is only one right way. To further explain, if the indefinite article replaces the definite, the nominal phrase means that there are more than one right way and Saul and his servant took one of them, which is not the case. يح ل يق ل ل -Saul thinks of offering the seer something, but they do not have that much.

They have half a loaf, a little wine at the end of the bottle and a quarter of a shekel. The use of the indefinite article in half a loaf [line 12] and a quarter of a shekel of silver [line 13] has a numerical and quantifying function [START_REF] Quirk | A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[END_REF]. The definite article precedes quantifiers as in a quarter [line 13] and is present in measure phrases as in half a loaf [line 12]. The numeral one can replace, semantically and syntactically, the indefinite article: a quarter of a shekel can be written as one quarter of a shekel and half a loaf can be written as half one loaf.

But why is half a loaf not preceded by the indefinite article *a half a loaf while a quarter of a shekel is? The reason could be because a quarter means one quarter in opposition to two quarters or three quarters but half a loaf means one half of a loaf; it cannot mean two halves because they, the two halves, equal one loaf. And if a is to precede loaf, the structure of this nominal phrase invites some kind of an adjunct. It could read as a half loaf of bread. As shown in [4], the indefinite article can be present only once in this phrase, either before or after half. ش ي ل (shekel), on the other hand, is already definite, though it displays the nunation sign, as it is a proper noun.

ش ي ل shekel is singular and so is غيف loaf though the first is definite while the second is not. That is, definiteness or indefiniteness in Arabic does not entail any numerical function. Here again, Moore borrows the currency shekel used in the Holy Scriptures 98 and includes it in his story.

98. The script from King James Bible: "And the servant answered Saul again, and said, Behold, I have here at hand the fourth part of a shekel of silver: that will I give to the man of God, to tell us our way" (Saul Chosen as King, 1 Samuel 9:8).

-half a loaf and a quarter of a shekel of silver As to silver in a quarter of a shekel of silver [line 13], it is preceded by the zero article as it evokes the whole class, the undifferentiated whole. This is what [START_REF] Christophersen | The Articles: A study of their theory and use in English[END_REF] calls "toto-generic". Here, silver in its totality is evoked. which can be seen as idiomatic. In Arabic, in payment becomes ف ك /kaduf'atin/. See Example [5]. ف ك (as payment) is indefinite, does not have the definite article, and has the nunation sign. What is the basis for this structure? In fact, this noun has two options: to be written with or without the definite article. If it is written with the definite article ف ل ك /ka-d-duf'ati/ (as the-payment), it means that there has been a previous payment and this new one is similar to the previous. This interpretation is contrary to fact. Thus, the second option, writing ف ك (as payment) without the definite article, is more valid because it means that this is just one payment without even any implication to another payment. For seers, and people alike, sacrifice is a common ritual. When translated, it appears indefinite ي ت /ta ḩiyah/ (sacrifice) [line 14]. The verification followed with in payment can be administered in this example. If ي ت /ta ḩiyah/ is to be written as definite with al (

ل ي

/'at-ta ḩiyah/ (the-sacrifice), the phrase means that the sacrifice in question is known as something beyond the ordinary and the usual, and people are expecting it because it has been their subject of gossip, which is not the case. The whole issue of the sacrifice is that it is the seer's common practice, the usual and the ordinary. It is the custom at that time. Having said so, ي ت /ta ḩiyah/ (sacrifice-indef.) in the indefinite form is nearer to conveying this meaning.

On the other hand, if an idea or a noun has been raised before or has an implication that enables the listener to identify or specify it as in for anointment tells her son that the seer was expecting Saul as he had already had a vision about him to be the one the Lord had promised. What did the Lord promise him? A king. So, the seer is expected to anoint him. The action of anointment is already implicated in the context 99 . The definite article in يب ل /lit-tinşīb/ (for theanointment) results in a whole phrase in the mind:

ي ل م وو ش ب /li-tanşīb sh w l malikan/ (to anointing Saul king). Since the whole thought is complete and specified in the mind of the listener, the noun يب ت /tanşīb/ (anointing) is definite, and in this case with the definite article.

We can conclude at this stage that if the zero article preceding a noun is used to indicate sporadic reference, the translation of this noun in Arabic renders Having sorted out what they are supposed to pay the seer, Saul and his servant seek some guidance from somebody and some maidens. In some cases, some is considered by some linguists as an article (the plural article by [START_REF] Quirk | A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[END_REF] and especially as a quantifier. In other cases, it just plays the function of the In some maidens [line16], some plays the role of the plural article. It indicates that the maidens present at the well are more than one but are not known or identified by Saul and his servant. What is identified is their sex, females, and virgins in particular, in contrast to males. The phrase sounds awkward if some is deleted. It reads as: seeing maidens at the wel 100 l. This phrase cannot read as some of the maidens because then meaning is altered as it conveys the idea that there are many maidens and Saul and his servant saw some of them. In the phrase some maidens, Saul and his servant saw all the maidens and they were only some. The quantitative function of some is brought to mind here.

Then, Saul asked the maidens about the time the seer is available that day [line 17] and they said that he would offer sacrifice that morning [line 18]. These two time phrases that day and that morning are definite in English syntactically; 100. Curiously, without the indefinite quantifier "some", the focus is put on the connotations of the word rather on the denotation; "some maidens" conveys "human beings who were maidens". لي لك is (that the-day). The same is observed in ل لك , which reads as (that the-morning 101 ). The first verification is related to the rule of demonstrative pronouns in Arabic; it is a must that the noun coming after the demonstrative 101. This is normal procedure in languages with no indefinite articles. In Irish, the translation would be "an maidin sin" = the morning "particule déictique invariable d'éloignement

[that]". In the first expression overnight ئ ل ي ل ء ,أث the use of the definite article is by virtue of presence as explained previously. The son, who is listening to his grandmother's story, is able to identify the night in question: it is the night before the seer met Saul, when the Lord promised to send him (the seer) a young man. On the other hand, the use of the definite article in ل م beforetimes is a syntactic requirement. After م ف /zarif zam n/ adverbs of time, the noun should be definite by any of the ways that achieve definiteness explained in Chapter III. The definite article here has a non-defining role. otherwise, the relative pronoun ي ل /'allti/ that/which cannot be used. It is identified as a definite relative clause.

On Definiteness and

[ After getting some guidance from the maidens to reach the seer, Saul and his servant followed the people walking towards the high rock until they found themselves next to one man walking in the direction of the rock [line21-22].

From the position of Saul and his servant, there is one and only one direction towards the high rock. The direction is relevant to the position of Saul and his servant and changes according to their change in their position. This does not mean that there is one way to the high rock; there might be many ways to reach the high rock. (See Figure [29]). It means that the direction in question is relative; they (Saul and his servant) take the way the people around them are taking until they come to meet the seer. To convey this relativity, the definite article is used. As to the rock, it is definite anaphorically as it is a second mention.

It refers to the rock mentioned in line [19].

In such a sentence structure, direction 'arr f/ (I the seer). The copula, verb is, is deleted in the present tense in Arabic.

ت /'ittij
The same situation with thou art he whom the Lord has promised [line 17-28].

The copula art is deleted:

ل وع ل ھ أنت /'anta huwa l-ladhi wa'adahu-rrab/ (you he whom the Lord had promised). This structure of existential sentences is discussed extensively by [START_REF] Lumsden | Existential sentences: Their structure and meaning[END_REF].

The seer had been promised of the King of Israel [line 32] to anoint.

Though the definite article is used, the King in question cannot be identified as one person. However, due to cataphoric reference, the possible referents are Another example is the phrase: …said to young Saul [line 9]. In Arabic, this phrase becomes ي ل وو ل ق /q la li sh w l-l-fatiy/ [line 7]. The adjective young ي ف modifies the noun Saul وو ,ش and since Saul وو ش is a proper nounwhich means definite, the adjective young ي ف needs to be definite. Consequently, the definite article al is added to young ف ي and becomes ي ل . This being said, the definite article al is also used as a syntactic necessity that emerges from the rules that govern the Arabic language.

[15] said to young Saul [line 9]

ق ي ف وو ش

/q la/ /li/ /fatiy/ /sh w l/ And the actual sentence:

-(said to Saul-def. the-young-def.) ي ل وو ل ق /q la li sh w l-l-fatiy/ On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 205

A third example of this in-equivalence with respect to using the definite article in English and Arabic is evident in this verbal phrase to recompense. From a grammatical point of view, this non-finite verbal clause to recompense is an infinitive 102 , and an infinitive "can be used as a noun, an adjective or an adverb" (Vitto, 2006, p. 219). In this context, to recompense [line 11] is a nominal clause incident to little. When translated into Arabic, to recompense turns into a verbal noun with the definite article يض ل /litta'wī /.

Quasi-Nominal / Non-finite Forms

This change in the part of speech of a phrase upon translating from one language to another has its roots in the system of the verbal and especially the infinitive [START_REF] Duffley | The English Gerund-participle: A Comparison With the Infinitive[END_REF]) -a nonfinite mood in the sense of "not being limited to a particular subject" -and is in relation to how the verbal describes time. In Guillaumian terms, the infinitive is referred to as "quasi nominal" to indicate that these forms "arise at a point in the verb system very close to the system of the noun" (Hirtle, 2007b, 50). In fact, other linguists hold this opinion considering that the infinitive "merely names the action in the manner of a noun" (Bain, 1863, p. 94). But why does an infinitive, a nonfinite 103 verb, act like a noun? Guillaume explains this function of the quasi-nominal mood by opposing it to the indicative and the subjunctive in their relation to "universe time". As cited in [START_REF] Hewson | The Cognitive System of the French Verb[END_REF] 102. The word is derived from Late Latin infinitivus, a derivative of infinitus meaning "infinite".

The English infinitive is of two types: bare infinitive and full infinitive. The difference is that full infinitives have the particle to preceding them.

103. "In the quasi-nominal mood the verb is nonfinite, i.e. cannot take a subject. " Hirtle, 2007b, 60.

On Definiteness and Beyond

A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 206

Guillaume sees the chronogenesis 104 as a mechanical system of successive cognitive stages which must be involved in the development of every verbal form, so that every verbal form used in discourse is the product of one of these three stages, and therefore is morphologically marked as being of either quasinominal, subjunctive, or indicative mood (p. 112). 104. Chronogenesis is "an operation for forming a grammatical representation of time". It has "a given order, one after the other is a single mental operation for generating the complex image of time in any verb" (Hirtle, 2007b, p. 19). Chronogenesis is a constituent of Guillaume's theory of Psychomechanics of Language. SABRA 207 Hirtle (2007b, p. 49) accounts for these three verbal moods in terms of place and time. The indicative is represented in terms of "reality because it is related to the 'here and now', to the speaker's place in space (through the person of the subject) and in time (through reference to the present)." On the other hand, an event in the subjunctive is represented in terms of "possibility because, although it is related to the 'here' through the person of its subject, it is not related to the 'now', there being no representation of the present". As to the quasinominal, "the infinitive and the participles are capable of situating an event anywhere in universe time, but by the same token are incapable on their own of locating their event at a particular place, say the past, in time." [START_REF] Hewson | The Cognitive System of the French Verb[END_REF] maintains that if the subjunctive and indicative in English represent events that are contained in Universe Time, the infinitive and participles represent events that are self-contained, and therefore, in a sense, independent of Universe Time (p. 25). represents event time not yet accomplished. "Being the form that designates an event reaching the moment of accomplishment, the infinitive can express the event as accessing its moment of accomplishment…The accomplishment of the event is seen as merely possible… [and] it is the role of the preposition to to express this…" (Hirtle, 2007b, p. 61). The partly solid line, partly dotted, indicates an event going through its accomplishment phase. The past participle gone is depicted with a solid line to indicate an already accomplished event though its place in time is not "self-determined". The place of the infinitive in time is determined by other components of the sentence. [START_REF] Hewson | Tense and Aspect in Indo-European Languages: Theory, Typology, Diachrony[END_REF] The fact that the quasi-nominal forms of the verb "are not only not unallocated to any time sphere, but are not required to be syntactically supported by a subject (nominal or pronominal, internal or external) (Hewson, 1997, p. 23) that renders them (the quasi-nominal forms) more like nouns. This could be an ء ل ء إس -/li-'istisq 'i-l-m 'i/.

This definite noun resulting from the infinitive phrase depicts the idea of possibility in Arabic as well as in English as explained above. يض ل /litta'wī / (to the-recompensation) conveys the idea of future and possible compensation to 105. Abu [START_REF] Chacra | Arabic: an essential grammar[END_REF] defines :م "The verbal noun is called م maşdar, which means 'source'. It is a noun derived from the verb and denotes the action, quality or state expressed by the verb. For example, the verbal noun of ل ق qatlun, 'killing, murder' is derived from the verb ل ق qatala, 'to kill; similarly, ن ح ḩusnun, 'beauty', is derived from ن ح ḩasuna 'to be handsome'. The Arabic verbal noun corresponds to the English gerund ending in '-ing' (e.g. 'playing, going'), or to actions like 'departure ', arrival', treatment', etc." (ps. 162-163). He also adds that "the Arabic verbal noun can often be translated by an English infinitive or gerund, e.g.

ل ل ق qaşada l-qatla. He intended to kill. ح ل م ع 'allama s-sib ḩata. ل ع -/'ala l-fawri/ It is worth noting that ل ع is also written ف /fawran/ (instantly) which is without the definite article and means the same thing. However, in English, there is a subtle nuance between the prepositional clause on the instant and the adverb instantly. The latter is a word of Langue ( t h e s y s t e m o f representation), which is normally expected and its place would be after the verb awoke. On the other hand, on the instant is a Discoursive construction, not a cliché. The result is that the expression is more focused. In Arabic, the use of any one of these two nominal phrases does not have this critical effect. to the general and common practice of prophets -a practice that became "institutionalized" at the time. He bases his knowledge about the function of kings on his grandmother's implication. That is, he not only refuses the 'specific image' she offers, but also the 'general idea' of anointing kings.

Joseph called his grandmother Granny

These two cases are translated into the indefinite form in Arabic because in both cases, the king in question is not specified. In the singular م /malika n / (king) and in the plural ك م /mul ka n / (kings), these nouns are indefinite and display the nunation sign « ◌ ». In such a context, these nouns cannot be with the definite article. If the definite article is added, the noun means that he is already a king. It would be illogical to anoint a person as king since he is already a king. On the other hand, these nouns evoke the position held by a specific person; this position does not identify the person. From that, we can infer that, in Arabic, verbs of appointment, anointment and the like are followed by nouns in the indefinite form. [17]. The prepositional phrase is written in the definite form because the intended meaning is go to sleep. Since bed evokes the concept of sleeping rather the place of sleeping, the prepositional phrase to bed implies an infinitive phrase, to sleep.

And the infinitive phrase is already translated into the definite form in Arabic; then to bed is written in the definite form ي ل ل /li/ /'as-sarīri/ (to the-bed). On the other hand, indefiniteness fails to achieve this meaning. If it is written without the definite article, the phrase in Arabic sounds awkward and means to go to any bed as if there are many beds and the problem is with the bed, which is not the case. The idea is that it was late and he was supposed to go to sleep because the time of his going to bed has passed. The definite article maintains this idea, that of sleeping.

The grandmother was not satisfied by his decision to wait for his father.

She even failed to sense the feelings that were consuming him after their conversation. He was really hurt upon thinking that she thought him too stupid to whether he belongs to the class of prophets or not and whether he enjoys the characteristics of a prophet or not. The use of the indefinite article is intended to achieve its descriptive role.

Again, when the indefinite article is used to describe the class, the translated noun is written in the indefinite form ي ن /nabiyya n / a prophet [line36]. Now what can the child want his father for at this hour? she muttered as she went about the room, not guessing that he was angry and resentful, that her words had wounded him deeply and that he was asking himself, in his corner, if she thought him too stupid to be a prophet. following the demonstrative ھ /hadhihi/ (this) is definite because demonstratives are definite by nature (cf. § 3.5.3.) and the noun following the demonstrative, in this example, is considered ب /badal/ a susbstitute. Being a substitute, it should replace the demonstrative and carry its characteristics: definiteness, gender (feminine) and case (accusative). The phrase cannot achieve a complete meaning without this substitute. Thus, hour ع س /s 'ati/ is written with the definite article ع ل /'as-s 'ati/ the-hour. I'll tell thee no more stories, she said to him, but he answered that he did not want to hear her stories, and betwixt feelings of anger and shame his head drooped, and he slept in his chair till the door opened and his father's footsteps crossed the threshold. . She meant no more stories like the story she had told him about Saul and the assets. The translation in Arabic can be written in two ways. One way is with the definite article prefixed to more ي م as in ص ل من ي ل /'al-mazīd mina-lqişaşi/ (the-more of the-stories) [line 37] or without the definite article as in in ص ل من ي م /mazīda n mina-l-qişaşi/ (more of the-stories). Whether definite ي ل /'al-mazīd/ (the-more) or indefinite ي م / mazīda n / more, the meaning is not affected, nor is the parsing of the whole phrase or any of the single lexical items in this phrase. In Arabic, there are two options in writing the door and the threshold: either with the definite article ل /'alb bu/ (the-door) or without ب /b bu n / (door). Writing these nouns in this context without the definite article leaves open the possible existence of many doors, which obscures the intended meaning: a specific door, which Joseph was expecting to be opened. Thus here, the definite article is required to convey the idea of one specific door in the mind of Joseph and consequently, in the mind of the reader. Thus, the door ل /'alb bu/ and the threshold ل /'al-'atabata/ are written with the definite article in Arabic. Now, he said to himself, Granny will tell Father that I said I'd like to be a prophet. And feigning sleep he listened, determined to hear the worst that could be said of him. But they did not speak about him but of the barrels of salt fish that were to go to Beth-Shemish on the morrow; which was their usual talk. So he slipped from his chair and bade his father goodnight. A resentful good-night it was; and his good-night to his grandmother was still more resentful. But she found an excuse for his rudeness, saying that his head was full of sleepa remark that annoyed him considerably and sent him upstairs wishing that women would not talk about things they do not understand. I'll ask Father in the morning why Granny laughed at me for saying I'd like to be a prophet. But as morning seemed still a long way ahead he tried to find a reason, but could find no better one than that prophets were usually old men. But I shall be old in time to come and have a beard. Father has a beard and they can't tell that I won't have a beard, and a white one too, so why should they-A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic

آ

و أ لن

SABRA 221

In Arabic, the case is relevant to specification and definiteness by cataphoric reference. Though in English, the worst cannot be realized without the relative clause and is made definite for this purpose, it appears in the indefinite form in Arabic أ أس /'aswa'a/ (worst) [line 41] because two definites cannot coexist in this context. To account for this, the post modification ي أ ن ي م ه ع /m yumkinu 'an yuq lu 'anhu/ (that could be said of-him) makes the head noun worst أ أس definite, so this head noun cannot take on the definite article as it is already made definite. What would be the function of the definite article in Arabic if a noun is already definite?

If the use of the definite article in English is due to the superlative construction, this construction cannot be realized in Arabic on the ground of two definites. If the post-modification ه ع ي أ ن ي م /m yumkinu 'an yuq lu 'anhu/ (that could be said of-him) is deleted, the definite article 'al can be restored أ أس /'al'aswa'i/ (the-worst).

When Joseph noticed that they said nothing of him, he decided to go to bed. So, he bade his father and grandmother good night, which is mentioned three If these two words لي /laylatan/ (night) and ي س /sa'īdatan/ (happy/good) are considered separately, the night in question is definite; it is known to Joseph, his grandmother, his father and the reader. He wishes them good night for what is left of the night. Since this night is not over yet, he wishes it to be good. Because it is uncertain whether this wish could come true or not, the indefinite form is used. If they are considered as one idea, as a salutation, salutations are not eligible to definite or indefinite verification. They stand as idioms, static phrases. This verification is more legitimate because in the second occurrence of this phrase, explained in the coming paragraph, idioms cannot be modified with an adjective like resentful.

The second occurrence happens on lines 57-58 A resentful goodnight it was with the indefinite article. The indefinite article here describes the kind of salutation he bade his father -a resentful salutation. It implies that there are many manners of saluting, and Joseph demonstrated one of them that showed his dissatisfaction. As for Arabic, word-to-word translation is not feasible if the meaning is to be maintained. Take Example [21]. However, resentful appears in the indefinite form as a noun م /'imti' ʐi n / resentfulness. It describes the manner and tone of voice in which he pronounced the salutation, and to show this, the whole phrase, the noun م /'imti' ʐi n / resentfulness and the preposition ب /bi/ with, is parsed as ح /ḩ l/ an adverb of manner, which appears only in the indefinite form. م ب لھ ق -/qalah bimti' i n / Note: On the second line, the literal Arabic translation shows resentful م as an adjective. However, in the accurate translation, the fourth line, resentful is written as a noun /'imti' i n / resentfulness preceded with a preposition ب /bi/ with.

The third occurrence of good night is in his good night to his grandmother was still more resentful [line 58]. The salutation is made definite by the pronoun his. This possessive adjective pronoun, which plays the role of specifying the proprietor, indicates that Joseph is the one who says the phrase good-night with a specific tone to his grandmother. He is the producer of this phrase, which reflects something about a unique nature and message of the utterance associated with the producer of this utterance -his feeling of disappointment and dissatisfaction.

Consequently, his grandmother verified his behavior and found an excuse [line 59] for his rudeness. The indefinite article in this phrase carries the numerical value one. She found one excuse out of many for his rude goodnight salutation. In Arabic, an excuse is written in the indefinite form ي /dharī'ata n / [line 44] with the nunation sign in the accusative case « ◌ ». Indefiniteness here reflects singularity: ح و ي /dharī'ata n w ḩidata n /, which is one excuse out of many. It can also reflect the "kind" عي ل /'an-naw'iyyah/ of what the grandmother found; she found an excuse and not a flaw or a defect. This remark sent him upstairs wishing that women would not talk about things they do not understand [line 61]. In his moment of anger, he directs his grudge towards women inflicting them with the trait of being ignorant and talkative. He prefers to generalize and thus include in his attack the category of women in its generic sense using the zero article. He went one step further by claiming that women's talk is of two kinds: talk about things they understand and talk about things they do not understand. He wished that they would not talk about things they do not understand. He did not say the things they do not understand because they are innumerable. He used the zero article to make a sweeping statement covering the many things women do not understand.

When the category of women in its totality or inclusiveness is evoked, the definite form ء ل /'an-nis 'a/ [line 45] the-women is used in Arabic. This definiteness shows that any human being belonging to the feminine sex is included in this group. As to things ء أشي /'ashy 'in/ [line 46], it is related to the relative clause following it, they do not understand, which provides some kind of specification. So, it cannot be written with the definite article because things does not carry the same generic function as women. It is written in the indefinite form because things they do not understand are not known to the reader. One of these things is known to Joseph and some readers -wanting to be a prophet. If these things were known, the definite article would be used. Indefiniteness is also used to show exaggeration يم ت /ta'ɀīm/, that there are many things women do not know. Joseph seems to identify all prophets as old men. He does not exclude any. He refers to the whole class as an undifferentiated whole. As to old men, it is not generic because Joseph does not mean that all old men are prophets. He locates the class of prophets within the class of men. In the class of men, he targets old men. The adjective old becomes incident to men to decrease and specify the targeted referents. By doing so, he is trying to elicit traits corresponding to prophets.

On Definiteness and

In Arabic, both prophets and old men are written in the definite form ء ي أن /'al-'anbiy 'a/ (the-prophets) and ج ل من ن ل ك /kib ri-s-sinni min-rrij li/ (old the-age of the-men) [line 48]. Again, when the whole class of prophets is evoked, definiteness is implied and employed. Here, the class is definite, but not the individuals in the class because no particular prophet is specified. As to old men, it is made definite by annexation. It needs to be definite because it goes back to prophets, which is written in the definite form with the definite article.

Joseph made another association to give himself hope that he can be a prophet. On lines 65-66, he said that he will be old in time to come and have a beard. Father has a beard and they can't tell that I won't have a beard and a white one too. The noun beard is mentioned four times, all with the indefinite article, and in each, it means something. Beard refers to something in the phenomenal world. When it comes to reference, he wants to have a beard as is conjured up in the world of representation. Joseph asserts that his father is the possessor of a particular attribute, which can be identified as belonging to the class beard. In other words, the attributes of the object designated by the word beard correspond to the "substance" ascribed to his father. This substance belongs to the same class -the class of beard -as something that he asserts he will be the possessor of in the future in "in time to come" [line 65]. Although the referent conjured up exists only in the world of imagination, this would not prevent him from referring back to his first mention using another determiner, which would establish its previous mention. In other words, the definite article or the possessive pronoun can be used to refer to its existence as an object of discourse.

[22] My beard will be white.

[22a] This beard will be long.

[22b] The beard I shall have will be beautifully combed and cut.

Note that the first three occurrences reiterate the syntagma "(to) have a beard", so what is referred to is not the item "beard" but the fact of "having a beard". This explains the repetition of the indefinite article.

The final occurrence selects the head of the nominal group beard and does so through nominal substitution. "One" refers anaphorically to the class beard, redefining the concept by reducing its extension to the subset white beard. [START_REF] Halliday | Cohesion in English[END_REF] describe the process in terms of repudiation and redefinition. His senses were numbing, and he must have fallen asleep soon after, for when he awoke it seemed to him that he had been asleep a long time, several hours at least, so many things had happened or seemed to have happened; but as he recovered his mind all the dream happenings melted away, and he could remember only his mother. She had been dead four years, but in his dream she looked as she had always looked, and had scolded Granny for laughing at him. He tried to remember what else she had said but her words faded out of his mind and he fell asleep again. In this second sleep an old man rose up by his bedside and told him that he was the prophet Samuel, who though he had been dead a thousand years had heard him say he would like to be a prophet. But shall I be a prophet? Joseph asked, and as Samuel did not answer he cried out as loudly as he could: shall I? shall I? What ails thee, Son? he heard his grandmother calling to him, and he answered: an old man, an old man. Ye are dreaming, she mumbled between sleeping and waking. Go to sleep like a good boy, and don't dream any more. I will, Granny, and don't be getting up; the bed-clothes don't want settling. I am well tucked in, he pleaded; and fell asleep praying that Granny had not heard him ask Samuel if he would be a prophet. The indefinite article has a descriptive function here. In Arabic, this descriptive function in this context is written in the definite form ل ل ل /'al-waladi shsh iri/ (the-boy the-good). The trait of being a good boy (the-boy the-good) stands as one category of boys in opposition to a second category of boy the-boy the-bad. This identification of Joseph as belonging to this category creates some sort of specification. A memory of his dream of Samuel came upon him while she dressed him, and he hoped she had forgotten all about it; but his father mentioned at breakfast that he had been awakened by cries. It was Joseph crying out in his dream, Dan, disturbed thee last night: such cries, "Shall I? Shall I?" And when I asked "What ails thee?" the only answer I got was "An old man." The father brought this memory to life against Joseph's hopes of its fading. The father recalled being awakened by many cries [line 66] as if the source of these cries is not known. The zero article also obscures the nature of these cries. It only reveals that these cries are certain sounds characterized by high pitch. Despite the repetition of cries, it is again written with the zero article. This time, the grandmother referred to them detaching herself from them. Though she heard them, reacted to them when she heard them, and knew their source and nature, she showed that these cries were so weird, so different, so unexpected. It could be that she did not believe Joseph's answer -"an old man", who supposedly frightened him.

These two occurrences are written in the indefinite form 108. There are three functions performed by modality: epistemic (to express the speaker's opinion or prediction), deontic (to affect a situation or show obligation), and dynamic (to describe a factual situation) [START_REF] Palmer | The English Verb[END_REF]. Chapitre 6

A Comparative Computational Study

In this study, the comparison between English and Arabic is devoted exclusively to the features of nominal phrases. A comparative computational study is proposed to show how the system of the article works in these two languages. Based on this comparative study, a discussion is initiated to show how, why, and when both systems diverge and converge in the two languages. Upon comparing the number of occurrences of a/an to any of the other determiners and especially his, it appears to be relatively average (his 96 > a/an 75).

Frequency Count of the English Script

It can be considered the most frequent used determiner after his.

Considering the discerned reasons of high percentages of occurrences of the zero article and other determiners, it seems that the article the has the real high percentage. In fact, the high percentage of the use of the has already been pointed out by researchers experienced in frequency counts, like Sinclair (1990, p.143). In The COBUILD (Collins Birmingham University International Language Database) frequency count done on a corpus of 20 million English words, Sinclair indicates that the article the is the most common word in English in a corpus, with a frequency rate of 25.1%. The count of the nouns with does not include words that have as its morphological part, like the relative pronoun ل (that/who/which). To this end, an automatic count is first done, followed by manual count to omit these occurrences of that are part of some words.

Frequency Count of the Arabic script

Bar Graph 2. The division of nouns in the Arabic script

The count of nouns with also omits adjectives. Adjectives in Arabic agree with their modifiers in many aspects and including definiteness / indefiniteness, and thus, the occurrences of definite words increase the count. The goal is to have, as much as possible, a logical comparison between the two languages. Still, the number of nouns with is higher than that in English (209>144).

One Considering Bar Graph [3], the number of the indefinite nouns in Arabic is higher than that in English (124>75). This has to be seen in the greater picture; the zero article count is 177 and finds no equivalent count in Arabic. Therefore, a legitimate question is concerned with the nominal phrases with zero article: what happens to them?

Contrasting the functions of using the and al in both English and Arabic

The pursue of finding out more about this difference in the use of the definite article in both languages and with a view of pinpointing the essence and justification for using it is triggered by the difference in their counts as demonstrated by Bar

Graph [3].

Table [15] shows how the 144 occurrences of the (as indicated in the frequency counts in ل لي ل /'aş-şakhrati l-' liyati/ where the seer was heading to offer sacrifice. 10 occurrences with the also display the definite article in Arabic.

Moreover, the use of the in Ocular Deixis correlates with the use of al replacing a pronoun. (Ya'qub, 2006, vol.II, p. 391). The majority of uses of the (22 out of 27 occurrences) that are labeled as Associative clauses, where the post modification of the head noun is a phrase, find no morphological definite correspondence in Arabic. The Arabic translation results in an annexation construction; the head noun becomes the Annexed, which is indefinite morphologically -the morpheme al is not used -but definite or semidefinite semantically as the result of annexation. The Annexer is the postmodification and is definite (via the definite article or via another annexation). To illustrate this, in the secret of his ancestors [line 117], the head noun, the secret, is followed by of his ancestors. In the Arabic script ه س س /sirra salafihi/ (secret ancestor-his), the Annexed is س /sirra/ (secret), and ه س /salafihi/ (ancestor-his) is the Annexer. The Annexed does not display the morpheme al in annexation. The Annexer is definite via the suffixed pronoun his ه /hi/. In this structure, س /sirra/ (secret) becomes definite via annexation, and there is no need for the definite article If the pre-modifier different is deleted, the annexation structure is regained.

On Definiteness and

The whole nominal phrase reads as ل ن /inj z ti l-katabati/ (accomplishments the scribes) without the preposition « » /li/ (of).

It is worth mentioning that this al in this example does not really define, but is rather a syntactic necessity. That is, the meaning does not change if the nominal phrase is written as: ل م ن /'inj z ti n mukhtalifati n li-l-katabati/ (accomplishments different of-the-scribes). When the is used with a head noun modified by a relative clause (20 occurrences), the definite article al is used correspondingly. In relative clauses in Arabic, the head noun preceding the relative pronoun, the antecedent, is definite.

When the relative pronoun is deleted, the definite article is deleted from the antecedent as well. In the one that had been revealed to him [line 24], the head noun one has the relative clause that had been revealed to him as a post-modifier. This Table [15] along with its analysis shows that around 76% of the uses of the article the correlate with the uses of al. Whenever the reference is anaphoric (be it direct, indirect, or substitutional), unique, generic or deictically known, the definite article is used. On the other hand, divergence happens with miscellaneous cases and for syntactic reasons where one type of definiteness is used rather than the otherusing annexation instead of the definite morpheme al. The final note about definiteness is identifiability. Definiteness may not be present as a grammatical category in all linguistic systems, yet identifiability seems to play a role in all languages [START_REF] Lambrecht | Information structure and sentence form: Topic, focus and the mental representations of discourse referents[END_REF]. ن /nakiratun/. However, the functions in Arabic are different from those in English. [START_REF] Ya'q B | بي ل غ ل ع ع س م / maws 'tu 'ul m-l-lughatil'arabiyyati/ Encyclopedia of Arabic Linguistics[END_REF] explains how the Arabic system looks at indefiniteness: "something that is not specific because of its commonness among the many individuals of its species that share similarities concerning their truth" (p. 338). That is, the main realm of indefiniteness is associated with "commonness 113 " ي ل /'ash-shuy '/.

The use of a/an as First Introduction correlates 100% with Purposeful or Genuine Lack of identifiability وج ع ء ع أو ي ح ف ل . In both, indefiniteness is the main result; the indefinite form in Arabic and the use of a/an in English are used to denote unknown information (Abdul Raof, 2006 p. 146). For example, the use of a/an in a great seer [line 9] ع ھ م ف /'arr fan m hiran/ reveals 113. Once again, this corresponds to J.S. [START_REF] Mill | A System of Logic[END_REF] degrees. In Arabic, definiteness is also approached from a different perspective. A hierarchy ranging from the most definite to the least and from the most indefinite to the least is realized. A more salient feature in Arabic that plays on both strings, the definite and the indefinite, is the annexation construction. Depending on the definiteness of the Annexed, the Annexer either adheres to definiteness or indefiniteness. That is, if the Annexer is definite (via one of the defining functions of al or another annexation), the Annexed noun is definite. On the other hand, if the Annexer is not definite (even if there is the article al which enjoys the indefinite function), the Annexed is in the category of the indefinite

ل غي

ل . A generalized answer to this question is that as long as the entity in discourse is identifiable by the speaker/listener, it is definite.

As to the third question as whether the use of the article a/an correspond to the indefinite form in Arabic and the fourth question as whether the use of the article the correspond to the use of the article al, their answer relies heavily on computational linguistics. It was found that the article the and the Arabic article al are used for seemingly the same purpose by 76%. The other uses or lack of uses of the article al though definiteness is there is the other means found in Arabic to achieve definiteness, like the annexation construction. As to the occurrence of the article a/an, it is 96% consistent with indefiniteness in Arabic. This gives insight into how the idea of indefiniteness is perceived in the two languages: Descriptive and Singularity functions are interpreted in similar ways in both languages.

However, as to the fifth question concerning the use of the zero article, there is no hard and fast rule as whether to use the article al or no article in Arabic. This discrepancy results from the association of the zero article with proper nouns that do

Conclusion

The topic of the present thesis is the issue of definiteness and nominal determination conveyed via the system of the article in English and Arabic. The first part has examined the reasons behind choosing this issue and its significance in understanding how it works.

The second -theoretical -part has observed the meaning and use of determiners in English, which gave an insight into the system of the article and their In the discussion of the results, a frequency count is carried out in each language with respect the occurrences of nominal phrases. The categories in the frequency count of each language are somewhat different because each language has different idiosyncratic features, mainly in terms of syntax and morphology. In English, the frequency of the occurrences of the articles and determiners are counted.

In Arabic, the frequency of the use of al, annexation structure and nominal phrases that do not correspond to the English system are counted. It was found that the number of nominal phrases in Arabic are higher than those in English nominal phrases with the article al and without it (but not in an annexation structure either)

and are more than those with the article the or the article a/an. It was also found that the number of occurrences of the annexation structure was relatively high.

Such variations on the level of nominal determination require further and deeper investigation. However, since the focus of this thesis is on definitenesss and especially the specific type which is in direct relation to the system of the articles, only nominal phrases where one of the three articles actually occur are further studied. Thus, all nominal phrases in English were arranged in three tables (See

Recommendation for further research

This study examined a literary text, The Brook Kerith, as a corpus for the contrastive analysis of the two languages. Literary texts have their own style that relies mainly on painting the imaginary. Other genres could be studied, for example, scientific texts for example, that have a different approach to conveying the message. This would give another an opportunity to see how the system of the article functions in both languages.

Besides, the analysis was based on the English script and then translated into Arabic. The same research can be done but the other way round, thus increasing the possibility of exploring the corresponding instances of all the occurrences of al and annexation. In this analysis, there are other occurrences of al that have not been contrasted. These resulting mainly from the verbal structure in English which appears as a noun in Arabic with the potential of displaying the article al.

Moreover, definiteness has been considered in a limited scope, the scope envisaged by the system of the article mainly. A more thorough study on definiteness tackling all features (meaning other determiners) would render the notion of definiteness with more clarity. 98,100,106,106,114,121,122,136,184,151,181,185,193,195,198,207,213,215,217,223,224,226,229,230 سف ي 1, 31, 32, 67, 70, 70, 75, 77, 80, 81, 86, 91, 92, 102, 113, 135, 137, 138, 143, 145, 147, 153, 157, 159, 160, 164, 165, 167, 167, 168 Kish 2, 8, 2, 6, Saul 3, 5, 12, 14, 24, 27, 33, 35, 128, 131, 170, وو ش 3, 5, 9, 11, 18, 20, 25, 27, 98, 127 Shalisha 4 36, 78, 85, 86, 109, 114, 131, 133, 134, 145, 150, 153, 165, 167, 171, 173, 177, ئيل ص 24, 27, 59, 63, 83, 86, 98, 100, 101, 108, 112, 115, 124, 125, 128, 129, 132

كيش

لي ش

Index

A 88,105,106,137,138,141,129,132 Abisamra,301 Abu Chacra,91,[93][94]95,99,107,108,110,[117][118][120][121]123,133,135,143,209 Adam,23,81,82,88,107,108,107,110,122,123,126,128,142,146,81,147 Alosh,90,96,78,80,95,102,103,105,111,248,328 Anderson,23 Ashour,81,82,96,97 Chesterman,41,42,43,45,49,50,53,328 Christophersen,42,46,48,[61][62]65,76,193,250 Crystal,23,30

C

On

  Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 10

On

  Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 11 syntactical level. It is, therefore, concerned in the first place in exploring the sentence structure in Arabic and English, and then in varying the articles to deduce the way the various choices affect the sentence on the whole, and the noun phrase in particular. This exploration aims at going beyond the issue of definiteness: it digs deep into the authority of the article on the noun phrase in Arabic and in English. It studies how the article can modify and what it can add to the meaning of the whole utterance. It also explores the syntactic modifications in the functions of the lexical items modified by this article.

5.

  What is the corresponding form for nominal phrases in Arabic with zero article? the vast literature already in existence concerning the system of the article. It starts with investigating determination in English since the articles are first and foremost determiners. It then proceeds to explore the articles in English, paying special attention to their diverse functions. It continues to consider the system of the article in Arabic clarifying its syntactic functions and effect on meaning. On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 15

  It was the linguistic counterpart to the On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 16

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. The components of an NP

  Figure 2. Rank scale

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Noun phrase constituents

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. The two processes of incidence

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6. The difference between extension and extensity

Figure 8 .

 8 Figure 8. An example on the ordering of determiners

Figure 10 .

 10 Figure 10. Chesterman's scale of opposition between definite and indefinite

Figure 11 .

 11 Figure 11. Joly and O'Kelly's system of the article (p. 387)

  Hirtle (2007a), like many linguists who are influenced by the French linguist Guillaume, looks at the relation among the words in an NP in terms of incidence. He uses the example an old tiger in his 2007 publication and a small dog in his 2009 publication as typical examples of an NP to explain this relation. The process of incidence passes through 6 stages as indicated in Figure [12].

  Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 48that the speaker intends to communicate; i.e. whether the speaker wants to show uniqueness, genericity, familiarity, etc.The final stage is the culmination point of the incidence process. The noun phrase becomes "anoldtiger" having minimal 14 extensity. It is as Christophersen 14. Hirtle uses the term minimal extensity to mean singular extensity, in opposition to maximal, which means universal.

Figure 12 .

 12 Figure 12. Hirtle's stages of incidence to form an NP (p. 209)

  Joly and O'Kelly render the idea that "one evokes the class" clearer via a graphic organizer. (See Figure [13].) Any element or item is a potential referent as a representative of the class. These potential referents are Xs in the Circle Universal (U1). This circle contains all elements of the class. The dotted arrows show that "any" element can be a representative of the class without actual On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 57 reference to one particular element. It can be extracted from this circle. The solid line represents the extraction and actualization of one entity, the one in question, which is always Singular (S1).

  (Quirk et al, p. 274) (The question mark is placed by Quirk et al) [49a] I've bought melons (but not grapes) It is ungrammatical to use a melons, and it is awkward to use the word melon with the zero article. This is why Quirk et al gives zero article a question On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 74 mark. The trouble with these examples is that they have been invented out of context. As soon as one begins to imagines real situation, many examples spring to mind where the absence of an article is quite natural: "What did you buy for starters? I bought melons, I thought we could have them with the Italian ham." However, in the note section, Quirk et al does admit that the zero article can be used to imply contrast:

Figure 14 .

 14 Figure 14. The equation of definiteness

  However, Ashour presents a difference between a common and an indefinite noun by referring to the definition presented by AbbasHasan (1993) 25 . He indicates 24. The Arabic script as mentioned in[START_REF] Nī | The Concise Book on Arabic Grammar[END_REF] book The Concise Book on Arabic Grammar: " من ين م ع ي لم وم وأخي. ، امي و ، وھ ، و وبي ، ل وخ أنت، ل: م ف م فھ ه ج أف من ن ي م ع سم كل ". وأ ، وأمي ، ب جل، ل: م ن فھ ه ج أف 25. The Arabic script about the difference between an indefinite noun and a common noun by Abbas Hasan as presented by Ashour (p. 8): On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 83that indefiniteness targets what the individual has in common with other members of the class of which it is a member. It is the genuinely signified -materializedutterance and not its abstract imaginary meaning established in the intellect. On the other hand, a common noun is the name given to that abstract intellectual meaning to signify without recalling -in most cases -the utterance and its genuine signification". This would seem to be in line with the definition of the common name proposed byStuart Mill (1943), i.e., that is a common noun both denotes and connotes (by means of the attributes common to the class), unlike the proper name, which denotes without connoting. That is, the indefinite noun man signifies an individual without specifying his existence on the phenomenological level because this noun is common among many kinds of its species that share the same characteristics (attributes or connotations). The real signification of these rather abstract considerations which are difficult to grasp unless one takes into account the Guillaumean distinction between Langue and Discours, on the one hand, and Aristotelian logic, with which the Arabic grammarians were obviously familiar, on the other.

  38. Refer to footnotes 41 and 42.On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and ArabicSABRA 94

  ل في خ ن/'iza nufikha fi-ş şuwari nafkhatun wāḩidatun/ Hence, [bethink yourselves of the Last Hour,] when the trumpet [of judgment] shall be sounded with a single blast(Quran, 69:13)

  م two teacher (nominative) → م my two teachers[32] ن ي م two teachers (accusative and genitive) → ي م my two teachers[33]

Figure 23 .

 23 Figure 23. The sentence of vocative mode

On

  Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 125

  ھ أي ي /y 'ayyatuh -n-nafsu-lmu ma'innah / O, you serene soul! (Quran 89:27) [58] ك ل يه ع ن ل ھ أي ي /y 'ayyuh -l ladhī nuzzila 'alayhi-dh-dhikru/ O thou unto whom this reminder has [allegedly] been bestowed from on high (Quran 15:6) In this case, where أ is added after the particle .ي Relative pronouns and demonstrative pronoun can be introduced into the vocative sentence as well. Example [58] presents the relative pronoun ل whom after ھ أي and .ي On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 128

On

  Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 133 However, the other translation for the Arabic version, which is sometimes used in modern Arabic where two coordinated annexed nouns are often placed before the Annexer, is incorrect. To exemplify this, the above example in Figure [25] can be written in modern Arabic as: [70] س ل م و ي م /mudīr-u wa-mu'allim-l-madras-at-i/ the director and the teachers of the schoolThis construction, though it retains the order of the words in both languages, is faulty. The rule is explained thoroughly by AbuChacra (2007, p. 90):The 'id fah construction may contain more than one annexed noun ف ل .أ In this case only one annexed noun is placed before the Annexer ه ي ل ف ل .أ The other annexed nouns are placed after the Annexer, each preceded by the conjunction و /wa…/ 'and' and followed by a (possessive) suffix pronoun referring to the Annexer and agreeing with it in number and gender.

Figure 25 .

 25 Figure 25. The structure of annexation by Procházka S. (2006), p. 48

  indicate previous knowledge ي لعھ أ /'al'ahdiyyah/ The definite article al determines an indefinite word, rendering it definite. This definiteness depends on the knowledge of the listener and is centered on the question of whether this knowledge is provided or inferred. It is of three types: 3.5.7.1.1.1.1. Knowledge Based on a Second Mention ك ل لعھ Knowledge based on a second mention ك ل ھ ل /'al'ahid 'aldhikri/happens when the definite article determines a noun and its purpose is to "designate shared and known information between the communicator and the addressee". This happens upon a second mention of the same noun.Example [72] presents the relation between first and second mention. On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 138 [72] ي ل ع شھ ي و ل ت ك م ع س و ل عن ي و ي ب ك /kataba zaydon riw yata n 'an-i-l'ir qi wa sur'ana ma-ktasabat-i-l-riwayati shohrata n ' lamiyyata n / Zaid wrote a novel about Iraq, and quickly the novel gained an international reputation. (Abdul-Raof, 2006, p. 136) In this example, the noun a novel ي و occurs in the indefinite form as it is mentioned for the first time. Upon the second mention in the same utterance, it occurs in its definite form the novel ي و ل with the definite article al attached at the beginning because the novel ي و ل has become shared information between the communicator and the addressee. The definite article al is employed to play the function of denoting known information. It is anaphoric because the definite article in the novel ي و ل refers back to the first mention of a novel ي و . Yielded from Situational Context ي ھ ل أو ي لع لعھ Knowledge based on the context or the situation ي ھ ل ھ ل /'al'ahid 'aldhihni/ or shared knowledge ي ل ھ ل /'al'ahid 'al'ilmi/ renders words with the definite article defining. The listener is able to "denote information that is known from the context of situation" (Abdul-Raof, 2006 p. 137). [73] ؟ ض ل ت ك ھل /hal katabta-l-muḩ arah/ Have you written the lecture? şaghīratun/ The room is too small. The addresser and the addressee are students in example [73]. The addresser asks the addressee about the lecture, which is shared knowledge between them. Thus, On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 139

  a. It is prefixed to names to indicate the meaning of such names. Its function is to remind the listener to their origins and the meaning of their name, because names evolved following traits of the people carrying these traits. Such names are like ن ل Al-Hasan meaning the good. b. It can also replace a pronoun as in Example [83]. The noun و ل the goal replaces the pronoun his. The holy verse means: Paradise will truly be his goal و م ھي ل فإ [83] و ل ھي ل فإ /fa'inna-l-jannata hiya-l-ma'wa/ Paradise will truly be the goal! (Quran 79:41) c. The definite article is part of the relative pronoun ل as shown in section 3.4.4. Demonstrative pronouns are already definite and do not need any further addition. It is considered to be extra. The definite article is also added from poetic necessity. On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 145

  bu 'a' aytukahu/ I gave you the book. (Literal) the book I gave you it The pronouns I, you and it are suffixed to the verb أع give. The pronoun I « » refers to the subject and thus, it is in the nominative case. The pronouns you « » and it « » are in the object position; thus, they are in the accusative case. The suffix pronoun in the nominative case I precedes both suffix pronouns in the accusative case. These suffix pronouns in the accusative case are ordered as well.

  translated into Arabic, and analyzed with a view to showing how the concepts of definiteness and indefiniteness are expressed. Certain phrases are rewritten as examples to facilitate the studying of their intricate construction. In these examples, the English script is written on the first line followed by the word-to-word Arabic literal translation. Then, the transliteration of the Arabic is written below it. On the On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 152

Frazer 73 ,

 73 the family had come over from England at the time of the Williamite wars (1690-92), and had converted from Protestanism to Catholicism in the middle of the 18th century. The first Catholic Moore, John Moore had made a fortune trading with Spain and had settled in Alicante where he prospered, returning to Ireland with his Hiberno-Spanish wife towards the end of the 18 th century, when the persecution against the Catholics became less severe. His great grandson George Moore's obsession with Christianity and his own religious identity became of the driving forces of his creative urge.

  Moore continues to actualize what he gleans from reality and experience. The story of Kish and Saul is extracted from the Bible: the same characters, the same plot, the same anticipation and the same style. It is actualized and becomes part of fond de tableau. Kish sends his son Saul to find the lost asses[sic]. Though Moore does not specify the nature of these assets directly, the reader develops an idea through Moore's word choice. Saul seeks "them in the land of the Benjamites and the land of Shalisha, whither [sic] they might have strayed." The pronoun they refers to the asses, and these assets might have strayed. The verb stray invites the idea of anything that moves, for example, animals. Halliday refers to this technique as "collocation" 84 .

-

  Figure 26. Explanation of an indefinite annexation

  refers to as deixis ad oculos 94 . The same strategy is utilized in the well [line 16], the high rock [line 19], and the people [line 20].

  A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 188 5] ل /'al-b bi/ [line 3], the teacher [line 6] ل /'al-mudarrisi/ [line 4], and the second row [line 7] ني ل ف ل /'aş-şaffi th-th nī/ [line 5] are all related to the two classes [line 2] as they are components of school. The phrases the third year classes [line 3] ل ل ل ف /fuş li s-sanati th-th lithati/ [line 4] and The teacher [line 6] ل /'al-mudarrisi/ [line 4] are second mention instances as they have already been mentioned. On the other hand, some noun phrases in the first paragraph are indefinite in Arabic. The first instance is in a bleak look ي ك ن /naʐrata n ka'ībata n / [line 1]. Here, indefiniteness has a categorical function. It specifies the kind of look the officer gave. The other instances are a class ل ف /faşli n / [line 3] and a pupil [line 6] ي ت /tilmīdhi n / [line 4]. Indefiniteness conveyed in these examples indicates that there are many classes and many pupils, but only one was targeted. This one is part of a whole -the class, which is definite. It is extracted of this whole but is not known yet. It has become part of the fond de tableau as any of the phrases with the definite article.

Figure

  Figure [27], Part [1].

  In Arabic, the presence (or absence) of the definite article has no numerical function. In غيف ف ن [line 9] (half loaf), both nouns ف ن (half) and On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 192 غيف (loaf) do not have the definite article. The noun ف ن (half) is definite by annexation غيف( loaf is the Annexer), and the noun غيف (loaf) is indefinite and has the nunation sign « ◌ ». Here, غيف (loaf) has the generic sense of the word. It evokes the idea of a loaf without specifying the kind, material, or any other nature of this loaf. The kind of loaf is identified by the servant and Saul because it is extracted from their time (during the time of Jesus Christ). The same can be said of a quarter of a shekel ش ي ل بع . See Figure [28]. The noun بع (quarter) is made definite by annexation and ش ي ل (shekel) is the Annexer.

Figure 28 .

 28 Figure 28. Definite and indefinite with numericals in Arabic

  When translated into Arabic, ل (the-silver) [the-silver] /has the definite article. See Figure [29]. The presence of the definite article in ل (the-silver) does not render the noun ل (the-silver) definite. It just indicates the material the shekel is made up of, which is evoked in its generic sense. It identifies the truth, the general attribute of this noun, ل (the-silver). This use of the definite article is referred to as ي ل / ھي ل يف ل أ the definite article denoting common knowledge/ fact. The seer is expected to take in payment what Saul has. The zero article is again used in in payment [line 14]. This use is referred to as sporadic reference since it indicates an aspect of mass trade, like in mass transportation as in by bus,

On

  Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 194 [5] in payment ف /ka/ /duf'ati n / (in payment-indef.) ف ك -As can be seen, nouns evoking generic reference are translated into Arabic either with or without the definite article. It depends on the meaning rather than structure. This is repeated in [line 18] he…would offer sacrifice. The noun sacrifice is preceded by the zero article because it involves a sporadic reference.

[

  line 28], the Arabic translation displays the definite article يب ل /lit-tinşīb/ (for the-anointment) [line 25]. In English, the zero article precedes anointment to indicate that this position is unique. The issue in Arabic in this case has a different perspective; it is relevant to definiteness. If the noun is identifiable by the listener, it should be definite and vice versa. In the context of the story, the grandmother On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 195

  it indefinite. In addition to the examples given above is the noun foresight in seers have foresight [line 25]. The use of the zero article is to show a "for-granted" idea: the word seers means people with foresight. It just states the obvious. Its translation, see Example [6], ي ب /başīrata n / (foresight) conveys that they have a skill, an ambiguous skill. This skill's abilities and limitations are not implicated. It is different from saying ي ل /'al-başīrata/ (the-foresight), which indicates the full capacity. This ambiguity is expressed in its indefinite form. -seers have foresight) ي ب يھم ل ف ل -/'al-'arr f na ladayhim başīratu n / [line 19] 99. George Kleiber analyzes this type of use in terms of "associative anaphora" (L'anaphore associative, Presses Universitaires de France 2001). On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 196

  indefinite article as in somebody [line 15]. Here, Saul and his servant seek a person, any person, a body, some body to guide them to the seer. They do not have a particular body in mind. To convey this kind of indefiniteness in Arabic, it is necessary not to introduce the definite article. The translation of for somebody is م ص ش عن /'an shakhşi n m / [line 12]. م ص ش (person any) is indefinite and conveys the idea of a person/any person/somebody/someone.

  Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 198 pronoun be definite (not necessarily made definite by the definite article). The second verification for prefixing the definite article to lexical items denoting time is due to virtue of presence; the speaker and the listener are present at the time of speaking and the communicated information is shared between them, which is the case here as explained in the preceding paragraph. The definite article used here is identified as ل ھ ل /'al lil'ahid 'alḩu ri/ knowledge by virtue of presence. In other instances, temporal expressions, as for example, overnight in the seer had been warned overnight [line 25] and beforetimes in the Lord had been with Samuel beforetimes [line 31-32] is bare, a single word, or has become a single word. These two phrases are preceded by the zero article. Both have a sporadic reference, and according to Quirk et al (1985), expressions like overnight and beforetimes are seen as idioms. Yet, this zero article changes into the definite article al in Arabic. To convey the meaning of these expressions, the single word overnight is translated into three words ي ل ء أث ئ ل as demonstrated in Example [9] and beforetimes into two words ل م as in [10]. -f 'ita/ /'al-laylati/ /'athn 'a/ -(over the-night the-previous) ئ ل ي ل ء -أث /'athn 'a-l-laylati-l-f the-ancient times) ل م -/mundhu-l-qidam/ On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 199

  The only time expression preceded by the definite article in the first paragraph of The Brook Kerith is the moment mentioned twice in [lines 26 and 33]. The use of the definite article in these phrases is cataphoric. The relative clause following it in [line 26] is he saw Saul and in [line 33] is he laid eyes on Saul identify the moment the grandmother is specifying. This moment is restricted to what comes after it. It revolves around the seer and him seeing Saul. Outside this context, this moment cannot be located. This moment is also definite in Arabic with the definite article ل /'allaḩʐah/. The use of the definite article here is a syntactic necessity because moment is the antecedent of the relative clause in both وو ش فيھ أ ي ل [line 20] and وو ش ع ن حط ي ل [line 25], and the antecedent must be definite;

Figure 29 .

 29 Figure 29. The direction to the high rock

Figure [ 30 ]

 30 Figure[30] shows how these verbal moods are reflected in relation to

Figure 30 .

 30 Figure30. The representation of the universe time of the three verbal moods(Hirtle, 2007b, 54)

Figure 31 .

 31 Figure31. The three quasi-nominal forms(Hirtle, 2007b, 62)

  summarize these three forms based upon the representation of "Mental Time": (a) the past participle, an event represented retrospectively, as if it were in the memory; (b) the present participle, an event represented progressively, as if [it] were contemporaneous with sensory perception; (c) the infinitive, an event represented prospectively, as if it were in the imagination. (p. 224)

  He taught swimming (how to swim). (p.164) A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 213 /'ala/ /'al-fawri/ -(on the-instant)

  [line 40] and his father Father [line 45] with capital initials. They are dealt with as proper names because each signifies a unique individual, but they are not in the same register: Granny is familiar whereas Father introduces a respectful distance. To show this type of definiteness in Arabic, the suffix personal pronoun /yī/ (my) is attached to ج /jaddatu/ (grandmother) and أ /'abu/ (father), and these two nouns become respectively تي ج /jaddatī/ (grandmother-my) [line 30] and أبي /'abī/ (father-my) [line 34]. The suffix personal pronoun is one of the seven ways of achieving definiteness. (cf. § 3.5.). There is no capital letter in Arabic, so the nearest contextual meaning to what is conveyed by capitalizing these words in English is achieved in the translation. In both languages, Granny and Father are definite. On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 214 Joseph affirmed that he wanted to be a prophet [line 41], which confused the grandmother or even shocked her. She repeated this phrase on line 41 as a sign of her astonishment. The two mentions of prophet are preceded by the indefinite article. The first mention of a prophet by Joseph has a descriptive function. He wants to be a prophet and not, for example, a king or any other character. It is very similar to answering the question: what do you want to be in the future? The second use of the indefinite article is by the grandmother repeating her grandson phrase A prophet [line 41]. Since it is a repetition, it carries the same function: description.In Arabic, as well, a prophet ي ن /nabiyya n / carries indefiniteness. This is shown by the absence of the definite article and displaying the nunation sign ◌. It is indefinite in Arabic because, like English, it evokes the post or the position of a prophet rather than the whole genus.In the times of Jesus Christ, prophets used to anoint kings. So, when Joseph cried out declaring his wishes to become a prophet, the grandmother jumped into conclusions about the task assigned to prophets -to anoint a king [line 41]. Joseph responds bitterly at her conclusion rejecting the implication that he wanted to anoint kings [line 43]. The difference between the two instances is in the use of the indefinite article in the phrase in [line 41] and the zero article in [line 43]. She uses the indefinite article to indicate the potential possibility of implementing the act of anointing a king, at least one king, implicating that is one of the many tasks expected of prophets to fulfill. Another complementary interpretation is that she visualizes her own grandson actually anointing a specific king. But, Joseph uses the zero article with a plural noun, to anoint kings, to refer On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 215

  To persuade Joseph to give up becoming a prophet, his grandmother told him that there are no more prophets or kings[line 42]. Here, prophets ء ي أن /'anbiy 'un/ and kings م /mul kun/ are indefinite because they are generic; they evoke the class of being a prophet or a king. The grandmother then wanted to make it up for him and called him my little prophet ن ي ي غي ل ي /y nabiyyi-şşaghīri/. Though he is not a prophet, she calls him so. Here, prophet refers to Joseph. Because the person referred to by prophet is identified, it is definite in Arabic. It is also definite because it is in the vocative mode, preceded by the On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 216 particle of vocation ي /y /. The adjective غي ل /'aş-şaghīri/ (the-little) agrees with the modified noun and is also made definite; the definite article is added. Despite her attempts, Joseph refused to go to bed [line 44]. The zero article precedes bed to convey the idea of going to sleep rather than the actual place -the bed. The translation of the infinitive phrase to go ھ ل /li-dhdhah bi/ (to the-going/departure) and the prepositional phrase to bed ي ل ل /'ila-s-sarīri/ (to the-bed) are both definite with the definite article . Writing the infinitive case in the definite form has already been explained. Refer to Example

  be a prophet [line 49]. The article a is used again before prophet to identify On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 217

  The nominal phrase the child [line 46] ل ل /'a -uflu/ [line 34] is definite in both Arabic and English because it refers anaphorically to Joseph. As to the definiteness of the room [line 47] ف لغ /'al-ghorfati/ [line 34], it is the result of ocular deixis. It is the writer's technique to plunge the reader into the story as part of accompanying the reader into the visualization of the scene. A verification of this is the absence of any contextual clues though the context enables the reader to identify this room. The reader can imagine the mother wandering around the room. As to the nominal phrase this hour [line 46], it is definite due to the determiner this. But its limits of definiteness are bounded to the time-frame of the story. The reader is able to locate this hour: it is past Joseph's bedtime; it is a late hour, meaning it is at night. Readers also deduce that the father comes home late On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 218 and past this hour. In Arabic, the noun ع ل /'as-s 'ati/ (the-hour) [line 34]

On

  Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 219 Joseph was so upset by his grandmother that he responded to her scolding by stubbornness and refusal. He slept in his chair despite everything till the door [line 52] opened and his father's footsteps crossed the threshold [line 53]. The definite article used here accompanies the reader into the room, from the chair where Joseph slept till the door opened when the father crossed the threshold. The reader feels familiar with the surrounding as if he/she is part of the story and knows the way to the door.

  times [lines 57 and 58]. Each of the three mentions appears with a different determiner. The first good-night [line 57] appears with the zero article as it is a salutation. Quirk et al (1985) consider that temporal names are introduced with the zero article. When translated into Arabic, it appears in the indefinite form لي ي س /laylatan sa'īdatan/ (good night). This salutation is made up of two separate On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 222 lexical items: the head noun لي /laylatan/ (night) and a pre-determiner ي س /sa'īdatan/ (happy/good).

  Joseph found her pronounced excuse a remark that annoyed him considerably [line 60]. The indefinite article reflects the kind of remark he feltan extremely annoying one. The indefinite form in Arabic ماح /mul ḩaʐatan/ (a remark) also reflects this type of use -kind or type of remark. On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 224

  Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 225 To console himself, he decided to ask his father in the morning [line 62] about his grandmother's laughter at his desire to be a prophet. But morning [line 63] seemed still a long way ahead. The phrase morning appears twice but means different things due to the different use of articles. In the first occurrence, the one with the definite article [line 62], Joseph refers to a specific time in his own personal calendar of time -the time when both father and son wake up. This occurrence of morning refers to his chance to talk to his father. In the second appearance of morning [line 63], the zero article is used because morning here evokes a category divided by human cognition into morning, evening, noon. Morning takes place when the sun rises but to Joseph, it can not be morning if both are asleep. In Arabic, both cases of morning are in the definite form. In the first one, ل /'aş-şab ḩi/ (the-morning) [line 46] is definite in Joseph's mind. It was night and he wanted to talk to his father, so he decided to postpone the interview till morning. In the second mention ل /liş-şab ḩi/ (for/till-morning) [line 47], definiteness has two verifications. The definite article has an anaphoric function; ل /liş-şab ḩi/ for/till-morning refers back to the first mention on line 46. It also refers to the time known to everyone as morning -generic reference. Since there was time, Joseph decided to find a reason [line 64] to excuse his grandmother's laughing. He did not set a limit to his thinking. He was ready to accept any reason to relieve himself. The range of choice is wide open to him. To convey this line of thought, indefiniteness is also used in Arabic ب س /sababan/ On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 226 (reason). Since no particular reason is sought, definiteness would not be appropriate. . The only reason that he happened to find is that prophets were usually old men. The zero article is used in both prophets [line 64] and old men [line 65].

On

  Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 232 After a little while, Joseph was conscious; he did not want his grandmother to feel suspicious about the content of his dream. He asked her not to bother herself by waking up, tucking him in bed, or tidying the bed-clothes [line 83]. This immediate situation, at bed-time, both the grandmother and Joseph in bed, covered with bed-clothes, renders the bed-clothes identifiable by the grandmother and the reader though nothing about this bed-cover has been previously mentioned. The same case is in Arabic; ي أغ /'al-'agh iyatu/ (the-cover(ing) [line 62] is definite by virtue of presence of the grandmother and Joseph in the same home, at the same time at night.

  of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 280

  Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 289 article: NP Complements, Nominal modifiers, Referent Establishing Relative Clauses, and Associative clauses. In all these, except for Nominal Modifiers, the modifiers of the head noun follows it. Having said so, the uses of the based on cataphoric function can be divided into three categories, namely: NP Complements, Referent Establishing Relative Clauses, and Associative clauses.

  al. Other examples are: the land of the Benjamites [line 3] مين ي ب با [line 3] /bil di biny mīn/ (land Benjamites), all the circumstances of his dream [line 132] وف كل ه ح [line 99] /kulla ʐur fi ḩilmihi/ (all circumstances dream-his), and the air of the hills [line 192] ا ل ء ھ [line 142] /haw 'u t-til li/ (air the-hills). On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 290 Only four out of the twenty seven occurrences of the indicating Cataphoric reference via phrases display al. Two of the five phrases are concerned with pre-and post-modifier. That is, when a pre-modifier exists for the head noun in Associative Clauses case, this head noun displays the definite article in both languages. In Arabic, no lexical item separates the Annexed and the Annexer and, at the same time, the adjective follows consecutively its Modified. In such a case, the annexation structure loses to adjective structure, and the Annexer turns into a prepositional phrase. Upon this adjustment, the head noun along with the adjective displays the definite article al. In the nominal phrase the different accomplishments of the scribes [line 209], the head noun accomplishments has a pre-modifier different and a post-modifier of the scribes. Thus, in translation, ل ل إن [line 153] /'al-'inj z ti lmukhtalifati li-l-katabati/ (the-accomplishments the-different of-the-scribes), the premodifier ل /'al-mukhtalifati/ (the-different) follows the Modified إن /'al-'inj z ti/ (the-accomplishments) and the prepositional phrase ل /li-l-katabati/ (of-the-scribes) comes after the Modifier.

On

  Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 291 Another example of Cataphoric Reference with phrases as post-modifier displaying the definite article al is the health out of all of them [line 189] ل ل ل ھم م /'aş-şiḩḩati likullin minhum/ [line 140]. The head noun is ل /'aş-şiḩḩati/ (the-health) and the post-modification is ھم م ل ل / likullin minhum/ (to each one of them). This post-modification is in fact a pronoun their health ھم ص /şiḩḩatahum/ (their-health). The definite article al plays the function of a pronoun and replaces it.

  nominal phrase becomes له أوحي ق ك ل جل ل [line 18/19] /'ar-rajuli l-ladhi k na qad 'uḩiya lahu/ (the-man who had been revealed to-him), where جل ل /'arrajuli/ is the antecedent and is definite via . The relative pronoun ص ل إسم /'al-'ismu l-mawş li/ is who ل . Eleven occurrences of the are considered Miscellaneous. Some of the sentences reflect "unidentified uniqueness" like the best scribe in Galilee [line 205] يل ل في تب ك ل أف /'afdalu k tibin fi j-jalīli/ [line 152] and the most notable and trustworthy (scribe) [line 207] تب ك وأج أب /'abraza wa 'ajdara k tibin/ [line 153]. In these examples, there is one and only one entity referred to, but it is still not known. Other examples are idiomatic like the bottom of it [line 37] يل ل ھ من /min On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 292 haza l-qabīl/ [line 28]. Others are just what Hawkins (1978) calls "Unexplanatory Modifiers Use" like the next time [line 146] م ل ل /'al-marratu l-q dimatu/ [line 109] and the same evening [line 205] ء ل س ن /nafsu l-mas 'i/.

6. 4 .

 4 Contrasting the use of a/an in English to the absence of al inArabicThe use of the article a/an has many functions in English. It is used as first introduction, to describe an entity, to mean one or any, to indicate a unique role, or to evoke generic reference. Considering these functions, the article a/an is not used to indicate indefinite entities only. On the other hand, indefiniteness in Arabic takes a different categorization. To inspect these categorizations, all the occurrences of a/an in Chapter I of The Brook Kerith are analyzed in terms of the function each has on the nominal phrase in Appendix II. A summary of these occurrences is provided in

  subcategory. The theories associated with definiteness and indefiniteness: referentiality, specificity, identification, description, categorization, extraction, actualization, genericity, individuation, familiarity, and shared knowledge (to name but a few) are investigated. A parallel theoretical part of the system of the article in Arabic is provided. The idea of definiteness and indefiniteness is researched from the perspective that Arabic linguists consider: the ways definiteness and indefiniteness are achieved, their effect on inflections and parsing, and the syntactic modifications they bring into the sentence.The third part, which is made up of two major sections, comprises the corpus analysis. The first section serves as an introduction to George Moore's The Brook Kerith, placing it in the socio-cultural context. A brief biography of George Moore paves the way towards understanding his choice of rewriting the life of Jesus. Then, the story itself is summarized and explored on different levels, highlighting its impact on the literary world. Having identified the corpus, a pragmatic analysis follows, studying the function of the articles in terms of definiteness and indefiniteness and their correlation to Arabic notion of identifiability. On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 311

  Appendices): each one presenting the occurrences of one of the three articles in English.The nominal phrases are categorized in each table according to the function of the article. Each table also included the corresponding Arabic translation with its line number. A summary of these tables is provided indicating the number of occurrences of each function, of each article along with the percentage of correspondence between the two languages. Then, the uses of the article in each are contrasted and compared. Explanations, illustrations and verifications are made to On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 312 substantiate the variations in the two languages. This linguistic analysis was carried on the semantic and pragmatic levels. The computational representation of the analysis via tables and graphs facilitated the process of answering the research questions and drawing conclusions. It was found that the notion of indefiniteness and the functions adhering to the use of a/an have approximately the same distinctiveness in both languages. The major deviation in this area is that indefiniteness via the article a/an is used in English to establish the fond de tableau whereas indefiniteness in Arabic recognizes itself in the introduction of fiction via the definite article al as a sign of topicality. The notion of definiteness achieved through the use of the definite article, on the other hand, experiences more variations. This can be attributed to annexation construction, as has been indicated previously. Another verification is the syntactic necessity exerted on nouns in Arabic, as in the relative clause structure ص ج ص ل . The contrastive analysis also showed that nominal phrases with the zero article are mainly written with the article al (61%) when proper nouns are excluded from the count (because the proper nouns in this corpus are all definite and used repetitively and exhaustively in a way affecting the results of the occurrences with the zero article). The use of the article al in these instances is mainly attributed to the non-defining use of this article ھي ل يف ل ي ل . The other occurrences with the article a/an appear in the indefinite form in Arabic because indefiniteness in these nominal phrases is mainly to denote generalization ل ع ل ل ي ل ل or to On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic here aims at providing an insight into how the system of the article works in both languages and how definiteness is perceived through their use. It has also shown where the two systems converge and diverge with analyses verifying the two cases.

  ............................................................................................................... TABLE 10. RELATIVE PRONOUNS م س ص م /'ISIM MAWŞ L/ ................................ TABLE 11. SOLAR AND LUNAR LETTERS ................................................................... TABLE 12. THE DIFFERENCES IN PRONUNCIATION WHEN THE DEFINITE ARTICLE IS PREFIXED TO A NOUN WITH A SUN LETTER TO THAT WITH A MOON LETTER ...............................................................................................................

  FUNCTIONS OF A/AN AND THE CORRESPONDING FUNCTIONS IN ARABIC ............................................................................................................... TABLE 17. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE ZERO ARTICLE AND THE CORRESPONDING ARABIC FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................. On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA List of Graphs BAR GRAPH 1. NO. OF OCCURRENCES OF DETERMINERS IN THE ENGLISH SCRIPT ...... BAR GRAPH 2. THE DIVISION OF NOUNS IN THE ARABIC SCRIPT ................................ BAR GRAPH 3. COMPARISON BETWEEN DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE IN ENGLISH AND ARABIC .................................................................................................. PIE GRAPH 1. THE DISTRIBUTION OF OCCURRENCES WITH OR WITHOUT AL IN ARABIC REPLACING THE ZERO ARTICLE IN ENGLISH ............................................. PIE GRAPH 2. THE DISTRIBUTION OF OCCURRENCES WITH OR WITHOUT AL IN ARABIC REPLACING THE ZERO ARTICLE IN ENGLISH EXCLUDING THE DEFINITE MEANING FUNCTION .............................................................................. On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 332

  states clearly the complementary relation between extension and intension:

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	INTENSION: (+)		(-)
	Felix cat	mammal	animal
	EXTENSION: (-)		(+)
	Figure 7. The inversely propotional relation between extension and intension
			SABRA 30

L'extension a une valeur sémantico-référentielle: plus le substantif est complexe -plus grande est son intension -moins grande sera son extension (p. 104)

Figure [7]

, adapted from Joly and O'Kelly, shows this relation clearly by giving the cat as an example. Cat has more intension than mammal and animal, which, in return, have more extension than cat. Felix has maximum intension but minimum extension. This minimal extension is just an indication that Felix refers to a unique entity -its extensity. However, and as is said earlier, intension can be increased by adjectives in the case where the substantive is not a proper noun.

All in all, the substantive is the main component of an NP. Its extension, intension and extensity are determined by the substantive itself and by the

  ] has two central determiners before the noun. Whether this precedes the or vice versa, the NP is incorrect. Quirk et al clarify that central determiners are in a "choice relation"; that is, "they occur one instead of another".

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	Example [19Other determiners are in "a chain relation" as they occur one after another in the
	noun phrase." Two central determiners cannot co-exist in the same NP at the same
	time.
		NP [10]
	Pre-determiner	Central determiner Post-determiners	Head/Noun
	all	the	many	successes
				SABRA 34

  Consider examples [24] and [25]. In the two examples, a specified class is called upon out of the whole group which contains young and senior men and women.

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	phrase".
	SABRA 37

.2.1. The "Familiarity Theory" / Contextual Reference

	On Definiteness and Beyond On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	pragmatic abilities are required to locate the referent within the set depending on
	the type of usage. These uses are referred to as identifiability and locatability.
	The article the is also characterized by uniqueness. It means that the
	referent is unique, one of a kind, in a certain context. The term emerged with
	Russell (1905) in his discussion of singular NPs. However, Hawkins criticizes
	Russell's view and extends uniqueness to plural and mass nouns. He adds that
	when the object in question is unique, a + singular count noun cannot be used to
	refer to it (p. 177).
	2.5John Wilkins (1668) is the first grammarian in England to refer to this
	theory saying that the "is applyed [sic] only to such a Person or Thing, as the
	hearer knows, or hath reason to know, because of its eminence or some precedent
	mention of it" (as cited in Lyons 1991, p. 311).
	Jespersen (1949) presents three stages of "complete familiarity": the first is
	"complete familiarity or ignorance" introduced via the indefinite article; the
	second is "nearly complete familiarity" introduced by the definite article; and the
	third is "complete familiarity" introduced by proper nouns and cases where nouns
	function as proper.
	Lyons (1999) coins the term "familiarity theory" from Christophersen
	(1939), who asserts that if the speaker "wants to be understood it is important that
	he should not use words and phrases which the hearer is likely to misinterpret" (p.
	finds that "Set identification 28). And if the speaker wishes to indicate that the referent is familiar to both the
	and referent location are characteristics of all uses of the" (129) though different hearer and the speaker, the article the fulfills the mission. Yet, Christophersen
	SABRA 62 SABRA 63

  finds this rule 21. The Arabic script of the explanation of the 4 phases as presented in Al-Suy ti's book (Analogues and the Similars in Arabic syntax) ل ف ئ ل و أش , p. 35:

	أوجه ثاث من ي ل ق س ليل و ي ل ب ل ي ل ع ئ ف وص ب ل عن ي ي ل أ ھ ب ي أ فإ صف ل ع بق س ف ص ل و مه م ق م أو صف ل ب ص خ ك ي وض أو ي ل عام ل ل ل ق ل و أعم م أنه ي ل ف يف ل : ل أ ھ .أح ج ل م ت )شيء( ل أ ني ل و . ي يف ل أ لث ل .و

22. Al-Suy i considers جل /rajulu/ man as indefinite though it is preceded by the demonstrative adjective ھ /hadha/, which is definite in itself (refer to § 3.5.3.) but does not necessarily make what comes after 'definite'. Maybe he considers it indefinite in comparison to the definite noun, Zayd, which is a proper noun. 23. In Arabic, the label clause has no equivalent; it is named sentence ج /jumlatu n /. On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 81

  It evokes the meaning of something common and known among people. It differs from generality which is ل /'al-' m/ the-general. 28. Romanization is the representation of a written or spoken word with Roman script, where the original word uses a different writing system. Transliteration is the conversion of a word from one script to another without representing the phonemics of the original; it only strives to represent the characters accurately. Beirut in 1971 by Arabic experts and agreed upon by the representative of the Arabic-speaking countries 29 . This system has undergone a number of modifications which were announced at the Eighth UN Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names (2002). It is worth mentioning that this system is updated every year during the annual conference of the UNGEGN. The Formal Standard Arabic or what is commonly known (in English)Modern Standard Arabic[START_REF] Holes | Modern Arabic: Structures, Functions, and Varieties[END_REF][START_REF] Ryding | A Reference Grammar of Modern Standard Arabic[END_REF] is used in this work since it

	.	س ل من ف كل ع ه	اق أ	ي م بل	،	ف ل بل ي م س ل سم ب	ل وليس
	27. "commonness" is the literal translation of

The system followed in this thesis is the one recommended by the United Nations UNGEGN (United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names). It is based on the 26. The Arabic script about the common noun and the proper noun from Encyclopedia of Arabic Linguistics, vol. II, p. 97 by Ya'qub: ي ل /'ash-shuyu'/ the-common. The term "transliteration" is widely used rather than "romanization". Kharusi, N. S. & Salman, A. (2011) The English Transliteration of Place Names in Oman. Journal of Academic and Applied Studies Vol. 1(3) September 2011, pp. 1-27 Available online at www.academians.org On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 85 conference held in is the formal way of speaking in the Arab world nowadays. It is different from Classical Arabic -the language of the Holy Book, Qur' n, and classical literaturein style and vocabulary "since they [classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic]

Table 2 .

 2 Romanization of Arabic consonant lettersTable[3] presents the romanization of the Arabic vowels, long and short,

Table 3 .

 3 Romanization of vowels, diphthongs and diacritical marks

On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic

SABRA 88

  . The Arabic script from The Inclusive Book of the Arabic Lessons by[START_REF] Ghalayini | بي ل و ل مع ج /J me' al-Dur s al-'arabiyyah/ The Inclusive of the Arabic Lessons[END_REF], once again, this definition corresponds to the Aristotelian definition of the noun.

		Word
	Noun سم	Verb ل ف	Particle ف ح
	/'ism/	/fi'l/	/ḩarf/
			" م ب	م غي ه ن في م ع	م اسم "
	31.

. "A word is considered a noun if it accepts the definite article al, or appears in the vocative case, or is considered as ليه م /musnadu ilayhi/ 31meaning agent (Iben Hish m Al-Anş rī, 708-761). Many linguists like Abdul-Raof (2006) and Al-Afgh nī (1981) use the term ليه م /musnadu ilayhi/ instead of the terms noun or name 32 systematically throughout his work. Other linguists describe 30م ليه /musnadu ilayhi/ means: what is considered as the topic of the talk or what is talked about. 32. The translation of the term سم /'ism/ into English results in two terms: noun and name. in this thesis, the term noun is used. Figure 15. The parts of speech in Arabic On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 89

  ل /aş-şifah/ is considered a sub-category of the noun because every adjective is a noun, but not every noun is an adjective. Nouns include adjectives, and adjectives entail nouns. "It [the adjective] is a noun indicative of some aspects / features of the self and it is the trait needed to identify the Modified 34 "(Jurj nī, 1969, p. 133). Thus, when calling upon (or praying to) God, His names -the adjectives referring to Him -are used as in [2] rather than the adjectives of His names as in[3].

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	An adjective
	[2]	ح	حيم!	ي
	[3]	ي ح	ﷲ!	The noun إسم ح	ي
			ق م Derived	م ج Underived
			Declinable	م	Indeclinable ي م
	Fully declinable	Partially declinable
		ف	م	ف ل ن م	م
	Figure 16. The division of nouns from an inflectional point of view
					SABRA 90

The noun has three inflectional cases: nominative, accusative and genitive. It has three numbers: singular, dual and plural. It also has two genders: feminine and masculine. Nouns are either derived or un-derived. Derived nouns, derived from verbs, are either declinable or partially declinable 33 , and un-derived nouns can be declinable or indeclinable. (See Figure [16]). 33. According to Western grammars of Arabic, fully declinable nouns are known as triptotes (showing the three inflectional sign -nominative, accusative and genitive and the nunation sign) and partially declinable nouns are known as diptotes (showing only two signs: the nominative and the accusative and no nunation sign). /'irḩamn / /raḩīm/ /y (forgive-us merciful O) O merciful, forgive us. /'irḩamin / /'al-l h/ /raḩmata/ /y (forgive-us God mercy O) O God's mercy, forgive us

  compares the categorization of nouns and adjectives in English and Arabic. He maintains that Unlike some English nouns and adjectives, Arabic nouns and adjectives are distinguished by function rather than form. Thus, a word like يل ج can either be a noun or an adjective out of its sentence context.(p. 178) He also provides examples supporting this difference in categorization. In example

34. The Arabic script from

The Book of Definitions by Jurj nī, 1969, p. 133: " ض ب ع ل اسم ھي بھ ف ي ل ف ص ل ب م لا أم وھي ل أح " On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 91

  In Part II of the figure, the noun ي ب /buy tu n / (houses) is in the plural form, and its Modifier ي ج /jamīlatu n / (beautiful) agrees with it in case, gender and indefiniteness except for number; the adjective ي ج is in the singular form. This is because the noun is non-human. When the noun is human, the adjective agrees with the Modified in all its cases and forms. Figure[18] verifies this equation.

	On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic Part I. /jamīlatu n / ي /جbintu n / ت ب Part II. A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic [6] ت ي ل يل ل /'al-jamīlu/ /'al-baytu/ (the-beautiful the-house) [7] ي ل ي ل /'al-jamīlatu/ 'al-buy tu/ (the-beautiful the-houses) [8] ي ل ت ل /'al-jamīlatu/ /'al-bintu/ (the-beautiful the-girl) [9] يا ل ل ' /'al-jamīl tu/ /'al-ban tu/ /jamīl tu On Definiteness and Beyond (the-beautiful the-girls)
	(beautiful)	(girl)
	Adjective	Noun
	singular, feminine, indefinite,
	nominative case
			Part II.
	(beautiful)	(house)	(beautiful)	(houses)
			Adjective	Noun
	Adjective	Noun
			Singular	plural
	singular, masculine, indefinite,
	nominative case
			feminine, nominative case, indefinite
	Figure 17. The adjective of a non-human noun
				SABRA 92 SABRA 93

35. The adjective may not agree with the Modified in certain cases, which are not of great relevance to the topic of research. Part I. /jamīlu n / يل ج /baytu n / ت ي ب /jamīlatu n / ي ج /buy tu n / ي ب In figure [18], Part I, the noun ت ب /bintu n / (girl) is feminine, singular, indefinite and in the nominative case. Its adjective ي ج /jamīlatu n / (beautiful) agrees totally with it. The same thing happens in Part II of this figure. The adjective يا ج /jamīl tu n / (beautiful) agrees totally with its noun ب /ban tu n / (girls), which is plural, feminine, indefinite, and nominative. If the noun is definite, the adjective agrees with it and, similarly, is made definite regardless whether the noun is human or non-human. To demonstrate this idea, the examples in both figures are presented in examples [6], [7], [8], [9] respectively with the definite article. n / يا /جban tu n / ب (beautiful) (girls) Adjective Noun plural, feminine, indefinite, nominative case Figure 18. The adjective of a human noun

  On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 95 contain a pronoun, existing or absent, referring back to the Modified, otherwise the sentence would be an adverb of manner ح /ḩ l/. In Example [15], the sentence ي ي (he is crying) is an adjective to the noun ول (boy) as it clarifies and provides some information about the boy. In Example [16], the sentence ي ي (he is crying) is an adverb of manner describing the boy's state.

	[15] ي ي ول أيت
	/ ra'aytu waladan yabki/
	(I-saw boy he-is-crying)
	[16] ي ي ل ل أيت

/ra'aytu-l walada yabki/ (I-saw the-boy he-is-crying)

  ھم من ي ل م و جل من ءني ج م /m j 'anī min rajuli n wa m li-zaydi n min dirhami n / No man sought me and Zayd owes me no money and كم /kam/ how many as in Example [19].

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
		[18] [19] ءني ج جل كم
		/kam rajulin j 'anī/
		How many men sought me.
			article	/al/ (explicated in
	3.5.7.), nunation (explicated in 3.4.2.),	/rubba/ as in Example [17],
		[17] ك أم ت لم أ
		/rubba 'akhin lam talidhu 'ummuka/
		A brother of yours whom your mom did not beget
	"من"	غ لاس ي ل /man al-mufīdatu lil'istighr qi/ as in Example [18],
			SABRA 96

. Lexically, and according to Al-Suy i (p. 35), a noun is identified as indefinite if it accepts the introduction of: the definite

  To illustrate, if the noun ك م /malik/, (king), is used in the nominative case, it ends with the /dammah/ vowel sign « ◌ »: ك م /maliku/ (king). With nunation, it

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	nunation ين ل /'attanwīn/ (Iben Ya'īsh, 553-653), is usually used for indefinite
	class of nouns.
	Abu Chacra (2007) explains this process: nunation is performed by "doubling
	the final vowel sign and pronouncing them with a final /n/. The final vowel itself
	does not, however, become long in spite of the double vowel sign" (p. 18).
	SABRA 99

ends with a double /dammah/ « ◌ »: ك م /maliku n / (king).

Table [ 4

 [ ] shows how the noun ت ي ب /bayt/ (house) loses one of the doubled sign, in each of the cases, upon introducing the definite article.

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
		'a house'	'the house'
	Accusative	ي ب /bayta n / 'a house'	ت ي ل /'albayta/ 'the house'
	Genitive	ت ي ب /bayti n / 'of a house'	ت ي ل /'albayti/ 'of the house'
		Indefinite Noun with	Noun with the definite
	The case 44	nunation	article
	Nominative	ت ي ب /baytu n /	ت ي ل /'albaytu/
	44. The basic functions of the three noun cases:
			SABRA 100

The nominative case is used for the subject and predicate noun or adjective. The accusative case is used for the direct object, predicative complement in verbal sentences, and for most adverbs. The genitive case is used for expressing possession and after prepositions.

(ps. 31and 32)

Table 4 .

 4 The form of a noun in the definite and indefinite case A widespread example of nunation usage is the Arabic expression

	ش

However, there are some nouns that display nunation though they are definite, like some proper nouns

45

, as م / Muhammadu n / (Ashour, n.p.). In example

[22]

, the noun, م Mohammad, displays the nunation sign as it is a topic / inchoative أ م /mubtada'/ (double dammah « ◌ ») though it is a proper nounmeaning definite. In this example where the inchoative is a proper noun displaying the nunation sign, its predicate is also a noun, and it also displays the nunation sign ي ن a prophet as it is indefinite. [22] ء ي ن أ من ي ن م 45. Not all proper nouns can display nunation sign. For example, nouns ending with a vowel ع ف ح like لي Leila cannot display nunation. On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 101 In the first example in Figure [19], the noun م schools is indefinite, and it is in the genitive case as it is preceded by the preposition ب in. So, it should show genitive nunation -double /kasrah/ « ◌ ». Instead, it shows the accusative sign -/fatḩah/ « ◌ » as it is a diptote. Its adjective ي ج (new) displays the genitive nunation as supposed. Here, in this case, the adjective does not agree with its Modified, as supposed. On the other hand, when this indefinite noun is made definite ل (the schools) (by the definite article in this example), it regains its inflectional sign -/kasrah/ « ◌ ». The adjective that modifies it is declined similarly with the genitive sign.

. Ways to Achieve Definiteness in Arabic

  Linguists divide these seven types into two categories: what is definite in itself (what Stuart Mill (1843) terms as proper names) and what is made definite with a tool (these would most likely correspond to Mill's "connotative proper names"). (See Figure [20]).

	Linguists usually identify seven types of definites: pronouns ئ ل /a
	am 'iru/, proper nouns	م ل	م س	/'ismu-l-'alami/, demonstrative pronouns ء أس
	إش /'asm 'ul 'isharati/, relative pronouns	ص ل سم /'ismul mawsuli/,
	vocative mode ء ل /'annida'/, nominal annexation ف إض /'alid fatu/, and words
	prefixed with the definite article	ب ف	ل	. These seven types are definite in
	themselves regardless of what comes before or after.

  5].The first row contains the first person pronouns 46 م ل ئ ض / am iru-lmutakallimi/ that can be used for both masculine and feminine. The second row is for the second person pronouns 47 ب ل ئ ض / am iru-l-mukh ab/ divided into masculine and feminine, but sharing the same lexical item for the dual. These

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
		1st	أ ن (I) / an /			ن ن (we) /naḩnu/
	2nd	masculine feminine	ت ن أ (you) / anta/ ت ن أ (you) / anti/		ن أ (you two) / antum /	م ن أ (you) / antum/ ن ن أ (you) / antunna/
	3rd	masculine feminine	ھ (he, it) /huwa/ ي ھ (she, it) /hiya/		ھ (they two) /hum /	م ھ (they) /hum/ ن ھ (they) /hunna/
	Table 5. Personal Pronouns	ل	ئ ل أ	/ a am iru-l-munfaşilatu
						SABRA 105

46. The name of the first person pronouns م ل ئ ض means "the pronouns of the speaker".

47. The name of the second person pronouns ب

ل ئ ض means "the pronouns of the addressee".

  These separate personal pronouns have the nominative case. That being said, they replace nouns that are in the nominative case only[START_REF] Chacra | Arabic: an essential grammar[END_REF]. Afgh nī (1981) adds another separate pronoun ي /'iyy /, which Abu Chacra considers to be a "bound article". ي /'iyy /, occurring in the accusative case only. It is always attached to a suffix pronoun to refer to the first, second or third person. See Table[6].[START_REF] Al-Fawzan | ل لك ل ليل لك م بن ي أل /dalīlu-s-s liki ila alfiyyati iben m lik/ The Seeker's Guide to AlFiyyat Iben Malik[END_REF] considers the combination of ي with its suffix pronoun as one pronoun; he does not separate the components as the other linguists mentioned above have done.

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	Replacing these nouns by pronouns means that they are already made definite by
	reference, which is accounted for above.
	Al-Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
		1st	ي / yy ya /	ن ي / yy n /
	2nd	masculine feminine	ي / yy ka/ ي / yy ki/	ك ي / yy kum /	م ك ي / yy kum/ ن ھ ي / yy hunna/
	3rd	masculine feminine	ي / yy hu/ ھ ي / yy h /	ھ ي / yy hum /	م ھ ي / yy hum/ ن ھ ي / yy hunna/
	Table 6. The pronoun ي /'iyy /
	Al-Afgh nī presents this quotation from the Holy Book Quran. In example
	[29], ي /'iyy / is attached to the suffix pronoun /ka/, referring to God, as if
	speaking to Him directly.
	[29]	ن ي
					SABRA 107

/'iyy ka na'budu/ Thee (alone) do we worship On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 108

  Suffix pronouns are either in the accusative or the genitive case. When they are attached to a noun, they function as possessive pronouns. The nominal phrase, the noun with its suffixed pronoun, becomes definite because it forms nominal annexation (See 3.4.6) or ف ض /'id fah/ construction[START_REF] Chacra | Arabic: an essential grammar[END_REF].

	On Definiteness and Beyond
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	SABRA 110

They are called م ل س ك م ع ج /jami' mudhakkar s lim/ and م ل س ث ن م ع ج /jami' mu'annas s lim/ respectively. The "broken" plural is irregular and is called ي ت ع .ج

  In this example, the name Mohamed appears in the dual form (nominative case). The definite article indicates that the two persons, who are named Mohamed, are known to the listener. Otherwise, if the two persons holding the same name are not known to the listener, the definite article is deleted and such nouns are dealt with as common nouns and, consequently, lose their definiteness.Moreover, in certain cases, the definite article is added, like after the words س ب /bi'sa/ meaning what a bad and م ن /ni'ma/ meaning what a good.

	[36]	ل بن ع	ل م	ن

/'ata-l-muhammad n/ the two Mohameds came On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 111 what a good Omar ben Al-Khattab

After these words, the proper noun is transformed into a common one since these words are not introduced except into common nouns prefixed with the definite article. In addition, a proper noun is transformed into an indefinite common noun after ا /l / no as in Example

[37]

. Aba Hasan refers to any person having the attributes of the original, as in Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice when after her speech, Portia is applauded with the cry "A Daniel come to judgment", mean that she has the attributes of the prophet Daniel.

[37] لھ ن ح أب وا /wal 'ab ḩasan lah / and neither Aba Hasan is up to it Again, proper nouns are different from common nouns. Al-Suy i highlights this difference. He maintains that proper nouns have no meaning in themselves. They gain meaning when they name an entity. This is unlike common nouns; the noun man is an informative/useful word that specifies a species and excludes other species, such as woman from its category. A proper noun can be changed and exchanged without changing the language. That is, one can change the name of one's son from On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 112

Table 8 .

 8 First group of the Arabic demonstrative pronoun this and these

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic

Table 9 .

 9 9] below. It is worth mentioning that the dual forms are only used in very formal Arabic. Second group of the Arabic demonstrative pronoun that and those Demonstrative pronouns are definite in themselves. They do not take the position of an adjective 52 except if the Modified is a proper noun or an Annexed noun.

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic

51.

Ya'qub (2006, II, 160)

divides the demonstratives into 3 types depending on distance: near, medium far and far. He also lists other demonstratives that are very rarely used.

/marartu bi-zaydin hadh / I met this Zayd

  The function of a relative pronoun is to link what precedes it -the antecedent -to the relative clause. In figure[21], the relative pronoun ل links the noun ل ج ل , which is the antecedent, to the relative clause ي ب ل م ,ي which is now called definite relative clause. The relative pronoun, ل who, agrees with the antecedent.

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
		Singular			Dual		Plural
		Masc.	Femi.		Masc.	Femi.	Masc.	Femi.
	Nominative						ل أ	ل أ	تي ل أ
	Accusative and Genitive	ل أ /'alladhī/	ي ل أ /'allatī/	/'alladh ni/ ن ي ل أ /'alladhayni/	/'allat ni/ ن ي ل أ /'allatayni/	ين ل أ /'alladhīn a/	/'allaw ti/ تي لا أ /'all ti/
	Table 10. Relative Pronouns	ص م	م س	/'isim mawş l/
	Relative clause Relative pronoun	Antecedent
	( )أل				( ص ل )أ	( ق ب ل )أ
		ي ب ل	م ي			ل	ل ج ل	ھ ش
	/l'arabiyyata/	/yatakallamu/ /lladhi/	/r-rajula/	/'sh hadtu/
	I saw		the man			who	Arabic	speaks
	(I saw the man who speaks Arabic)
	PS. The arrow	indicates the direction of reading.
								SABRA 117

definite article Figure 21. An example on the relative clause with a relative pronoun

  Table [10], which are used with nouns regardless of their number and gender. The most recurrent ones are: « م » /m / what, « ن م » /man/ who, and « م » /mimm / of which or of what, which are also called interrogative pronouns. « ن م » refers to humans and « »مrefers to non-human. These two pronouns differ from the standard ones in Table[10] in that they do not have an antecedent -the antecedent is inherent in their meaning.

	They are also different in having general or indefinite reference. Examples [45], [46],
	and [47] illustrate these differences.
	[46]	و ت م ع أ ا

[45]

ي ب ل م ي ن م ج و /wajadtu man yatakallamu-l-'arabiyyata/ I found (one) who speaks Arabic. /l 'a'budu m ta'bud na/ I do not worship what you worship. (The Quran)

[47]

ت ك م ھ /hadh mimm katabtu/ This is (part) of what I have written.

(Abu Chacra, 2007, p. 205)

  example [46], the relative pronoun does not specify what others worship. It just draws the line between two types of worshiping: what the prophet worships and what others worship. The targeted referent is any kind of worshiping different from that which the prophet worships. In example [47], the relative pronoun « م » refers to part of what the author has written, but which part or how much of what he has written is not identified. The reference is general and indefinite.With these relative pronouns ( ,م ن ,م and ,)م the usage of the anaphoric suffix pronoun -ئ ل /'al' 'id/ the returner -is optional.Examples [46] and [47] can be rewritten with the anaphoric suffix pronoun as:

	On Definiteness and Beyond
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	SABRA 121

[46a] ه ون ت م ع أ ا / l 'a'bidu m ta'bid nahu/ I do not worship what you worship. [47a] ه ك م ھ /hadh mimm katabtuhu/ This is (part) of what I have written. Abu Chacra (2007) does not specify what this anaphoric suffix pronoun « », used in each of these examples, refers back to. From a semantic and syntactic point of view, it refers back to the noun or idea preceding this relative pronoun as it, the anaphoric suffix pronoun, agrees with this noun or idea in gender. The anaphoric suffix pronoun « » in example [46a] refers back to what the others worship and in example [47a], to what I have written as a book or article.

  On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and ArabicSABRA 122 object of the vocative. The particle precedes the object, which can be a noun, proper or common, independent of number. It is considered as an object because the sentence of the vocative is made up of the omitted/deleted verb أن /'un dī/ I call on/upon and replaced by the particle. See Figure[23]. The vocative mode is rendered in English as "O(h)…!", "Hey…!", or even with just an exclamation mark after the noun or the sentence.Al-Fawzan (1995) identifies eight 55 particles (p. 201) whileYa'q b (2006, vol. IX, p. 279) identifies seven 56 particles used in the vocative mood. The particle ي 55. Al-Fawzan divides the eight particles into three groups:For summoning somebody in close proximity, the particle أ /'a/ is used as in: أجب ل أخ Khalid, answer me.For summoning somebody beyond what is considered close proximity, the following six

particles آ /' /, ي /y /, أي /'ay /, ھي /hayy /, أ /'ay/ and آ /' y/ are used. For example, ع ص ي ل ھ ت ل ل (you, who are climbing the mountain, slow down). For summoning a person in grief (over loss or pain), the particle « و » /w / is used as in:

ھ و Oh my (aching) back.

  Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 127 1. if the noun is the name of God ﷲ as in Example [54], 2. if it is a poetic necessity as in Example [55], and 3. if it is a name in a narrative genre as in Example [56]. The two chaps who ran away, beware not to inflict evil on us.

	[54]	ل أغ ﷲ ي
		/y 'all h 'ighfir lan /
		O God, forgive us.
	[55]	ش ن ت	ك ي	ف	ل لغام في
		/fay -l-ghul m ni-l-ldh nī farr	'iyy kum 'an ta'qib n sharran/
	[56] ق ل جل ل ي
		/y -r-rajula-lmun aliqi/
		O the dashing man

  The Annexer س ل the school is added to the Annexed ي م the director specifying which director is in question. The Annexed carries the sign that is imposed by its position or case in the sentence but never nunation sign as it is defined by this construction while the Annexer is always in the genitive case (with this sign « ◌ »).

	On Definiteness and Beyond
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	the director		of the school
	س ل			ي م
	/'al-madrasati/			/mudīru/
	Annexer			annexed
	Figure 24. Nominal annexation ف ض إ أ /'al'id fah/
	Annexation is of two types: total or real annexation	ي ي ل	و	ل ف إض
	and verbal or rhetorical annexation	ي ي ل	و	م غي ف إض .
					SABRA 130

/'almu f/ and the Annexer or the Modifier ليه ف ل /'almu fu 'ilayhi/. See Figure

[24]

.

  When the Annexer is a possession of the Annexer and vice versa, the Annexed is needed to complete the meaning. In Example[62], the noun ل the house is the property of حب ص the owner. That is, the Annexed is the possession of the Annexer. On the other hand, the noun house in Example[63], which is the Annexer, is owned by ي Zayd, the Annexed. it needs a continuation. This kind of derivative is equivalent to the superlative form in English(Ryding, 2005 p. 245). In Example [64], the noun ل أج the most beautiful calls for specification which is resolved by adding the Annexer ء ل the women. ء ل ل أج ھ ش /sh hadtu 'ajmala-n nis '/ I saw the most beautiful women When two nouns are connected by an implicit preposition, the construction becomes genitive. Take Example [65]. The Annexer ي ح silk specifies the material the Annexed ث a garment is made up of. So the example can be read as: a garment (made up) of silk where made up is equal to the preposition ن م /min/. The second type, verbal or rhetorical annexation, neither define, nor specifies the Annexed. This happens when the Annexed is a derivative -active participle سم عل ف or passive participle م سم -or an adjective ھ م .ص The Annexed in this type of annexation can be replaced by its verb without changing the meaning. Zayd is the receiver of the action of hitting. Then, if the active participle ض hitting is replaced by its verb ض hit, the meaning does not change and the sentence means: this (a person) hit Zayd ي ض .ھ This formation, replacing the Annexed with a verb, cannot be performed in real annexation. Theoretically, the Annexed must not be predefined by the definite article because if it does, it means it is already definite and does not need another way -On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 132 appears in the dual or the plural form. In Example [67], the noun بي ل the two hitters has the definite article and still has an Annexer ي Zayd to define it.

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
		[64] [65]	/zurtuka 'inda-z-zuhri/ I visited you at noon ي ح ث /thawbu ḩaririn/
			a garment of silk
		[62] [66]	ھ ي ل حب ص ض /hadh ribu zayd / /ş ḩibu-d-d ri/ this is the hitter of Zayd
			the owner of the house
		[63] Example [66] means that ي
			/d ru zaydin /
			the house of Zayd
		When the Annexed is a derivative of the meter of /'af'al/	و ع ق م
	"	" ل أف
			SABRA 131

, meaning annexation -to become definite. However, in a verbal annexation, the Annexed can be prefixed with the definite article in very limited cases, as when it

Table 11 .

 11 Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and ArabicSABRA 135 1. 'al _ in initial position: /'al-bayt/ 'the house' 2. 'aC (where C is identical to the following consonants) -in initial position:'aš-šams 'the sun' 3. l _ in contextual position: /fi l-bayt/ 'in the house' 4. C (where C is identical to the following consonant) -in contextual position:/li-r-rajuli/ 'for the man'(Rubin, 2005, p. 67) Abu[START_REF] Chacra | Arabic: an essential grammar[END_REF] clarifies the processes presented by Rubin in detail. When the definite article is added to a word that begins with coronal 64 consonants -"sun letters" or "solar letters" (with regards to the first letter of س ل /'ash-shamsu/ the sun) (See Table[11]), the « l » ( ) of the definite article is assimilated to the sound of the sun letter following it. It is not pronounced and is omitted in transliteration though it is written in Arabic with a /suk n/ ش » above it. See Table[11]. Solar and Lunar letters However, when the consonant is lunar ق /qamari/ -with regards to the first consonant letter of the word ق /qamarun/ moon (See Table[12]), the « l » ( ) of the definite article is voiced as it does not assimilate with this consonant. In 64. Coronal letters are pronounced with the tongue touching the teeth or the front part of the mouth. They are fourteen. The letters /j/ and /y/ are not considered lunar letters though they are pronounced with the tongue touching the front part of the mouth.On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and ArabicSABRA 136 transliteration, the definite article is written as /'al/ in example 1 and as /l/ in example 3 in the above quotation by Rubin.

	◌

«

س

»; the example in numbers 2 and 4 above are written in Arabic as س ل أ /'ash-shamsu/ the sun and ل ج ل /li-rrajuli/ 'for the man'. Due to the assimilation process, the first coronal consonant is doubled, which is indicated with a /shaddah/ ◌ « /sa ḩu-l-qamari/= /'alqamar/ + / sa ḩu/ the surface of the moon

  Quest for the Historical Jesus, a Critical Study of its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede, (1906), the work which is generally thought to have brought to a close what is identified by specialists on the subject as the first attempt to reconcile objective historical evidence with the various narratives of the New Testament.

	On Definiteness and Beyond On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	(1906), David Friedrich Strauss's Das Leben Jesu, Kritisch Bearbeitet ("The Life of
	Jesus, critically examined"), and Lewis Wallace's Ben Hur, a Tale of the Christ
	(1880). This section will be concluded by what is, in some ways, a sequel to The
	Brook Kerith.
	The Brook Kerith appeared, exactly ten years after the publication of Albert
	Schweitzer's Although, neither this second period nor the third, for that matter, is relevant
	to this study, the first however is of the upmost importance, if only because Moore,
	although he does not go into detail, refers to the extensive personal research he
	carried out, prior to setting out on his pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1913. We may
	SABRA 153 SABRA 154

to the genre, Ernest Renan's La vie de Jésus (1863), Albert Schweitzer's Quest for the Historical Jesus, a Critical Study of its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede, Paradoxically, Moore's novel belongs to what is known as the "no quest" period, identified as the forty-seven-year period following Schweitzer's publication. The second period, influenced by existentialist philosophy is dominated by the teachings of Rudolf Bultmann (Kerygma and the Myth, 1953) 71 . This second "New Quest" period was, according to experts on the question, triggered off by a lecture, entitled "The Problem of the Historical Jesus", delivered by one of Bultmann's disciples, Ernst Käsemnn, in October 1953, at the University of Marburg in Germany. The death of Bultmann in 1978 brought this second phase to a close and ushered in the third and last period. 71 . Bultmann Rudolf and Five Critics (1953) Kerygma and Myth, London: S.P.C.K., Harper Collins 2000 edition: ISBN 0-06-130080-2

  His objective, when embarking on this extremely tiresome journey is easily inferable; he wanted the sensory experience which would allow him to store up the sights and sounds, which could be retrieved later to write a realistic, naturalistic fiction with the Bible as the core material. The product was The Brook Kerith, a simulation of the Bible with a twist. This is evident in his use of genuine names of places and characters.

	On Definiteness and Beyond
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	sights and sounds that his protagonists might have experienced 2,000 years
	previously. 77. Wadi Kharrar is located in Jordan. http://www.atlastours.net/jordan/elijah_and_elisha.html
	78. "Elijah Predicts a Drought". 1 Kings 17: 3 and 5. King James Version Bible. (Cambridge ed).
	http://kingjbible.com/1_kings/17.htm
	79. In King James Version (Cambridge ed.) of the Bible, there is reference to these places: "And he
	passed through mount Ephraim, and passed through the land of Shalisha, but they found them
	not: then they passed through the land of Shalim, and there they were not: and he passed through
	SABRA 161

The title, The Brook Kerith, refers to a ravine located east of Jordan, and today it is called "Wadi Kharrar 77 ". It is where "the ravens came to feed Elijah" when he took refuge there

(The Brook Kerith, p. 294)

or to quote the New Testament 78 , "So he went and did according unto the word of the LORD: for he went and dwelt by the brook Cherith, that is before Jordan."

The other names of places mentioned in this narrative are all authentic as they are already mentioned in the Bible and do actually exist. For example, in the first paragraph of the first chapter of this narrative, Moore mentions the land of the Benjamites, the land of Shalisha 79 , and Arimathea 80 , which are mentioned in the Bible and refer to locations in the Holy Land as shown in Picture

[1]

. the land of the Benjamites, but they found them not. And when they were come to the land of Zuph" (1 Samuel 9:4-5) (bold type is mine) http://bible.cc/1_samuel/9-4.htm 80. "When the even was come, there came a rich man of Arimathaea, named Joseph, who also himself was Jesus' disciple." (Matthew 27:57) http://kingjbible.com/matthew/27.htm On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 162

  see them without the asses, said to young Saul: let us go up into yon city, for a great seer lives there and he will be able to put us in the right way to come upon the asses.The time frame of the narration or fond de tableau, asGuillaume (Leçons de linguistique, 1985, vol. 6, p. 84) puts it, is established in the same manner. It is at the end of a summer evening -an isolated moment in time and once again exceptionally precise. In effect, there is no way of locating this moment with respect to any precise date in the normal "time calendar". The article a which actualises the nominal group summer evening does no more than signal first introduction. It leaves us with the impression that the narrator is referring to of any "summer evening". And if we are to locate this summer or this evening, it would be by referring to the cycle of seasons He is the secret disciple of Jesus who asked Pilate for Jesus's body. He kept his discipleship secret for fear of the Jews. He did not attend the meeting which found Jesus guilty. This awakened "the courage and revealed the true faith of Joseph." So, he "boldly" asked Pilate for the body of Jesus, and even offered his own sepulcher.

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	not care to
	It was at the end of a summer evening, long after his usual bedtime,
	that that [sic] Joseph, sitting on his grandmother's knee, heard her
	tell that Kish having lost his asses [sic] sent Saul, his son, to seek
	them in the land of the Benjamites and the land of Shalisha,
	whither they might have strayed. But they were not in these lands,
	SABRA 163

Son, she continued, nor in Zulp, whither Saul went afterwards, and being then tired out with looking for them he said to the servant: we shall do well to forget the asses, lest my father should ask what has become of us. But the servant, being of a mind that Kish would as well as the cycle of day and night. This iterative non-specified cyclic time is reiterated once again in the phrase his usual bedtime. This time frame is more like the one used starting a fairy tale by the cliché phrase "once upon a time."

As for the characters, Moore has chosen, as main protagonist for his fictional world, Joseph of Arimathea. Joseph is a Biblical character 81 ; he is described, by the Bible, as a prominent figure during Pilate's time: "an honorable member of the Jewish national council", "a councilor of honorable estate" or "member of the Sanhedrin", and "a rich", "good and righteous man.... who was looking for the kingdom of God". 81. http://topicalbible.org/j/joseph_of_arimathaea.htm On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 164

  Church who wanted a long background of martyrs to justify any martyrdoms she herself should inflict." Moore disclosed his intention to a friend: "I intend to bring St. Paul in his old age to Spain, where he gradually fades away surrounded by his disciples" (as citedin Mitchell 83 , 1916, p. 121).

Moore's own quest" (p.136). Like Joseph of Arimathea, Moore wanted to rescue the Messiah and this is what he did. He also wanted to rescue St. Paul from martyrdom -the end that is "invented by a 82. The story of Kish and Saul is narrated in the Bible (1 Samuel 9). 83. Mitchell, Susan L. George Moore. New York; Dodd, Mead& Co. 1916. Retrieved online from http://archive.org/stream/mooregeorge00mitcrich/mooregeorge00mitcrich_djvu.txt On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 165

  As an illustration, the scribe explains what seers were called before, i.e. prophets, and the mother explains to Joseph how the seer knew Saul to be the intended one:

85. The reader would not know that Saul is a king until the end of the first paragraph in the first chapter. But those who have read the Bible know this fact. Refer to "Saul Chosen to Be King". 1 Samuel 9. King James Version (Cambridge ed.). http://kingjbible.com/1_samuel/9.htm A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 167 reader / listener.

  refused to go to bed, though manifestly he could hardly keep awake. I'll wait up for Father.The rest of the first chapter is about this dream and the idea of becoming a prophet. The preoccupation with this idea is even demonstrated lexically; the word prophet is repeated 19 times, 11 of them are with the indefinite article a prophet.Joseph wants to be a prophet, not like Samuel, who anointed Saul as king, and not any prophet as might be one of the other sense-effects of the indefinite article. The use of a evokes the function of a prophet, especially after his father tells him that he is a descendent of Samuel. This kinship is invented by Moore to add a fictional touch.Joseph's father is pictured as a caring parent. When he sees his son so wan, he sends him to a hill village to enjoy pastoral life with shepherds. Moore leaves the identification of this hill village to the reader. It means any hill village, a village on a hill that cannot be specified on a map geographically. It is the concept of the rural Moore refers to in his fictional world. However, this hill village is near Magdala 86 , which is also mentioned in the Scriptures.Joseph's father shows his caring behavior by worrying over his son's education. He chooses four scribes to teach him Hebrew. Moore provides a brief profile description to each in terms of physical appearance and intellectual ability. In this first chapter of his book, he does not name any of the scribes except for the last one whose name is Azariah 87 . The names of the other three are mentioned in the second chapter and are also mentioned in the Scriptures. Eventually, Joseph is taught by Azariah. Sanhedrin 88 . There, he becomes fascinated 86. In the King James Version, it is referred to as Magdala, but it is Magadan /mag'-a-dan/ or / maga'-dan. The identification with Magdala is made more probable by the frequent interchange of "l" for "n", e.g. Nathan (Hebrew), Nethel (Aramaic). This name appears only in Matthew 15:39 and in the parallel passage, Mark 8:10. http://bibleatlas.org/regional/magadan.htm 87. Azariah is a common name in Hebrew and, thus, it is frequently mentioned in the Chronicles and the scriptures. In King James Version, Azariah is the king of Judah (2 Kings 15:1-7). http://kingjbible.com/2_kings/15.htm 88. It is the council that Joseph from Arimathea also joins as a member. According to Mark 15:1: "Very early in the morning, the chief priests, with the elders, the teachers of the law and the whole Sanhedrin, reached a decision. They bound Jesus, led him away and handed him over to Pilate.On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and ArabicSABRA 170 by the tales told about Essene 89 , so he travels to Jericho and attempts to join their group until he hears about John, the Baptist, and Jesus, so he goes to seek them out. At which statement Joseph trembled, for he was acquiescing in a lie; but he did not dare to contradict the centurion, who was speaking in his favour for the sake of the money he had received, and in the hope of receiving more for the lie that he told. (The Brook Kerith, p. 230)However, Moore chooses a different end, and Jesus does not die. Joseph takes him and attends to him secretly with the help of Esora (a fictional character invented by Moore). Jesus ultimately recovers, takes refuge in the Brook Kerith and spends the remainder of his life as a shepherd with the Essenes. The crucified Jesus is very

	On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic answered, and On Definiteness and Beyond area that His journey continued for "Jesus himself, whom I've been seeking for nearly two
	years, …in the hills of Judea, in Moab, in the Arabian desert and all the way to Egypt
	and back again" (The Brook Kerith, p.134) until he meets him near his village and
	becomes a disciple.
	Moore adheres to the story of Jesus's crucifixion as told in the New
	Testament (cf. Mark 15, footnote 81). Indeed, Joseph asks Pilate for Jesus's body
	after the crucifiction and tells him that he intends to offer his own "sepulcher" as a
	tomb:
	SABRA 168 SABRA 169

. A prophet, Joseph, and to anoint a king? But there are no more prophets or kings in Israel. And now, Joseph, my little prophet, 'tis bedtime and past it. Come. I didn't say I wanted to anoint kings, he Joseph's father is another character in the story. His name is Dan and works in the trade of salt fish. When Joseph calls upon him, Father is written with capitalized initial preceded with the zero article. This happens when there is the vocative case as when Joseph calls upon him. Joseph also uses Father as a proper name. Both the grandmother and the author-narrator use the word father either preceded by a pronoun his father or with a noun in the possessive case Joseph's father.

In Moore's book, the names of places and people relive in another world, other than the world they have always existed in. These names, which carry with them their previous associations, acquire a new dimension in this story, Moore, having first-hand experience of many of these places and having read about all these characters.

In this story, Joseph sets off on a journey to Jerusalem for "The Feast of the Passover" where he becomes a member of " And Mark 15:43: "Joseph of Arimathea, a prominent member of the Council, who was himself waiting for the kingdom of God, went boldly to Pilate and asked for Jesus' body." New International Version of the Holy Bible. (1984). Mark 15:1 and 43. http://niv.scripturetext.com/mark/15.htm I have come to ask for the body of Jesus, who was condemned to the cross at noon. At these words Pilate's face became overcast, and he said that he regretted that Joseph had come to ask him for something he could not grant. It would have been pleasant to leave Jerusalem knowing that I never refused you anything, Joseph, for you are the one Jew for whom I have any respect, and, I may add, some affection. But why, Pilate, cannot you give me Jesus' body? His body, is that what you ask for, Joseph? It seemed to me that you had come to ask me to undo the sentence that I pronounced today at noon. The body! Is Jesus dead then? The centurion answered for Joseph: yes, sir; he died to-day at the ninth hour. I put a lance into him to make sure, and blood and water came from his side. 89. Almost all the principal founders of what would be called Christianity were Essenes: St. Ann, Joseph and Mary, John the Baptist, Jesus, John the Evangelist, etc. http://www.essenespirit.com On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 171

  Mitchell, p.121). His public conversion to the Protestant Church was more than anything a protest against the corrupt hierarchy of the new Irish Catholic church, than a rejection of Catholicism. It is not taken seriously and disapproved of by Catholics and Protestants alike. In The Brook Kerith, Moore shows his preference for the more ancient Orthodox version of Christianity than either Roman Catholicism or the more secular Protestant approach. Dan, Joseph's father, is "strictly Orthodox" (p. 54), and prefers Azariah, who is also orthodox, to teach his son. It follows that Moore's "Protestantism" must be interpreted in the etymological sense of "protest".One might wonder why he chooses Joseph of Arimathaea as the protagonist.Mitchell answers this question considering that "Joseph of Arimathea's quest is Mr.

	On Definiteness and Beyond On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	or form" (121).	1. […] to arrive at any clear notion of divinity we must begin by stripping divinity of all human attributes, and when every one is sloughed, what remains? Divinity (The Brook Kerith, p. 101) 2. Joseph […
	It is true that, in his fictional account, Moore embraces the theological
	philosophy of the Bible, yet it is also a means that permitted him to communicate his
	own philosophy on theology. His protagonists' thoughts, presented in the form of
	reported speech, are the means by which he turns over in his own mind some of the
	fundamental questions of Christian doctrine, which include: 1. How to achieve
		SABRA 172 SABRA 173

, pp. 931-937. University of Northern Iowa. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25109024. Accessed: 19/10/2012 Moore's own quest" (p.136). Like Joseph of Arimathaea, Moore wanted to rescue the Messiah and this is what he did. He also wanted to rescue St. Paul from martyrdom, which is the end that was "invented by a Church who [sic] wanted a long background of martyrs to justify any martyrdoms she herself should inflict." Moore disclosed his intention to a friend: "I intend to bring St. Paul in his old age to Spain, where he

gradually fades away surrounded by his disciples" (as cited in

Mitchell, 1916, p.

divinity? 2. Which was created first: the soul or the body? 3. The nature of miracles: why, for example, did Jesus not turn all water into wine? Etc.

  finds that "Harris's accusations that Moore had plagiarized his stigmata story, coupled with his splenetic attacks on The Brook Kerith, suggest that he was well aware that he had already lost the race to compose the evangel for modern times" (p. 184). Moore, on the other hand, returned his attack by criticizing Harris: "I cannot but think that the Brook

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	SABRA 177

  Why the choice of the Brook Kerith for a study on definiteness and indefiniteness in nominal constructions? The story set in the Holy land where the places and people have Hebrew names, most of which have survived into the modern 92. From the letters between Moore and Harris entitled Moore versus Harris: An intimate correspondence between George Moore and Frank Harris relating to the Brook Kerith, Heloise and Abelard, astonishing criticism of George Bernard Shaw, Moore's rejection of Oscar Wilde as an artist, important and amazing statements about other contemporary men of letters, disclosing the true valuation George Moore places on his own personality and books. Including facsimile reproductions of letters and auction records of some of the letters printed herein, also caricatures by Max Beerbohm and by the late Claude Lovat Fraser. University of California; Detroit.1921. On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 178period and been absorbed into both the English and Arabic vernacular. This is reason enough to give pride of place in this study of the Brook Kerith to nominal determination and the system of the article. For the article is the equivalent of the painter's brush and the engraver's needle. It is the principal means by which the litterateur, 'trusting his instinct to lead him aright through the devious labyrinth of selection' actualizes the 'vision in his eyes' and transcribes it on the sheet of paper before him.

http://archive.org/details/mooreversusharri00moorrich

  and the nominal phrase ه ت ج ك ع /'ala rukbati jaddatihi/ (on knee his grandmother) [line 2] is an example. The noun ج /jaddah/ (grandmother) cannot have the definite article al because it has the bound pronoun his (= )ه /hi/. Besides, the noun ك / rukbati/ (knee) cannot have the definite article al, either because it is annexed to the noun ه ت ج his grandmother, which makes it (the annexed noun ك knee) definite.

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	-(on knee grandmother-his)
	(Thus, no need to make it definite with a definite article al)
	[1] on his grandmother's knee ع ته ج ك
	/'ala/ /jaddatihi/	/rukbati/
		SABRA 185

  On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and ArabicSABRA 189In Arabic, a proper noun is already definite and, consequently, it does not take the definite article in مين ي ب با في /fi bil di biny mīn/ [line 3] in the land of the Benjamites and لي ش با /bil di sh līsh / the land of Shalisha [line 3]. See example[2]. Here, the Benjamites مين ي ب is considered in Arabic as a proper noun and not as a proper adjective.

	[2] in the land في با	of the Benjamites مين ي ب
	/fi/ /bil di/	/biny mīn/
	-(in lands Benjamites-def.)

  OnDefiniteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 197 i.e. being preceded by the determiner that -a demonstrative adjective. It is identifiable by both the individuals involved in this communication, namely Saul, his servant and the maidens. In addition, this moment in time can be identified, by the speaker, in relation to the time frame established at the beginning of this story; otherwise, it cannot be realized.In Arabic, the one-word noun conveying the time in these time expressions that day لي لك /dh lika-l-yawm/ [line 13] and that morning لي لك ص /şab ḩa dh lika-l-yawm/ [line 14] is written with the definite article despite the presence of the demonstrative pronoun لك /dh lika/ that.

				See Examples [7] and
	[8].
	[7] that لك	day ي
	/dh lika/ -(that the-day) /yawm/	لي لك -/dh lika-l-yawm/
	[8] that لك /dh lika/ -(morning that the-day) morning ص / şab ḩ/	لي لك	ص -/şab ḩa dh lika-l-yaw
	Or
	-(that the-morning)

ل لك -/dh lika-ş-şab ḩ/ In [7], the word ي ( day) is reiterated twice: via the demonstrative pronoun لك (that) and the definite article al. The literal translation of the phrase

  As noticed in the literal translation, the pronoun referring back to moment is kept in Arabic فيھ /fīh / in it. If the relative pronoun ي ل /'al-ati/ that is deleted, In Arabic, the relative pronoun is a necessity to connect the antecedent to the relative clause. See Examples[12] and[13]. The antecedent is always definite whenever there is the relative pronoun; جل ل /'ar-rajuli/ (the-man) = the one is made definite by the definite article because it is the antecedent of the relative clause.

	On Definiteness and Beyond On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	/'al-laḩʐah/ /ra'a/ -(the-moment that he-saw in-it Saul-def.) Sh w l [12] the one that had been revealed to وو ش فيھ أ ي ل جل ل ل أوحي ق ك	ل -him له
	/'ar-rajuli/ -(the-man who had been revealed to-him) له أوحي ق ك ل جل ل -/'al-ladhi/ /k n qad 'uḩiya/ /lahu/
	[line18/19]
	Though the relative pronoun is deleted in English in [line 27], it is kept in
	the sentence is written as: Arabic [line 21] as evident in Example [13].
	[11a] (moment him-seeing Saul) وو ش ه ي -ل [13] the one جل ل ( ل ) /laḩʐahti ru'yatihi Sh w l/ /'ar-rajulu/ (/'al-ladhi/) /'ar-rab/ /qad wa'ada/ the Lord had promised ل وع ق
	-(the-man whom had promised-him the Lord with him)
	The word moment
	11] the moment he saw ل أ	Saul وو ش
			SABRA 200 SABRA 201

ل is made definite by annexation, where ه ي / ru'yatihi/ seeing him (seer) to him (Saul), which is made definite by the suffix pronoun « ه », is the Annexer. This moment is identified by what comes after it: seeing Saul. The same cataphoric reference appears in the one that had been revealed to him [line 24] and the one the Lord had promised [line 27]. Here one can only be specified in what follows it. The one is the man whom the Lord had promised the seer -Saul. Grammatically, the one in [line 24] is the subject while in [line 27], it is the object. This verifies why it is possible to delete the relative pronoun that in [line 27] while it is a syntactic necessity to retain that in [line 24].

به ل وع ق ل جل ل -/'ar-rajulu 'al-ladhi qad wa'adahu 'ar-rabbu bihi/

  h/ is made definite by annexation ت /'ittij h/ direction and not by the definite article. The noun ص /şakhrah/ rock is also definite in Arabic ل /'aş-şakhrah/ the-rock for the same reason it is made definite in English -anaphoric reference. The whole phrase becomes: The definite article is used in English and Arabic correspondingly to convey uniqueness. When the entity in question is one of its kind, such as the Lord [line 26, 28 and 31] When Saul met the seer without knowing him, he asked him (the seer) about the seer, to which he sharply replies: I am the seer [line 23]. With absolute certainty, the seer is the one in question. This is communicated through the definite article. The seer did not say I am a seer but the seer. The translation retains the order and definiteness through the definite article ف ل أن /'ana l-

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	SABRA 203

ل /'ar-rab/ [lines 20, 21 and 24], the definite article is used.

When the grandmother addresses her grandson, she calls upon him Son [line 25 and 31] with capital S preceded by the zero article. Here, Son is considered a proper name for her grandson, and since it is definite and it is not the first mention, it is preceded by the zero article. In Arabic, it is also definite by vocative mode ي ب ي /y bunayya/ O my son.

-

  limited to those of Israel. But notice that King is capitalized. It is perhaps to highlight the uniqueness of such a post. When the seer saw Saul, he knew him to be the king [line 33]. Here, the king refers back to the already mentioned king in [line 32]. But the grandson refers to Saul as a King [line 36]. The post of a King is a title here and not unique. This title has many holders and Saul is one of them. What is definite in English is also definite in Arabic in this case: the King of Israel becomes ئيل س ك م [line 25] /malika 'isr 'īl/ king of Israel ك( م king is made definite by being annexed to ئيل س Israel); the king [line 33] is translated as ك ل [line 25] /'almaliku/ (the-king); and a King, though capitalized, is rendered as م /malika n / (king) with the nunation sign « ◌ » to indicate that Saul is one of the series of kings.When comparing the excerpts in English and Arabic, one notices that there is no matching equivalence in the use of the definite article in both languages.That is because the definite article in Arabic is not used solely to mark an entity as definite. It is used as well as a syntactic requirement. By way of illustration, no ه م ن his bedtime. And since ه م ن his bedtime is definite, the adjective must be definite. In other words, it is a matter of "agreement". Thus, al The pronoun his ه is bound; it is suffixed at the end of the noun ن and, consequently, it becomes definite.

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	definite article is used in long after his usual bedtime (See illustration [15]), but in
	Arabic	ل ه م ن وقت ي م ب /ba'da mo iyyi waqti nawmihi-l-mu't di/ [line
	1], the definite article al is added to usual	ل /'almu't di/ not because the time
	is familiar or identifiable, but because	ع ل is, syntactically, the adjective
	modifying the noun is prefixed to the word	ل usual.
		[14] long ب	after ي م	his ه	usual ل	bedtime ن وقت
		/ba'da/ /mo iyyi/ -ل ه م ن وقت ي م ب /hi/	/'al-mu't di/ /ba'da mo iyyi waqti nawmihi-l-mu't di/ /nawm//waqti/
		(after long bedtime-his the-usual)
						SABRA 204

  Ways to Achieve Definiteness) as in to draw water [line 16/17] which, when translated into Arabic ء ل ء إس /li-'istisq 'i-l-m 'i/. Here, the noun ء س /'istisq 'i/ (drawing) is made definite by annexation as the noun ء ل /'al-m 'i/ (the-water) is the Annexer, which is definite, as it should, by the definite article al as shown in Example [17].

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	insight into changing the infinitive into a verbal noun 105	م /maşdar/ upon
	translating from English into Arabic.
	[16] -to recompense يض ل
	/li/ /'atta'wī / (to the-compensation)	يض ل -	/litta'wī /
	It is also a condition that this translated infinitive appears definite in
	Arabic whether with the definite article al, by annexation, or any other way (cf. §
	3.5 [17] to	draw ء س	water ء م
	/li/	/'istisq 'i/	/m 'i/
	-(to drawing/draw the-water)
				SABRA 209

  ل ب ظ ي س م ع أنه لك، ب ل ه غ ه أن ب وا ، ل و ھ ك ت م وجل تاشت، ت وب ق نت وك ، ئ و ت نت ك ك ب ه ح في ن ول ، ه س ق س ألف مي ك أنه من غم ل ع ل ، ك س ھل ن ول . ي ن ي أ ي نه ي( )ل ي لم م وع سف، ي س ؟ ي ن ؟ ك س ھل ؟ ك س ھل ه: وس في م ع ب ص ئيل ص ب ي This old man identified himself with the definite article the prophet Samuel [line 76]. This is different from saying prophet Samuel. The definite article shows that he is the intended and the long awaited prophet by Joseph. It also shows some kind of grandeur. He is not some prophet; he is the prophet, the promised prophet. It shows how much Joseph is obsessed by being a prophet that he dreams about them and even cries out loudly asking whether he will be one. Whether the prophet Samuel is written with or without the definite article, the word prophet ي ن /nabiyyun/ is written with the definite article in Arabic ي ل ئيل ص /'an-nabiyyu şamm 'īl/ (the-prophet Samuel) [line 57]. The proper noun Samuel is ب /badal/ substitution and (the-prophet) is ه م م /mubaddal minhu/ the substituted. In such a structure, the substituted can be deleted without any change to the sentence, semantically or syntactically. It just adds information about Samuel. The substituted follows the substitution in definiteness. The substitution Samuel is definite as it is a proper noun; the substituted is made definite by the definite article.

	On Definiteness and Beyond On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	(things many) [line 52] shows the unbounded things that happened whether in
	number or context.
	Later, these things are clarified; they refer to his dream happenings [line
	71] which all melted away except for his mother's memory. When these
	happenings are limited and their context is identified as all the dream happenings
	[line 71], they become م ل	أح يع ج /jamiī'u 'aḩd thi l-ḩulumi/ (all
	happenings in the-dream) [line 53] definite by annexation. In both languages,
	ت سه ح أ ب ي لف ، أقل ع ع س ع ب ، ه ع س أ ب ن ول ثت، ح ن ق أح يع ج ته. س بع أ م فيت ت ق أنه ه ي ك ء فأشي ق أنھ و ي أو ثت ح ق م لح ع ت ض أنھ ل من تاشت تھ ك ن ول ه ل ق آخ شيء ك ي أ و ح يه. خا . أخ م ئ ن وسھ ته ك ل ھ نھض ني ل ع جل نب ج من نه ب وأخ ي س ئيل ص ي ل
	Even without this addition, readers estimate this number as several hours but
	cannot indicate exactly the number. The use of the indefinite article conveys this
	indefinite number of hours. The same happens in Arabic; ي	ل /li fatrati n
	awīlati n / (for-time long) [line 52] is written in the indefinite form because this
	interval of time is not specified in terms of a standard measure, a number, or an
	extent.
	He felt that so many things [line 70] had happened during his sleep. These
			SABRA 229 SABRA 230

Joseph fell asleep very shortly after. It seemed to him that he had slept for a long time [line 69]. This long time is then clarified by adding several hours. things are not clear whether they refer to happenings in his dream or to happenings in real life. The Arabic version ي ك ء أشي /'ashy 'un kathīratun/ inclusiveness, which is demonstrated through the words all and the, renders the nominal phrase definite. With his mother's reminiscence, he went back to sleep. This time an old man [line 75-76] rose up by his bedside and told him that he was the prophet Samuel [line 76]. The use of the indefinite article an old man shows that Joseph, as well as the reader, does not know this man; this is the first encountering. In Arabic, it is also written in the indefinite form ع جل /rajulu n 'aj zu n / (man old) because he is not known to Joseph. It can also be considered as indicating singularity اف /'al-'ifr d/ as only one old man rose next to Joseph's bed.

:

  وأج يه، ت ته ج ع س ي؟ ب ي ك، ع ي ل مJoseph's loud shriek woke his grandmother up. She heard him say: an old man [line 81] twice. She did not inspect into his cry and the identity of this old man. Joseph, on the other hand, kept on calling Samuel an old man as if he did not know his identity. His attempt, though unconscious, serves to conceal the prophet Samuel from his dream so not to be mocked further by his grandmother. The nakiratu n ghayru maḩ ati n 'aw n qisati n / non-inclusive or incomplete indefiniteness because not the whole species of men is targeted here, only the old men, where anyone of this class of old men is a potential referent.Joseph does not indicate other information about this one man except that he is old.His grandmother was between sleeping and waking [line82]; she did not inspect into what he said, and maybe she did not even hear what he said. She considered it just a dream. She was not totally sleeping nor totally awake; she was in between. The states of sleeping ل /'an-nawmi/ (the-sleep) and waking لي /'al-yaqaʐati/ (the-waking) [line 61] are nouns with the definite article. These are definite in structure but not in meaning. The definite article is added to time expressions. The grandmother told Joseph to sleep like a good boy [line 82]. She is qualifying him by the attribute good (a good boy) to calm and send him to sleep.

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	indefinite article separates the old man from his identity as a prophet as if there
	were two persons in this dream.
	In Arabic,	ع	جا	◌	/rajulan 'ajuzan/ (man old) is considered غي ن
	ق ن و	أ	م
	ً جا لش ل ل ً ع ، ت ل م ل ل ھب . ي، ي ت ا و تي، ج ي ل، ف س لك. من أك م ت ً ع بين ت ت م، ت نت . لي و ل ف أ غط ي لي أن تيب. ل ج ب ً جا وا ، وغط ، ش م ق ، جي مغ ئ ن ئيل ص ي وھ ه ت لم ل أ ي وم . ي ن سي ك
						SABRA 231

/

  أص "م ه ل س م وع ؟" ك س ھل ؟ ك س ". ع جل " Joseph remembered his dream while his grandmother was dressing him up.A memory of his dream of Samuel [line 86] came upon him. Readers do not know how many times this memory came across his mind. One of the times was when his grandmother was dressing him up. The indefinite article signifies the singularity of these many occurrences. This is conveyed in the Arabic translation ك /dhikra/ (memory).

	ح ج إف وج خا ك ل و ن ول لك، عن شيء كل يت ن ق ه ك نت ك بي ئيل ص عن ه ح عن ته ج خ ص ك . ھ مس: لي ك ع و ، ه، ح في ت وأمل ه، ت أ ق أنه و س ب ظ ق ي سف ي خ ص "ھل ، يه ع ت ح ل حي ل ل بك؟" On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	SABRA 233

  Any cry that shares similar characteristics is a potential referent. This verification is backed up by the word A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 240In[b], no relative pronoun is used in comparison with[a]. أحا /'aḩl min/ (dreams) is in the indefinite form. This translation shows clearly that these dreams are neither identified nor quantified; they are just dreams had come true. The quality is the only known thing here. The difference between the two translations shows that either the structure or the meaning has to suffer a digression. This is probably due to the unique function played by the zero article in English.Although Joseph was so taken with this conversation about dreams, he was trying cautiously to to detect any symptom of irony towards him. So, in his attempt to discover their intentions, he could not do else than listen [line 102].

	ھ /hakadh / (such). conversation is embedded in the definite structure	اس (the-listening) through
	Dan, Joseph's father, wondered why Joseph should seem so
	disheartened and why he should murmur so perfunctorily that he could not
	remember his dream. But if he had forgotten it, why trouble him further? If 107. In his book The Expression of Modality in English (1980), Perkins gives a detailed 93 classification of modals. He presents a comprehensive catalogue of auxiliary and non-we are to forget anything it were well that we should choose our dreams; at auxiliary modals with analysis. The five primary modal verbs are; can, may, will, shall, and

خ ص

/şarkh tin/ (cries)

[lines 66 and 67]

. The first occurrence shows that these cries are ambiguous; they are not known to the father. He was only able to identify their nature -cries and nothing more. In the second occurrence, there is no anaphoric reference, nor reference by repetition. Joseph's cries are not the object of reference, but what such cries stand for and look like is the reference. These cries belong to the class and the category of cries. which piece of incredulity his mother shook her head, being firm in the belief that there was much sense in dreams and that they could be 96 interpreted to the advantage of everybody. A rephrasing of than listen becomes: he could listen. The modal verb could is considered as one of the five "secondary modal verbs" by

[START_REF] Perkins | The Expression of Modality in English[END_REF]

107 . The use of this modal designates a dynamic function 108 .

Translating modality into Arabic is regulated by the function connected with the modality concerned. In this context, than listen is translated into a noun اس ا [line 79] /'illa l-'istim 'i/ (except the-listening). Since there is no complement after اس (the-listening) to make the reference clear, the concept referred to is built-in -implicit in the structure. In other words, Joseph found there was nothing he could do but listen to the conversation. This continuation to the must. The five secondary modal verbs are: could, might, would, should, and ought to.

  The intention is actualized in "continuity" in terms of the part and the whole. That is, his father and his grandmother have no intention of fooling him (whole) and are without any/some intention of fooling him (part). This is reflected in the Arabic translation. While intention is preceded by the zero article in English, it is preceded by the determiner أ /'ayyi/ any in Arabic. This determiner precedes ني /niyyatin/ (intention) showing negation to the whole phrase. عه ل /li-khid 'ihi/ (to-fool-him) is needed to limit this intention, otherwise, it seems that he lacks the trait of having an intent, which is absurd. This determiner shows the negative continuity being actualized.When Joseph felt their conversation was serious, he revealed his dream gradually. Eventually, he told them of Samuel and his conversation with him. He also declared that Samuel had come back from the dead [line 110] just for his sake. Lexically, dead is considered as an adjective or as a collective noun. In the second case, it is necessary that it be accompanied by the definite article to designate the class of dead people. In Arabic, such a use of this type of adjectives always appears in the definite form أم /'al-'amw ti/ (the-dead) as it stands in juxtaposition with the rich ء ي أغ /'al-'aghniy '/.A most extraordinary dream, his father answered, for it has always been held in the family that we are descended from him. Do you really mean, Joseph, that the old man you saw in your dream told you he was 114 Samuel and that you were his descendant? How should I have known if he SABRA 275سه م [line 169] /mudarrisahu/ (instructor-his). An instructor in the specific sense of the word is the result. Eventually, Joseph accepts Azariah as his instructor. This is the end of the first chapter of The Brook Kerith. George Moore's style and unique way of writing have allowed variation in tone and rhythm, and permitted the occurrence of variable nominal phrases with varied determinants.These phrases will undergo statistical and computational study to find how the notions of definiteness and indefiniteness demonstrate themselves and when they converge and diverge in the Arabic and English.

	On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic the use of the definite article, without which, this continuation becomes an obligation. Joseph came to the belief that they were talking in good earnest without intention of fooling [line 104]. On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	SABRA 241 SABRA 276

Table 13 .

 13 Frequency counts of the determiners in the English excerpt

	No. of occurrences of a/an	75
	No. of occurrences of the	144
	No. of occurrences of the zero article	177
	No. of occurrences of other determiners	159

Table

[13]

below counts the number of occurrences of the definite article the, the indefinite article a/an, zero article, and other determiners in the nominal phrases in the introduction of The Brook Kerith. The count of the article the, a/an, and other determiners is done automatically while the count of the zero article is done manually because there is no software that detects it. Repeated occurrence(s) of the same nominal phrases with the same type of article is counted since they occur in different contexts.

Table [ 13

 [ ] shows that the highest number of occurrences (177) for the zero article is followed by other determiners (159). There are 144 occurrences of the article the in comparison to 75 occurrences for a/an. Bar Graph [1] demonstrates the difference in the number of occurrences graphically. Father are considered proper nouns because they replace the name of the characters and are written in the upper case. In this concern,

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	chapter of the story, except for the grandmother, are males. Other determiners used
	the explanation of Jespersen (1949) is valid. He asserts that the most familiar
	requires no article. Considering this, proper nouns and adjectives are already
	identifiable.
	SABRA 278

The high count of the zero article is due to proper nouns: 110 proper nouns out of 177 nominal phrases with the zero article. For example, Joseph is repeated 32 times. Words like Granny, Son, and As to the other determiners, the pronoun his takes the highest number of occurrences (96) out of 159. This finds verification as all the characters in this Bar Graph 1. No. of occurrences of determiners in the English script are: personal pronouns her, my, our, their, and your; quantifiers much, several, a little, many, and some; numerical determiners four; demonstratives these, that, yon, and this; relative determiners which and whatever; negative determiner no; intensifier such; and universal determiner every.

Table 14 .

 14 Table[14] has an equivalent function to Table[13], yet it considers the idiosyncratic features of the Arabic language. It presents the number of occurrences Frequency count of the nouns in the Arabic script

	of Nouns with	/'al/ the	أ	ب	ف ل	/'al-mu'arrafu bi 'al/, Proper Nouns م ل سم
	/'ismu l-'alami/, Annexed Nouns ف ل /'al-mu afu/ and Indefinite Nouns سم

ل /'ismu n-nakirati/ in Arabic. Bar Graph

[2]

shows how the nouns in Arabic are distributed graphically.

  cause leading to this difference is that verbal nouns (participles, infinitives and gerunds) are translated into nouns in Arabic عل ف سم /'ismu f 'il/ (active participle), Besides, a characteristic of nouns in Arabic is that they combine with suffix pronouns rendering them annexed. So, all object pronouns in English turn into suffix pronouns in Arabic, combine with the nouns, and thus become annexed. For example, words like his father and his dream become ل و /w liduhu/ (father-his) and ه ح / ḩilmuhu/

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	is considered in the count according to the determiner it displays. That is, his
	grandmother's knee [line 2] is counted with the other determiners; the seer's house
	[lines 16 and 22] is counted with definite nouns with the; and a shepherd's pipe [line
	م سم /'ism maf' l/ (passive participle), and 201] is counted with a/an. While in Arabic, both the possessor and the possessee are م /maşdar/ (verbal noun). Some
	counted. The possessee is always counted as an annexed noun. The possessor is
	of these verbals in English appear in the definite form in Arabic. Such nouns include:
	to go to bed [line 44] counted according to the case of definiteness: noun with , indefinite noun, or ھ ل /'adh-dhah ba/ [line 33] and than listen [line 102]
	annexed noun (another time). An example on each case is provided below [1], [2], اس /'al-'istim 'i/ [line 78]. To find other reasons for this difference, a and [3] respectively.
	contrastive table (Table [15]) is presented and discussed in section 6.3.
	[1] the seer's ف ل		house بيت	[lines 16 and 22] [lines 12 and 17]
	/'al-'arr fi/		/bayti/
	the-seer		house
	the Annexer	the Annexed
	[2] a shepherd's	pipe م م	[line 201] [line 148/149]
	/r 'in/	/mizm ru/
	shepherd	pipe
	the Annexer	the Annexed
	[3] his grandmother's ته ج		knee ك	[line 2] [line 2]
	/jaddatihi/		/rukbati/
	grandmother-his		knee
	the Annexer		the Annexed
	In [1], ف ل /'al-'arr fi/ (the-seer) is the Annexer /possessor and is counted
	with nouns with . In [2],	/r 'in/ (shepherd) is counted with indefinite nouns
	and ته ج /jaddatihi/ (grandmother-his), in [3], is counted with annexed nouns
	(dream-his). because it has the suffix pronoun ه /hi/ his, which is the Annexer.
				SABRA 281

On the other hand, the count of proper nouns in Arabic is 88 in comparison to 110 in English. The difference lies in the fact that names like Granny, Son and Father are considered proper nouns in English, while they are not in fact. Arabic confirms this, and proper adjectives like Greek and Hebrew are written with the definite article in Arabic. The number of annexed nouns is relatively very high (208) because what is considered as proper nouns in English like Granny and Father, are written in the annexed form تي ج /jaddatī/ (grandmother-my) and أبي /'abī/ (father-my). Besides, a possessive structure in English is equivalent to annexation in Arabic. In the English frequency count, only the possessor in the possessive structure ليه ف ل /'al-mu afu 'ilayhi/ ف ل /'al-mu afu/ -It is read from right to left: ف ل بيت /bayti l-'arr fi/ house the-seer On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 282

Table 15 .

 15 For every function, the number of occurrences is stated, along with the name correlating to it in Arabic (if found) and the number of matching occurrences in the Arabic script. In Appendix I, a detailed table, on which the information in Table[15] depends, includes all the nominal phrases with the in English with the line number as they appeared in the English script and the translation of each as it appeared in the Arabic script with the line number. The functions of the and the corresponding function of al Indirect Anaphoric Reference corresponds to ي ھ ل ھ ل /'al-'ahid 'adhdhihni/ Reference Based on Context. The contextual clue, which isnot a previous mention, paves the way to identification of this entity in question. This identification depends on finding relations between already mentioned entities in Discourse and a newly introduced ones. A mechanism of mental association renders this new entity identifiable by the speaker/hearer. 19 occurrences of the based on Indirect Anaphoric Reference find matching 19 occurrences in Arabic. For example, bottle [line 12] dreaming of Samuel waking his grandmother. Not to raise her suspicions, he tells her not to wake up and fix the bed-clothes [line 83].Another kind of Anaphoric Reference is based on Substitution[START_REF] Halliday | Cohesion in English[END_REF]. A word substitutes a word, group of words, or an idea due to a relation of synonym, antonym, hypernym, or hyponym. This function is similar to Indirect Anaphoric reference; both have the same name in Arabic ي ھ ل ھ ل /'al-'ahid 'adhdhahni/ Reference Based on Context. The only difference 111 is the level of association needed on the part of the listener/reader. For example, the word the truth identifying a word is based on contextual knowledge. However, the identification of some words or entities depends on the situation. This is referred to as Ocular Deixis ي ھ ل ھ ل /'al'ahid 'adh-dhihni Knowledge based on the Situation. In Arabic books, 111. I was hesitant as whether to label the function of some words as Indirect or Substitution the context and on situation is regarded as similar enough to be referred to under the same name ي ھ ل ھ ل /'al'ahid 'adh-dhihni. Yet, in the verification and exemplification sections, both types on each type of knowledge are provided. ل /'al-kh dimi/ [line 5] who was accompanying Saul on his errand, the garden [line 218] ي ل /'al-ḩadīqati/ [line 161] where Joseph was studying (or not studying) with his preceptor, and the high rock [line 19]

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic

Table [13]) are used in accordance with on the pragmatic and Bar Graph 3. Comparison between definite and indefinite in English and Arabic statistics in this table, (Table [15]), reveals a consensus in both languages (100% correspondence / linearity) in the use of the to indicate Direct and Indirect Anaphoric Reference, Uniqueness and Substitutive Anaphoric Reference, Immediate and Larger Situation, Generic and Ocular deixis. ل /'al-mumtalak ti/ [lines 6, 7, 9, and 27], and the room [lines 122 and 131] ج ج ل /'az-zuj jati/ [line 10] is introduced with the though it is a first introduction. The clue word is wine [line 12] ل /'al-khamri/ [line 10] mentioned before bottle permitting it to be identified and, consequently, used the definite article. Another nominal phrase is The tones [line 142/143] ل /'an-nabar tu/ [line 107] which is related to a voice [line 142] Joseph heard. The and al are also used ten times to indicate Uniqueness. Some of these noun phrases are: the Lord [lines These two occurrences happen when Joseph is in bed. In one of the occurrences, he [line 124] ي ل /'al-ḩaqiqata/ [line 93] finds no one-to-one contextual clue but rather stands for what Joseph has said about his dream. The nominal phrase one to the other [lines 116 and 119] describes how Joseph reacted: he looked from one to the other -from his father to his grandmother or vice versa. A third example is the reproof [line 299] نيب ل /'at-ta'nība/ [line 167] stands for Joseph's father reprimanding words. These words actualize knowledge they stand for by substitution. The result is 100 % correspondence (six occurrences in all) between

English and Arabic.

In both Indirect Anaphoric Reference and Substitution Anaphoric Reference, Anaphoric Reference. Some of these words are: the old woman [line 31] referring to the grandmother, The child [line 39] referring to Joseph, the face [line 142] referring to Samuel as an apparition, and the night [line136] related to the night of the dream. Yet, regardless of the label, these words are definite in both languages, morphologically and semantically.

  The reference is not in the context, nor in the situation. It is equivalent to ي ل ھ ل /'al-'ahdu l-'ilmiyyu/ Shared Knowledge. It is based on the knowledge of the common practices among people at a certain place and time. It is assumed that readers know that pastoral life includes shepherds and those shepherds play the pipe [line 197] م ل /'al-mizm ri/ [line 146]. At least, this assumed shared knowledge was common among the people in 1916 when this story was written or those who are familiar with the Bible as this story simulates the life of Assumed knowledge has its roots in culture; if the reader/listener is not familiar with a certain culture, entities in Discourse are not recognized. Out of 47 noun phrases with the indicating Cataphoric Reference, only 25 appear with al. This is due to the different types of modifiers of the head noun in a cataphoric reference. These modifiers of the head noun are listed in Hawkins' taxonomy. In his taxonomy, Hawkins (1978) specifies unfamiliar uses of the definite 112. In some specific cases, al is used to indicate the origins of the proper noun أصل ح ل /lilamḩi l-'aşil/, such as saying ل /'al-mans r/ the-Mansour to indicate the family

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	Christ. Generic Reference finds ~93% correspondence; thirteen out of fourteen
	occurrences of words with the have words in Arabic with al. Generic Reference is
	only definite as a sign; no specific entity is identified. It is based on Knowledge
	Indicating a Class Noun ي ل أ /'al 'aljinsiyyah/. This type of the definite article
	has certain functions; one of them is Encompassing a Genus لاف	قي غ	إس	أ /'al
	'istighr qiyyah/. Words like the dead [lines 110 and 157]
		SABRA 288

That is, instead of saying the servant [line 6] ل /'al-kh dimi/ [line 5], the pronoun his « ه » /hi/ replaces the: his servant مه خ /kh dimihi/.

Reference based on the larger situation is also referred to as Shared Knowledge

Theory Hawkins' (1978)

. أم /'al-'mw ti/ [lines 84 and 116], the living [line 157/158] ء أحي /'al-'aḩy 'i/ [line 119], and the shepherd [lines 201 and 202] عي ل /'ar-r 'i/ [lines 149 and 150] evoke the general and the universal category. The only exception is the Benjamites [line 3] مين ي ب /biny mīn/ which is a proper noun in Arabic and proper nouns 112 do not take the definite article. Discrepancy between English noun phrases with the and Arabic noun phrases with al occurs in Cataphoric Reference where the post-modifier is a phrase and with Miscellaneous occurrences. The second type of Cataphoric Reference reveals 100% correspondence.

Table [

 [ 16].

	On Definiteness and Beyond On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	Article	English function No. 7. Classifier 1 8. With quantifiers 6	Arabic correlating function Purposive indefiniteness used as a representative of a species ي ح ھ م ل ي ل ل ه ي ح أف وع س ل Annexed ( م غي )ن ف م	No. 1 5	100% Correspondence 83.3%
		9. Miscellaneous	1	Purposeful or Genuine Lack of -	0	0%
		1. First introduction	5	identifiability / to denote unknown information (Abdul	100%
				Raof, 2006 p. 146) ف ل ء ع أو ي ح	وج ع
				Purposive indefiniteness used as
	a /	2. Descriptive function	46	a representative of a species ي ح ھ م ل ي ل أف وع س ل ل " ه ي ح ليس ف ح و " Annexed ( م غي )ن ف م	16	97.8%
				Modified lexically	" ل ت "وص	22
	an			Imbedded Modification " ي ت ت "وض
				Purposive indefiniteness used as
		3. Meaning any	5	a representative of a species ي ح ھ م ل ي ل ه ي ح أف وع س ل ل " ليس ف ح و " Preceded by negation ي" ل ب ت "س	100%
				Annexed (	م غي )ن ف م
		4. Meaning one	8	Imbedded Modification " ي ت ت "وض Singularity اف /'al-'ifr d/	100%
		5. Generic	2	"To denote generalization"
		reference		(Abdul Raof, 2006, p. 145) ل ع ل ل ي ل	ل	100%
				Purposive indefiniteness used as
		6. Unique role	1	a representative of a species ي ح ھ م ل ي ل " ح و ف ا ه ي ح أف وع س ل ل	100%
							SABRA 293 SABRA 294

Table 16 .

 16 The functions of a/an and the corresponding functions in Arabic There is 96% correspondence between the same nominal phrases with a/an in English and without the definite article in Arabic. Out of 75 occurrences, 73 noun phrases in Arabic are indefinite

  definition of general names as being both denotative and connotative, unlike Proper names that are solely denotative, e.g. the connotations or attributes of a general name such as 'owl' would be a nocturnal bird of prey with large forward-facing eyes surrounded by facial disks, a hooked beak, and typically a loud call. To enumerate the attributes or connotations (in the sense of Mill) of Felix, we need to know what class the referent belongs to, as he might be my cat, my brother, or the name I give to my laptop. A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic

			of a species ل ي ل س ل ي ح ھ م ه ي ح أف وع ل ليس ف ح و "
			Annexation		3	6
			Modified lexically " ل ت "وص	-	6
			The Generic al ي ل	13	-
			/'al-'lajinsiyyati/
			To indicate the
			nature أو ھي ل يف ل ي ل
			Anaphoric		1	-
			reference
	3. Generic Reference	14	The Generic al ي ل /'al-'alajinsiyyati/	9	~78.6 with al ~21.5% without
			To indicate the
			ي ل أو ھي ل يف ل nature		al
			Annexation		2
			Purposive		-	2
			indefiniteness used
			as a representative
			of a species ل ي ل س ل ي ح ھ م ه ي ح أف وع ل ليس ف ح و "
			To denote		-	1
			generalization ل ل ي ل ل ع	ل
	4. Definite Meaning	110 Vocative mode ء ل The Generic al ي ل	-	18	~96.4 without al ~3.6% with al
			/'al-'alajinsiyyati/
			To indicate the
						SABRA 300 SABRA 308

  On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and ArabicSABRA 309 not need, in principle, the definite article in both languages. Excluding proper nouns, the definite article is used more frequently (61%) than the indefinite form (39%) to replace the zero article. The use of the definite article in the 61% is mainly due to knowledge based on common fact or nature ھي ل يف ل ي ل .

	On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	SABRA 310

  ئيل ص ي ل57, 80, A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic

	On Definiteness and Beyond On Definiteness and Beyond On Definiteness and Beyond On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	1. Direct Anaphoric reference 3. Uniqueness 4. Immediate Situation phoric Referen ce us 9. Miscellaneo 8. With quantifiers 7. Classifier 6. Unique Role 5. Generic reference 4. Meaning one 4. Definite Meaning	the asses the servant the seer the maidens the rock the king the old woman the child the room the prophet the bed clothes the old man the sound the stairs the story the face The lips The tones the shepherds the journey the time in the morning the she-goat the darkness the right way I am the seer the lord the moon the earth the bed-clothes the land of Shalisha the end of the bottle likewise in the direction of the rock the king of Israel the barrels of salt fish all the dream happenings to the advantage of everybody 96/97 7, 9, 10, 35 8,13, 16, 17, 22, 25, 20 22 34 37, 179 46 122, 131 129, 155/15 6, 172 147 149 200 126 127/12 8 142 142 142/14 3 195 198 203 152/1 53 204 136 10 23 26, 27, 28, 31, 35, 151, 162/16 3 157 83, 140 4 12 21 32 55 71 the secret of his ancestor 117 the whole of the story of Saul's anointment 127/12 8 all the circumstances of his dream 132 the roof of his mouth 146 the air of the hills 192 the pastoral life of the hills 194 the fatigue of the journey 198 the sound of the pipe 197 the author of two sacred books 174 the phrase 210 desire a mocking stock 220/221 (idiomatic)=inclination or a mind an old man 81, 81, 90 an excess 144 a thousand years 77 an idle boy 230/231 a quarter 13 a great Hebrew scholar 214 a great scholar 215 a convenient bough 219 a bench 220 a younger man 223 half a 12 a little 12, 122 A King 36 an instructor 232 A discussion 206 a Greek scholar 210 a child of that age 189 a spirit might wear 137 a great trouble 171 a story 182 a shekel 13 dreams 96 an old man 21 devices 161 an explanation 166 An excuse 59 hope 165 a long day spent in the … 183 a memory of his dream 86 change of air 187 a thin, wan little face 191/192 a hill village 193 A prophecy 197 a shepherd's pipe 201 a dream 121 an answer 120 books 188 a reasonable thing to 156 cruelties 221 suppose a little phrase 162 Joseph 2, 41, 42, 88, 91, 91,	ل 6, 7, 9, 27, ل 5, 10 ف ل 12, 13, 17, 19, ي ل 15 ل 17 ك ل 25 ل أ ل 27, ل ل 34 ف لغ 92, ي ل 96, 116, ي أغ ل جل ل ل ل 65 ل 96 جه ل 106 ل 106 ل 107 ع ل 144 ح ل 198 قت ل 150 ل 115 ل 151 ا ل 102 يح ل يق ل 8 ف ل أن 18 ل 20, 21, 21, 24, 26 ل 113, 122 أ 118 ي أغ 62,104 لي ش با 3 ق ج ج ل 10 ل ات س وب ل 16 ئيل س ك م 25 أس ميل ب ل ل 42 م ل أح يع ج 53 يع ل لح ل 74 يب ت ق ل ب ه ح وف كل 99 بط ق نه ل 109 ا ل ء ھ 142 حي / ي ي ل ي ل م ل ص 146 سين م ع 155 خ س ھي ت 162 بين ك لف م 129/ 130 ع جا ع جل 60, 60, ي ل فه خ ث 108 68/69 س ألف ح ل ء ع 147 ل م ي ص 168 بع يف ل 144 ي ك ع ف م م 162 س أصغ جل 164 ف ن 9 يل ,ق يء ل ض ب 10, 92 يح م ن غ 161/162 م ي ك م 159 ك له 169 158 وو ش 96 ن 152 ني ن ي ف م 155 ن ل ك ت في ل 140 و 103 ه س س 88 عب م م ي ك 127/128 ق أحا 74 ل شي ع جل ط ل 121 135 ي ت ي أمل 124 124 يل ي ك ج تغيي 139 136 حب ش صغي وجه 142 ع ي ق ت 143/144 ء ن 147 م م م ح 148/149 ك 139 ب ج 117 ء إف 163 ا م شي 121 ي ق ع
	2. Indirect Anaphoric Reference 5. Substitution Anaphoric Reference 3. Meaning any 6. Cata-post modificat	Phrase as	the scribes the bottle the city the old woman the boy's weight The child from one to the other the truth the first the second the reproof the novelty of learning Hebrew 217/21 209 12 17 31 38 39 116, 119 124 224 224 229 8 the different accomplishments of the scribes 209 a face that a spirit might wear 137 a young man 26 seers 25 the health out of all of them 189 a reason 64 anger 51 an answer 119 shame 51 (definite) the prophet Samuel 76, a flame for work 217 women 61 the door 52 the threshold 53 the end of a summer 1 the land of the Benjamites 3 105, a man he doesn't like 231/232 things 61 نھ ھ ي ا ء أشي عن 46 ل ج ج ل 10 ي ل 13 ل أ ل 24 ي ل و 29 ل ثم ل و ل ته ج 87, 89 ي ل 93 أو 165 ني ل 165 نيب ل 167 ي ل م ب ه ت 160/ 161 ل إن ل / 154 وجه 102 و ل ئ ع فع ي ش ء ل 13 20 ف ل 19, ن م ل ھم م ل ل ل 140 س 48 ب لغ 38 ب ج 90 ل 38 ل ل لھب 160 ء ل 45 ل ل 30 ل 38 ل 39 ي صي ي أم ي نھ 1 مين ي ب با 3 ه ي ا جل 167 120/12 1 a thought 172 أ ي ت 128 prophets 64 ء ي أن 48
				SABRA 316 SABRA 317 SABRA 322 SABRA 323 SABRA 326

  , 144 On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic FIGURE 1. THE COMPONENTS OF AN NP ...................................................................... FIGURE 2. RANK SCALE ............................................................................................... FIGURE 3. NOUN PHRASE CONSTITUENTS ....................................................................FIGURE 4. THE TWO PROCESSES OF INCIDENCE ........................................................... FIGURE 5. INCIDENCE ON THE SENTENCE LEVEL..........................................................FIGURE 6. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXTENSION AND EXTENSITY ............................... FIGURE 7. THE INVERSELY PROPOTIONAL RELATION BETWEEN EXTENSION ANDINTENSION................................................................................................. FIGURE 8. AN EXAMPLE ON THE ORDERING OF DETERMINERS ..................................... FIGURE 9. THE DIVISION OF DETERMINERS INTO FORMAL AND MATERIAL ..................... FIGURE 10. CHESTERMAN'S SCALE OF OPPOSITION BETWEEN DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ................................................................................................................. FIGURE 11. JOLY AND O'KELLY'S SYSTEM OF THE ARTICLE (P. 387) ........................... FIGURE 12. HIRTLE'S STAGES OF INCIDENCE TO FORM AN NP (P. 209) ........................ FIGURE 13. THE PROCESS OF EXTRACTION AND ACTUALIZATION OF THE ARTICLE A/AN ................................................................................................................. FIGURE 14. THE EQUATION OF DEFINITENESS .............................................................. FIGURE 15. THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN ARABIC ............................................................. FIGURE 16. THE DIVISION OF NOUNS FROM AN INFLECTIONAL POINT OF VIEW ............ FIGURE 17. THE ADJECTIVE OF A NON-HUMAN NOUN ................................................. FIGURE 18. THE ADJECTIVE OF A HUMAN NOUN .......................................................... FIGURE 19. AN EXAMPLE ON A DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE DIPTOTE ........................... FIGURE 20. AL-SUY I'S DIVISION OF TYPES OF DEFINITES (P. 36) ........................... FIGURE 21. AN EXAMPLE ON THE RELATIVE CLAUSE WITH A RELATIVE PRONOUN .... FIGURE 22. AN EXAMPLE ON THE RELATIVE CLAUSE WITHOUT A RELATIVE PRONOUN ............................................................................................................... FIGURE 23. THE SENTENCE OF VOCATIVE MODE ....................................................... FIGURE 24. NOMINAL ANNEXATION ف ض إ أ /'AL'ID FAH/ ....................................... FIGURE 25. THE STRUCTURE OF ANNEXATION BY PROCHÁZKA S. (2006), P. 48 ........ FIGURE 26. EXPLANATION OF AN INDEFINITE ANNEXATION ...................................... Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA FIGURE 27. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANNEXATION AND ADJECTIVAL STRUCTURES ............................................................................................................... FIGURE 28. DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE WITH NUMERICALS IN ARABIC ...................... FIGURE 29. THE DIRECTION TO THE HIGH ROCK .......................................................... FIGURE 30. THE REPRESENTATION OF THE UNIVERSE TIME OF THE THREE VERBAL MOODS (HIRTLE, 2007B, 54) .................................................................. FIGURE 31. THE THREE QUASI-NOMINAL FORMS (HIRTLE, 2007B, 62) ...................... FIGURE 32. THE SPECIFICATION OF THE TIME [LINE 203] ...........................................

	On Definiteness and Beyond On On Definiteness and Beyond
	A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic
	Israel	194, 32, 42, List of Figures List of Tables	ئيل س 32, 24,
	Granny	35, 53, 73,	40, 62, 83,	تي ج ل	30, 40, 55,	26, 46, 62,
		84, 117,		63, 88,
	Father	45, 62,	53, 65,	أبي 34, 40, 46, 48, 84
		110
	Beth-Shemish	56		س ش بيت 42,
	Dan	89, 98, 191, 91,	ي 67, 70, 75, 142,
		206, 231,		152,168,
		233, 233		169, 170
	David	170		وو 127
	Babylon	179, 180, 195	بل ب 133, 134, 144,
	Rachel	191, 195, 206	شيل 142, 145, 153
	Hebrew	194, 217, 226,	ي ل 144, 161, 167
	Galilee	205, 227	يل ل 152, 168
	Greek	211		ني ن لي 156
	Azariah	232, 233	ي ع 169, 170
					SABRA 327
					SABRA SABRA

TABLE 1 .

 1 DETERMINERS .............................................................................................

TABLE 2 .

 2 ROMANIZATION OF ARABIC CONSONANT LETTERS ...................................... TABLE 3. ROMANIZATION OF VOWELS, DIPHTHONGS AND DIACRITICAL MARKS ......... TABLE 4. THE FORM OF A NOUN IN THE DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE CASE ...................

	TABLE 5. PERSONAL PRONOUNS	ل	ئ ل أ	/ A AM IRU-L-MUNFAŞILATU

TABLE 6 .

 6 THE PRONOUN ي /'IYY / ..........................................................................

TABLE 7 .

 7 SUFFIXED PRONOUNS ئ ل أ ل ......................................................

TABLE 8 .

 8 FIRST GROUP OF THE ARABIC DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN THIS AND THESE

TABLE 9 .

 9 SECOND GROUP OF THE ARABIC DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN THAT AND THOSE

TABLE 13 .

 13 FREQUENCY COUNTS OF THE DETERMINERS IN THE ENGLISH EXCERPT ....

TABLE 14 .

 14 FREQUENCY COUNT OF THE NOUNS IN THE ARABIC SCRIPT ......................

TABLE 15 .

 15 THE FUNCTIONS OF THE AND THE CORRESPONDING FUNCTION OF AL .......

TABLE 16 .

 16 THE

Acknowledgment

Whereupon they walked into Arimathea, casting their eyes about for somebody to direct them to the seer's house. And seeing some maidens at the well, come to draw water, they asked them if the seer had been in the city that day, and were answered that he had been seen and would offer sacrifice that morning, as had been announced. He must be on his way now to the high rock, one of the maidens cried after them, and they pressed through the people till none was in front of them but an old man walking alone, likewise in the direction of the rock; and overtaking him they asked if he could point out the seer's house to them, to which he answered sharply: I am the seer, and fell at once to gazing on Saul as if he saw in him the one that had been revealed to him. For you see, Son, seers have foresight, and the seer had been warned overnight that the Lord would send a young man to him, so the moment he saw Saul he knew him to be the one the Lord had promised, and he said: thou art he whom the Lord has promised to send me for anointment, but more than that I cannot tell thee, being on my way to offer sacrifice, but afterwards we will eat together, and all that has been revealed to me I will tell. You understand me, Son, the old woman crooned, the Lord had been with Samuel beforetimes and had promised to send the King of Israel to him for anointment, and the moment he laid eyes on Saul he knew him to be the king; and that was why he asked him to eat with him after sacrifice. Yes, Granny, I understand: but did the Lord set the asses astray that Saul might follow them and come to Samuel to be made a King? I daresay there was something like that at the bottom of it, the old woman answered, and continued her story till her knees ached under the boy's weight. hand, using a (servant) instead of the would produce a different meaning; it would be interpreted as meaning "Saul has many servants and he mentioned his plans to one of them. Thus, using the article in this phrase, though it is a first time mention, implicates uniqueness -that he has only one servant.

مه ن وقت ي م ب و

In Arabic, it is more appropriate, to serve meaning and clarity, to write to his servant ه م ل /likh dimihi/ than to write to the servant ل /lilkh dimi/ [line 5] to convey the idea that he has one servant, especially that there is no previous mentioning of the servant in question. His servant ه م ل and the servant ل are both definite, in the first case with the possessive pronoun « ه », in the second case, with the definite article al. However, for narrative purposes, using the definite article conveys the intended message -meaning one servant, and the reader is directly plunged into the fond de tableau.

In Arabic, narratives usually begin with the definite article while creating the fond de tableau. It is the method used to involve the reader in the story. It is also concerned with topicality. That is, a highly "topical entity enters into the discourse with an initial definite description in order to signal that it will be the topic in the subsequent portion of text" [START_REF] Epstein | The definite article, accessibility, and the construction of discourse referents[END_REF]. Topicality increases the availability of specific reading [START_REF] Fodor | Referential and Quantificational Indefinites[END_REF]. To illustrate this point, I refer to one of Naguib Mahfouz 95 (1911-2006) The officer gave a bleak look at the long lobby that leads to the two classes: the third and the fourth. The school -Altawfiqiyyah -had been wrapped in deep silence. Then, he walked towards a class of the third year classes and tapped on the door to get permission to enter. He entered heading towards the teacher and murmured in his ear a few words. The teacher shifted his eyesight towards a pupil sitting in the second row and called upon him saying: Hassanein Kamel Ali.

The character, which is mentioned as the very first phrase, The officer بط ل /' -bi u/ [line 1] is the topic of this novel; later on, the protagonist becomes an officer. This officer glances at the long lobby ي ل ھ ل /'r-ridhati -awīlati/ [line 1] that leads to the two classes ين ل ف /fuş lu-s-sanatayni/ the seer. Similarly, ء ل ء إس /li-'istisq 'i-l-m 'i/ (to drawing water) involves the evident near-future intended action of the maidens approaching the well.

Not only quasi-nominal phrases in English are translated into verbal nouns in Arabic, but also some adverbs, like astray in did the Lord set the [assets] astray [line 35], which is transformed into a verbal noun يل .ت See Example [18].

[18] did the Lord set the [assets] The verbal noun يل ت /ta līl/ (to setting astray/ to misleading) is made definite by being annexed to ل شي /'alm shiyah/ (the-cattle).

This in-equivalence extends to subjective complements that are "realized in linguistic form as predicate nominative" (Huffman and Davis, 2012, p. 395) when the complement is a noun. The "predicate noun is in the nominative case, such as he in this is he and I in it is I" (Garner, 2009 p. 913). The predicate nominative follows a copula 106 to complete the sentence. In the light of the syntax of the sentence, Huffman and Davis come to a dilemma: "there is in fact no general agreement on the term of definition subject" [19] In this first paragraph, the fond de tableau is established by extracting from the real world, the world of the Bible, images, figures and characters, using the indefinite article in some instances as a first introduction and in others, using the definite article to plunge the reader into the story. Parallelism between Arabic and English in the use of the article is not achieved as shown above in many cases.

However, a preliminary guideline for using the system of the article in Arabic in the first paragraph manifests itself in the use of the definite article to form the frame of the story.

A dream

Having established the fond de tableau, Moore proceeds to develop his fictional world, which simulates, to a great extent, everyday life as described in the Scriptures. The grandmother thought that her grandson, Joseph, had fallen asleep and said so aloud: The child's asleep [line 39]. Here, the grandmother replaces Joseph's name by a trait -child. The use of the definite article before child, anaphorically, refers back to Joseph. To show such a reference in Arabic, the definite article is used ل ل /'a -iflu/ the child as well. In conclusion, anaphoric reference requires the use of the definite article in English and Arabic.

Having heard her declare that he was asleep, he objected on the instant [line 39] by crying. This instant can be identified by relating it to the moment of the actual speech act, i.e. when the grandmother declares him asleep. It is the very instant following her declaration; it expresses a relation of causality. Outside this context, this instant cannot be located. Thus, it is fully contextual. Consequently, the definite article is used: [20] Cataphoric reference accounts for the use of the definite article in this case. It plays a deictic function in the post-modification: the relative clause that could be said of him. This clause stands as specification or as modifier (Halliday, 2002) for what is mentioned before it.

Another reason for the use of the definite article in the worst is the superlative form. If this reason is valid, the whole sentence sustains meaning with and without the relative clause. The whole sentence reads without the relative clause And feigning sleep he listened, determined to hear the worst, which does not specify in detail what Joseph was expecting to hear and about whom; it just implicates that he was expecting to hear the worst among the things that he would hear. The post modification limits worst. It appears that worst is the highest degree of the many degrees of what could be said of him. Whether it is due to the superlative structure or the cataphoric reference, the definite article is a must. Analyzing his son's behavior, the father came to the conclusion that it was better to forget dreams. However, the grandmother showed her skepticism towards his conclusion considering it as a piece of incredulity [line 94-95]. In her glossary of thought, the idea of forgetting dreams is a hyponym to incredulity.

Semantically, incredulity is a hypernym to her; it incorporates many pieces and the idea of forgetting dreams is one piece. Having said so, the field of incredulity is indefinite. The phrase piece of incredulity is preceded by the relative pronoun which to identify this particular piece -the idea of forgetting dreams.

In Arabic, شك ضع م ف ھ ع [line 72-73] /'inda hakadh fikratin dh ta mawdi'a shakkin/ (at such an-idea of questionable/incredulous nature/position) can signify both definiteness and indefiniteness. In this translation, indefiniteness is evoked. The grandmother's concept of incredulity encompasses many idiosyncratic ideas that are relative to her; the range of incredulous ideas is not clear to readers, but only one sample is available. Her reaction to any piece of incredulity is the same as her reaction to the incredulous idea of finding serenity and inclination to forgetting dreams. That is to say, the grandmother presents a typical behavior, a reaction of refusal, to incredulity, regardless of the idea of incredulity itself.

On the other hand, definiteness is created here from citing one piece of incredulity out of many because this one fits her criteria of incredulity. The

ل ھ ع

كي ل /'inda hadhihi l-fikrati l-shukukiyyati/ (at this the-idea the-incredulous).

This action of singling out one of many accompanied by a particular behaviorshaking of the head -renders this piece of incredulity specific, and consequently, definite.

Considering the original script at which piece of incredulity [line 94-95],

the interpretation tends to single out one belief -it were well that we should choose our dreams [line 94] -as an example of incredulous ideas in the grandmother's diction of incredulity. The relative pronoun which can be replaced with the demonstrative pronoun this, and the whole clause becomes at this piece of incredulity showing this singling out action. This interpretation sides with the definiteness of the Arabic script, and thus it is better to write ل ھ ع كي ل /'inda hadhihi l-fikrati l-shukukiyyati/ (at this the-idea the-incredulous) م /mu'taqad/ (belief/faith/doctrine), the nominal phrase س ل /r sikhati i-mu'taqadi/ (firm the-belief/doctrine) would not need a continuation as the referent in question sought by the definite article is outside the text -exophoric.

She considers that there was much sense in dreams [line 96] in general, and not in *some dreams. The class of dreams as conjured in the world of experience is prompted here. This is why the zero article is used rather than the quantitative article some [START_REF] Quirk | A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[END_REF] 90] /'ij bati n / (answer). This indefiniteness only evokes the idea of answer as conjured in the world of experience -an answer to a question.

Both father and grandmother were staggered by the story of his dream; they were speechless. They lacked the wit to offer an answer. This wit is characterized; it is not the general wit identified in the world of experience. It is contrived to match the situation the father and grandmother are in. This situation includes careful and thoughtful thinking of an answer that would not create a dilemma, as the grandmother's previous answer had done when she told him that there were no longer any prophets. It follows that they have wit, but not the skillful wit which is needed for this condition.

In this context, wit is translated into the definite form ل /'al-fi natu/ (the-wit) because the indefinite forms results in a totally different meaning. If wit is written without the definite article, the phrase means that the father and the grandmother are totally "witless"; they lack this trait. Indefiniteness marks سم س ل /'ism l-jins/ the common noun (Iben Ya'ish, which does not specify one in its class.

ف /fi natu n / wit is a singular common noun س ل سم اف /'ism 'al-jinsi 'al-'ifr diyyi/ in comparison to ي ل س ل سم /'ism 'aljinsi 'al-jam'iyyi/ a plural common noun like ث /thamaru n / fruits the plural of ث /thamaratu n / fruit [START_REF] Ya'q B | بي ل غ ل ع ع س م / maws 'tu 'ul m-l-lughatil'arabiyyati/ Encyclopedia of Arabic Linguistics[END_REF]. Thus, to avoid generality inherent in the common noun, the definite article is added. Here, the wit is limited to finding convincing, plausible answers on the spot. It follows that they have wits but not the wit to find answers. He was more concerned with himself than with them, and conscious that something of great importance had happened to him he ascended the stairs, pausing at every step uncertain if he should return to ask for the whole of the story of Saul's anointment. It seemed to him to lack courtesy to return to the room in which he had seen the prophet, till he knew these things. But he could not return to ask questions: later he would learn what had happened to Samuel and Saul, and he entered the room, henceforth to him a sacred room, and stood looking through it, having all the circumstances of his dream well in mind: he was lying on his left side when Samuel had risen up before him, and it was there, upon that spot, in that space he had seen Samuel. His ancestor had seemed to fade away from the waist downwards, but his face was extraordinarily clear in the darkness, and Joseph tried to recall it. But he could only remember it as a face that a spirit might wear, for it was not made up of flesh but of some glowing matter or stuff, such as glow-worms are made of; nor could he call it ugly or beautiful, for it was not of this world. He had drawn the bed-clothes over his head, but -impelled he knew not why, for he was nearly dead with fright-he had poked his head out to see if the face was still there. The lips did not move, but he had heard a voice. The tones were not like any heard before, but he had listened to them all the same, and if he had not lost his wits again in an excess of fear he would have put questions to Samuel: he would have put questions if his tongue had not been tied back somewhere in the roof of his mouth. But the next time he would not be frightened and pull the bed-clothes over his head. Consequently, his way of dealing with it has changed as well. In Arabic, it is in the indefinite form س م ف غ /ghorfatu n muqaddasatu n / room sacred because it is the predicate to the inchoative أ م /mubtada'/, which is the pronoun ھي /hiya/ she. Grammatically, the inchoative is the definite and the predicate is the indefinite. The inchoative and the predicate cannot be both definite, and if so, the predicate is no more parsed as predicate خ /khabar/, but as an adjective ص /şifah/. In this sacred room, Joseph tried to remember his dream. He visualized Samuel; he could see his face clearly in the darkness [line 136]. In such a case, the zero article normally precedes darkness as it is generalized, but here its extensity is restricted. The definite article indicates that the reference is specific. The darkness Joseph referred to is the one in his sacred room. Perhaps it is the darkness that characterized the night during which he had the dream. In this sense, it is anaphoric and thus, it is definite.

ك

In Arabic, such terms as darkness and light are written in the definite form (with the definite article or annexation construction). In this context, ا ل For this reason, Joseph continued to describe this face. It is not made up of flesh [line 138]. Flesh is preceded by the zero article because it is in the general sense. According to [START_REF] Christophersen | The Articles: A study of their theory and use in English[END_REF], the zero article is used with continuate 109 words and flesh is one of them. Instead, this face is made up of some glowing matter, such as glow-worms [line 138] are made up of. Some is not used to indicate quantity but indetermination; it shows vague quality, and it means a kind (an unknown kind of many kinds) of glowing matter. He makes another association and this time to explain glowing matter. He compares it to an insect, glowing-worms, which is preceded by the zero article to reveal generic reference.

The class of glowing-worms without specific reference to particular glowingworms, as an undifferentiated whole, is intended in this usage.

Flesh is known and perceived in this world; thus, it is written in the definite form م ل /'al-laḩmi/ (the-flesh). However, it can be written in the indefinite form م ل [line 103] /laḩmin/ (flesh) because readers cannot tell what kind of flesh is referred to here. Neither definiteness, nor indefiniteness is complete.

Samuel's face is not made up of flesh, but rather some glowing matter م ھ م [line 103] /m ddati n mutawahijati n /, which signifies an indeterminate sort of matter. To make it clearer, he compares this matter to the matter of the insect Joseph was startled this time. He did not expect to hear a voice. His state of mind did not allow him to ask questions. He was tortured by the thought that he would have put questions to Samuel [line 145], this is repeated twice. Joseph had not been prepared to see Samuel, and he had not prepared his questions. The number of the questions is not known either. Only the notion of questions is clear.

That is why the zero article is used.

In such a context, the word ع ب /bi 'a/ (some) shows this indefinite number of أس [line 108] /'as'ilatin/ (questions). The word أس /'as'ilatin/ (questions) cannot stand alone without sounding absurd. The idea is that the word أس /'as'ilatin/ (questions) is a derivative of س /sa'ala/ ask. Thus, whenever the verb س /sa'ala/ (ask) occurs, it is implicitly known that questions are intended, so there is no need for redundancy and rewrite the word questions. However, if

On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic

SABRA 253 some knowledge is yielded as to the kind or number of questions, the word is written. That is why the word questions is written only once in Arabic [line 108], while it is written twice in English [line 145].

And convinced of his own courage he lay night after night thinking of all the great things he would ask the old man and of the benefit he would derive from his teaching. But Samuel did not appear again, perhaps because the nights were so dark. Joseph was told the moon would become full again, but sleep closed his eyes when he should have been waking, and in the morning he was full of fear that perhaps Samuel had come and gone away disappointed at not finding him awake. But that could not be, for if the prophet had come he would have awakened him as he had done before. His ancestor had not come again: a reasonable thing to suppose, for when the dead return to the earth they do so with much pain and difficulty; and if the living, whom they come to instruct, cannot keep their eyes open, the poor dead wander back and do not try to come between their descendants and their fate again. In Arabic, the word يع ج /jamī'i/ (all) precedes ي ل ء أشي /'al-'ashy 'i l-'aʐīmati/ (the-things the-great) and imposes structural changes: the noun following it ء أشي /'al-'ashy 'i/ (the-things) is definite and in this instance, it is definite via the definite article. ي ل /'al-'aʐīmati/ (the-great) is definite via the definite article as well since it is the adjective modifying ء أشي /'al-'ashy 'i/ (thethings) and consequently, agrees with it in definiteness.

Another structural necessity that affects the head ء أشي /'ashy 'i/ (things) as well as the head م /manfa'ati/ (benefit) is the relative clause following each.

See Examples [25] and [26]. The relative clause only follows a definite noun. Joseph was too concerned; he tried to find a reason for Samuel's absence.

He considered that because the nights were dark [line151], Samuel did not appear.

Joseph refers to the fact that night after night that he waited for him. This referential aspect is clear and demonstrated in Arabic as well ل ي ل ي /'al-lay li/ (the-nights).

Then, he was told that the moon would appear full again. This reference to the moon reveals its uniqueness. There is only one moon in the phenomenal world; thus, it is semantically definite, and the definite article marks it syntactically. This is the case in Arabic ل /'al-qamara/ (the-moon). When Joseph fell asleep when it was full moon, he blamed himself. Then, a reasonable thing [line 156] occurred to him: the process which the dead experience when they come to earth is extremely painful. This explanation is just one of many that occupied his mind. This one thing is rated as reasonable. This use of the indefinite article opens the space for more explanations, reasonable ones in Joseph's assessment. To show that this reasonable thing is not unique, the indefinite form is used ا م شي /shay'an ma'q lan/ (thing reasonable). This form signifies the singularity of this reasonable thing and opens the door for other possible reasonable things to be listed.

But I will keep awake, he said, and resorted to all sorts of devices, keeping up a repetition of a little phrase: he will come to-night when the moon is full; and lying with one leg hanging out of bed; and these proving unavailing he strewed his bed with crumbs. But no ancestor appeared, and little by little he relinquished hope of ever being able to summon Samuel to his bedside, and accepted as an explanation of his persistent absence that Samuel had performed his duty by coming once to visit him and would not come again unless some new necessity should arise. It was then that the conviction began to mount into his brain that he must learn all that his grandmother could tell him about Saul and David, and learning from her that they had been a great trouble to Samuel he resolved never to allow a thought into his mind that the prophet would deem unworthy. To become worthy of his ancestor was now his aim, and when he heard that Samuel was the author of two sacred books it seemed to him that his education had been neglected: for he had not yet been taught to read. Another step in his advancement was the discovery that the language his father, his granny and himself spoke was not the language spoken by Samuel, and every day he pressed his grandmother to tell him why the Jews had lost their language in Babylon, till he exhausted the old woman's knowledge and she said: well now, Son, if you want to hear any more about Babylon you must ask your father, for I have told you all I know. And Joseph waited eagerly for his father to come home, and plagued him to tell him a story. essence); in this case, the function of the definite article is only to specify the type of the matter that has been spread. This definite article is called ي ل /'al 'aljinsiyyatu/ (the-genus the).

ي ول

Another hypothesis and another explanation are presented. Every time Joseph practiced something new, and it did not work, he came up with a new hypothesis. The latest, which he accepted as an explanation [line 166], was that Samuel had performed his role and would not appear again unless some new necessity [line 168] should arise. An explanation represents one extracted explanation of the group of explanations that fit in Joseph's condition.

One of many explanations ي ت /tafsīri n / (explanation) is given. No one knows how valid this explanation is. It just soothes Joseph and offers him a satisfying conclusion. Yet, he did not give up totally the idea of seeing Samuel. If some new necessity م ي ج و ض [line 126] / ar ratin jadīdatin m / (necessity new) should arise, Samuel would reappear. The determiner some plays the role of the indefinite article and thus, the indefinite form is used in Arabic. He gives no prediction concerning this necessity. No clue is given as to the nature and kind of this necessity except that it is new. But what was the first necessity that made Samuel appear in Joseph's dream? Is it just to tell Joseph that he is his descendent? Or to tell Joseph that he exists? How many necessities are there? These questions and more are asked upon such a use of the indefinite determiner some and the indefinite form in Arabic.

Joseph resolved on a plan of action; he decided to educate himself by gathering all the information his grandmother possessed about Samuel and his Semantically, the determiner any can replace the indefinite article in such a context. Moreover, in Arabic, this determiner is even written ي ت أ /'ayya tafkīri n / (any thought) due to the negative construction ي ت أ ح ي ا /l yasmaḩu 'ayyi tafkīri n / (he would not allow any thought). Using أ abolishes all and any thought of deeming the prophet unworthy. After '/أayyi/ (any), a noun appears in the indefinite form ي ت /tafkīrin/ (thought).

He came to know that Samuel is the author of two sacred books [line 174].

The use of the definite article is not just to refer to the works in question. It is also used to indicate authority and convey uniqueness. The notion of uniqueness of an entity is achieved through the descriptive content in question. ق /qişşata n / (story) is indefinite semantically and morphologically.

Going to the Hills

But after a long day spent in the counting-house his father was often too tired to take him on his knee and instruct him, for Joseph's curiosity was unceasing and very often wearisome. Now, Joseph, his father said, you will learn more about these things when you are older. And why not now? he asked, and his grandmother answered that it was change of air that he wanted and not books; and they began to speak of the fierce summer that had taken the health out of all of them, and of how necessary it was for a child of that age to be sent up to the hills. incident to day and limiting its extensity to not just any day. Then long day is made incident to the indefinite article, and the whole phrase is actualized by reference to the father's life. The whole nominal phrase describes one of his days, the specific day spent in the counting house, which was tiring.

ب ن ول

If this nominal phrase a long day is to be written in the definite form لي يل ل /'al-yawmi -awīli/ (the-day the-long), a relative pronoun ص م سم /'ism mawş l/ like ل /'al-ladhī/ (that/which), is employed after it to maintain its definiteness. This day becomes identified in the space of how it was spent and where -working in the counting house. This means that this specific day is spent at that place and gives it some uniqueness. On the other hand, the indefinite form

ل ن ل ك ت في

[line 140] / iflin fi tilka ssinni/ (child at that the-age) results from the generalized conclusion that applies to any child at that age, and the grandmother intended that Joseph fits this generalization. If the definite form ن ل ك ت في ل ل /'a -ifli fi tilka s-sinni/ is used, the child becomes the focus instead of the whole nominal phrase a child of that age stands as the focus unit. Moreover, the generalization formed with the indefinite form has more grounds in attaining the broad view.

The place chosen for this typical kid is the hills. They do not locate one specific because their intention is any place that fits the category of a hill. The hills, in the general sense, is evoked here. Another interesting notion regarding the use of the definite article is topicality. [START_REF] Epstein | The definite article, accessibility, and the construction of discourse referents[END_REF] argues that neither of the two main approaches to definiteness, "familiarity or unique identifiability", provide necessary or sufficient conditions for the use of the definite article in English. He argues that entities that enter into the discourse with an initial definite description signal that they will be topics in the subsequent portion of text, especially in their second appearance, they are in the indefinite form. Here, the hills is topical and its appearance in its second mention in the indefinite form a hill village [line 193], a specific one, sustains its topicality. The indefinite article here specifies the type of village Joseph's father had in mind to send him to and even started his arrangements accordingly. The use of the indefinite article performs its descriptive role.

The definite article

غ لإس ي ل أ /'al 'al-jinsiyyatu lil-'stighr qi/ (the generic al) encompasses the whole genus of the hills ا ل [line 141] /'attil lli/ regardless of any individual traits. The notion of hills as conjured in the world of representation is evoked here. On line 143/144, the translation of a hill village ت ع ي ق /qaryati n 'ala tallati n / (village on hill) needs the preposition ع /'ala/ (on) to link the two nouns. If these two nouns ي ق /qaryati n / (village) and ت /tallati n / (hill) are in the indefinite form, the resulting meaning would be that the father does not know which village he is sending his son to; he is interested in any village that has a hill. However, the definite form ي ل /'alqaryati/ (the-village) and ل /'at-tallati/ (the-hill) means that there is one specific Dan looked into his son's face, and Rachel seemed to be right. A thin, wan little face, that the air of the hills will brighten, he said; and he began at once to make arrangements for Joseph's departure for a hill village, saying that the pastoral life of the hills would take his mind off Samuel, Hebrew and Babylon. Rachel was doubtful if the shepherds would absorb Joseph's mind as completely as his father thought. She hoped, however, that they would. As soon as he hears the sound of the pipe, his father answered. A prophecy this was, for while Joseph was resting after the fatigue of the journey, he was awakened suddenly by a sound he had never heard before, and one that interested him strangely. His nurse told him that the sound he was hearing was a shepherd's pipe. The shepherd plays and the flock follows, she said. And when may I see the flock coming home with the shepherd? he asked. To-morrow evening, she answered, and the time seemed to him to loiter, so eager was he to see the flocks returning and to watch the she-goat milked.

.

His Scribes

The same evening his father had to promise that the best scribe in Galilee should be engaged to teach him: a discussion began between Dan and Rachel as to the most notable and trustworthy, and it was followed by Joseph so eagerly that they could not help laughing; the questions he put to them regarding the different accomplishments of the scribes were very minute, and the phrase-But this one is a Greek scholar, stirred his curiosity. Why should he be denied me because he knows Greek? he asked, and his father could only answer that no one can learn two languages at the same time. But if he knows two languages, Joseph insisted. I cannot tell thee more, his father answered, than that the scribe I've chosen is a great Hebrew scholar. ن /niq shu n / (discussion) reveals its singularity. As to the best scribe, it is considered as indicating uniqueness as there could be one scribe identified as the best. In Arabic, the indefinite form تب ك ل أف [line 152] /'afdali k tibin/ (best scribe) shows uniqueness of an unknown entity while the definite form تب ل ل أف /'al-k tibi l-'af ali/ (the-scribe the-best) shows the uniqueness of a known specific entity, like when there is a list at a ceremony and the best scribe is chosen to be honored. The nominal phrase the most notable and trustworthy follows the same explanation in both languages.

و

Joseph could not but get involved in their discussion. His curiosity was aroused by the phrase [line 210] 'this one is a Greek scholar'. The sentence following phrase explains this phrase, and the definite article plays the role of a catalyst indicating this cataphoric reference. In Arabic, the indefinite form ع [line 155] /'ib ratu/ (phrase) is used because this phrase is not yet realized, though its realization is mentioned directly after it.

The discussion considered the scholars in terms of the languages they speak. One was identified as a Greek scholar and the other as a great Hebrew scholar. This categorization is made possible by the indefinite article. The Arabic He did not appeal to any of his interests. The negative not with the indefinite article abolishes the actualization of any component that would enable Joseph to work. In Arabic, it is semi-indefinite as both words ل ل لھب [line 160] /lahaba l-'amali/ (fire/flame work) are in annexation construction. The meaning in this phrase is beyond the literal; thus, an interpretation is sought on the reader's 110. ن ل is an annular, an appropinquation verb, that is added to an inchoative and predicate and changes their situation. The inchoative becomes its subject in the accusative case and the predicate in the nominative case. An annular is either an incomplete verb, an appropinquation verb, or a particle. behalf. This is why the semantic reference is beyond reach without an interpretation.

On Definiteness and

He was no doubt a great scholar, but he was not the man that Joseph wished for: thin and tall and of gentle appearance and demeanour, he did not stir up a flame for work in Joseph, who, as soon as the novelty of learning Hebrew had worn off, began to hide himself in the garden. His father caught him one day sitting in a convenient bough, looking down upon his preceptor fairly asleep on a bench; and after this adventure he began to make a mocking stock of his preceptor, inventing all kinds of cruelties, and his truancy became so constant that his father was forced to choose another. This time a younger man was chosen, but he succeeded with Joseph not very much better than the first. After the second there came a third, and when Joseph began to complain of his ignorance his father said:

Well, Joseph, you said you wanted to learn Hebrew, and you have shown no application, and three of the most learned scribes in Galilee have been called in to teach you. His actions took another direction afterwards; he started to make a mocking stock [line 221] of him. This stock is not measurable; it cannot be calculated because its beginning and end are loose and indefinite. The Arabic translation shows this indefinite content ھي ت خ س /tashhīri n s khiri n / (libel mocking). Yet, it is named later as cruel.

ب ك شك ا

He was replaced by a younger man [line 223]. It is his first mention. His identity remains anonymous, but his fate is similar to the first one. This younger man is mentioned again in a substitute form, the second [line 224] with the definite article as it is the second mention. Moreover, a third teacher was not even successful. The indefinite article is used because it is a first introduction, and it happens to be the last. In this mentioning, he turns into a number in a chain of scholars who failed to tame Joseph and attend to his interests. The Arabic script matches the English version in definiteness and indefiniteness and sustains the same verification.

Joseph felt the reproof bitterly, but he did not know how to answer his father and he was grateful to his grandmother for her answer. Joseph isn't an idle boy, Dan, but his nature is such that he cannot learn from a man he doesn't like. Why don't ye give him Azariah as an instructor? Has he been speaking to thee about Azariah? Dan asked. Maybe, she said, and Dan's face clouded. item, or the occurrence of a synonym some kind, in the context of reference; that is, where the two occurrences have the same referent" (Halliday and Hasan, 1976 p. 274). Reiteration could be in the form of repetition, synonym, hypernym, and (Ya'q b, 2006, ps. 338 and 339).

ل

ي ا جل ه

Out of 46 occurrences revealing Descriptive function, 16 stand as representative of a species. The words a prophet [lines 40, 54, 63, 77, 78, 84, 109/110, 118, and 41] ي ن /nabiyyan/ [31, 40, 47, 58, 58, 64, 83, 89, and 31] When the noun preceded with a/an is modified, the indefinite noun is labeled as Modified lexically ل ت وص /wuşifat lafʐan/. It is Descriptive as labeled in English, but again, the boundaries of indefiniteness are limited. To illustrate this, when Joseph refers to his room as a sacred room [line 131] س م ف غ /ghurfatun muqaddasatun/ [line 98/99], he gives new attributes to his room and looks at it from a new perspective. It is the same room but not the same anymore! Three occurrences are referred to as Imbedded Modification ي ت ت وض /wudi'at taqdīran/. As explained by [START_REF] Ya'q B | بي ل غ ل ع ع س م / maws 'tu 'ul m-l-lughatil'arabiyyati/ Encyclopedia of Arabic Linguistics[END_REF], Imbedded Modification ت وض ي ت /wudi'at taqdīran/ means that the modification of the indefinite noun is not present but deduced. For example, a discussion [line 206] ن /niq shun/ [line 152] began between Dan and Rachel about Joseph's education. This discussion can be described as interesting, engaging and fascinating as it caught Joseph's attention and urged him to ask questions.

The function of a/an as any has no one single correlating function in Arabic.

Depending on the noun in the nominal phrase, the function is determined. In this corpus, the 5 occurrences in English find 4 different functions. Three of these In all these occurrences, the nunation sign is displayed according to the case: nominative « ◌ », accusative « ◌ », and genitive « ◌ ». Annexed nouns are exempted from this sign as they are semi-definite as has been explained.

In this comparison between the use of a/an in English and the indefinite form in Arabic, it appears that there is 96% correspondence. This indicates that the notion of indefiniteness is almost the same in the two languages. [START_REF] Master | A Contrastive Study of Determiner Usage in EST Research Articles[END_REF] came to the conclusion that the usage of the article a/an depends on the "lexical feature of countability" (p. 7); that is, the substantive determines its use.

Finding the Correlative form of the nominal phrase in Arabic to the Use of the Zero Article

Since the zero article has no correlation in Arabic, the occurrences with this article are distributed between displaying or not displaying al. Table [17 114. This type of words is accounted for by James Harris (Hermès, 1751), who makes a distinction been Principles (words that can stand alone) and Accessories (words that need to be added to other words to make sense) The second question is: Is definiteness / indefiniteness achieved in the same way in English and in Arabic? Apart from definiteness achieved via certain uses of the definite article, which is common in the two languages, definiteness is achieved in other ways. In both languages, the extensity of definiteness or indefiniteness is in relation to the words in the nominal phrase qualifying and modifying the substantive.

The more lexical items are present, the more identifiable the substantive is -the logical terms, the comprehension increase as the extension decreases. Determiners, the context, and deixis are some of the ways that ensure definiteness in various SABRA George Kleiber,65,195 Ghalayini,88,112 Gilman,171 Givon,22 Goes,28,29,38 Grenoble, 185 Guillaume,24,[26][27]44,46,47,50,52,54,65,151,163,179,205,206 H Halliday,[18][19][20][21][22]31,47,50,65,165,220,227,286,338,274,340 Harris,54,177 Hasan,65,227,245,274,286 On Definiteness and Beyond A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic SABRA 333 Hawkins,12,45,[50][51]53,[61][62][63][64][69][70][71][72]284,[287][288]292,320 Heim,65 Henry Sweet,82,84,250 Herslund,53 Hewson,19,42,45,59,205,207,208 Hirtle,24,26,42,[46][47][48]52,[56][57][58]66,151,[205][206][207][208][328][329] Holes, 85

Huffman, 210

Davis, 210

I

Ian, 340

Iben Ya'īsh,79,81,82,97,99,244 Ibn Hish m, 88 J Jespersen,30,31,46,55,61,62,64,65,67,68,69,77,84,277 Johansson,150 Joly,[15][16]18,25,27,29,[44][45]53,[55][56]58,[60][61]75,165,328 Jurj nī, 90 K Kaluza,42,45,52 Käsemnn,153 Kerygma and the Myth, 153

L

Lambrecht, 292

Lowth, 41 Lumsden,203 Lyons,41,43,[49][50]54,56,62,67,134 M Magee, 176

Master, 298 Matthews,340 Michael,23,340 Mill,59,83,102,294 Milsark,56 Mitchell,159,164,[171][172][174][175]177 Moore,9,12,149,[151][152][153][154]179,192,211,275 , 15-16, 18, 25, 29, 44-45, 50, 53, 55-56, 58, 60-61, 75, 165, 328 Outlaw, 159 Quirk et al,18,31,33,34,38,45,47,[52][53][54][55][56]59,[64][65][66][67][68]70,[72][73][75][76]165,191,196,198,221 Schweitzer,152,153,154,157 Sherman,177 Sibawayhi,81,87,104,134,137,147 Sinclair,278 Stevens,173,174,176 Strauss,153,[155][156][157]164 Sweet,82,84,250 Szwedek, 42 Ya'qub,[83][84]89,[113][114][122][123][124]126,130,132,140,[142][143]244,288,

S

Y

Résumé

Cette thèse propose une analyse contrastive de la notion de défini telle qu'elle est exprimée dans le système de l'article en anglais et en arabe moderne standard. L'ensemble des notions associées au défini et à l'indéfini sont examinées d'un point de vue sémantique et d'un point de vue syntaxique, afin de découvrir la manière dont les deux langues traitent ces concepts; les différences et les ressemblances sont répertoriées dans le contexte d'une étude détaillée de corpus. Le récit, The Brook Kerith de l'écrivain irlandais George Moore a été choisi pour des raisons géo-historiques et littéraires: les événements racontés se déroulent en Terre Sainte à l'aube de l'ère chrétienne. Les occurrences du syntagme nominal en anglais et en arabe analysées dans le premier chapitre permettent de dégager les convergences et les divergences des deux systèmes. Les résultats sont soumis à une analyse quantitative et statistique. Il en ressort que la valeur de l'article défini en anglais ("the") et en arabe ("al") correspondent dans 76% des emplois. La ressemblance entre la valeur de l'article indéfini ("a / an") en anglais et son équivalent en arabe s'élève à 96%. Cependant, dans la mesure où l'arabe est une langue sans article indéfini, le fonctionnement de l'article zéro en anglais est sans équivalence; on découvre que l'arabe choisit selon le contexte, soit la marque du défini (al), soit la marque sémiologique de l'indéfini. En dernière analyse, on constate une grande ressemblance entre les mécanismes cognitifs sous-jacents; les différences concernent les transformations sémiotiques de la structure profonde.

Mot clés : Défini/indéfini, Détermination nominale, The Brook Kerith (de George Moore).

On Definiteness and Beyond: A Contrastive Study of Nominal Determination in English and Arabic

Abstract

This thesis offers a contrastive analysis of the notion of definiteness as conveyed by the system of the article in English and Standard Arabic. Definiteness and other notions associated with it are investigated semantically and syntactically in an attempt to discover how these two languages approach such notions and when the two languages converge and diverge in this respect. To this end, corpus analysis is chosen as a means to inspect these ideas. The corpus, The Brook Kerith, by the Irish writer, George Moore, is chosen for geo-historical and literary reasons: the story takes place in the Holy Land at the dawn of this Christian era. A contrastive analysis of the first chapter along with its translation is analyzed from a pragmatic and semantic perspective. The analysis is followed by statistical and computational analyses. It is found that the article "the" and the Arabic article "al' are used for seemingly the same purpose in the proportion of 76%. The occurrence of the article "a/an" is 96% consistent with indefiniteness in Arabic. However, the use of the "zero article" shows discrepancy as whether to use the article "al" or no article in Arabic. In the last analysis, the cognitive operations underlying usage in both languages are similar. The differences are on the level of the semiotic transformation of these deep operations.