POUR OBTENIR Université De Bordeaux

Reynald Par

Brion

Jean-François Trinquecoste

M Trinquecoste

Jean-François Pr

Directeur M Lunardo

Renaud Pr Kedge

Business School

Co-Directeur M Chaney

M Bodet

Claude Bernard Lyon

Géraldine Rapporteur Mme Michel

M Babin

Je Remercie Aussi

Les Professeurs

Géraldine Michel

Damien Chaney

Guillaume Bodet

Barry Babin

Juliette Passebois-Ducros

Jean-Christophe Pereau

Jean-Philippe Galan

Michaël

Maud Derbaix

Gregory Bressolles

Frédéric Ponsignon

THÈSE PRÉSENTÉE

Keywords: Sportivité perçue, Relations marques-consommateurs, Engagement Consommateur, Sport, Esport, Loisirs Perceived sportivity of experiential activities: Conceptualization, measure, and effects on consumers-brands relationships Perceived Sportivity, Consumer-brand relationships, Consumer engagement, Sport, Esport, Leisure

Titre : Sportivité perçue des activités expérientielles : Conceptualisation, mesure, et effets sur les relations entre les marques et les consommateurs Résumé : L'industrie du sport semble être ancrée dans la culture globale à un degré tel que de nombreuses activités se positionnant ou utilisant des éléments sportifs semblent émerger chaque jour, tel que l'esport, ou la pratique compétitive du jeu vidéo. Parallèlement, d'autres activités, ayant un statut légal de sport, comme les échecs, ne sont en majorité pas considérés comme étant des sports par les consommateurs. Un paradoxe semble donc exister entre la classification d'une activité comme sport et la catégorisation et la représentation mentales qu'en ont les consommateurs. Se basant sur ce constat, ce travail de recherche a pour premiers objectifs la compréhension, mais aussi la mesure des éléments influençant la perception d'activités de loisirs comme étant sportives par les consommateurs. Cette mesure, appelée sportivité perçue, s'effectue à travers une première revue historique et sociologique du concept de sport. Nous remontons à son origine et analysons son évolution pour en comprendre ses composantes et ses influences. Ensuite, sur la base d'une série d'études qualitatives et quantiatives, nous développons un instrument de mesure permettant de mesurer cette perception et catégorisation sportive par les consommateurs. Cet instrument de mesure comporte 8 items composant deux dimensions appelées physicalité (5 items) et équipement (3 items).

Une fois cet instrument de mesure de la sportivité perçue réalisé et validé d'un point de vue convergent, discriminant, mais aussi au sein d'un réseau nomologique, nous proposons de le tester dans deux contextes. Premièrement, nous testons les effets de la sportivité perçue lors d'une étude terrain portant sur une compétition esportive dédiée à l'un des jeux les plus joués et regardés au monde : League of Legends. Dans cette étude terrain, nous testons et confirmons les effets de la sportivité perçue sur la perception des marques, à savoir la personnalité de la marque, l'identification à la marque, ainsi que la légitimité perçue de la marque. Enfin, nous mesurons et confirmons aussi l'influence de la perception de la marque sur 3 variables : l'engagement du consommateur, la valeur perçue, et l'intention d'achat.

Ces résultats sont ensuite répliqués au cours d'une expérimentation où les deux dimensions de la sportivités sont manipulées au via des stimuli visuels et textuels.

Table of Content

Introduction -Sports consumption, market size and opportunities

The sports industry is known to be global, with numerous ties to consumer culture [START_REF] Giulianotti | Global sport and consumer culture : An introduction[END_REF]. Due to its large size and the blurriness of its limits, it is extremely difficult to properly estimate the size of the global sports market. However, according to a 2021 study from Boston Consulting Group and Signa Sport United, conducted with more than 19 000 respondents and interviews with senior experts from the sports industry, 35% of the world population (2.7 billion people), participate in sport at least once a month, which represents a global sport retail market of 1.1 trillion dollars divided into four categories: ticket sales, sports retail, physical activities and broadcasting rights. Sport represents the second biggest leisure activity in the world behind travel and is expected to continue to grow at a rate of 5% in the next few years. More specifically, sport is expected to strongly grow online, with an annual rate of 13%. The global sport product, which describes the sport's good or service that is offered to the consumer to satisfy his need for sport, be it spectator, viewer, active participant, or sponsor (Shank, 2005;Pitts and Stotlar, 2007) is everywhere today. It has extended beyond the sole practice of a sporty activity to become a lifestyle and a vector of identity for consumers [START_REF] Donnelly | The Construction and Confirmation of Identity in Sport Subcultures[END_REF][START_REF] Green | Serious Leisure, Social Identity and Sport Tourism[END_REF].

Researchers argue that the sports product followed the process of globalization during the 20 th Century to become the worldwide product it is today [START_REF] Harvey | GLOBALIZATION AND SPORT : SKETCHING A THEORETICAL MODEL FOR EMPIRICAL ANALYSES[END_REF][START_REF] Maguire | Global Sport : Identities, Societies, Civilizations[END_REF][START_REF] Maguire | Power and global sport : Zones of prestige, emulation and resistance[END_REF][START_REF] Maguire | Globalization and Sport : Beyond the Boundaries?[END_REF]Miller et al., 2000;[START_REF] Thibault | Globalization of Sport : An Inconvenient Truth1[END_REF]Giulanotti and Numerato, 2018;[START_REF] Zhang | Reversing the tide of sport globalization from west to east? Examining consumer demand for table tennis clubs in the U[END_REF]. [START_REF] Smart | Consuming Olympism : Consumer culture, sport star sponsorship and the commercialisation of the Olympics[END_REF] even positions the Olympic movement in the globalization process. However, the globalization and modernization of the global sports industry and the Olympics began with the arrival of new 'alternatives' sporty practices, such as surf, snowboard, or skateboard (Giulanotti and Numerato, 2018). These new practices led to a redefinition and an expansion of the sports product, which was not only a strongly commodified and regulated practice anymore but became more of a lifestyle with brands reaching out to consumers with products not directly related to the sports practice itself (Gottdiener, 2000;Pitts and Zhang, 2016;[START_REF] Giulianotti | Global sport and consumer culture : An introduction[END_REF][START_REF] Zhang | Reversing the tide of sport globalization from west to east? Examining consumer demand for table tennis clubs in the U[END_REF]. Sport is not only about practicing anymore, it is also about watching, dressing, and being a member of communities [START_REF] Yoshida | Sport Fans and Their Behavior in Fan Communities[END_REF].

With these new activities and forms of commercialization, the sport has become even larger and seems to have lost its primary institutional sense. It starts to open to new activities such as drone racing or esport [START_REF] Witkowski | On the Digital Playing Field : How We "Do Sport" With Networked Computer Games[END_REF][START_REF] Jenny | Virtual(ly) Athletes : Where eSports Fit Within the Definition of "Sport[END_REF]. Esport has been defined as "any form of competitive video gaming in which human players compete against each other" by France Esport, a governing body born at the initiative of the French Minister of Finance and Economy and the French State Secretariat for the Digital that aims at quantifying, qualifying and regulating the esport sector. An esport event was also organized by the IOC in cooperation with Intel and ESL on two famous esport titles 'Rocket League' and 'Street Fighter V' during the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games; The Intel World Open, highlighting already existing links between sport and esport. Moreover, some activities that used to be strongly criticized by sports institutions for various reasons even gained the status of a sport internationally. 'Alternative sports' such as surf, skateboard and climbing which were at first rejected by sports institutions even joined the Olympic program at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. Moreover, Mixed Martial Arts, a fighting sport created by companies for entertainment purposes, originally massively criticized for being too violent and barbaric by sports institutions, gained a sport status (Andreasson and Johannson, 2019).

On the contrary, some other activities which used to be recognized as sports and organized likes ones have lost their sport status in the consumer's mind. For example, in 2017, a poll conducted by YouGov in the United Kingdom to discuss the sporty nature of chess, an institutionalized generates a favorable image for the sponsor at the brand level, but also at the corporate level, and the meanings held by the sponsored event can be transferred to a brand [START_REF] Gwinner | A model of image creation and image transfer in event sponsorship[END_REF][START_REF] Gwinner | Building Brand Image Through Event Sponsorship : The Role of Image Transfer[END_REF][START_REF] Cornwell | Corporate sponsorship of a cause : The role of identification in purchase intent[END_REF]Chien, Cornwell and Papu, 2011).

According to a 2018 Statista study, global sponsorship spendings have been continuously growing since the beginning of the 20 th Century, to reach $65.8 billion in 2018 (versus $37.9 billion in 2007). These numbers are expected to keep on growing at an average annual growth rate of 5%. Sponsorship in sport, when done properly, has been shown to foster numerous positives outcomes for consumers and brands (Levin, Joiner and Camaron, 2001;[START_REF] Meenaghan | Understanding sponsorship effects[END_REF]Chien, Cornwell and Papu, 2011;Lewis et al., 2012;[START_REF] Meng-Lewis | Consumers' responses to sponsorship by foreign companies[END_REF]. More specifically, when there is congruence between the sponsor and the event, brand awareness [START_REF] Meenaghan | Understanding sponsorship effects[END_REF], brand image (Chien, Cornwell and Papu, 2011), brand recall (Levin, Joiner and Camaron, 2001) and brand identification are fostered, ultimately leading to improved willingness to buy (Lewis et al., 2012;[START_REF] Meng-Lewis | Consumers' responses to sponsorship by foreign companies[END_REF] products from the brand on the customer's side.

Besides classic sponsoring actions, brands and firms have at their disposal a multitude of strategies to invest and work with sports. Derived products are one of them [START_REF] Pons | Marketing stratégique du sport[END_REF]. Sport-related products have grown tremendously over the past few years, especially with lifestyle products. People do not only buy sports products to do sport, they also buy sport-related products to show that they belong to certain communities and to express their identity [START_REF] Wheaton | Introduction : Mapping the lifestyle sport-scape[END_REF][START_REF] Wheaton | Introducing the consumption and representation of lifestyle sports[END_REF][START_REF] Wheaton | The Cultural Politics of Lifestyle Sports[END_REF]. Sport lifestyle products have gained such popularity that it has become quite difficult to classify apparel as sporty or not. Brands such as Nike and Adidas, which respectively have an estimated value of $30.4 billion and $16.7 billion in 2021, (according to Statista, 2021) are leading the market.

Other brands, such as Red Bull, which are not specialized in apparel and retailing, have also embraced the sports industry (Gorse, Chadwick and Burton, 2010;Kunz, Elässer and Santomier, 2016). Originally an Austrian energy drinks brand, Redbull adopted an entrepreneurship strategy to enter the sports market (Gorse, Chadwick and Burton, 2010). To promote their products, the company created and sponsored many sports events, such as the Red Bull Crashed Ice or the Red Bull Air Race. They also sponsored existing sports, by buying sports entities such as the football club of Leipzig, the football club of Salzbourg, and two Formula One teams: Red Bull Racing, and Scuderia AlphaTauri. Red Bull strategy has been defined as a "best practice" by researchers (Kunz, Elässer and Santomier, 2016). Red Bull's Strategy can be defined as a form of content marketing using branded entertainment. Red Bull has embraced the sports market to such a point that the company has even created its events on all types of sporty activities. Redbull events include a wide range of activities such as motorsports, parkour, paragliding, ice-skating and so on. Because these events are held by a company -with some of them focusing on activities that do not have a sport's statusthe sporty property of some of these events could be subject to debate. Therefore, a goal of our research is to provide a clear conceptualization of what sport means to consumers, and what triggers their perception of an activity as a sport. By doing so, we will be able to study all types of activity, even those that are not considered as a sport, under the prism of perceived sportivity. Sports being massively broadcasted, many companies have also invested in media rights.

According to a 2019 Xerfi study, media rights in the sports industry represented more than $45 billion in the world and accounted for 30% of the global turnover of the sports industry. The popularity of sports entertainment has led many authors to explore consumers' motivations for sports consumption (e.g. [START_REF] Wann | Preliminary Validation of the Sport Fan Motivation Scale[END_REF][START_REF] Trail | The Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption : Assessment of the scale's psychometric properties[END_REF][START_REF] Allen | Social Motivation in Youth Sport[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | Development and validation of instruments for assessing sport spectator involvement and factors affecting sport spectator involvement[END_REF]Mallet et al., 2007;[START_REF] Seo | Development of the Motivation Scale for Sport Online Consumption[END_REF]. However, to our knowledge, in all these studies, the sport's status of the object of study was only defined by the authors and not explicitly discussed.

What precedes highlights the long debates regarding the definition and the nature of sport.

Many authors do not agree on the definition of sport (see [START_REF] Wertz | Representation and Expression in Sport and Art[END_REF][START_REF] Best | Sport Is Not Art[END_REF][START_REF] Platchias | Sport Is Art[END_REF] for an example). Recently, some authors also discussed the sports construct. [START_REF] Kobiela | Should chess and other mind sports be regarded as sports?[END_REF] for instance builds on the debate regarding chess and "mind sports" to discuss the global sports construct. In his view, sport has evolved so much, either from an institutional or individual point of view, that a complete reconceptualization and a redefinition of the sport object due to its growing importance. The debate regarding "mind sports" such as chess represents a perfect example of why the concept of sport should be redefined by sports philosophers.

Therefore, we here propose to provide a clear, consumer-based conceptualization of perceived sportivity. Such perceived sportivity could help researchers to study any leisure activity that shares similarities with sport but does not classify as a sport. Because this research is performed within the marketing discipline, we do not aim to give a final answer to the infinite debate regarding the nature of sport. Instead, we aim to propose a concept that will allow any researcher to study any leisure activity under the prism of sport. Real-life examples of the difficulty to define sport also exist. The example of Chess, highlighted before, is the most famous.

To study consumers' perception of sport, we will first explore sport from a sociological and historical point of view. We will see that, in the history of sport, there are elements that help in defining the object. Then, using Categorization Theory [START_REF] Alba | Dimensions of Consumer Expertise[END_REF][START_REF] Cohen | Alternative Models of Categorization : Toward a Contingent Processing Framework[END_REF], we will focus on consumer subjective mental representations of what a sport

is, what we refer to hereafter as perceived sportivity. Then, we will introduce our field of study, esport, and explain, using categorization theory, why this field represents an appealing opportunity for the study of perceived sportivity. In Chapter 3, we will explore consumerbehavioral intention models using existing research on customer experience and sports marketing to make predictions about the effects of perceived sportivity.

Through this research, we thus aim to answer the following problematic:

To what extent does the perceived sportivity of a leisure activity influence consumers' evaluations of the activity, brand perception and behavioral intentions?

To achieve this goal, in the second part of this research, because perceived sportivity remains to be fully conceptualized and measured, we will proceed with the development of the perceived sportivity measurement scale. This measure will next be applied in a real-life context to investigate if having consumers perceiving an activity as sporty can be of interest to brands.

Finally, we will replicate this field study through an experiment, and discuss the results, as well as the limitations of this research and its future implications.

By doing so, this research aims to answer several gaps highlighted in this introduction. First, with our scale of perceived sportivity, we aim to study the perceptions of consumers regarding the nature of sport. As we have seen, sport has always been defined institutionally, and we argue that studying sport under the prism of consumers' perceptions and categorization could provide advantages for managers and researchers. Understanding consumers' perceptions and mental representations of sport can help brands and event organizers in their positioning by highlighting what makes an activity sporty for consumers and how people react to such sportivity. Finally, under the assumptionthat our model will testthat perceiving an activity as sporty prompts consumers' engagement, one may argue that identifying what makes an activity perceived sporty could also have social implications. Positioning activities as sporty could make people more willing to engage, and thus be used to encourage consumers into health-related practices for example. The economics of sport

In the general introduction, the emphasis was made on sport in terms of numbers to show its economic importance. However, much like any other complex and multidimensional commercial industry, the scale and scope of the global sports industry are impossible to discern with any degree of certitude [START_REF] Andrews | Sport and prosumption[END_REF]. Sport as a commercial entity is so complex that any journalistic estimation concerning its economical weight may only be speculation. For instance, some analysts suggest sports weigh about US$480 billion [START_REF] Collignon | The sports market : Major trends and challenges in an industry full of passion. Undefined[END_REF], while some others suggest they weigh about US$1.5 trillion (Anon, 2015).

However, researchers agree that sport, as an industry, constitutes a significant element of economic and cultural life within advanced consumer economies [START_REF] Smart | Not playing around : Global capitalism, modern sport and consumer culture[END_REF]. Concerning football, the UEFA Euro 2020, considered the most-watched event in history, had an estimated audience of 5.23 billion people worldwide, according to the Union of European Football Association. Similarly, the fifteenth most-watched television broadcasts of all time all appear to be sporting events. All the events highlighted in Table 1 appear to be sports mega-events, which attract billions of people. Mega-events are defined as "large-scale cultural (including commercial and sporting) events, which have a dramatic character, mass popular appeal and international significance" (Roche, 2000, p.1). Mega-events appear to have two main characteristics: they have significant consequences for the host city, region, or nation in which they occur and they attract considerable media coverage [START_REF] Horne | An Introduction to the Sociology of Sports Mega-Events[END_REF]. The first research on sports events focused on mega-events and their economic [START_REF] Roche | Olympic and Sport Mega-Events as Media-Events : Reflections on the Globalisation paradigm[END_REF][START_REF] Roche | Mega-events and modernity : Olympics and expos in the growth of global culture[END_REF][START_REF] Roche | Mega-events, Time and Modernity : On Time Structures in Global Society[END_REF][START_REF] Roche | Mega-Events and Modernity Revisited : Globalization and the Case of the Olympics[END_REF], political [START_REF] Black | The Symbolic Politics of Sport Mega-Events : 2010 in Comparative Perspective[END_REF] and sociological outcomes (Horne and Manzereiter, 2006). The importance of media coverage in sport can be highlighted by the amount of money paid by media to acquire television rights. In the US only, NBC spent more than US$2 billion for the broadcasting of the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics and the 2012 London Olympics. In comparison, the amount paid for the 1978 Lake Placid Winter Olympics and the 1980 Moscow Olympics was US$87.5 million [START_REF] Horne | An Introduction to the Sociology of Sports Mega-Events[END_REF]. Media rights exploded with the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, the first financially profitable Olympics in history [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF].

Chapter 1 Section 1: The interest of a research on sport -Economic and cultural importance of sport 14

The 1984 Los Angeles marked a first shift in the orientation of the global sports product, and the acceptance of forms of commercialization [START_REF] Wenn | Peter Ueberroth's Legacy : How the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics Changed the Trajectory of the Olympic Movement[END_REF]. Indeed, Los Angeles being the only candidate for hosting the Games in 1984, organizers gained more liberty and modified the business model of the Games. This business model rested on three pillars: "maximum usage of refurbished as opposed to new athletic venues, the pursuit of maximum television revenue, and the reconfiguration of an organizing committee's corporate sponsor program." That all had the same objective, make the event profitable [START_REF] Wenn | Peter Ueberroth's Legacy : How the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics Changed the Trajectory of the Olympic Movement[END_REF]. The following table provides an overview of the construction costs, television rights and sponsoring revenues of the 1984 Los Angeles games compared to the previous editions in Montreal and Moscow Table 2: Cost / Revenue comparison between Montreal, Moscow, and Los Angeles Olympic Games (from Wenn,2015) This table shows how the Olympic Games became profitable, by cutting construction costs, enhancing competition for television rights, and encouraging sponsoring. As a result, more cities applied for being host cities in the following years. Table 3: Declared Olympic bid cities for the Olympic andOlympic Winter Games, 1972-2012. (from Wenn, 20015) This first development in the Olympic Movement marks the first link between marketing and sport, notably through sponsoring elements. Since then, sports mega-events have been an object of research in marketing and management, and researchers have for example shown how they affect the host city brand awareness and brand image [START_REF] Kenyon | Exploring the domestic relationship between mega-events and destination image : The image impact of hosting the 2012 Olympic Games for the city of London[END_REF]Andersson, Bengtsson and Svennson, 2021), or how they tend to be promoted as generators of significant business legacies (Merendino, Bek and Timms, 2016).

However, authors have also started to work on non-mega events, or small-scale events due to their multiplication over the years and their influence on residents' quality of life [START_REF] Taks | Impacts and strategic outcomes from non-mega sport events for local communities[END_REF]Taks, 2017), city perception and destination image [START_REF] Mainolfi | Destination beliefs, event satisfaction and post-visit product receptivity in event marketing. Results from a tourism experience[END_REF], and even their positive influence on sponsor perception [START_REF] Close | Engaging the Consumer through Event Marketing : Linking Attendees with the Sponsor, Community, and Brand[END_REF]. Therefore, brands could gain by associating themselves with even local events through sponsoring, as they influence the way consumers perceive them. [START_REF] Mason | What is the sports product and who buys it? The marketing of professional sports leagues[END_REF] was among the first to study sport as a product by studying the marketing of professional sports leagues. In his view, professional sports teams unite to produce what he calls a "League product", an entertainment sold to four distinct groups: fans, television and media, communities and then corporations. Sports Leagues, in that sense, "provide a unique

Chapter 1 Section 1: The interest of a research on sport -Economic and cultural importance of sport 16 environment for marketing decisions and processes to occur, in many markets and at many levels, and should continue to be a growing segment within the broader, global, entertainment industry" [START_REF] Mason | What is the sports product and who buys it? The marketing of professional sports leagues[END_REF]. More recently, [START_REF] Beech | The Marketing of Sport[END_REF] used marketing theory from [START_REF] Kotler | Principles of marketing[END_REF] to introduce the entirety of sports products. Sports products can be either tangible or intangibles. Sport tangible products can also be classified based on the type of benefits consumers gain from using them. The following figure provides an overview of this categorization.

Figure 3: Product categorization based on [START_REF] Kotler | Principles of marketing[END_REF] (from Beech and Chadwick, 2007) As we can see from Figure 3, the sports product can take up all types of forms and contains a wide range of categories. [START_REF] Beech | The Marketing of Sport[END_REF] also propose a different categorization called the sport product-services continuum. This model proposes a sport-product categorization based on the product/service difference.

Chapter 1 Section 1: The interest of a research on sport -Economic and cultural importance of sport 17 Figure 4: Sport Product-Service Continuum (from [START_REF] Beech | The Marketing of Sport[END_REF] Therefore, the sports product seems to take many forms and can be either a pure physical good, a pure service, or even a mix between the two, which offers many opportunities for brands to involve themselves.

1.2

The cultural importance of sport and its marketing opportunities Some authors also argue that sport is not just a product anymore, it represents a certain culture with its values sought after by brands [START_REF] Marshall | The Corporate (Sports) Sponsor[END_REF][START_REF] Wheaton | Introduction : Mapping the lifestyle sport-scape[END_REF][START_REF] Wheaton | Introducing the consumption and representation of lifestyle sports[END_REF][START_REF] Bouchet | Sport brands[END_REF]Evens, Iosfidis and Smith, 2013;Wheaton and Thorpe, 2018). [START_REF] Marshall | The Corporate (Sports) Sponsor[END_REF] were among the first to acknowledge the importance of sport for brands, and more precisely the importance of sponsoring for brands, even from a purely utilitarian point of view. In their opinion, two main reasons encourage companies to invest in sport through sponsorship. First, sport allows companies to gain access to a specific target.

Secondly, sport help companies enhance their corporate image. This brand image enhancement can be attributed to the values that people and society give to sport. Indeed, sport is associated with certain values and generates certain benefits for people, communities and organizations. Evens, Iosfidis and Smith (2013), building on [START_REF] Macclancy | Sport, Identity and Ethnicity[END_REF], [START_REF] Sugden | Sport in Divided Societies[END_REF] and [START_REF] Roche | Sport, Popular Culture and Identity[END_REF] propose an overview of the social values and benefits of sport in society.

sponsored) and a brand (the sponsor) (Smith, 2004, p.459). Then, using this definition, he builds a framework of Brand Image Transfer through sponsoring.

Figure 5: The Brand Image Transfer through Sponsoring Framework (from [START_REF] Smith | Brand Image Transfer Through Sponsorship : A Consumer Learning Perspective[END_REF] The above figure not only highlights the brand image transfer process in itself but also introduces some antecedents and consequences to that transfer. Antecedents of brand image transfer have two forms, they can either come from outside the sponsorship's influence or be internal, that is they relate to the brand. Concerning the consequences of a brand image transfer, they mostly concern the modified brand image of the sponsor in the consumer's mind.

Moreover, two factors seem to act as possible moderators in a brand image transfer process.

The first factor concerns the perceived fit between the sponsor and the sponsored in the consumer's mind. The second factor relates more to the overall perception of the quality of the two partners.

Sports entities are usually associated with elements such as health and well-being, fun, or dynamism [START_REF] Seippel | The Meanings of Sport : Fun, Health, Beauty or Community?[END_REF], which are positive values. For any given brand, being associated with such values represents a great opportunity. Chapter 1 Section 1: The interest of a research on sport -Economic and cultural importance of sport 20 Since the 1990s and the emergence of lifestyle sports [START_REF] Wheaton | Introduction : Mapping the lifestyle sport-scape[END_REF], sports also represent different lifestyles and do not share the same values between them, offering thus even more opportunities for brands to be associated with different positive values. For instance, lifestyle sports focus more on values such as authenticity [START_REF] Wheaton | Introduction : Mapping the lifestyle sport-scape[END_REF], youth, (Wheaton and Thorpe, 2018) freedom [START_REF] Wheaton | Introducing the consumption and representation of lifestyle sports[END_REF], anti-competitiveness and anti-regulation (Wheaton, 2004). On the contrary, some other brands that directly operate on more competitive sportslike Red Bull being active in football, flying contests and Formula 1may rather be associated with values of excitement and roughness.

Therefore, any brand could potentially gain from an association with a sports entity, and the sports market still represents a huge opportunity for brands to create their image in the consumer's mental representation. Even sports brands nowadays represent a central element of the modern sports business and a ubiquitous component of contemporary global culture [START_REF] Bouchet | Sport brands[END_REF]. In 2000, Adidas and Nike ranked respectively sixth and fifteenth worldwide among the brands that contributed the most to well-being, improvement and quality of life (Pernès, 2000). Similarly, Nike is one of the few brands in the world that records one of the highest recognition rates among teenagers [START_REF] Bouchet | Sport brands[END_REF]. Sports brands have become so important that they now represent means of identity expression and community belonging for consumers, highlighting once more the opportunities offered by the global sports market for brands. Moreover, brand sponsoring has been shown to foster important consumer outcomes [START_REF] Gwinner | Building Brand Image Through Event Sponsorship : The Role of Image Transfer[END_REF]Pope and Voghes, 2000;[START_REF] Smith | Sport sponsorship, team support and purchase intentions[END_REF][START_REF] Olson | Does sponsorship work in the same way in different sponsorship contexts[END_REF]Chien, Cornwell and Papu, 2011). More precisely, corporate sponsorship generates a favorable image for the sponsor, both at the corporate and brand levels [START_REF] Gwinner | Building Brand Image Through Event Sponsorship : The Role of Image Transfer[END_REF].

Moreover, building on Categorization Theory, Chien, Cornwell and Papu (2011) showed that sponsoring, when done correctly, has a positive effect on both brand personality and brand meaning for companies. Some authors have also highlighted the influence of brand sport sponsoring on purchase intention of products related to the sponsor (Pope and Voghes, Slith, Graetz and Westerbeek, 2008). Finally, [START_REF] Olson | Does sponsorship work in the same way in different sponsorship contexts[END_REF] also showed how sponsoring has a similar effect in both sports contexts and other cultural contexts.

As we have seen previously, sport represents a great opportunity for brands to build their own identity based on values and meanings that appeal to consumers. However, Using mediums Chapter 1 Section 1: The interest of a research on sport -Economic and cultural importance of sport 21 such as sponsoring to build such identity can also lead to issues for brands. Brands often sponsor athletes, teams, or entities with which they share associations [START_REF] Wilson | Player transgressions and the management of the sport sponsor relationship[END_REF]Chien, Cornell and Papu, 2011;Arai, Ko and Ross, 2013). However, when the sponsored entity transgress, negative outcomes also arise for brands [START_REF] Wilson | Player transgressions and the management of the sport sponsor relationship[END_REF]. One of the most recent examples of player transgression occurred in 2009 when Tiger Woods was caught for infidelity with several women [START_REF] Carrillat | For Better, for Worse? : What to Do When Celebrity Endorsements Go Bad[END_REF].

While most of the major brands that were involved with Tiger Woods decided to sever their ties with him, Nike decided to stay faithful to its athlete, and even tried to rehabilitate him with a marketing campaign a year later. Different research focused on the consequences of player and teams transgression for brands [START_REF] Wilson | Player transgressions and the management of the sport sponsor relationship[END_REF][START_REF] Messner | Effects of Strategic Exiting from Sponsorship after Negative Event Publicity[END_REF][START_REF] Carrillat | For Better, for Worse? : What to Do When Celebrity Endorsements Go Bad[END_REF][START_REF] Lohneiss | The impact of processing athlete transgressions on brand image and purchase intent[END_REF]. For example, [START_REF] Wilson | Player transgressions and the management of the sport sponsor relationship[END_REF], after highlighting how player transgression could lead to disrupted organizational operations and even bad reputation for brands, built a model of sponsor response to transgression, encompassing all the factors that influence sponsors' responses. [START_REF] Wilson | Player transgressions and the management of the sport sponsor relationship[END_REF] Companies' responses to transgressions, therefore, depend on different elements, such as the existing relationship between the sponsor and the sponsored, the sponsor's type of business, the sponsored issue management process, and the level of media focus. Other authors have also explored sponsor responses to players and teams' transgressions [START_REF] Messner | Effects of Strategic Exiting from Sponsorship after Negative Event Publicity[END_REF][START_REF] Carrillat | For Better, for Worse? : What to Do When Celebrity Endorsements Go Bad[END_REF]Lohness and Hill, 2014). Mesnier and Reinhard (2012) for example showed how strategic exiting from a controversial sponsorship can have positive consequences for the sponsor's image when the decision is trusted, but detrimental consequences when the exiting is attributed to overly self-serving reasons. Going further, [START_REF] Carrillat | For Better, for Worse? : What to Do When Celebrity Endorsements Go Bad[END_REF] studied the moderating effect of brand-endorser congruence in the relation between revoking endorsement and brand attitude and purchase intentions. Results showed that when brand-endorser congruence is high, the firm's decision to revoke the endorsement is suboptimal concerning brand attitude and purchase intention.

However, results also showed that denying the truth of the negative event lowers the trustworthiness of the endorser, which in turn lowers attitude toward the brand as well as the intention to purchase the brand's products. Lohness and Hill (2014) used the Tiger Woods scandal to study the effects of sponsor transgression on brand image and purchase intention and found that using a transgressive sponsor led to decreased brand image and decreased purchase intention toward the brands. However, they also found that even though purchase intention is lowered, athlete endorsers who have transgressed continue to drive sales. Chapter 1 Section 1: The interest of a research on sport -Economic and cultural importance of sport 23 Despite these risks, companies still massively use sponsoring for the opportunities it gives to brands, and we have also seen that even problematic sponsoring can lead to positive outcomes for brands if managed properly, thus highlighting once more its importance and opportunities.

As we have seen in this first section, brands use sport extensively to appropriate its values and to highlight them in their products and services. Sport, therefore, represents a preferential medium for brands to shape their identity and influence their image with consumers. Indeed, all the values mentioned above, linked to sport, are values that a large majority of brands would like to be associated with. Thus, via a congruence effect, sport represents a privileged ground for brands to improve their image with consumers, and consequently to influence their behavioral intentions.

However, to fully understand sport, what it can offer to brands and all the characteristics it encompasses, it is necessary to go back to its origins and study its diffusion from both a historical and sociological point of view. We will go into that historical approach first in the next session. Then, we will explore it under the prism of sociology. Finally, we will use a perception-based approach by focusing on categorization theory to justify the study of perceived sportivity as a categorization tool for consumers. Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions As we highlighted before, sportas a product -encompasses a multitude of elements. However, to understand how the sports product became so big, examining its history and evolution is needed. Nevertheless, we are aware that a mere thesis chapter is not sufficient to address the entire history of sport, which has already been studied by many authors [START_REF] Kretchmar | History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Activity[END_REF][START_REF] Mechikoff | A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education : From Ancient Civilizations to the Modern World[END_REF][START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. Moreover, it would be presumptuous to assume that a marketing doctoral dissertation would have this purpose as well. For this reason, we will focus on the major stages of the evolution of sport, acknowledging the risk of forgetting some passages that might yet be considered important.

2.1

The definition of sport:

Etymologically, the term sport is not English, and comes from "disport", or "desport", two terms that date back to the Middle Ages in France and were used to designate any type of distraction or amusement. [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. In the 19th century, the English term "sport"

designates "a set of amusements, exercises and simple pleasures that absorb a rather notable portion of the time of rich and idle men", according to Larousse's "Grand dictionnaire universel du XIXè siècle". It is only at the beginning of the 20th century, during the period between the two World Wars that some authors try to define sport. Among them, Pierre de [START_REF] De Coubertin | Pedagogie Sportive : Histoire, Technique, Action Morale Et Sociale Des Exercices Sportifs[END_REF] defines sport as "the voluntary and habitual cult of intensive muscular effort, based on the desire of progress". George Hébert (1925), one of the most famous opponents of the English sports model, defines it as: "Any kind of physical exercise or activity whose purpose is the achievement of a performance and whose execution is essentially based on the idea of a struggle against a defined element: a distance, a duration, an obstacle, a material difficulty, an animal danger, an opponent, and by extension, oneself". In these first definitions, we can already see the emergence of two aspects that will be at the center of contemporary reflections on the definition of sport: physical effort and performance.

It is especially in the 1960s that most reflections regarding the current definition of sport emerged [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. Indeed, it was at that time that the reflection on sport took several different directions, through historical [START_REF] Ulmann | De la gymnastique aux sports modernes : Histoire des doctrines de l'éducation physique[END_REF], sociological [START_REF] Magnane | Sociologie du sport : Situation du loisir sportif dans la culture contemporaine[END_REF], psychological [START_REF] Bouet | Signification du sport[END_REF], and philosophical [START_REF] Jeu | Le sport, l'émotion, l'espace : Essai sur la categorization des sports et ses rapports avec la pensée mythique / Bernard Jeu[END_REF] analyses. At that time, the main Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions questions concerned the nature of sport, and the elements allowing the categorization of any given activity as a sport. It is thus with these works that we saw some first global definitions of sport, taking into account many elements. For some, sport is defined by the reasons that push an individual to its practice. It is for example the position of the National Institute of Sports and Physical Education (INSEP), which, following its survey on the sports practices of the French people in 1986, defines sport as being "What people do when they say they do sports" (Irlinger, Louveau, Métoudi, 1987). This definition of sport is the first to propose sport as a perception of its practitioners. In that sense, sport is any type of activity that people categorize as a sport.

This very broad definition is in contradiction with the thoughts of many authors who see sport under a more institutional prism (e.g. [START_REF] Brohm | Sociologie politique du sport[END_REF][START_REF] Parlebas | Une rupture culturelle : Des jeux traditionnels au sport[END_REF].

However, this stance on the definition of sport as an institutionalized practice has increasingly been questioned, particularly with the emergence of new practices that have been taking place since the 1960s in reaction to sports institutions [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. Moreover, the valorization of the playful side of activities also gives rise to a debate on the consideration of professional sport. It is notably these limits that led the INSEP, as we have seen, in its 1987 study, to define sport as "what a person does when he or she says he or she does sport" (Irlinger, Louveau and Métoudi, 1987).

Thus, two definitions of sport can be adopted. The first would represent an extended definition, where sport encompasses any type of physical activity performed for recreational, hygienic, or competitive purposes and within a minimal regulatory framework. The second would be more restricted, where sport would be the set of physical practices, codified, institutionalized, performed for performance or competition and organized to guarantee equality between participants [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. Because the first definition of sport allows for the inclusion of any given activity as an object of study and also appeals to people's perception and categorization of leisure activities, our research on perceived sportivity will adopt this particular definition.

2.2

The genesis of contemporary sport Sport, as defined previously, takes its roots in the English bourgeoisie of the 18th century with rural activities such as fox hunting and turf [START_REF] Elias | Quest for Excitement : Sport and Leisure in the Civilising Process[END_REF]). These activities, over time, will progressively adopt more codes and principles, leading to the first sporting regulations and institutions. At that time, proxies, mostly animals, were used whether for races Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions 27 or fights. Over time, these activities began to integrate coaches, animal lines, stables, and more organized meetings, thus leading to a first specialization and rationalization of practices.

Later on, English companies also adopted these practices, creating inter-company meetings in which the best employees competed in racing or boxing events. It is in this type of meetings that the first money flows linked to sport were born, with the appearance of bookmakers who flourished everywhere in England. As far as matches were concerned, they were becoming so important in the rural population that simple boxing matches between companies could have up to 20,000 spectators. The market for inter-company matches pushed even the most efficient workers to offer themselves to the highest bidder, thus pushing owners to recruit outside their domestic pool, marking the first rupture with tradition [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF].

We are witnessing here the beginnings of a real market, with notably a professionalization of physical preparation and increased regulation and codification of matches. It is in this perspective that the stopwatch, the table of records, and the notion of handicap appeared to preserve the equality of chances between the participants. A first world boxing championship took place in 1810 in front of 25,000 spectators, with a match between Tom Molineaux and Tom Cribb that lasted 33 rounds.

Figure 8: Illustration of the fight between Tom Molineux and Tom Cribb

At the same time, we also witnessed the emergence of the first institutions that aimed at regulating these new activities. These institutions followed the example of the English Jokey Club, founded in 1750, the Royal and Ancient Golf Club, founded in 1754, or the Marylebone Cricket Club, founded a few years later, in 1788. For example, the National Swimming Society (NSS), founded in 1838, was the first national institution created to regulate an activity. It organized, as early as 1839, swimming competitions, and then even a real professional championship [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF].

However, this process is not the only one that explains the emergence of contemporary sport. Indeed, in the prestigious English schools, often called Public Schools, another phenomenon occurred during the 19th Century. It is in particular in the schools of Winchester, Westminster, or Rugby, that new collective physical practices developed between 1820 and 1860, most often at the initiative of students. [START_REF] Mcintosh | Physical education in England since 1800[END_REF]. It was from the 1820s onwards that these practices, very often inspired by the "soule", a traditional rural game, changed their status and lost their spontaneity to become major elements of the British educational system. As early as 1828, Thomas Arnold, the principal of the Rugby School, decided to regulate spontaneous football games for the first time by setting up various elements: rules, duration, refereeing, with a codification of the phases of violence to reduce them.

It is moreover in the city Rugby that, in 1845, the first written regulation of football-rugby was born. In England, in the 19th century, two distinct sports cultures emerged, one professional and popular within companies, and another, amateur and elitist within public schools. These two cultures met and came into conflict at the end of the 1860s. On the one hand, we were witnessing a multiplication of university meetings, facilitated by a more developed railway network. On the other hand, we counted more and more students who wished to continue practicing their favorite activity once they returned to civilian life [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. Moreover, it was this extension of the university practice in civil life that generated the birth of several sports clubs such as, for example, the Blackheath Club in 1858, created by former students of Rugby.

It is in this same logic that in London, in 1863, former students of Oxford and Cambridge agreed on the rules of the Football Association (FA), but also on the establishment of a calendar. However, there were disagreements regarding some rules, especially the use of hands, which led to the split of the FA, and by extension the creation of the Rugby Football Union in 1871.

Many sports followed the same process as football-rugby. For example, the Amateur Athletic Club was founded in 1866 to manage athletics, the Associated Metropolitan Swimming Club in 1869, which became the Amateur Swimming Club in 1882 to regulate swimming and the Amateur Rowing Association in 1882 for rowing. Many other sports followed until the end of the 19th century [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. These associations, mostly born at the initiative of the British upper middle classes, were all based on an amateur ethic, advocating for fair play, respect for Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions 29 the rules, the opponent and the referee, as well as the control of impulses. This conflicted with the culture of gain associated with popular professional practices. The first federations of the time very often forbade practitioners from earning money.

The working classes were therefore the first victims of the firmness of the new sports institutions, and a conflict broke out during the first democratization of sport in the United Kingdom between 1870 and 1890. It was after the refusal of the Rugby Football Union to reimburse the compensation for the loss of earnings of the participants in 1895, that the Northern Union was born, which later became the Rugby League, and which organized a professional practice of rugby, The Rugby League (with 13 players instead of 15). Football, on the other hand, was already becoming the preferred sport of the working classes, forcing the Football Association to quickly modify its statutes so that workers' clubs could be created. It led to the explosion of football clubs throughout the country. For example, the city of Birmingham had one football club in 1874, compared to 150 in 1880 [START_REF] Birley | Sport and the Making of Britain[END_REF]. From then on, a specialized press was born in the 1880s with newspapers such as Sportsman or Sporting Life, and the first forms of hooliganism even appeared. Football then became the first form of leisure activity in England and subsequently throughout Great Britain [START_REF] Holt | Sport and the British : A Modern History[END_REF]. It is this model that was exported to the rest of the West and then to the rest of the world.

2.3

Sport as a cultural asset -The spread of sport beyond Great-Britain and resistance toward the English model: the example of France British sport, from the 19th century onwards, extended beyond the borders of Great Britain and then of Europe to become a worldwide phenomenon. Three channels were privileged for this diffusion. First, the United Kingdom, with its colonial empire, used sport as a means of "education" in the colonies [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. Large parts of the British colonial administrators were trained in public schools, and they quickly understood the usefulness of sports in a logic of control and assimilation of local populations. The ethics of sports were intimately linked to the UK colonial project [START_REF] Mangan | The games ethic and imperialism : Aspects of the diffusion of an ideal[END_REF]. This is how we saw the appearance of English sports in African and Asian countries, such as cricket, for example, whose first Indian club was founded in 1848 and which later became a national sport with a vocation to "educate" and bring the "indigenous" peoples closer to British values.

Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions

The second channel of diffusion was similar to the first since it concerned British immigration to its former colonies, such as the United States and Australia. In this post-colonial climate, the primary objective of sport was to pacify relations with the new countries and their leaders, which may explain a stronger evolution of practices in these countries than in others. This is for example the case of Football Rugby, practiced in the 1860s in the United States, which became American Football 20 years later, a sport in its own right, independent of rugby. The parallel can also be drawn with Australian football, which experienced a unique and independent development from Rugby in Australia [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. In turn, former colonies also used sport in a quest for cultural imperialism [START_REF] Gems | The Athletic Crusade : Sport And American Cultural Imperialism (1er édition)[END_REF]. In the United States, for example, sport was a means of propagating the values of white, Anglo-Saxon and Protestant society. It was used by the Young Men's Christian Association to develop a project even more secularized than the British one. In the United States, for example, from 1887 onwards, physical educators were professionalized in a school: the International College of Springfield Massachusetts. It is in this school that basketball was born in 1891, followed closely by volleyball in 1895. The leaders of the Springfield College planned to introduce basketball in Europe, especially in Paris, in a cultural conquest logic but failed. Basketball was only established later in Europe, after the First World War [START_REF] Chavinier | La genèse du basket français : Conditions de possibilités de la diffusion du basket-ball des Etats-unis vers la France : balles perdues, interceptions et passes décisives des protestants américains aux catholiques français (1893-1933[END_REF]. Finally, the last channel of diffusion of British sports concerned its commercial exchanges with foreigners, and in particular Europeans. Indeed, from the end of the 19th century, we witnessed the birth of the sports movement in most of the industrialized countries of Europe, i.e. the Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions countries that traded the most with the United Kingdom [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. Thus, in Switzerland, we witnessed the foundation of athletics clubs and football clubs by former English students, as well as the creation of the Royal Belgian Yacht Club in Belgium in 1851, or the birth of the Antwerp Football Club in 1880. This phenomenon was observed throughout Europe and we can affirm that, from the beginning of the 20th century, athletic sports, whether in their amateur or professional form, affected almost all of the industrialized European countries [START_REF] Guttmann | Games and Empires. Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism[END_REF].

However, in these same European countries, other models were created before the arrival of British sports: the large "gymnastic" systems. These systems were present in many European countries, with for example the model of Ludwig Jahn in Germany, the one of Henrik Ling (1776-1839) in Sweden, or the one of Francisco Amoros (1770-1848) in France [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. In France, gymnastic was quickly institutionalized by the military school of Joinville-le-Pont, in 1852 [START_REF] Simonet | De la gymnastique joinvillaise aux sports contemporains[END_REF], then by the Union des Sociétés de Gymnastique de France, founded in 1873. These two entities worked, at first, to slow down the diffusion of the English sports model in the French territory.

It is especially during the Second Empire (1852-1870) that a commercial gymnastics market emerged in France, through the implementation of places dedicated to practice. This emergence was facilitated by the post-epidemic sanitary context linked to the cholera disease of this period, and the supposed hygienic benefits of gymnastics for the bodies of an increasingly healthattentive bourgeoisie [START_REF] Vigarello | A Generalized Multidimensional Scale for Measuring Customer Engagement[END_REF]. More precisely, it was from the year 1847 that the heading "gymnastics" appeared in the general directory of commerce in France [START_REF] Andrieu | Industry Statistics, Sports & Recreation Business Statistics Analysis[END_REF]. However, the first French gymnasiums were mostly run by Germans or Swiss, most of them former soldiers, and were not unanimously accepted by the public. It was especially thanks to the implementation of commercial strategies based on health, coupled with the establishment of partnerships with doctors and institutions acting as authorities in matters of hygiene, that gymnastics encountered its public [START_REF] Defrance | L'excellence corporelle : La formation des activités physiques et sportives modernes, 1770-1914[END_REF]. The services offered in gymnasiums remained very diverse at that time. Indeed, one could practice rational exercises, as well as the handling of the dumbbells, massages, or baths [START_REF] Andrieu | Industry Statistics, Sports & Recreation Business Statistics Analysis[END_REF]. Gymnasiums were generally open all day, and although some were exceptions, they were generally reserved for men. A few years later, gymnastics became more and more legitimate, with the creation of the CAEG: the Certificate of Aptitude for Teaching Gymnastics, in 1869, which could only be obtained at the military school of Joinville-le-Pont. Moreover, the introduction of compulsory gymnastics in secondary schools following the decree of February 1869 allowed the creation of a real job market around this new practice.

After the fall of the French Second Empire, gymnastics were organized in coherence with the Third Republic, in a more patriotic form, very different from the English sport. Moreover, physical exercise which was until then reserved for the most well-off classes was also democratized among the working classes for several reasons [START_REF] Charpier | La societe des gymnastes alsaciens et ses transformations (1860-1996)[END_REF]. First of all, its practice was encouraged among the working classes because it made it possible through the rationalization of gestures and the learning of obedience to a master, to respond to the economic logic of the time. Moreover, at the same time, the working-class populations, which were expressing increasing desires of sociability and solidarity, found refuge in these gymnastic structures, very largely accepted and defended by public authorities. As early as 1873, several gymnastics societies grouped within a national federal movement: the Union des Sociétés de Gymnastique de France (USGF), under the impetus of Eugène Paz (1835Paz ( -1901)), a journalist commissioned by the Ministry of Public Instruction five years earlier to conduct a study on gymnastics in France. At the same time, Paz launched the first specialized magazine, "Le Moniteur de la gymnastique". The USGF was recognized as a patriotic organization in 1889 and became directly financed by the War Ministry that same year. Just before the First World War, the USGF had more than 2400 gymnastics societies, to which we could add 3000 structures belonging to the Union des Sociétés de Tir, an institution with the same goals as the USGF. Finally, in parallel to the USGF, regional structures emerged in the 1860s, such as the Association des Gymnastes Alsaciens in 1864, and the Association des Gymnastes du Nord in 1880.

The military and civil authorities locally supported all these gymnastics societies with which they shared their ideals. They also participated in the diffusion of values dear to the society of the beginning of the III rd Republic: respect for hierarchy and regulations, the cult of effort, solidarity, and patriotism. [START_REF] Callède | L'esprit sportif : Essai sur le développement associatif de la culture sportive[END_REF]. Their functioning also transformed them into a great place of socialization and integration into French society. [START_REF] Arnaud | Le sportman, l'écolier, le gymnaste : La mise en forme scolaire de la culture physique[END_REF][START_REF] Arnaud | Les Athlètes de la République : Gymnastique, sport et idéologie républicaine 1870/1914[END_REF]. Indeed, hierarchy and strict compliance with the company's internal regulations governed the internal life of these associations, and any breach of the rules of conduct was punished. Adherence to the republican norms of the time was reflected at all levels of the gymnastics societies, even in their names or mottos: e.g. La jeunesse patriotique, Honneur et patrie, Tout pour la patrie.

These societies remained essentially masculine and worked to promote virile masculinity Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions exacerbated within their members. However, we can also note the beginning of a feminine gymnastics movement at the beginning of the 20th century. Indeed, France counted about a hundred feminine structures in 1911, according to an article of the magazine "Le Gymnaste" published the same year, which remained derisory compared to the thousands of masculine gymnastics societies that existed. Nevertheless, in 1912, the Union Française de Gymnastique Féminine (UFGF) was created, at the initiative of Master Podesta, founder of a gymnastics association in Le Havre [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF], which was quickly recognized by the USGF.

However, even though the gymnastics and the sports models remained dominated by men, they were opposed in terms of social recruitment. Indeed, while English sports advocated for elitism and amateurism, and were exclusive to a wealthy class, the practitioners of gymnastics were generally young adults under 35 years of age from working-class backgrounds, close to military values, republican, and of French origin. Gymnastics would follow the model of sport only from 1942, when the USGF became the Fédération Française de Gymnastique (FFG).

Despite the arrival of the great gymnastic models in France, the French bourgeoisie experimented, in its closed circle, the British sports model with activities that represented the beginnings of sport from the middle of the 19th century. For example, the Jockey Club of Paris was founded in 1834 and was accompanied in the following years by the first cycling and rowing races. These first institutions announced the arrival of the English sports model in France, still under the influence of British immigrants [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. This is how the Le Havre Athletic Club, one of the oldest French football clubs, was born in the naval city of Le Havre in 1872. The English Taylors Club was founded in 1877 in Paris, followed by the Paris Football Club two years later. In the south of France, Bordeaux also had its first rugby football club at the same time, with the foundation of the Bordeaux Athletic Club in 1879, considered to this day to be the oldest amateur football club in France. In 1882 and 1883, the Racing Club de France and then the Stade Français, two emblematic French rugby clubs, were founded. Clubs continued to emerge in big university cities during the following years, under the impulse of student movements. It is following this movement that some supporters of English sports, decided to take a more precise interest in sport because of its political and economic importance.

Notably, Pierre de Coubertin saw the potential offered by sport and described it as an excellent means of education for young people in his 1888 book: "Education in England". He created, the same year, a Committee for the propagation of physical exercises in education, which confirmed the French bourgeoisie youth in its desire for sports activities [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. At the same time, the scientific and medical community also began to take an interest in English sports practices, notably with the opening of the physiological station at the Parc des Princes in 1881.

Taking advantage of this new scientific interest, some elitist private schools decided to follow the British educational model and to appropriate it. This was the case, for example, of the Ecole des Roches, founded in 1899. However, in France, various sports clubs were at the origin of the institutionalization of the practices, with the foundation of the Union des sociétés françaises de sports athlétiques (USFSA) by representatives of the Racing Club de France and the Stade Français. The USFSA created committees for each sport it wanted to regulate: running, football, tennis, cycling, and later swimming and winter sports. Finally, in 1894, it organized itself into regional committees to expand its territory. It quickly became the main sports federation in France [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. Only sports that predated its creation, such as rowing and mountaineering, and those that wished to maintain an aristocratic distance, such as golf, resisted this federation.

However, even if regional committees existed, clubs served as primary institutions at the local level. Unlike gymnastics, patriotic feelings were not heightened in sports, which instead promoted good relations between members, physical development, the organization of inter-Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions 35 club meetings, and the organization of parties and outings. Nevertheless, with the approach of the First World War, clubs started to develop a patriotic culture similar to the one put forward in gymnastics. Moreover, just like gymnastics societies, sports clubs also had their own rules to follow, with their leaders always coming from the most affluent classes, thus reinforcing existing social divisions [START_REF] Arnaud | Le sportman, l'écolier, le gymnaste : La mise en forme scolaire de la culture physique[END_REF]. The first real democratization of sport only occurred at the beginning of the 20th century, through the intermediary of the petty bourgeoisie, artisans and employees, later followed by workers and rural people from the outskirts of large cities with a strong English presence, such as Bordeaux and Toulouse [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. Some sports also became democratized faster than others to all classes of society, with football and rugby at the top. However, despite this progressive diffusion within the various classes of the society, sport remained quasi exclusive to males, with some exceptions, in particular in tennis and swimming. Indeed, the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century corresponded to a time when women were still excluded from decision-making, and when men needed to reassure themselves by putting forward values that they considered "masculine", such as fair play, courage, or physical strength. The few women who took up sport were often mocked in the press, while also being supported by a medical body that declared the practice of sport dangerous for women and opposed to its maternal role [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF].

In the press, two specialized magazines emerged at that time, La Revue Athlétique, in 1890, and Les Sports Athlétiques, two years later. However, at that time, athletes were defined more by their lifestyle than by their taste for effort [START_REF] Vivier | La sociabilité canotière : La Société nautique de Besançon[END_REF]. Similarly, sport still did not respond to a logic of specialization, and it was very common to see athletes practice different sports depending on the season. Dedicated facilities also remained rare and archaic until the 1890s, and it was very common to use the same field for numerous sports. In the same logic, clothing dedicated to the practice of sports remained rare, and the only companies manufacturing these clothes were two English brands that shared a monopoly at the time: the Turner Company and Willams and C°. The first French company, the Agence Générale des Sports, described in 1894 as "the only French company selling all sports articles" in the directories, had a hard time establishing itself and was later joined by a few Parisian department stores.

It is the law of July 1 st , 1901 on the freedom of association, in France, which allowed a real development of sports associations on the French territory, even if they were already present before this date. Indeed, while the USFSA counted 13 societies for less than 2,000 members in 1890, it announced 1,700 societies for 300,000 members before the First World War (Terret, Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions 36 2019). However, it is only during the inter-war period that the democratization of sport accelerated in France. Indeed, several factors still blocked the democratization of practices at the very beginning of the 20th century (Léziart, 1989). Firstly, the practice of sport marked a generational break between parents who were reluctant to practice English sports and young people who wanted to practice. Moreover, the leaders of the associations, wishing to maintain a certain social distance, as well as a certain elitism within their practices, also prevented the rapid diffusion of the English model. However, these positions did not prevent the diffusion of the practices within more popular milieus. From 1897, we saw the creation of company clubs for workers, at the initiative of the Parisian department store Le Bon Marché, followed by La Samaritaine two years later. At the beginning of the 20th century, we even witnessed the birth of non-corporate clubs, initiated by workers, which led to the creation, in 1908, of the Fédération Sportive Athlétique Socialiste (FSAS), an organization independent of the USFSA, more open to professionalism, which contained about forty clubs before 1914. In the same line, we saw the appearance of other institutions wishing to regulate the sport, under a more permissive, open and professional spectrum than the one advocated by the USFSA, which thus saw its grip on the sport disappear. One can note, for example, the creation of the Fédération des Sociétés Athlétiques, in 1896, in reaction to the too strict regulations of the USFSA.

Similary, around the same time, the Fédération Gymnastique et Sportive des Patronages de

France was born in 1898. This association is at the origin of the Comité Français Interfédéral, born in 1907, an organization aiming to regulate football differently on the French territory. This association then became the current Fédération Française de Football [START_REF] Munoz | Une histoire du sport catholique : La Fédération sportive et culturelle de France[END_REF].

Paralleling the emergence of these new sports institutions in resistance to the values of amateurism and elitism advocated by the USFSA, the press also appropriated the sport and transformed it into a spectacle that readers could experience by proxy. Horseracing was a pioneer in terms of specialized press, with the newspaper Le Jockey, which first appeared in 1863. By 1890, more than a hundred specialized magazines had been launched, with varying degrees of success in France [START_REF] Tétart | Les Voix du sport. La presse sportive régionale à la Belle Epoque[END_REF]. In addition, the general press also detected, as early as the 1850s, the possibilities offered by sports from a journalistic point of view, with the treatment of events in regional and national newspapers, and then dedicated columns. Some activities were more popular than others were and received more coverage, such as football and cycling [START_REF] Wahl | Les Archives du football : Sport et société en France[END_REF]. Cycling became one of the first spectacles in France with the appearance of major media races, such as the Bordeaux-Paris in 1891, or the Paris-Roubaix in 1896. In 1903, Henri Desgrange (1865-1940), director of the newspaper L'Auto, in political opposition with the newspaper Vélo regarding the Dreyfus case, which divided the entire French society, decided to create a new cycling race, The Tour de France. Very quickly, this competition became a huge event, not only in terms of sports and events but also in terms of the French collective memory. At the same time, Pierre Frédy, Baron de Coubertin (1863-1937), a young French aristocrat who discovered sport via English schools during various trips, wanted to use sport as a lever to renovate the French school system for the elites [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. However, despite trying various actions within the USFSA, he did not manage to find the expected success and then focused on writing [START_REF] Boulogne | La vie et l'oeuvre pédagogique de Pierre de Coubertin : 1863-1937 / Yves-Pierre Boulongne[END_REF][START_REF] Müller | Textes choisis[END_REF]. His most famous action remains the restoration of the Olympic Games, a project that he started in 1892. His first concrete action in favor of the Olympic Games took place in 1894 at the Sorbonne, when he proposed his concept in front of 2000 spectators. This project was then voted by a delegation from 12 different countries, which then founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. Through this project, Coubertin also hoped to participate in the pacification of the relations between the countries, and an important part of the members of the congress of renovation of the Games were members of the International Peace Bureau, founded in 1891. The first Olympiads took place in Greece, in 1896, and then in Paris during the universal exhibition of 1900. Even if the hype surrounding these renewed Olympic Games was not as big as hoped, they posed all the bases of the modern games, with the installation of a program, a ceremony, as well as the spotlight of amateurism always advocated by the aristocracy of the time. However, despite the pacifist ideal advocated by the first organizers of the Games, they would be marked by the growing nationalist push in the approach of the First World War. For example, the Olympic Games of 1916, supposed to take place in Berlin, were canceled [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF].

Figure 12: The 1896 Athens Olympic Games

Similarly, Coubertin's model met great resistance in France. Indeed, his desire to make the Olympic Games a structure independent of the sports movement generated a lot of opposition from the federations already in place. Thus, in 1908, at the initiative of the USFSA and other federations, the Comité National des Sports (CNS) was created, which merged five years later with the Comité Olympique Français (COF), created in response to the CNS in 1911. However, the members of the CNS remained hostile to the Olympic movement and, in conjunction with several foreign leaders, created several international organizations, which remained in conflict with the IOC for a very long time [START_REF] Grosset | The French Initiative towards the Creation of an International Sports Movement 1908-1925 : An Alternative to the International Olympic Committee[END_REF]. Thus, in 1904, the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) and the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) were born, followed by the International Union of Shooting Federations and Associations, which became the International Shooting Sport Federation (ISSF) in 1907, and the Fédération Internationale d'Athlétisme Amateur (FIAA) in 1912.

The Great War broke out on July, the 28 th 1914, and the general mobilization made the sport' grounds temporarily deserted. However, from October onwards, football competitions resumed in France, notably with the Coupe Nationale, managed by the USFSA, which would also launch a rugby competition the following year for young people who had not been called to war. At the same time, the reduction in meetings due to the war prompted the various actors of sport to reflect on their practices and techniques, with the press giving more and more consideration to the associations between sport and war [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. Thus, sport became an analogy of war and was very often associated with it. This association remains to this day. Similarly, sports education was very often positively associated with the preparation of the war effort. However, the war was longer than expected, and sport became an increasingly popular form of escapism, both at the front and in the rest of the country. Similarly, women, until then ignored by sporting institutions, decided to take up a practice neglected by men at the front. This is how the first women's societies were created, defending the right to compete for women. In 1916, there were three main societies in France: Académia, En Avant, and Fémina Sport, which quickly regrouped under the Fédération des Sociétés Féminines Sportives de France (FSFSF), which took charge of the development of women's sport after the war. The arrival of the Americans on French territory in 1917 was also accompanied by the arrival of new sports practices that were to become established on French territory: notably basketball and volleyball [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF].

Sport as a political tool and a spectacle -The democratization of sport in the interwar period At the end of the war, the USFSA found itself in a very precarious situation. In fact, in 1919, it lost control over the country's leading sports (football and rugby), with the transformation of the Comité Français Interfédéral into the Fédération Française de Football Association. The following year, the rugby commission of the USFSA was dissolved and reborn as the Fédération Française de Rugby. This trend continued very quickly, with many sports breaking away from the USFSA to create specialist federations. By 1923, France had about thirty specialized sports federations. Despite a failed attempt to evolve under the new name Union des Fédérations Française de Sports Athlétiques (UFFSA), the former USFSA merged with the CNS in 1929. This period of restructuration reinforced the shift from generalist and elitist sports to specialized activities accessible to the masses. After the First World War, there were more than a million sports licensees, 30% of whom were involved in football alone. This figure reached four million people at the beginning of World War II. The press followed suit, with specialized newspapers such as L'Auto printing up to 750,000 copies of the Tour de France [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. Under the influence of this press and an increasingly demanding public, sports continued to become a Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions 40 spectacle, and the French thirst for sporting events did not seem to be lowered by the economic crisis of the early 1930s. At a national level, the French followed football and rugby championships with passion, as well as various boxing and cycling events. At the international level, the period between the two world wars also saw the birth of the first major events. The Five Nations tournament had included France since 1910 and was followed by an increasing number of sports enthusiasts. The Football World Cup was born in 1930 under the influence of the French president of FIFA, Jules Rimet (1873-1956), with its first edition in Uruguay.

Similarly, the Olympic Games continued to grow in importance, although with a smaller number of followers than football or rugby. The organization of the 1924 Paris Games helped to cement the popularity of sport in France [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. The 1938 football World Cup, also organized in Paris, was logically much more widely followed.

Beyond the growing events, sportsmen and women also became real popular figures and models for society. Indeed, from the 1920s onwards, it was not uncommon for poets, painters and novelists to draw inspiration from sport and sports heroes in their works (Charreton, 1985).

Among the most famous champions of the time was Georges Carpentier , the first Frenchman to become a world boxing champion in 1920. His defeat the following year against the American Jack Dempsey was lived as a national tragedy [START_REF] Rauch | Boxe, violence du XXe siècle[END_REF]. Other sportsmen, such as Jules Ladoumègue , a French runner from the workingclass districts of Bordeaux, were to serve as models and examples of successful meritocracy.

However, sports federations were still amateur and elitist, and the runner was disqualified by his federation in 1932, two years after his six world records, for having received money to run.

Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions This affair also illustrated the growing gap between sporting institutions that were based on oldfashioned values and practitioners who, as they devoted more and more time to their sport, demanded a minimum of financial compensation [START_REF] Lassus | L'affaire Ladoumègue. Le débat amateurisme / professionnalisme dans les années trente (L'Harmattan)[END_REF]. A crisis then broke out in the world of sport, and the federations, under pressure from clubs and practitioners, later reversed their position. For example, in 1932 the French Football Federation accepted the payment of players, thus marking the birth of the first professional championship. It was on the same system that the French Rugby XIII championship was created, following the refusal of Rugby XV and its federation to pay its players [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF].

To respond to this democratization of the sport and its spectacular station, dedicated spaces were necessary. From the 1930s onwards, many cities began to build stadiums, such as Marseille in 1935 and Bordeaux in 1938. The architecture of these new stadiums responded to the spectators' desire for show, with imposing buildings capable of accommodating an increasing number of people [START_REF] Ehrenberg | Aimez-vous les stades ? Les racines historiques des politiques sportives 1870-1940[END_REF].

In parallel to this democratization of the sports spectacle, the movement also became increasingly instrumentalized, whether at the political, integrational or educational level. For example, the Fédération Sportive des Sourds-Muets de France was created in 1918 to integrate deaf people. The first silent Olympic Games were held in Paris in 1924. Following the same logic, other "affinity" movements were created during this period [START_REF] Lebecq | Sports, éducation physique et mouvements affinitaires au XXe siècle : Les pratiques affinitaires -Tome 1[END_REF]. This was the case, for example, with Catholic sport and workers' sport, which saw the emergence of their respective federations, far away from the classical considerations of spectacle sport.

Similarly, women continued their desire for sport that started during the First World War, despite the formal opposition of the male model. For example, following the refusal of the International Olympic Committee to integrate them, the Fédération Sportive Féminine Internationale (FSFI) was born in 1921 under the influence of the sportswoman Alice Milliat . The FSFI organized the first Women's Olympic Games in Paris in 1922, which were followed by three other editions: Gothenburg in 1926, Prague in 1930and London in 1934. After the war, the IOC opened up to women, thus causing the disappearance of exclusively female structures. Finally, sport also found its place in education under the influence of the Société Médicale d'Education Physique, created in 1921, which was followed by the creation of the Association Internationale Médico-Sportive, founded seven years later [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. However, sport was not unanimously supported in schools, and only high schools and students could practice it. Resistance to the sport model remained, as evidenced for example by the Règlement Général d'Education Physique: Méthode Française, written by the Joinville military school in 1925. Nevertheless, a few student sports clubs were formed, followed by the creation of the Office du Sport Universitaire in 1934. Four years later, this office expanded to become the Office du sport Scolaire et Universitaire (OSSU), to also reach high school students. The following year, primary schools were also involved, with the creation of the Union Sportive du Premier Degré (Pociello and Denis, 2000).

With this popularisation of sport in all sectors of society, it became a tool of national prestige [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]). France, for example, created the Service des OEuvres Françaises à l'Etranger (SOFE) in 1920, which was attached to the Tourism and Sports section of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, to strengthen the country's international image through sports propaganda. The pacifist ideology of Coubertin and the IOC could do nothing to prevent this. Germany, after the defeat of 1918, remained excluded from the Olympic Games until 1925, while France still refused to participate in sporting events against its former enemy. Similarly, Lenin's USSR was not welcome in Paris for the 1924 Olympic Games. For its part, Italy, amid the rise of fascism under the control of Benito Mussolini, decided to progressively control all its press organs and sports institutions, to spread the success and power of its model to the rest of the world through sport. This led to the birth of the first state athletes [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF].

Germany, inspired by the fascist model and in the midst Nazism, very quickly understood the usefulness of sport for propaganda. Organizing the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin, Germany took the opportunity to launch a huge propaganda program designed to use sport as a tool for controlling the masses and as a demonstration of political power. Despite the reluctance of other countries, notably Great Britain and the United States, the 1936 Olympic Games were held in Berlin, with an opening ceremony held in a colossal stadium with 100,000 spectators and the Nazi cross alongside the Olympic flag [START_REF] Brohm | Sociologie politique du sport[END_REF]. Similarly, when Nazi troops invaded Austria in 1938, FIFA's only reaction was to maintain the World Cup, which took place the same year, and to withdraw the Austrian team from the competition, even though it had been a finalist four years earlier.

France entered the war on the 3 rd of September 1939, following the annexation of Austria by Germany, and was quickly defeated, requesting an armistice following the German invasion on the 22 nd of June 1940. It led to the division of the French territory into two parts, and the Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions installation of a new government in Vichy, in the free zone, led by the Maréchal Pétain. Eager to put in place a spirit of strong discipline, the physical and moral education of young people was at the center of the government's concerns, with a new organization dedicated to it: Le Commissariat Général à l'Education Physique et Sportive. This commission, under the direction of Jean Borotra (1898Borotra ( -1994)), a former tennis player, launched a major series of reforms for civilian sport and school education, with a substantial budget of 1.9 billion francs [START_REF] Gay-Lescot | Sport et éducation sous Vichy : 1940-1944[END_REF].

It was in this perspective that the Charte des Sports was launched in December 1940, imposing an ideology in line with the "main morals of the National Revolution". Thus, any sports association had to obtain the approval of the State before existing, which contradicted the previous law of 1901 [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. Federations were also more controlled and placed under the control of the Conseil National des Sports, whose officials were directly appointed by the state. Professional sports were banned, and full government support was given to outdoor sports. New rules were also drawn up for general education and sports education, the number of hours of practice increased, and practice was based on the work of George Hébert, even though he refused to work with Vichy. It was also with this in mind that new infrastructures and diplomas were created for General and Sports Education (EGS), notably the Centre National des Moniteurs et Athlètes, accompanied by regional EGS centres, but also the All these reforms did not seem to create any opposition within the population, as shown by [START_REF] Dourdin | Etude de l'état d'esprit de la population parisienne à l'égard de la pratique de l'éducation physique et des sports[END_REF] survey on the physical and sporting practices of the French people, on behalf of the Commission Générale pour l'Education et le Sport. For example, the OSSU had 17,964 members for 542 associations before the war, compared to 47,017 members for 1253 associations in 1942. As for football, it went from 75,616 members in 1939 to more than 275,000 five years later. This can be explained by several factors. Firstly, sport and the sports association represented a space of relative freedom in an era that was marked by war and restriction. Secondly, it also represented a pretext to travel, in a context of deprivation [START_REF] Arnaud | Le sport et les français pendant l'Occupation, 1940-1944[END_REF]. Some clubs and organizations, such as the Sport-Libre network, were also used for resistance purposes and allowed sportsmen and sportswomen to avoid their compulsory labor service [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF].

Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions 44

Sport beyond institutions -Massification of sport after World War II

By 1949, France had 1.8 million license holders, which rose to 5.2 million in 19705.2 million in , then 7.4 million in 19755.2 million in (Terret, 2019)). As early as 1960, 39% of the French population declared that they practiced a sport, according to a study conducted by INSEE. However, some activities were more popular than others. For example, in 1949, football had 440,800 members, making it the leading sport in France ahead of the boule lyonnaise and basketball, which respectively had 180,000 and 95,000 members. This hierarchy was not overturned until the 1980s. However, some affinity federations, such as the workers' federation and the Catholic federation, experienced more difficult days after the war. These problems were mostly due to the overall reduction of the primary sector in the economy, the rise of industry and then services, and a Nevertheless, after World War II, institutions and the government realized that federal data was no longer sufficient to study the sporting habits of the people. From the 1960s onwards, many practices appeared that went beyond the traditional institutional framework. The generational Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions break of 1968 accentuated these changes in sports practice, with the arrival of 'Californian' sports such as surfing and windsurfing, or more 'oriental' sports, such as aikido for example [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. Furthermore, certain activities, which had previously been practiced under institutions, became more and more practiced outside of federations, such as road racing or skiing. This is referred to as the emergence of the "fun" culture. On the events side, sport also gained in popularity and reached record audiences. The newspaper L'Equipe, which came into being in 1946 after L'Auto was banned from publication because of accusations of collaboration during the war, quickly established itself as one of the world's leading sports newspapers.

Television, in full democratization in the 1970s, took hold of the sports phenomenon by giving it more and more time in its programs.

The democratization of the sporting spectacle in the press and on television was not the only reason explaining the democratization of sporting activities. Firstly, the democratic situation in France after World War II saw the emergence of a whole new generation: the baby boomers, representing a third of the French population in 1968, coupled with an improvement in the overall standard of living in France over that same decade. [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. From the early 1960s, sociologists began to question the possible emergence of a 'leisure society' [START_REF] Dumazedier | Vers une civilisation du loisir ? : Accompagné d'un entretien avec Edgar Morin[END_REF].

In addition, beyond this social evolution, sport was also in line with the new values of a more ecological society, eager to get closer to nature, and more concerned about its health and wellbeing, which justified the emergence of practices outside the competitive framework. Thus, the new generation was appropriating sports practices and rejuvenating sport overall, allowing the establishment of more precise age categories, specific events, and also the creation of sports schools. Women also continued to appropriate sport at this time. Indeed, even if their representation and treatment in the media had not evolved since the 1920s, they were much more daring, and 22% of them declared that they practiced sport on a regular or occasional basis in 1967 [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF].

With time and effort, even the most conservative federations, such as tennis and football, finally opened their doors to women in 1959 and 1970 respectively. However, women took on different practices from men, focusing on aesthetic and non-competitive activities, confirming stereotypes that were already well established [START_REF] Davisse | Sports, école, société : La différence des sexes féminin, masculin et activités sportives[END_REF]. The fact that school was made compulsory until the age of 16 in 1959 also favored the democratization of sport among the youngest, particularly women, with associations that transformed themselves [START_REF] Attali | La « Sportivisation » de l'éducation physique est-elle une réalité historique[END_REF]. In 1962, Maurice Herzog, Secretary of State for Youth and Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions 46 Sport, transformed the OSSU into the Association du Sport Scolaire et Universitaire (ASSU), to make it the first breeding ground for French champions, taking up the model proposed by Coubertin earlier. However, even if sport was democratized throughout the Trente Glorieuses, its distribution was very uneven across France. In 1967, it was noted that farmers and workers were still the ones who practiced sport the least, whereas the middle and upper intellectual professions were the ones who practiced it the most [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. The INSEE confirmed this observation in their 1981 survey [START_REF] Pociello | Sports et société : Approche socio-culturelle des pratiques / Christian Pociello[END_REF].

At the political level, things also changed for sport during the Cold War. Indeed, it became a political tool when the USSR joined the IOC in 1951 and took part in the 1952 Helsinki Olympic Games [START_REF] Peppard | Playing Politics : Soviet Sport Diplomacy to[END_REF]. The sporting performance then became the best way to show the superiority of its society model (capitalism versus communism) to the whole planet which was, at that time, divided into two large blocks. However, the major sporting competitions of the Cold War also served to highlight internal problems within societies, as shown for example by the Olympic Games in Mexico City in 1968, where black American athletes demanded their rights in line with the Black Power movement. France did not escape this political logic, and also tried to use sport, notably by placing the CNS and the sports movement under surveillance. However, the poor sporting results of the French did not allow the country to have the same influence as the USA or the USSR, and the country's economic priorities were not attributed to sport [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. It was not until the arrival of Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions 47 General de Gaulle, and under the influence of Maurice Herzog, that high-level sport was reformed, to make France a world-level power independent of the USA and the USSR. This is how technical directors were installed in the federations, with the setting up of the Institut National du Sport. The desire of countries to show the domination of their model also led to numerous abuses in sport, which moved further and further away from Coubertin's ideals of peace. In particular, state doping appeared in many countries, as well as boycotts and corruption.

The growing independence movement in the French colonies also diminished its sporting influence, relegating the country to the rank of a mere organizer of sporting events in Africa.

However, the establishment of the Commission d'Aide Internationale Olympique, officially created to help newly independent countries join the Olympic movement, allowed France to retain some influence over its former colonies [START_REF] Charitas | L'Afrique au mouvement olympique : Enjeux et stratégies de l'influence de la France dans l'internationalisation du sport africain (1944-1966[END_REF]. Within France, the State was divided into two positions at the end of the Second World War: recognizing the prestige of sport or maintaining its educational value. The increase in juvenile delinquency encouraged the State to transform sports into a real "life discipline" [START_REF] Amar | Nés pour courir : Sport, pouvoirs et rébellions[END_REF]. Thus, even if the Charte des Sports established during the occupation was abolished, the State put in place an ordinance in 1945 to keep a firm grip on sports federations and associations. However, for the next 30 years, this ordinance had no consequences for associations, apart from state subventions [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF].

Still, with a supervising objective, numerous diplomas and state certificates were set up to train coaches, trainers and supervisors, and these diplomas became compulsory for teaching in all sports. Thus, sport became a vast public service where all levels of practice were supposed to become complementary. It is in this perspective that university courses such as the Sciences et Techniques des Activités Physiques et Sportives (STAPS), or the Institut national du Sport et de l'Education Physique (INSEP), etc., were born. Gradually, the state, under the influence of liberalism, transferred its missions to civilian organizations, while maintaining control over them [START_REF] Houel | Analyse politique du rôle de l'État dans la conception et la pratique sociale des activités physiques et sportives[END_REF].

The 1970s also saw the birth of a new movement that sport could not escape: globalization [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. With this change in scale, sport became global and took on a whole new economic, media and political importance. For example, by the end of the 1990s, it generated a global turnover of more than 2,500 billion francs, or about 400 million euros, 5% of which was for the French market alone. The role of television and the media was not to be neglected here either. The multiplication of the television offerings and the sport-specialized channels, Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions 48 such as Eurosport in 1989, considerably modified French television. The strategies were as numerous as the channels that broadcasted sport. While some offered many sports, others set themselves up as specialists by concentrating on a single activity. As a result, sports were increasingly broadcasted and generated more and more revenue, with more and more advertising funding and an increasing number of viewers. In the mid-1990s, football already benefited from more than 500 hours of broadcasting per year and, in 2003, more than 50% of people over the age of 15 said they had attended a televised sports event in France (Cléron, 2003). Major sporting events were also increasingly covered by the media and attracted record audiences. For example, the 1998 World Cup had a cumulative audience of over 41 billion viewers.

Organizers took advantage of this situation to raise the bidding for the media rights to broadcast the events, generating even more money. Moreover, the 1984 Olympic Games, under the influence of new marketing and sponsorship techniques, finally made the event profitable for the organizers [START_REF] Terret | Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive[END_REF]. Major brands then rushed to sponsor sports events. The sums generated by existing events also encouraged the creation of new events. For example, the Paris-Dakar Rally was created in 1979, the Rugby World Cup was created in 1987, and athletics meetings were created everywhere around the world. These events were easier to set up as they sometimes benefited from the enormous fame of the participants, who were elevated to the rank of superstars, as well as from a professional system on a global scale. Thus, sport became a show diffused everywhere, whether on television, in the press, on the radio, or more recently on the Internet. Even the IOC, the last bastion of amateurism, could do nothing and abandoned its ideals in 1980 when Juan Antonio Samaranch was appointed as the head of the IOC to replace Lord Killanin, a fervent defender of amateurism. Samaranch even modified the charter set up at the beginning of the Olympic movement to allow the professionalization of the Games.

Beyond the phenomenon of globalization, sport has also been able to adapt to mentalities over time. Thus, despite an increasing orientation towards the cult of performance [START_REF] Ehrenberg | Le culte de la performance (0 edition)[END_REF], the use of certain methods is still forbidden and very often condemned by the sporting world. Furthermore, the numerous ethical debates following the many scandals concerning the organization of major international events tainted by corruption have led the major sporting bodies, and particularly the IOC and FIFA, to review their policy in favor of the development of sport in the most disadvantaged areas of the world and for young people. An example of this Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions 49 policy change is the consequences of the awarding of the last FIFA World Cup, which, after investigation, led to the arrest or extradition of very high-ranking officials of the football world.

In a similar vein, sport has also tried to re-establish links with health and its hygienic aspects. Thus, a very dynamic leisure sports market has emerged, particularly in the most developed countries. Among the various sporting activities, it is notably maintenance gymnastics that have been doing best. In parallel, the emergence of board sports, sometimes called "Californian" sports, in the 1970s created a "green sport" movement. This movement advocates for a practice close to nature, ecologically friendly, but still linked to health and well-being. However, even if the sport-health association is still present, as are all the measures taken by the federations, the specter of doping remains present at the highest level, with numerous cases appearing in the press frequently, despite the creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in 1999 [START_REF] Laure | Histoire du dopage et des conduites dopantes ; les alchimistes de la performance (Vuibert)[END_REF]. Thus, despite the development of many training techniques, the suspicion of doping now tarnishes every exceptional performance.

For a first current historical 'definition' of sport and perceived sportivity

As this first historical review of sports shows, the practice that began in late 18th century England has evolved greatly to become what it the worldwide product that it is today. Sport has developed in line with societies and countries. Initially strongly criticized for its lack of virtue, it has been able to adapt to become a State tool despite the resistance of national models. It has gone from an elitist practice advocating absolute amateurism to a full-fledged profession, with champions earning astronomical sums of money, revered by millions of spectators. The history of sport can be seen as a constant struggle for legitimacy and approval of the people. When people's values evolved and classic institutions lost their legitimacy, new types of practices emerged, more in line with the values of people.

However, today's sport still seems to have some characteristic elements that can help conceptualize it. Firstly, it requires physical effort, in line with Coubertin's notion of surpassing oneself, and more and more people are using sport for health and well-being objectives rather than for performance. People nowadays identify many activities linked to health and well-being as sport, beyond the mere competition. Further, since the 1980s, and in particular the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games, sport seems to have entered into a spectacle dimension, with the involvement of the media and the multiplication of sponsors.

Chapter 1 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions 50 Thus, the concept of perceived sportivitywhich, as a reminder, is concerned with the constituent elements of sport according to consumers, and not according to institutionscould reflect these elements. All of them will therefore be studied when conceptualization the construct of perceived sportivity and designing its measurement that will be developed further in the next sections. Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport As we have seen in our previous historical section, sport as an object remains epistemologically vague as it has evolved and been used for many different purposes. It is therefore important not to limit ourselves to this historical vision, but also to broaden it through another field that studied sport as an object a lot: sociology. Indeed, as we will see later, sport, in its many forms, has been the subject of numerous sociological approaches, particularly since the end of World War II. However, once again, the multiple usages of the term "sport" as well as its multiple applications at several levels of society make the term rather vague. Indeed, sport cannot be considered only as a practice or a way of life, but it can also be a spectacle or even a political tool. It, therefore, constitutes a "crossroads" object where numerous works from different sociological currents meet. To address how sociology can help provide a deeper understanding of the meanings associated with sport as a research construct, our research will therefore focus on three sociological approaches of sport: a first figurational approach, of which the German sociologist Norbert [START_REF] Elias | The civilizing process[END_REF] is considered the founder. Then, we will explore a second approach applying Weber's comprehensive sociology to explain the birth of modern sports.

Finally, we will also explore a third Marxist and more critical approach to sport put forward by Jean-Marie [START_REF] Brohm | Sociologie politique du sport[END_REF] in France.

A figurational sociological approach

As early as the 1930s, the German sociologist Norbert Elias studied the evolution of societies through the lens of a process he called "the civilizing process". In his work, he sees civilization as a long historical and sociological evolution, linked in particular to technical progress and the differentiation of society on the one hand, but also competition between humans [START_REF] Elias | Sport et violence[END_REF].

Thus, civilization can be defined by several elements: a control of violence in society by state institutions, as well as an economy based on money. This concept is the basis for Elias ' (1986) study of sport.

Definition of the figurational approach: the sportisation of society According to Elias, the advent of sports is linked to this civilizing process [START_REF] Pfister | Cultural confrontations : German Turnen, swedish gymnastics and english sport -European diversity in physical activities from a historical perspective[END_REF].

Indeed, in the Eliasian figurational approach, sport was born out of a form of non-violent physical confrontation, in a period when the violence that enveloped English society was slowly Chapter 1 Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport 53 diminishing [START_REF] Maguire | Global Sport : Identities, Societies, Civilizations[END_REF]. Elias defines sport as a form of regulated and rationalized physical confrontation, a form of culture, specific to countries with industrialized production, central state power, and a high level of internal discipline [START_REF] Pfister | Cultural confrontations : German Turnen, swedish gymnastics and english sport -European diversity in physical activities from a historical perspective[END_REF]. Thus, in these industrialized societies, sport is one of the greatest social inventions that help reduce tensions and control aggression within society. Moreover, sport is seen by Elias as a 'mimetic battle' [START_REF] Elias | Quest for Excitement : Sport and Leisure in the Civilising Process[END_REF], that is a confrontation in an imaginary setting. This process, explaining the development of sport during the industrialization period of in 18th and 19 th centuries in England and its subsequent expansion throughout Europe and the world, is defined as 'sportisation' [START_REF] Elias | Über die Natur[END_REF]. [START_REF] Dunning | Sport in the Quest for Excitement : Norbert Elias's Contributions to the Sociology of Sport[END_REF] a former student and co-worker of Eliasuses the example of boxing to explain this sportisation process. According to him, although still a contact sport, modern boxing matches, unlike before, are practiced by people of the same weight category, with rounds limited in duration and numbers. Similarly, there are rules to diminish violence. For example, it is forbidden to hit below the opponent's belt. Thus, although these rules do not eliminate physical violence, they aim to reduce it as much as possible, while allowing both participants to compete on an equal footing. Thus, [START_REF] Dunning | Sport in the Quest for Excitement : Norbert Elias's Contributions to the Sociology of Sport[END_REF] also argues that Elias saw, through sportisation, and the civilizing process, an evolution towards an equalization of power between the different social classes in society.

Moreover, industrialization in civilized societies also resulted in a "routinization" of everyday life, with citizens being increasingly subject to control, whether internal or external. Indeed, the civilizing process in English society and generally in the rest of Europe has been characterized by a decrease in acceptable behavior in the public sphere, and an increase in legislation, thus requiring internal control for citizens [START_REF] Elias | Quest for Excitement : Sport and Leisure in the Civilising Process[END_REF]. Sport, and more generally leisure activities, broke this routine by allowing people to relax and experience a moment of excitement, a "controlled release of excitement" [START_REF] Elias | Quest for Excitement : Sport and Leisure in the Civilising Process[END_REF]. It is this "controlled release of excitement" that is at the heart of recreational sports according to Elias [START_REF] Maguire | Towards a Sociological Theory of Sport and the Emotions : A Process-Sociological Perspective[END_REF]. Furthermore, Elias also notes that, by the second half of the 18th century, some English activities had the characteristics of modern sports. These sports developed rules and frameworks for practice to regulate them and reduce violence. Over time, the rules became more precise, explicit and differentiated. At the same time, the techniques of supervision and Chapter 1 Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport 54 observation that were put in place to enforce these rules became more effective, in line with the civilizing process [START_REF] Elias | Über die Natur[END_REF]. Elias then concludes that all these cultural attempts to prolong the pleasure of victory in a simulated battle through sport are symptomatic of a change in the very personality of humans, which then led to a change in the structure of society as a whole [START_REF] Elias | Quest for Excitement : Sport and Leisure in the Civilising Process[END_REF]. According to Elias, it is especially these changes that were closely related to the civilizing process [START_REF] Elias | The civilizing process[END_REF][START_REF] Elias | Scientific Establishments[END_REF].

More recently, Jean-François Loudcher (2016) also took an interest in the theory of Norbert Elias. Indeed, as he reminds us, Norbert Elias' theorization is not directly addressed to sport but to the whole of Western society, sport is above all a privileged voice of analysis because it seems to correspond to an orientation of physical practices towards a codification aimed at reducing illicit violence. Thus, sports practices would not have been constructed on their own but would have been influenced by the various social and political phenomena of the time, as shown by the implementation of numerous regulations aimed at reducing violence in sport and on the fields [START_REF] Loudcher | Violence, sport et éducation : L'apport des travaux de Norbert Elias[END_REF]. However, as these processes to control sports violence are directly linked to the history and politics of countries, especially via their state and social organization, other forms of 'violence', as well as other practices, may have emerged. As a result, the civilizing process does not appear to be linear and flawless and needs to be considered more flexibly concerning the degree and nature of control it exercises.

Norbert Elias' notion of sportisation in the civilizing process has subsequently been studied and criticized by many authors [START_REF] Dunning | Sport and Leisure in the Civilizing Process : Critique and Countercritique[END_REF][START_REF] Maguire | Global Sport : Identities, Societies, Civilizations[END_REF][START_REF] Horton | The Asian Impact on the Sportisation Process[END_REF]Loudcher, 2016, etc.). Among them, [START_REF] Dunning | Sport and Leisure in the Civilizing Process : Critique and Countercritique[END_REF], in collaboration with other authors, devoted a book to Norbert Elias' theory. Firstly, it is worth noting that, for [START_REF] Dunning | Sport and Leisure in the Civilizing Process : Critique and Countercritique[END_REF], Elias' discussion of mimetic leisure and 'controlled excitement' is not absolute, and control of these activities may be beyond the power of practitioners and organizers. This is the case, for example, with football hooliganism, which represents an exacerbated form of violence in sport, and which has been studied by Elias [START_REF] Elias | Quest for Excitement : Sport and Leisure in the Civilising Process[END_REF]. [START_REF] Stokvis | Sports and Civilization : Is Violence the Central Problem?[END_REF] also notes that, until the 20th century, fighting was a very common activity in Europe linked to all forms of festivities in rural areas [START_REF] Burke | Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe[END_REF]. Thus, hooliganism can also be seen as a continuation of this tradition in a modern setting. Secondly, the idea of justice as a characteristic of the process of sportisation, and consequently the aversion to any attempt at cheating, seems not to exist anymore in sport, as exampled by the many cheating and doping-related scandals we see every day in the news. [START_REF] Waddington | Drugs, Sport and Ideologies[END_REF].

Chapter 1 Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport 55 Still, in Dunning and Rojek's book, Maguire (1992) takes up Elias's term 'civilizational push', which seems to have taken place in 18th century England, and places it at the center of the global civilizing process. Indeed, according to [START_REF] Maguire | Towards a Sociological Theory of Sport and the Emotions : A Process-Sociological Perspective[END_REF], it is crucial to examine this notion of "civilizational push" to understand the different patterns of contemporary sport and leisure. Moreover, the function Elias attributes to sport in his theory seems to be based on a vision where citizens express a psychological, socially conditioned need to experience some form of excitement, spontaneous, elemental, unthinkable, but enjoyable. A few years later, [START_REF] Maguire | Global Sport : Identities, Societies, Civilizations[END_REF] revisits Elias' concept of sportisation by proposing a 5-phase model of the global sportisation process, building on [START_REF] Robertson | Globalization : Social Theory and Global Culture[END_REF] work on globalization [START_REF] Horton | The Asian Impact on the Sportisation Process[END_REF].

Critics of Elias' vision

Although it has been the basis of many works, the Eliasian theory has not been free from criticism, regarding both the concept of sportisation and more generally the civilizing process [START_REF] Maguire | Towards a Sociological Theory of Sport and the Emotions : A Process-Sociological Perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Stokvis | Sports and Civilization : Is Violence the Central Problem?[END_REF][START_REF] Hargreaves | Sex, Gender and the Body in Sport and Leisure : Has There Been a Civilizing Process[END_REF][START_REF] Loudcher | Violence, sport et éducation : L'apport des travaux de Norbert Elias[END_REF]. As sportisation is seen as an element of the civilizing process like any other, it seems appropriate to also take into account the criticisms of the global process.

The first major critics of Elias' work are summarised by [START_REF] Loudcher | Violence, sport et éducation : L'apport des travaux de Norbert Elias[END_REF] and concern the definition of the term sport. Indeed, we often take the term for granted when we read Elias' work, whereas his definition is very vague. For example, he uses the term 'modern sport' to differentiate sport from ancient practices, but does not explain how this 'modern sport' can be different from what the pastimes of the English bourgeoisie were [START_REF] Loudcher | Violence, sport et éducation : L'apport des travaux de Norbert Elias[END_REF]. Thus, one can question the appropriateness of comparing a wide variety of activities, involving violence, professionalism, sports betting, leisure, competitions and so on with modern sports. Not all English pastimes were violent, and so the reduction in violence that would have accompanied them over time seems different for each of these pastimes. However, even if this criticism is scientifically and epistemologically valid, [START_REF] Loudcher | Violence, sport et éducation : L'apport des travaux de Norbert Elias[END_REF] himself explains that even today we do not have a definition of modern sport that can be supported by scientific theory.

Moreover, it seems very complicated today to explain a phenomenon that has taken place over more than 150 years of history and that has been subject to local, regional, national and international influences. Thus, it seems difficult, for example, to link the process of sportisation in England according to Elias with the emergence of the major international sports institutions Chapter 1 Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport 56 that regulate sport today, at the initiative of French personalities in reaction to a disagreement with national federations.

The second major criticism that can be made of the sportisation process concerns violence, and more specifically its non-definition. Echoing Bourdieu, [START_REF] Loudcher | Violence, sport et éducation : L'apport des travaux de Norbert Elias[END_REF] explains that the violence Elias refers to in his work is purely physical, whereas violence can also be psychological or symbolic. Furthermore, Elias does not define the term violence in his work.

Thus, according to [START_REF] Loudcher | Violence, sport et éducation : L'apport des travaux de Norbert Elias[END_REF], he would rather make a male history of aggression from which women, minorities, would be excluded. Moreover, the notion of violence is highly evolving. Loudcher uses the example of the teacher/pupil relationship to justify his point.

Today, it is considered extremely violent for a teacher to slap a student, whereas a few years ago it was accepted and even encouraged for educational purposes. It is therefore appropriate to question Elias' definition of violence [START_REF] Loudcher | Violence, sport et éducation : L'apport des travaux de Norbert Elias[END_REF].

Beyond the definition of violence, [START_REF] Stokvis | Sports and Civilization : Is Violence the Central Problem?[END_REF] even explains that sport has become a standardized international phenomenon through national and international organizations. In this process, the reduction of violence has taken place in some sports, but not in all. Moreover, this organizational process has been based on the English model for one simple reason: England was the leading industrialized world power at that time and represented a model of success that the elites of other countries tried to copy [START_REF] Landes | The Unbound Prometheus : Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present[END_REF][START_REF] Macaloon | This Great Symbol : Pierre de Coubertin and the Origins of the Modern Olympic Games[END_REF]. Similarly, according to [START_REF] Stokvis | Sports and Civilization : Is Violence the Central Problem?[END_REF], the reduction of violence in sport had another purpose. Whereas in the hobby era workers were often alone and not dependent on others, after industrialization they were much more interdependent, working in large organizations, so injuries related to physical activity were no longer allowed for practitioners, thus justifying the reduction of violence in certain activities [START_REF] Dunning | Barbarians, Gentlemen and Players : A Sociological Study of the Development of Rugby Football[END_REF].

Other authors have also been critical of Elias' work. For example, [START_REF] Maguire | Towards a Sociological Theory of Sport and the Emotions : A Process-Sociological Perspective[END_REF] notes that the notion of leisure is very often associated with that of 'freedom' by Elias, which seems to be wrong. Indeed, modern leisure is also characterized by a balance between permissions and restrictions. Moreover, Maguire also notes that Elias, and later Elias and Dunning, tended to focus on certain sports in their analysis to illustrate their point, thus neglecting other sports.

Finally, according to Maguire, Elias' theory focuses so much on the notion of mimicry that it has forgotten that identity formation in sport involves other aspects, such as the quest for selfrealization, or self-presentation [START_REF] Goffman | Encounters : Two Studies in the Sociology of Interaction[END_REF][START_REF] Kaelin | The Well-Played Game : Notes Toward an Aesthetics of Sport[END_REF][START_REF] Gerber | Sport and the body : A philosophical symposium[END_REF].

Chapter 1 Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport 57 Finally, a last important criticism of Elias' work and the civilizing process comes from Hargeaves (1992). According to him, Elias sets up a paradigm of sociological analysis that focuses exclusively on the male experience, thus neglecting women and gender relations. Elias, like all the researchers who take up his work, focuses exclusively on men's sports, or the relations between men in these sports. Furthermore, Elias refers to gender relations as if it was possible to lump all women into a single group, based only on rare experiences of privileged and therefore unrepresentative individuals (Hargeaves, 1992). Finally, struggles in sport cannot be understood without mentioning the notion of value and commitment. Sport is a highly contested area of social life, and women and men struggle daily to establish a model that is different from the classical aggressive competition that has historically been dominated by men [START_REF] Hargreaves | Sex, Gender and the Body in Sport and Leisure : Has There Been a Civilizing Process[END_REF]. Elias' work is based on the idea that the state is a neutral, disinterested and benevolent institution, which is not necessarily the case.

To summarize, in the Eliasian logic, sportisation seems to be an element like any other in the process of civilization that England experienced from the end of the 17th century before spreading to the rest of the world. Thus, sport would be born above all from the reduction of violence in society at large, but also the rationalization of acceptable public behavior and the routinization of everyday life in societies. Sport would therefore act as a simulacrum, a theatre of war, allowing people to release their excitement in a form that is 'controlled' by regulations.

It would also provide a break in the daily routine of the participants looking for stimulation. However, sportisation is not an absolute process and depends on many criteria, such as the type of control exercised by the State, or the degree of violence control in societies. Similarly, the example of hooliganism reminds us that violence is not totally out of sport. Moreover, some of the notions used by Elias can be vague, such as that of violence, sport, or leisure, and it would be advisable to try to define them before using them. It would also be good to move away from the exclusively male analysis of society, although this was still the norm at the time of most of Elias's work, to a feminine vision that would complement the work. Finally, sport according to Elias would therefore include elements of confrontation, mimicry, dramatization, rationalization, but also regulations and institutions.

3.2

A comprehensive sociological approach: the "sportification" of activities With a different objective from that of Elias, Allen Guttmann published a book in 1978 entitled "From Rituals to Records, the Nature of Modern Sports" in which he sought to explain the characteristic elements of so-called "modern" sports, as opposed to ancient games. While Elias'

Chapter 1 Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport 58 figurational approach focuses on the dynamic evolutions and mutual dependencies between groups of people (Elias, 2000); comprehensive sociology focuses more on the actual concept and its evolution. Guttmann defines the process of evolution from ancient games to modern sports by a seven-step process that he calls "sportification" [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF]. Although this process and that of Elias are sometimes confused in several studies, their origins and objectives are different. Indeed, while Elias focuses on the external social reasons for the emergence and diffusion of sport, Guttmann is interested in the internal mechanisms that made the games evolve into modern sports.

Definition of the comprehensive approach

Before even looking at Guttmann's work, it is necessary to contextualize it. Very much in line with the Weberian logic, which he mentions several times in his work, [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF] published his work at the end of the 1970s. At this particular time, sport was just starting to fully occupy the media space, notably with the emergence of mass broadcasting, which was to become established especially after the 1984 Olympic Games. Thus, certain activities and techniques related to sport did not exist. According to Guttmann, modern sport developed in seven distinct stages, which he calls respectively: 1/ secularisation, 2/equalization, 3/specialization, 4/rationalization, 5/bureaucratization, 6/quantification, and finally the 7/quest for the record [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF].

1. The first stage, called "secularisation", is reflected in the removal of the sacred element of sports. Indeed, in primitive cultures, the term sport did not exist in the vocabulary.

There were indeed physical competitions, but they were not sports, and all of them had a religious significance [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF]. There is indeed much evidence that primitive societies incorporated running, jumping, or wrestling into their religious rituals and ceremonies as far back as pre-Columbian civilizations [START_REF] Culin | Games of the North American Indians[END_REF]. In Europe, Guttmann notes that the ancient Games, whether Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, Isthmian or even Athenian, were all sacred festivals in honor of different gods. Indeed, the Olympian Games were "sacred games, held in a sacred place during a sacred festival; it was a religious act in honor of a god. Those who took part did so to honor a god, and what they won came from the gods. ". For example, the Olympian Games were dedicated to Zeus, while the Corinthian Games were dedicated to Poseidon [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF]. Conversely, although some might consider the myths of modern sport to be a Chapter 1 Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport 59 religion in their own right, the attachment to a possible deity has been severed.

Similarly, performance in modern sport is for its own sake.

2. The second stage of sportification is "equalization". However, this concept of equality is broad, and [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF] focuses on two of its aspects. The first aspect of this equality is the fact that, theoretically, everyone should be able to participate in sport.

The second aspect is that the conditions of practice should also be the same for all participants. In contrast, in primitive societies, participation in physical activities was reserved for members of certain classes or social groups. However, regarding this concept of equality, [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF] identifies three existing anomalies in modern sports: exclusion based on social class, exclusion based on color, and exclusion based on gender. To these anomalies, Guttmann responds that the logic of modern sports proposes that women, who are sometimes excluded, should have equal opportunities to participate in sport. However, equality in Guttmann's sense is not about equality of outcome. On the contrary, inequality of outcome is one of the essential characteristics of sport.

3. After the first two aforementioned stages, comes the stage of "specialization". Indeed, although primitive societies were the first to show some degree of specialization, it was nothing compared to today's specialization in sport [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF]. Specialization and professionalization in modern sports are inevitable because of their international scope. However, the notion of professionalization is not determined here in terms of money, but in terms of the time given to practice. Thus, because it seems impossible for a single person to achieve the best performance in several sports, sportsmen and women increasingly focused on one activity, thus becoming more and more specialized.

According to [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF], this notion of specialization and professionalization was born from the desire for accomplishment leading athletes to free themselves from boredom and economic distraction. 4. Then, "rationalization" is, for [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF], the fourth stage of the sportification process. Rationalization here means, among other things, the establishment of rules and regulations as universal. Over time, rules seem to have become more complex, but identical for a given sport everywhere in the world. In contrast, in primitive societies, such as in ancient Greece, rules differed from one event to another and each organizer had its way of operating. For example, the weights used for throwing in ancient competitions varied from one city to another.

Chapter 1 Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport 60 5. The fifth stage of the sportification process according to [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF] corresponds to a process of "bureaucratization". This stage, closely related to [START_REF] Weber | The City[END_REF] analysis of the distinction between the primitive and bureaucratic organization, highlights the essential hierarchy of sport that led to its organization, as we know it today. Indeed, one of the main characteristics of modern sport is the presence of a bureaucratic organization regulating competitions and participants. It is the establishment of this bureaucracy that contributed to the standardization of rules in modern sport. In contrast, primitive societies were not regulated by institutions and depended mainly on the will of the players to be practiced.

6. It was the bureaucratization of sport that directly encouraged the sixth stage of [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF] sportification process, i.e. quantification. Indeed, whereas the points' calculation systems in ancient competitions were very complicated and sometimes incomprehensible, modern sports moved into an increasingly simple quantification system. Moreover, all aspects of modern sport now tend to quantification of performance via statistics or analysis. Numbers are increasingly being used in sport to measure performance, both individual and collective. Even disciplines with a strong artistic connotation, such as gymnastics, have been modified to facilitate their quantification.

7. Finally, the last stage of the sportification process according to [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF] refers to the infinite search for the best possible performance, that is achieving the record. Indeed, the quantification of performances, combined with all the other stages of the sportification process, have led participants to a constant quest and struggle for records. This 7-step process of sportification was therefore put forward by Guttmann at the end of the 1970s. However, other authors have taken up this process to update it, adding nuances or completing it over time. [START_REF] Collinet | Physical Practices and Sportification : Between Institutionalisation and Standardisation. The Example of Three Activities in France[END_REF], two of these stages are crucial in the process of sportification and the diffusion of sport throughout the world: standardization and institutionalization. It is these two elements, which, by setting up common standards and operating modes, allowed the rationalization of techniques and therefore the diffusion of the practice.

For [START_REF] Pfister | Cultural confrontations : German Turnen, swedish gymnastics and english sport -European diversity in physical activities from a historical perspective[END_REF], sportalthough having spread on a global scalehas not remained unchanged, and has sometimes adapted to countries, cultures, or peoples to establish itself durably, thus providing nuance to Guttmann's discourse (1978). [START_REF] Sato | The sportification of judo : Global convergence and evolution[END_REF]

completes this

Chapter 1 Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport 61 analysis by using the example of judo, a practice that developed from the East to the West, unlike the majority of sports, and which had to adapt to spread. According to Sato, judo was developed through four distinct phases: the codification of rules, the emphasis on competition, the opening to spectators, the orientation towards entertainment, and finally the commercialization of the practice. Thus, the process of sportification would no longer stop at the quest for the record but would have to be broadened by considering activities that have developed elsewhere than in the West on the one hand, but also by taking into account the economic and entertainment aspects linked to sports practices. This is also what [START_REF] Carlsson | Science Slam' and sportification processes in science[END_REF] argues when he proposes the integration of a stage he calls "eventification" into the sportification process. In this final stage, sport would become spectator-oriented by being positioned as mass entertainment [START_REF] Carlsson | Masterchef and the 'Sportification' of Popular Culture… and Society[END_REF].

Figure 16: The updated Sportification Process

Even beyond the world of sport, the process of sportification could also be applied to other spheres of society [START_REF] Carlsson | The position and relevance of sport studies : An introduction[END_REF]. Indeed, the logic of sport has penetrated other spheres by elevating performance as a decisive factor in many areas. Indeed, Carlsson (2018) notes, for example, that the radical application of the process described by [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF] to a field such as science, leads to an observation of certain similarities between sport and science. Carlsson goes even further and argues that the logic of sport applies to many spheres and that it is crucial to transform sports science into a field of study separated from social science [START_REF] Carlsson | The position and relevance of sport studies : An introduction[END_REF].

Critics of Guttmann's vision

Although widely studied in sociology of sport, [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF] process of sportification is also subject to some criticism. Firstly, the process does not seem to apply to all sports [START_REF] Svensson | Technologies of sportification : Practice, Theory and Co-Production of Training Knowledge in Cross-Country Skiing Since the 1950s[END_REF]. Indeed, extreme or lifestyle sports, such as surfing, skateboarding, or climbing, do not seem to experience a classical sportification process, and some of them even reject aspects such as institutionalization or even competition [START_REF] Wheaton | The Cultural Politics of Lifestyle Sports[END_REF][START_REF] Dumont | Aesthetics of attachments : Reflexive insights on taste construction in climbing[END_REF].

Moreover, the process of sportification is seen by [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF] as unidimensional, moving from Europe to the rest of the world, which does not seem to be entirely true. Many sports, and in particular martial arts, for example, originated in Asia and then spread to the West [START_REF] Sato | The sportification of judo : Global convergence and evolution[END_REF]. Thus, it is the very vision of sport according to Guttmann that is called into question.

Sport should not be seen as an object that spreads unilaterally, but rather as a collective construct that extends in many directions and merges with other elements to develop. Sport here becomes something alive, shaped by the encounters between different cultures and practices. This then challenges one of the phases of [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF] model, namely standardization. According to [START_REF] Sato | The sportification of judo : Global convergence and evolution[END_REF], standardization does not mean the adoption by the world of a monolithic culture.

Rather, it is a process through which many cultures reach similar benchmarks as a result of a process of synchronization and acceptance between them. Thus, it is not only institutions that are at the origin of standardization of sports practices, but also the different categories of practitioners who shape their evolution by coexisting with each other. Here we can see a first foreshadowing of the influence of practitioners in the evolution of sport, and thus the importance of their perception.

Finally, one of the biggest criticisms of the sportification process is its uniquely masculine view of sport and society (Von der Lippe, 2001). Indeed, the logic of equality advocated by sportification has great difficulty in justifying the exclusion of social categories from sport throughout history, including women and minorities. Guttmann's analysis is based on a logic of rationality in the Weberian sense of the term, whereas the very principle of excluding women from sporting competitions is seen as irrational. The process of sportification should therefore be analyzed from both a male and a female perspective to be more precise.

A Marxist approach -The Critical Theory of Sport

Finally, a third approach, much more critical because Marxist-inspired, was developed, especially in France. This approach proposed a different vision of sport, under the inspiration of the sociologist Jean-Marie Brohm. This approach, called Critical Theory of Sport, was born through the sociological review Quel corps? founded by Jean-Marie Brohm, and argues that sport, particularly with the use of media, is linked to a process of ideological subjugation and control over the people, a process he calls sportivisation.

Chapter 1 Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport 63 Definition of Brohm's approachthe sportivisation According to Jean-Marie Brohm (1986), the term sportivisation originated from his work on the Critical Theory of Sport in 1968. The term was first used to address the ideological and institutional imposition of the English sports model in French physical education classes (EPS), leading to an identity crisis of the discipline (Marsault, 2009). This vision was developed to go against the sports institutions, which defined their practice as being "politically neutral and the bearer of universalist ideals at the service of the fraternity of people" [START_REF] Duret | Chapitre II. Les spectacles sportifs[END_REF]. Indeed, in this vision, the history of sport is closely linked to the diffusion of the capitalist ideology and corresponds to a global process of "bureaucratic institutionalization and ideological expansion up to the present capitalist globalization" [START_REF] Brohm | La Théorie critique du sport. De Partisans à Quel Corps ? Staps[END_REF]. Thus, sport would be subject to numerous institutions, whether they be states, governments, or even multinational companies.

Similarly, sport would be inherently political, as would all sporting practices. This is what would make sport a "perverse form of political substitution or the continuation of politics by other means" [START_REF] Brohm | La Théorie critique du sport. De Partisans à Quel Corps ? Staps[END_REF]. This is the purpose of the Critical Theory of Sport: to show that there is nothing inoffensive about competitive sport and that it is not a mere tool of amusement, but rather "an ideological state apparatus, an institution of ideological domination reproducing the structures and superstructures of state capitalism" [START_REF] Brohm | La Théorie critique du sport. De Partisans à Quel Corps ? Staps[END_REF]. Brohm even argues that sport violates human rights. He uses the examples of the 1980 Moscow Olympics, organized by the USSR, or more recently the 2008 Olympics organized by China despite the presence of labor camps in the country, the occupation of Tibet, and the various bloody state's repressions, to justify his point. In Brohm's analysis, the commercial dimension of the sports industry is also criticized. Indeed, according to him, sport is today a fully-fledged industrial branch, with its commodity production system, investors, sponsors, and dedicated financial circuits, leading it inexorably to the search for profit [START_REF] Brohm | La compétition, c'est la mort[END_REF]. More than the sports industry, it is even the athletes, the competitions, the performances, and the records that are bought, traded, and sold. Moreover, Brohm asserts that all the dimensions that make contemporary sport a "total social fact" in the sense of [START_REF] Mauss | Essai sur le don : Forme et raison de l'échange dans les sociétés archaïques[END_REF] have been explored: "the productivist political economy, sports organization as a capitalist spectacle enterprise, internationalization of the sports governing bodies (IOC, FIFA), accelerated bureaucratization of sports institutions, alienated mass psychology of the sports spectacle, media manipulations, addictive logics of doping and drug addiction, etc." [START_REF] Brohm | La Théorie critique du sport. De Partisans à Quel Corps ? Staps[END_REF]. Finally, Critical Theory, again according to [START_REF] Brohm | Le corps analyseur : Essais de sociologie critique[END_REF], Chapter 1 Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport 64 also opposes the main field of thought on a crucial point: corporeality. Indeed, contrary to what the sports institutions dictate, there is no such thing as a good physicality, whether it is therapeutic, aesthetic, or even pedagogical. Indeed, corporeality is neither a "field" nor an "object", but a "subjective horizon of meaning and personal sensitivity" [START_REF] Brohm | Le corps analyseur : Essais de sociologie critique[END_REF]. Thus, Brohm summarises his thoughts by postulating that the Critical Theory of Sport has two objectives, "the destruction of the alienating capitalist logic of sport", and "the abolition of its merchandizing fetishist logic". Similarly, critical theory, in this logic, goes beyond the mere academic discipline to become a "fundamental critique of the established order of which sport is today the opium of the people" [START_REF] Brohm | Le corps analyseur : Essais de sociologie critique[END_REF].

Many authors have taken an interest in the concept of sportivisation as developed by Brohm (e.g. Marsault, 2009;[START_REF] Perelman | Médiatisation du sport et sportivisation des médias : Le stade comme vision du monde[END_REF][START_REF] Duret | Chapitre II. Les spectacles sportifs[END_REF][START_REF] Godin | Jean-Marie Brohm, Théorie critique du sport. Essais sur une diversion politique[END_REF]. For [START_REF] Duret | Chapitre II. Les spectacles sportifs[END_REF], the radical critique of sport attributes three main functions to the sporting spectacle. Firstly, large sporting events serve above all as a showcase for all political regimes that neglect human rights with impunity. For example, the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games, which symbolized the support of democracies for the Nazi regime, or the 1968 Mexico City Olympic Games, which made people forget the students massacred by the Mexican army in the Plaza de las Tres Culturas in the Tlatelolco district, 10 days before the opening of the Games. In addition, Jean-Marie Brohm organized several boycott committees against major sporting events. Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport 65 circuses). Indeed, the sporting spectacle, through alienation of the masses, seeks to numb the critical consciousness of the people, thus leading to "de-politicization", transforming it into a real "opium of the people", dumbing down "cretinized" spectators [START_REF] Brohm | Les meutes sportives : Critique de la domination[END_REF]. Finally, the sports spectacle has a third main function, that of enlisting. According to [START_REF] Duret | Chapitre II. Les spectacles sportifs[END_REF], in Brohm's theory, the majority of sports champions are on the right side of the political spectrum.

There would even be a certain concordance between high-level athletes and the ideals of capitalism. Thus, the sporting spectacle would be a powerful vehicle for right-wing ideology, and the politicization of sport is accompanied by the sportivisation of the whole of society.

In a review of one of Brohm's books, [START_REF] Burgel | Théorie critique du sport[END_REF] also tries to summarise the author's thinking. He describes Brohm as being radically opposed to any kind of sport, including amateur sport, which he associates with a form of subjugation of the individual to capitalist market forces. Contemporary sport, in this view, is a global social process that goes far beyond mere playful activity, and is historically linked to the rise and supremacy of capitalism, and, therefore, is not concerned with following the bodily exercises that originated in Ancient Greece. Similarly, according to Brohm, sport today is mostly accompanied by corruption, doping, violence and abusive media coverage [START_REF] Burgel | Théorie critique du sport[END_REF]. All of these abuses are said to stem from three components, i.e. competition and the omnipresent spirit of performance at all levels of society, the confrontation of entities such as clubs, and the organization of matches subject to capitalist ideology, which contaminates the spirit of healthy emulation [START_REF] Burgel | Théorie critique du sport[END_REF].

Thus, according to Brohm, sport is above all a vector of capitalist ideology, the dissemination of which is considerably stimulated by the media explosion. Indeed, [START_REF] Brohm | La Théorie critique du sport. De Partisans à Quel Corps ? Staps[END_REF] notes that it was the Berlin Olympic Games that marked the beginning of live television broadcasts of sports competitions, supported by extensive radio coverage, with more than 40 German companies broadcasting the event. Brohm also defines the sport-spectacle as "a universal spectacularization, and living commodities in the service of dead commodities". Following this logic, [START_REF] Perelman | Médiatisation du sport et sportivisation des médias : Le stade comme vision du monde[END_REF], argues that the history of sports is linked to that of the mass media, even though their common development is hardly emphasized. Indeed, sport and the media participate in the creation of a mass culture which they continue to develop through the use of new technical innovations and new forms of spectacle (Clastres and Méadel, 2008). The development of sport and its dissemination is still favored today by the new media, especially the Internet, and the multiplication of screens on increasingly varied platforms (television, computer, tablet, smartphone) installed not only in the private space but also in the public sphere [START_REF] Perelman | Médiatisation du sport et sportivisation des médias : Le stade comme vision du monde[END_REF].

Thus, sport and media seem to benefit from an indestructible link. The "global sports audiovisual machine" was created with the help of states to become a global superstructure that surpasses them. Media even appropriate new sports by promoting them, and even by modifying some of their rules, as in tennis, which saw the appearance of the tie-break, or decisive game, to avoid matches that were too long. The integration of technological elements in certain sports, such as video refereeing in rugby, also responds to this logic. Sport and the media even have left their respective fields to become a common movement, an enormous power of alienation of the masses capable of capturing the attention of all [START_REF] Perelman | Médiatisation du sport et sportivisation des médias : Le stade comme vision du monde[END_REF]. In this idea, the sports stadium seems to be the perfect representation of this vision. Indeed, according to Perelman (2010), the stadium: "Perceived as a place of individual and collective freedom, of social emancipation or even of happiness between members of the same family or office colleagues, it (the stadium) is, on the contrary, that limited, bounded horizon of twenty-first-century capitalism under the sway of an overhanging audio-visual technology "verticalized" along an axis through which information flows from top to bottom, and is then channeled to be disseminated in each home transformed into a mini stadium lodge redoubling in an intimate space the stadium itself". More generally, other authors have taken up the term 'sportivisation' put forward by Brohm and given it a different vision and nuance (e.g. [START_REF] Attali | La « Sportivisation » de l'éducation physique est-elle une réalité historique[END_REF], Marsault, 2009[START_REF] Lebreton | Cultures urbaines et activités physiques et sportives. La « sportification » du parkour et du street golf comme médiation culturelle[END_REF]. First of all, Attali and Saint- [START_REF] Attali | La « Sportivisation » de l'éducation physique est-elle une réalité historique[END_REF] speak of sportivisation to describe the generalization of sports practices, and more generally of physical practices as an educational issue from the 1960s onwards, notably with Michel Herzog's policy aiming to use sport as a means of education and training for the youth in France. Marsault (2009) summarises this thinking by seeing sportivisation as the enhancement of society's sporting practices through physical and sports education at school. Marsault then extends the concept by explaining that the extension of the sports phenomenon is such that one can speak of a global sportivisation of society. Thus, from the beginning of the 1960s onwards, culture was "sportivised", leading to the development of new mass culture (Marsault, 2009). However, the image of sport is changing alongside society, moving from a symbol of progress and technique to a destructive activity where participants are ready to do anything to win, thus leading to the questioning of the sports model. Similarly, the relationship between politics and sport seems to have evolved and become Chapter 1 Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport 67 more complex over time, notably through the gradual withdrawal of states from the organization of sport and the arrival of the economic logic in the practice [START_REF] Amar | Nés pour courir : Sport, pouvoirs et rébellions[END_REF]. Thus, the symbolic value of sport gives way to economic value, and sporting activities become objects of consumption (Marsault, 2009). [START_REF] Lebreton | Cultures urbaines et activités physiques et sportives. La « sportification » du parkour et du street golf comme médiation culturelle[END_REF], for his part, speaks of a "total social fact", in the sense of [START_REF] Mauss | Essai sur le don : Forme et raison de l'échange dans les sociétés archaïques[END_REF] to describe the process of sportivisation, as it involves the whole of society and its institutions.

However, it is worth noting that the use of the term sportivisation is sometimes confused with the English term 'sportification', which is specific to the work of Allan Guttmann (Suchet, 2004;[START_REF] Ramirez | Du Free Fight aux Arts Martiaux Mixtes : Sportivisation, violence et réception d'un sport de combat extrême[END_REF]. Moreover, the two concepts seem to be confounded by some researchers. For this reason, we have decided to focus particularly on the work of Brohm and those who take up his research in our definition of sportivisation.

Critics of Brohm's vision

The highly critical and sometimes partisan side of Brohm's work has led to critics on several aspects [START_REF] Duret | Chapitre II. Les spectacles sportifs[END_REF]. The first critic concerns the fact that sport is not exclusively the property of totalitarian states. In the course of history, people have used sport as a means of protest [START_REF] Bromberger | Football, la bagatelle la plus sérieuse du monde[END_REF]. For example, in 1958, several professional players from the French championship deserted to join the Algerian National Liberation Front football team to promote Algerian independence. The team organized several world tours to make their situation known to the rest of the world, before being disbanded following the country's independence in 1962.

Similarly, although the 1978 World Cup in Argentina was organized by the military dictatorship, many demonstrations took place in the country's stadiums afterward, and it was not unusual to hear chants calling for the end of the military dictatorship in the stadiums [START_REF] Bromberger | Football, la bagatelle la plus sérieuse du monde[END_REF]. More recent examples can also be highlighted. For example, the 2010 World Cup in South Africa served above all to show a state without apartheid, implementing a forgiveness policy. Therefore, sport would not be ideological by definition and would be a simple tool that could serve any ideology.

Figure 18: The 1962 Algerian National Liberation Front football team

Moreover, according to [START_REF] Ehrenberg | Le culte de la performance (0 edition)[END_REF], sport is a non-political means of popularising the values of equality because it makes them work by rooting them in the banalest everydayness, that of distraction. Thus, through the prism of equality of opportunity, it seems that everyone can participate and compete against everyone else, with no predefined advantage. This is why all the passions that drive sport are unleashed, In Brazil, for example, where society is highly hierarchical, the space created by football even allows people to express themselves freely, thus going against Brohm's discourse [START_REF] Da Matta | Notes sur le futebol brésilien[END_REF]. Football, and by extension sport, can thus allow each person to reveal himself or herself as he or she is, without jeopardizing personal relationships, and is thus a socialization machine of private individuals.

The second criticism of Brohm's work relates directly to sports spectators [START_REF] Duret | Chapitre II. Les spectacles sportifs[END_REF]. Indeed, they are not as subject to the law of crowds and group effects as described by Brohm. They are not puppets, have their consciousness, and can dissociate the sporting spectacle from the elements associated with it. Finally, the criticism that all top sportsmen and women come from the right-wing also seems rather limited. There are as many left-wing figures as right-wing ones, and one of the strengths of the sports world is that it allows everyone to participate, regardless of their political orientation [START_REF] Duret | Chapitre II. Les spectacles sportifs[END_REF]. Moreover, this political orientation also seems to be less and less visible among today's sportsmen and women than it was in the past.

The concept of sportivisation was therefore initially put forward as a critique of the sports movement. Sport, in this Marxist critique, is seen as a political tool allowing states to satisfy their capitalist ideology. Thus, the concept of sportivisation can, in a broad sense, designate the orientation of sport towards an economic logic, as well as its diffusion to all parts of society, be it from a political, economic, or sociological point of view.

Through the study of sportisation (Elias, 1974), sportification [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF] and sportivisation [START_REF] Brohm | Le corps analyseur : Essais de sociologie critique[END_REF], interesting constitutive elements and characteristics of sport seem to emerge. The following table provides an overview of such elements. An institutional approach of sport -A quest for legitimacy

As we can see from our historical and sociological review, sport seems to be primarily defined by its institutions that act as regulators. The history and sociology of sport can be summarised as a quest for legitimacy by participants, clubs and institutions. Indeed, whether it is Elias (1974[START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF], or [START_REF] Brohm | Le corps analyseur : Essais de sociologie critique[END_REF], institutions are always seen as one of the pillars of sport. In this research, we will focus on the individual perceptions of sport and their outcomes on brand perception and consumer outcomes. However, to acknowledge the importance of understanding consumer perceptions, we need first to focus on institutions, which are the classic sport regulating bodies.

From a marketing point of view, institutions have mostly been studied under the prism of neoinstitutional theory (NIT) (Di Maggio and Powel, 1983;[START_REF] Suchman | Managing Legitimacy : Strategic and Institutional Approaches[END_REF]Handelman andArnould, 1999, Chaney and[START_REF] Chaney | A neo-institutional analytic grid for extending marketing to institutional dimensions[END_REF]. Based on the work of Weber, Di Maggio and Powell (1983) argue that organizations always institutionalize to become legitimate and thus more successful in their market. Chaney and Ben Slimane (2014, p.1-2), building on Meyer andRowan (1978), and[START_REF] Dimaggio | The Iron Cage Revisited : Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields[END_REF][START_REF] Dimaggio | The Iron Cage Revisited : Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields[END_REF], define Neo-Institutional Theory (NIT) as:"

the theoretical framework that has helped clarify and understand the process of institutionalization within and between organizations". Neo-Institutional Theory thus explains the similarity between the organizations faced with the same pressures [START_REF] Dimaggio | The Iron Cage Revisited : Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields[END_REF]. The central postulate of NIT is that organizations achieve legitimacy by conforming to institutions (Singh, Tucker and House, 1986).

According to [START_REF] Dimaggio | The Iron Cage Revisited : Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields[END_REF] companies develop within fields that regroup similar companies, what they call an organizational field. Chaney and Ben Slimane (2014, p.3) define the organizational field as "all organizations that, in aggregate and through their repeated

Chapter 2 Section 1: A perception-based approach -The contribution of categorization models interactions, constitute an identifiable area of institutional life". These organizational fields represent one pillar of legitimacy for companies. According to [START_REF] Chaney | A neo-institutional analytic grid for extending marketing to institutional dimensions[END_REF] two other elements are central to NIT: the pillars of institutions [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and Organizations[END_REF] and the concept of legitimacy. [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and Organizations[END_REF] argues that "Institutions are variously comprised of cultural-cognitive, normative and regulatory elements that, taken together with associated activities and resources, provide stability and meaning to social life". He calls these three elements "pillars". The first pillar is the regulatory pillar and constitutes the first building block for institutions. It is concerned with laws and formal rules, set up by States and regulatory bodies [START_REF] North | Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance[END_REF][START_REF] Chaney | A neo-institutional analytic grid for extending marketing to institutional dimensions[END_REF]. The second pillar, the normative pillar is concerned with norms, standards and values that are set up by professionals and organizations that engage with institutions. Finally, the last pillar, the cultural-cognitive pillar, is defined by Chaney and Ben Slimane (2014, p.3) as the most characteristic element of NIT. According to Scott (2008, p57.), the culturalcognitive pillars emphasize "the shared conceptions that constitute the nature of social reality and the frames through which meaning is made. While the normative pillar is focused on professionals and organizations, the cultural-cognitive pillar goes deeper, and relates to the meanings, beliefs, norms and set associated with the institutions in the consumer's mind. These three pillars of institution support every consumption practice, and any change in these pillars directly affects how individuals consume an offering [START_REF] Chaney | A neo-institutional analytic grid for extending marketing to institutional dimensions[END_REF]. The following table, adapted from [START_REF] Scott | Institutional theory : Contributing to a theoretical research program[END_REF], provides an overview of the three pillars of institutions. Chapter 2 Section 1: A perception-based approach -The contribution of categorization models 74

The objective of this institutional work is to achieve legitimacy. According to Chaney, Ben Slimane and Humphreys (2015), the global NIT process can be divided into two steps. The first step consists of the constructions of the regulatory, normative and cultural-cognitive pillars.

The second step consists of institutional work through which companies will provide consumers with knowledge, meaning, identity, status, and standards of behaviors that will affect them.

Finally, consumers will give sense and meaning to these institutions and their products, and will therefore accept them through legitimacy [START_REF] Suchman | Managing Legitimacy : Strategic and Institutional Approaches[END_REF]Handelman and Arnold, 1999).

The following figure, adapted from Chaney, Ben Sliman and Humphreys (2015) provides an overview of the NIT process and the relationships between companies, institutions and consumers.

Figure 19: NIT and company-institutions-consumers relations (from Chaney, Ben Slimane and Humphreys, 2015

As we can see from Figure 24, the objective of the institutions is to give meaning to consumers who will then judge companies as either being legitimate or not. The pillars of institutions are therefore only a basis for the creation of legitimacy. Legitimacy, as a social process, has been defined by Suchman (1995, p.574) as "a generalized perception, assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper, or appropriate within some socially constructed system of norms, values, beliefs and definitions". This definition, which is at the basis of NIT contrasts with a previous view of legitimacy, called the determinist view, that considered legitimacy as being conferred on companies by actors in the organizational field [START_REF] Chaney | A neo-institutional analytic grid for extending marketing to institutional dimensions[END_REF].

Instead, legitimacy becomes a resource that companies seek to acquire through institutions and is only given by consumers. Therefore, legitimacy moves from being an operational tool to Companies Institutions (regulatory, normative and cognitive pillars)

Consumers

Support and reproduce

Legitimize

Chapter 2 Section 1: A perception-based approach -The contribution of categorization models 75 becoming a set of constitutive beliefs (Suchman, 1988). According to [START_REF] Suchman | Managing Legitimacy : Strategic and Institutional Approaches[END_REF], there a several consequences of legitimacy for companies. First, legitimacy enhances the stability and comprehensibility of organizations. Then, legitimacy leads to persistence for companies, because their resources appear more desirable to consumers (Parson, 1960). Moreover, legitimacy also affects how people not only act towards companies but also how they understand them [START_REF] Suchman | Managing Legitimacy : Strategic and Institutional Approaches[END_REF]. Consumers judge legitimate companies as being more meaningful and more trustworthy. Finally, legitimacy also leads to more active support from people.

Then, Suchman (1995) also describes three types of legitimacy that companies can seek to acquire and build a typology of legitimacy. The following table provides an overview of Suchman's typology of legitimacy and contains not only the three types of legitimacy described by Suchman but also their subtypes.

Table 7: The Legitimacy typology (adapted from [START_REF] Suchman | Managing Legitimacy : Strategic and Institutional Approaches[END_REF] Suchman (1995, p587) also describes some strategies through which organizations can acquire legitimacy. In his opinion, legitimacy building can always be divided into three categories: efforts 1/ to conform to the dictates of pre-existing audiences within the organization's current

Type of Legitimacy

Subtype of Legitimacy Definition

Pragmatic Legitimacy

Exchange Legitimacy

The basic level of pragmatic legitimacy. Support for an organization will be based on the actor's expected value of that organization's offering.

Influence Legitimacy

A more social level of pragmatic legitimacy. Actors not only support the organization for their value but also because it answers their larger interests.

Dispositional Legitimacy

The individual supports the organization due to the good attributes that he gives to the organization (trustworthy, decent, wise). This arises as a result of a personification of the organization.

Moral Legitimacy

Consequential Legitimacy

The individual supports the organization because he judges the organization's actions as being moral according to his social values.

Procedural Legitimacy

The organization is considered legitimate by the individual because it embraces socially accepted techniques and procedures Structural Legitimacy

The individual views the organization as legitimate because its structural characteristics allow it to do specific kinds of work.

Personal Legitimacy

Personal legitimacy refers to legitimacy that is derived from the charisma of individual organization leaders,

Cognitive Legitimacy

Comprehensive Legitimacy

Legitimacy is accorded to the institution because it is seen as being socially proper and desirable. The institution is in line with the individual's self-interest. Taken-for-Granted Legitimacy

The most subtle and powerful type of legitimacy. Alternatives become unthinkable and the institution is seen as an absolute necessity by the individual Chapter 2 Section 1: A perception-based approach -The contribution of categorization models 76 environment, 2/ to select among multiple environments in pursuit of an audience that will support current practices, and 3/ to manipulate environmental structure by creating new audiences and new legitimating beliefs. [START_REF] Suchman | Managing Legitimacy : Strategic and Institutional Approaches[END_REF] then focuses on one strategy that companies use to achieve legitimacy: isomorphism [START_REF] Hawley | Human Ecology[END_REF]DiMaggio and Powel, 1983).

Isomorphism is a "constraining process, forcing one part of the population to resemble another facing the same environmental condition" (Hawley, 1968, p.328-337.). Therefore, isomorphism can be seen as a coping mechanism used by companies to gain legitimacy in the consumer's mind. Building on [START_REF] Meyer | The Impact of the Centralization of Educational Funding and Control on State and Local Organizational Governance[END_REF] and [START_REF] Fennell | The Effects of Environmental Characteristics on the Structure of Hospital Clusters[END_REF], [START_REF] Dimaggio | The Iron Cage Revisited : Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields[END_REF] argue that there are two types of isomorphism: one that relates to competition between organizations within a field, and one that relates to institutions. Deephouse (1996) tested the direct effect of isomorphism on legitimacy in a 7-yearlong study and found that strategic isomorphism for companies had a positive impact on multiple measures of legitimacy, thus supporting propositions from [START_REF] Meyer | Institutionalized Organizations : Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony[END_REF], [START_REF] Dimaggio | The Iron Cage Revisited : Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields[END_REF] andSuchman (1995). Therefore, isomorphism, or mimicking other actors to be classified as similar by consumers, affects organizational outcomes.

Recently, research on legitimacy has also focused on consumers' attribution of legitimacy.

According to Alexiou and Wiggins (2019, p.470) "To fully understand legitimacy as a complex construct, it is necessary to capture both collective perceptions and individual judgments".

Because legitimacy judgments occur across multiple levels both simultaneously and recursively; individual perceptions of categorical norms, provide shared cognitive templates with which consumers make legitimacy judgments. In this research, we agree with [START_REF] Alexiou | Measuring individual legitimacy perceptions : Scale development and validation[END_REF] and focus on individual processes of categorization that will then affect perceptions of legitimacy. We, therefore, move from an institutional approach of legitimacy to an individual-based approach, focusing on elements influencing legitimacy judgments.

Individual perceptions of legitimacy -The use of categorization theory

In this research, we will build on categorization theory to explore the constitutive elements of sport that influence consumers' perceptions of leisure activities and influence them by associating these leisure activities to the "sports category".

Marketing scholars have started to explore how legitimacy is built and attributed by consumers to organizations, emphasizing once more the importance of the individual perception (e.g. [START_REF] Stanaland | Consumer Perceptions of the Antecedents and Consequences of Corporate Social Responsibility[END_REF][START_REF] Yang | Dealing with Institutional Distances in International Marketing Channels : Governance Strategies that Engender Legitimacy and Efficiency[END_REF][START_REF] Humphreys | Framing the Game : Assessing the Impact of Cultural Representations on Consumer Perceptions of Legitimacy[END_REF][START_REF] Panwar | The Legitimacy of CSR Actions of Publicly Traded Companies Versus Family-Owned Companies[END_REF][START_REF] Chaney | Making the store a place of learning : The effects of instore educational activities on retailer legitimacy and shopping intentions[END_REF][START_REF] Hu | Love or hate, depends on who's saying it : How legitimacy of brand rejection alters brand preferences[END_REF][START_REF] Lee | The effects of information cues on perceived legitimacy of companies that promote corporate social responsibility initiatives on social networking sites[END_REF]. Research has explored legitimacy processes in many contexts, such as retailing [START_REF] Chaney | Making the store a place of learning : The effects of instore educational activities on retailer legitimacy and shopping intentions[END_REF], Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) [START_REF] Stanaland | Consumer Perceptions of the Antecedents and Consequences of Corporate Social Responsibility[END_REF][START_REF] Panwar | The Legitimacy of CSR Actions of Publicly Traded Companies Versus Family-Owned Companies[END_REF][START_REF] Lee | The effects of information cues on perceived legitimacy of companies that promote corporate social responsibility initiatives on social networking sites[END_REF], brands [START_REF] Hu | Love or hate, depends on who's saying it : How legitimacy of brand rejection alters brand preferences[END_REF] or firms in general [START_REF] Yang | Dealing with Institutional Distances in International Marketing Channels : Governance Strategies that Engender Legitimacy and Efficiency[END_REF].

In another context, [START_REF] Humphreys | Framing the Game : Assessing the Impact of Cultural Representations on Consumer Perceptions of Legitimacy[END_REF] explored how media framing of online gambling affected consumers' perception of legitimacy using categorization theory [START_REF] Higgins | Nature of priming effects on categorization[END_REF]. In this research, we extend [START_REF] Humphreys | Framing the Game : Assessing the Impact of Cultural Representations on Consumer Perceptions of Legitimacy[END_REF] by positing that consumer categorization processes affect not only their perception of legitimacy but also other consumer outcomes. In this research, we build on previous research on categorization theory, and particularly on [START_REF] Humphreys | Framing the Game : Assessing the Impact of Cultural Representations on Consumer Perceptions of Legitimacy[END_REF] work on perceived legitimacy and categorization theory to propose that the categorization of leisure activities as being sporty influences not only brand legitimacy but alsoand more generally -consumers' behavioral outcomes.

Research on consumer Categorization started in the late 70s and explored how priming effects influenced the naming of the stimulus [START_REF] Forbach | Repetition and practice effects in a lexical decision task[END_REF][START_REF] Meyer | Loci of Contextual Effects on Visual Word Recognition[END_REF][START_REF] Neely | Semantic priming and retrieval from lexical memory : Roles of inhibitionless spreading activation and limited-capacity attention[END_REF][START_REF] Warren | Time and the spread of activation in memory[END_REF]; on characterization and identification of the stimulus (Bargh and Pietro-monaco, 1982;Higgins, Rholes and Jones,1977;[START_REF] Rholes | Cognitive Accessibility and Causal Attributions[END_REF][START_REF] Srull | The role of category accessibility in the interpretation of information about persons : Some determinants and implications[END_REF]; but also subsequent consumer processing [START_REF] Hayes-Roth | Evolution of cognitive structures and processes[END_REF][START_REF] Reder | Integrated knowledge in different tasks : The role of retrieval strategy on fan effects[END_REF]Srull andWyer, 1979, 1980;[START_REF] Higgins | Nature of priming effects on categorization[END_REF].

In a marketing context, Categorization was first explored and applied in the seminal work of [START_REF] Alba | Dimensions of Consumer Expertise[END_REF] [START_REF] Alba | Dimensions of Consumer Expertise[END_REF] Then, [START_REF] Cohen | Alternative Models of Categorization : Toward a Contingent Processing Framework[END_REF] proposed an approach of categorization theory, based on psychology research [START_REF] Mervis | Categorization of natural objects[END_REF]. According to Mervis and Rosch (1981, p.341):

"categories exist whenever two or more distinguishable objects or events are treated equivalently. This equivalent treatment may take any number of forms, such as labeling distinct objects or events with the same name or performing the same action on different objects.

Stimulus situations are unique, but organisms do not treat them uniquely; they answer based on past learning and categorization. In this sense, categorization may be considered one of the most basic functions of living creatures". Categorization can therefore be seen as a process through which consumers regroup similar objects and stimuli under similar categories. Moreover, according to Mervin and Rosh (1981), categorization is considered a fundamental cognitive activity that encompasses all forms of stimulus situations, making it a promising theory for marketers. Finally, in a cognitive psychology context, [START_REF] Srull | Category accessibility and social perception : Some implications for the study of person memory and interpersonal judgments[END_REF] found that people categorize social experiences and associated expectations, and then use such categorization to attend to information, interpret and infer meanings, solve problems, set goals, or even select their behavior towards the social experience.

Applied to a marketing context, the categorization process explains that consumers' knowledge about products, services, or brands forms at least partially integrated structures in memory [START_REF] Cohen | Alternative Models of Categorization : Toward a Contingent Processing Framework[END_REF]. These structures should be constructed using similar attributes and features. From a consumer perspective, categorization is used to enhance and facilitate information processing and cognitive stability [START_REF] Lingle | Of cabbages and kings : Assessing the extendibility of natural object concept models to social things[END_REF]; [START_REF] Cohen | Alternative Models of Categorization : Toward a Contingent Processing Framework[END_REF]. [START_REF] Boush | How advertising slogans can prime evaluations of brand extensions[END_REF], for example, showed how priming a food-product extension's advertisement with different qualities (nutrition, spicy or high quality) led to differences in the overall consumer evaluation of the product extension. Using previous research, [START_REF] Cohen | Alternative Models of Categorization : Toward a Contingent Processing Framework[END_REF] show how customer categorization affects evaluation, judgment and affective responses [START_REF] Cohen | The Role of Affect in Categorization : Toward a Reconsideration of the Concept of Attitude[END_REF][START_REF] Fiske | Introduction to Communication Studies[END_REF][START_REF] Barsalou | Ad hoc categories[END_REF][START_REF] Hutchinson | A Framework for Understanding Consumer Knowledge. Structural Aspects and Information Acquisition[END_REF]Sujan, 1985;[START_REF] Fazio | On the automatic activation of attitudes[END_REF]. Then, they also present three views of categorization that differ in their analytical and non-analytical processes for consumers: the Classical view, the Prototype/Probabilistic View, and the Exemplar view.

The classical view, or the rule defined view, posits that people adopt conscious and unconscious concept identification strategies that maximize the information gained from each stimulus, and ensure that the concept will be attained with certainty, minimizing errors and cognitive strain on the way to solutions [START_REF] Fink | Pronounceability as an explanation of the difference between word and nonsense anagrams[END_REF][START_REF] Bruner | The Anthropology of Experience[END_REF][START_REF] Cohen | Alternative Models of Categorization : Toward a Contingent Processing Framework[END_REF].

However, this view seems to only address easily definable and unambiguous concepts. Therefore, it is not the best suited in most consumer settings.

The prototype or probabilistic view proposes that categorization processes rely on mental category memberships that include "prototype" constructs. Prototypes are defined in terms of sets of features commonly associated with members of categories (Rosch and Mervis, 1975), with each feature having its weight in the category. This view proposes that people categorize stimulus based on the overall goodness of membership assessment, rather than on critical features.

Finally, in the exemplar view, stimuli are categorized by cueing the retrieval of specific category exemplars. According to [START_REF] Cohen | Alternative Models of Categorization : Toward a Contingent Processing Framework[END_REF]: "The more similar the target instance is to concrete exemplars of a category, the more likely it will be placed in that category". The following table, extracted from [START_REF] Cohen | Alternative Models of Categorization : Toward a Contingent Processing Framework[END_REF] provides an overview of the three views of categorization.

Chapter 2 Section 1: A perception-based approach -The contribution of categorization models 80

Category representation

Comparison process

Classical / Rule defined Prototype / Probabilistic defined Exemplar defined Analytic Automatic mechanisms Preconscious dimensional analysis of target (e.g., brightness, shape, location for visual inputs) instigates serial comparisons to hierarchically organized memory representations until a "satisfactory" match is found. Illustrated in models of stimulus detection/identification and word recognition.

Target is compared to either a probabilistic rule or an ideal category member possibly via automatic (and exhaustive) retrieval of features associated to some degree with a category. The larger the number of "successful" comparisons, the closer the target is to the centroid of the category.

The category is represented by several "good" examples. These are specific concrete instances. Comparison to a target is carried out on a feature-to-feature basis following initial retrieval of "plausible" or available exemplars as in Rule Defined.

Deliberative mechanisms

Emphasis is on more conscious and top-down mechanisms. Key features of target are singled out for explicit comparison against a category-defining feature-based rule (which itself may be abstracted from prior learning experiences).

Same as the analytic automatic mechanism except mechanism is more similar to hypothesis testing wherein either a prescribed number of critical features tests must be confirmed or the matches must be ." sufficiently close" on a requisite number of features to establish family resemblance.

Exemplar retrieval is probably guided by top-down or contextual factors. The closeness of match is determined by individual features tests based most likely on some combination of several feature matches and closeness of individual matches. Once exemplar(s) is (are) identified, idiosyncratic features may play an important role in all exemplar comparisons.

Nonanalytic

Automatic mechanisms Same as the analytic automatic mechanism except for configural or template representation of target and feature-based rules are compared directly using some overall "automatic" response to similarity/dissimilarity (possibly activation level following an unsuccessful comparison). No clearly specified model is available for this cell.

Though both representational versions of a prototype model are possible, a more "holistic" comparison to some hypothetical "ideal" category member is suggested. The mechanism is unspecified, possibly similar to the Rule defined nonanalytic automatic mechanism wherein a significant departure from a "good fit" leads to continued memory search.

Preconscious processing of target feature-level information produces an overall representation that is compared directly against an overall representation of an exemplar. Significant dissimilarity/ incongruity leads to the search for better fitting exemplars. No well-specified model exists for this cell Deliberative mechanisms Same as the analytic deliberative mechanism except for a configural or template representation of target and feature-based rule are compared directly, and criterion centers on degree of overall fit (e.g., pattern matching). No clearly specified model is available for this cell.

This differs from the nonanalytic automatic mechanism in that a more "top-down" comparison process is suggested. The criterion, therefore, may be similar to a "nearest neighbor" rule proceeding from the most "plausible" or available category. Nonfeature-based comparisons are not well specified and may be difficult to distinguish from well-earned and rapid feature-based automatic mechanisms.

Similar to the prototype defined nonanalytic deliberative mechanism except that the matching process and criterion center on some direct determination of the degree of overall similarity to one or several exemplars. Configural properties (at a minimum, correlations among features) are possible as a basis for comparison; however, no more global model has been clearly specified.

Table 8: Typology of information processing models of categorization (from Cohen and Bsu, 1987) Chapter 2 Section 1: A perception-based approach -The contribution of categorization models 81 In a psychology context, [START_REF] Nosofsky | Exemplar-based accounts of relations between categorization, recognition, and typicality[END_REF] and [START_REF] Nosofsky | Combining exemplar-based category representations and connectionist learning rules[END_REF] explored these different types of models and compared them using experiments and previous research [START_REF] Medin | Context theory of categorization learning[END_REF][START_REF] Gluck | From conditioning to category learning : An adaptive network model[END_REF]. [START_REF] Nosofsky | Exemplar-based accounts of relations between categorization, recognition, and typicality[END_REF] first focused on the exemplar view and tested an exemplar-based approach to interpreting old-new recognition memory data obtained in categorization learning situations with quantitative tests.

He found that the tests revealed some success in using the exemplar model to account for detailed relations between categorization and recognition. [START_REF] Nosofsky | Combining exemplar-based category representations and connectionist learning rules[END_REF] then conducted two other studies to test and compare the efficiency of a prototype-based model and an exemplar-based model in similar situations. Results showed the importance of using an exemplar-based category representation. Indeed, only that exemplar-based model accounted for all the major qualitative phenomena and achieved good quantitative predictions in terms of learning and transfer of data. From a psychological point of view, the exemplar view, therefore, seems to be the best in predicting categorization models. [START_REF] Basu | Consumers' categorization processes : An examination with two alternative methodological paradigms[END_REF] extended previous work from [START_REF] Cohen | Alternative Models of Categorization : Toward a Contingent Processing Framework[END_REF] and Nosofsky, Kruscke and McKinley (1992) using two methodological paradigms, the first involving the outcome of categorization judgments made by consumers for unfamiliar products/brands. The second, based on the retrieval of exemplars acquired during category learning and verification of their match with the target, was subjected to an empirical examination. They found that both the category-judgment and verification paradigms were promising in terms of model identification.

More precisely, they also focused on the analytic/nonanalytic dichotomy in their research. They found that the two categorization processes, analytic and nonanalytic, led to differences in accuracy in verifying inconsistent-associated and consistent-unassociated aspects of category exemplars that subjects had been exposed to in the learning stage of the study.

In the 1990s, market research using categorization theory emerged (e.g. [START_REF] Ozanne | A Study of Information Search Behavior during the Categorization of New Products[END_REF][START_REF] Basu | Consumers' categorization processes : An examination with two alternative methodological paradigms[END_REF][START_REF] Urban | Premarket Forecasting for New Consumer Durable Goods : Modeling Categorization, Elimination, and Consideration Phenomena[END_REF][START_REF] Schmitt | Language Structure and Categorization : A Study of Classifiers in Consumer Cognition, Judgment, and Choice[END_REF].

Most of this research focused on either product extension (e.g. [START_REF] Ozanne | A Study of Information Search Behavior during the Categorization of New Products[END_REF], brand extension (e.g. Urban, Hulland and Weinber, 1993;[START_REF] Cegarra | Co-branding: Clarification du concept[END_REF][START_REF] Michel | L'extension de gamme verticale: Clarification du concept[END_REF] or co-branding (e.g. [START_REF] Cegarra | Co-branding: Clarification du concept[END_REF]. Other works, for example, [START_REF] Schmitt | Language Structure and Categorization : A Study of Classifiers in Consumer Cognition, Judgment, and Choice[END_REF] explored how language affected not only consumer cognition but also their judgment and choice, highlighting once more how categorization models can help predict not only consumers' perception but also their behavioral attention.

Chapter 2 Section 1: A perception-based approach -The contribution of categorization models 82

In the 2000s, marketing research using categorization theory focused mostly on new productcategorization and knowledge transfer (e.g. Morau, Markman and Lehmann, 2001;[START_REF] Loken | Categorization Theory and Research in Consumer Psychology : Category Representation and Category-Based Inference[END_REF]. Morau, Markman and Lehman (2001) focused on customer responses to new products using two experiments. In their experiment, two ads for digital cameras were displayed, one framing the digital camera as a camera, and the other framing the digital camera as a scanner. Results showed that participants who were exposed to the "camera" framed advertisement perceived the pictures of the camera as being more qualitative than the other group. This can be explained by the fact that cameras, as a category, are seen as more qualitative when taking pictures. Therefore, only framing a camera as a scanner in an ad had an effect on consumers' mental representation of the object and on their perceived quality of that same object. The following figure provides the stimuli used during the experiment (from Morau, [START_REF] Moreau | Entrenched Knowledge Structures and Consumer Response to New Products[END_REF]. In an overview of existing consumer psychology research, Loken, [START_REF] Loken | Categorization Theory and Research in Consumer Psychology : Category Representation and Category-Based Inference[END_REF] provide a list of existing research using categorization theory. The following table provides an updated version of their work

Chapter 2 Section 1: A perception-based approach -The contribution of categorization models Table 9: Overview of existing research using categorization theory (adapted from [START_REF] Loken | Categorization Theory and Research in Consumer Psychology : Category Representation and Category-Based Inference[END_REF]and Vergne and Wry, 2013) In a review of existing research on categorization, Vergne and Wry ( 2013) also offer some insights concerning future opportunities in the field. In their opinion, categories can be linked with audience perceptions, which then can improve the audience's willingness to support an organization. They also argue for the use of categorization in providing legitimacy. Finally, they also "envision exciting research in the area of strategic categorization. Whereas emergence studies focus on the processes of building new categories, opportunities abound to explore how organizations strategically signal their affiliation(s) within an existing category system. For instance, [START_REF] Vergne | Stigmatized Categories and Public Disapproval of Organizations : A Mixed-Methods Study of the Global Arms Industry, 1996-2007[END_REF] showed that organizations can manipulate how they and their competitors are classified to dilute a stigmatized identity". Therefore, companies could manipulate how consumers categorize to affect not only their brand perception but also consumer-related outcomes.

The same year, [START_REF] Humphreys | Framing the Game : Assessing the Impact of Cultural Representations on Consumer Perceptions of Legitimacy[END_REF] also explored the link between legitimacy and categorization, by studying how media coverage affected customers' categorization of leisure activities such as gambling. In this research, we do not aim to extend work on media's influence on consumer categorization. However, we aim to extend that work and apply it to another context, where categorization is still subject to debate even at the individual level, esport.

Chapter 2 Section 1: A perception-based approach -The contribution of categorization models 84 More recently, research started to explore how visual and non-visual elements affect consumers' categorization of different stimuli (Koschman and Isaac, 2018;[START_REF]goal-related categories Ratneshwar and Shocker[END_REF].

For example, Koschman and Isaac (2018) showed how representations of store format (e.g. Club stores, Drug stores, Crocery stores) affected consumer price expectation and choice decisions. Chen et al (2020) also showed how packaging shape, as a visual cue, had an impact on the brand status categorization, and ultimately on the brand choice for consumers. In our research, we aim to extend our logic to customer experiences.

Building on categorization theory, we explore the constitutive elements of sport that influence consumers' perceptions of leisure activities and influence them by associating these leisure activities to the "sports category". These constitutive elements will be explored further in the second part of this research, during the measurement tool development. The first section of the chapter focusing on the influence of categorization theory in marketing and consumer behavior, we can now turn to the object that we will analyze through consumer categorization: esport. In the following sections, we will first define esport as an object of study. Then, we will provide theoretical justification for the use of esport as an object of categorization. Hemphill (2006) proposed one of the first definitions of esport in research. In his paper, he explores the relations between sports game simulations and 'real sports', as well as the possible categorization of these simulations as sports. In his definition, cybersports are simulations of real-world sports and are sufficiently "physical" and "skillful" to be considered as sports, hereby suggesting that physicality and skills can be considered important dimensions that one may refer to characterize an activity as sporty. At the same time, Wagner (2006, p4.), in his quest to examine the scientific relevance of esport, defines it as "an area of sports activities in which people develop and train mental or physical abilities in the use of information and communication technologies". Let us note that here again, physicality appears as a dimension used to characterize sports, in addition to mental abilities.

However, sports simulations are only a small part of esport, and the most-watched and played esport games are other types of video games, which are not based on real-world sports. To have a better understanding of what esport represents, Witkowski (2012, p.350) proposes that esport "commonly refers to an organized and competitive approach to playing computer games". More recently, more complete definitions of esport have also emerged. For example, Segal (2014, para.6) defines esport as "a catchall term for games that resemble conventional sports insofar as they have superstars, playoffs, fans, uniforms, comebacks, and upsets… But where all the action occurs online, and the contestants hardly move". As we can see, most of the early definitions regarding esport make clear reference to sports. [START_REF] Jenny | Virtual(ly) Athletes : Where eSports Fit Within the Definition of "Sport[END_REF], p.15 proposed a more complete and detailed definition of esport, still related to sport. In their view, esport "include play and competition, are organized by rules, require skill, and have a broad following.

However, eSport currently lacks great physicality and institutionalization.". In 2017, Hamari and Sjöblom also propose their definition of esport based on works from Witkowski (in Christopher and Scholz, 2009;2012) and [START_REF] Taylor | Raising the Stakes : E-Sports and the Professionalization of Computer Gaming[END_REF]. They define esport as "a form of sports where the primary aspects of the sport are facilitated by electronic systems. The input of players and teams, as well as the output of the esport system, are mediated by human-computer interfaces" (p.221). Their first remark regarding the definition of esport is that, maybe due to the relative youth of the research object, there are many contested definitions of esport. It is defined as either competitive gaming, computer-mediated sport, or interactive spectatorship [START_REF] Reitman | Esports Research : A Literature Review[END_REF], and definitions emphasize different aspects such as physicality, computer mediation, institutional infrastructure and spectatorship. However, the definition of esport as competitive gaming seems to be the most widely accepted. Indeed, this definition allows bypassing the eternal debate regarding the categorization of esport as a sport. Moreover, the status of esport as videogame makes consensus, and the competitive aspect of esport is at the center of its definition. According to Reitman et al. (2020, p.40) "proponents of this definition of esport do not consider the broadcast popularity and level of institutional infrastructure surrounding a game title to be factors in classifying a game as an esport". Other definitions of esport that focus on aspects such as teams [START_REF] Freeman | eSports as An Emerging Research Context at CHI : Diverse Perspectives on Definitions[END_REF], technology (Zang, Wu and Li, 2007), law [START_REF] Abanazir | E-sport and the EU : The view from the English Bridge Union[END_REF], or cultural significance [START_REF] Taylor | Raising the Stakes : E-Sports and the Professionalization of Computer Gaming[END_REF][START_REF] Burk | Owning e-sport : Proprietary Rights in Professional Computer Gaming[END_REF] exist but mostly focus on non-central aspects that do not help to define esport.

From what precedes, in this research, we adopt the most widely used and broadest definition of esport, and therefore, we define esport as "any form of competitive video gaming in which human players compete against each other". With this definition, we follow the definition of France Esport, which defines esport as "a set of practices that allow players to confront each other through an electronic medium, mainly the video game, whether synchronously (simultaneous confrontation) or asynchronously (confrontation by high score or interposed time)" (https://www.france-esports.org/). Different types of esport practices can be introduced using that definition. Esport can be a leisure practice in which players play against their peers without any formal competition or ranking. It can also be an amateur practice where players engage in competition from time to time, be it through online ranking or physical events. Esport can also be seen as a professional practice where players have a contractual relationship with teams and engage intensively in competitions. Finally, esport can also be a show practice. This type of practice concerns streamers and video makers who share their practice on video streaming platforms such as Twitch and Youtube, to entertain their audience. The following figure provides an overview of the different types of esport practices. Before going any further, it seems important to differentiate esport from sports simulation video games, as noted by [START_REF] Jenny | Virtual(ly) Athletes : Where eSports Fit Within the Definition of "Sport[END_REF]. While sport video games aim to emulate real-life sport, with games such as FIFA, NFL, or NBA2K, esport titles are not bound in definition to a specific genre of game. They can be many types of games, such as shooter games, strategy games, arcade games, simulation games… Sport simulation games nowadays represent a niche market in esport, and very few people play them competitively. Sport simulation games are therefore part of esport but represent a minority. Most esport games are not based on real sports and are more centered on fantasy worlds. The following table, extracted from a Statista/Newzoo study (2020) proposes a list of the most played esport titles, with their genres, none of them being sport simulations games.

Leisure Practice

Free and informal

No competition

Competitive Practice

Offline / Online Amateur Practice

Competitions without regular remuneration

Professionnal Practice As we can see from the previously highlighted definitions of esport, the similarities between sport and esport and the fit between esport and perceived sportivity seem to be apparent already.

However, to go deeper into the similarities and differences between sport and esport and to justify the use of categorization theory, we will need to look back at esport history. In the next part of this section, we will explore this history, but also the development of esport, and its relations to sport in both research and management. This section will allow us to better understand the choice of esport and its categorization as either a sport or not.

The history of esport

Several authors have worked on the history of esport to better understand the phenomenon that it is today [START_REF] Wagner | On the Scientific Relevance of eSports[END_REF][START_REF] Borowy | Pioneering eSport : The Experience Economy and the Marketing of Early 1980s Arcade Gaming Contests[END_REF][START_REF] Heere | Embracing the sportification of society : Defining e-sports through a polymorphic view on sport[END_REF][START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. One of the most recent and complete reviews of the history of esport comes from [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF], who dedicates

Chapter 2 Section 2: Introducing esport 90 one complete chapter to the history of the discipline in his book. First, he explains how a historical view of esport is needed to understand the path it took and how its strategic management evolved, using the population ecology theory [START_REF] Aldrich | Design Strategy from the Population Perspective[END_REF] a theory derived from Darwin that focuses on the battle for survival [START_REF] Darwin | On the Origin of Species[END_REF]. [START_REF] Wagner | On the Scientific Relevance of eSports[END_REF], in one of the pioneering works on esport, dates back the first usage of the term to a 1999 press release published on the launch of the Online Gamer Association (OGA), a British governing body that aimed at helping online gaming in its growth period. According to him, the first esport tournaments took place after the release of the First Person Shooter (FPS) games Doom and Quake, which were the first to integrate online tournaments and rankings [START_REF] Wagner | On the Scientific Relevance of eSports[END_REF]. [START_REF] Borowy | Pioneering eSport : The Experience Economy and the Marketing of Early 1980s Arcade Gaming Contests[END_REF], in another attempt to explore the history of esport, linked the emergence of competitive gaming with the explosion of the arcade games industry in the late 70s and the early 80s. In their paper, they explain how the explosion of Arcades, with the experience economy, and the growing face-to-face competitions between players at that time encouraged the explosion of esport. They also propose that the first actual video game tournament (i.e. the first esport event) was the First National Space Invaders Competition that took place all over the USA in 1980, organized by the company Atari. [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF] defines the Intergalactic Spacewar Olympics as the first competitive video game event in history. It took place in 1972, had a cash prize for the winners (a one-year subscription to the Rolling Stone magazine), and took place at Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab in California. In the following years, the video game market took off, consoles started to be sold all around the world, and games editors started to create competitive events. Similarly, arcades spaces opened everywhere. However, it remained difficult for the first video game companies to earn enough for their products and create lasting events. For example, even though the first National Space Invaders Championship seemed to be a relative success with more than 10 000 participants all over the USA in 1980, the second one, scheduled one year later happened to be a huge failure despite a 50000$ prize money. Up to 10000 participants were expected, but only 147 showed up, due to the cost of traveling. Moreover, comments from the two winners, Eric Ginner and Ok-Soo Han revealed that they never received their prize money, highlighting once more the financial difficulties video games companies encountered at that time [START_REF] Smith | The Golden Age Arcade Historian : The Atari $50,000 Centipede Fiasco[END_REF][START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF].

Chapter 2 Section 2: Introducing esport 91 However, we can also find some examples of success in the early days of competitive video gaming during the arcade era. For example, Starcadea TV show in which contestants played against each other on arcade video gamesaired for 4 seasons, with 137 episodes being recorded (Seehan, 2017). Nintendo also used competitions as a marketing tool with the Nintendo World Championships that took place in 1990 in 29 different American cities.

The real turning point in the history of esport happened in the late 90s, with the emergence of the internet and LAN parties. During the 80s and the beginning of the 90s, computers and consoles moved from being collective objects to individual properties, with consoles as famous as the GameBoy (1989), the Super NES (1990), the Playstation 1 (1994), the SEGA Saturn (1994) and the Nintendo 64 (1996) bein released. With some consoles and computers integrating online functions, it was now possible to organize competitions without playing on the same device, thus marking a huge shift in the organizations of video game competitions [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF].

One of the first esport tournaments (using network possibilities) was the 1997 Red Annihilation Tournament. It took place on the video game Quake, released one year earlier. This time, the prize pool was not money, but a car, the Ferrari 328 GTS owned by the lead developer of the game. The event gathered nearly 2000 participants and was a success. At the same time, several organizations aiming at organizing tournaments emerged, representing a first form of institutionalization of events. The most notable ones are the Battle by the Bay (1996), the QuakeCon (1996), the Cyberathlete Professional League (1997), the Deutsche Clanliga (1997), the Clanbase League (1998), the French Electronic Sport World Cup (2002) and the US American Major League (2002) [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. Most of the money for the events organized by these organizations came from electronic companies that acted as sponsors, such as Intel or AMD. Participating in this kind of event required good processors and components for the players' computers. Therefore, sponsoring these types of events represented a great marketing opportunity for companies such as Intel and AMD, companies that specialized in the development of such technology. At the same time, most of the events' organizers were able to generate some money with the events, but most of it was immediately used in new competitions [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. Moreover, the broadcasting of such events was difficult, as video games were not built to be spectated but played, and only hardcore fans were able to watch tournaments through live streams. Thailand, decided to handle it through modernization. The government offered help to its citizens by subsidizing the purchase of a computer. They also greatly improved internet broadband access. Moreover, PC bangs, South Korean internet cafes also became extremely popular throughout the country [START_REF] Yoo | A Longitudinal Exploration of Strategic Isomorphism : The Case of the National Football League[END_REF]. Citizens could therefore buy a computer or rent one in these PC bangs, thus providing a favorable environment for the development of an esport scene [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. After the release of Starcraft, a real-time strategy (RTS) video game in 1998, South Korea became an esport powerhouse. The game became very popular in the country, and it led to the creation of the Korean Esport Association (KeSPA), an association approved by the Korean Ministry of Culture, Sport and Tourism. The KeSPA worked for the regulation of esport, notably with the broadcasting of tournaments and the setting up of a regular league schedule. This led to an ever-increasing fan base in South Korea [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF].

Moreover, the first international esport event was also born in South Korea, at the initiative of the company Samsung, and was called the World Cyber Games. The first edition, the WCG Challenge took place in 2000, had a global prize pool of 200 000$, and had 180 participants from 17 countries competing against each other on four different games: Ages of Empires II, FIFA 2000, Quake III Arena and Starcraft: Brood War.

As we have seen above, South Korea implemented strong governance over esport in its infancy.

However, the situation was not the same elsewhere at that time and South Korea represented an exception where business models could evolve more easily [START_REF] Jin | Korea's Online Gaming Empire[END_REF]. In the rest of the world, the situation was more chaotic, and many organizations flourished, with only a few being professional [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. A perfect example of the chaotic situation in NA and Europe was Chapter 2 Section 2: Introducing esport 93 the Cyber X Games in Las Vegas in 2004. This tournament, which was supposed to be the biggest esport tournament ever with a cash prize of 600 000$ and sponsors such as ATI, AMD and Microsoft, became the biggest fiasco in history. Most of the tournaments were canceled, and some of them were even shut down during the competition, scaring off companies such as AMD for a while [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF].

However, even though such tournaments showed how difficult it was for event organizers to create financially lasting tournaments, they also showed opportunities in the new esport ecosystem. For example, the first "professional" contract between a team and a player outside of South Korea was signed in 2003 between Ola 'elemNt' Moum and his team, SK Gaming [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. This event represents a first step in the professionalization and legitimization of esport. The first official player transfer occurred one year later, in 2004, when elemNt moved from SK Gaming to Team NoA. The first corporate team, ALTERNATE aTTaX, born in 2003 at the initiative of the company Alternat represents another first step of professionalization for esport outside of South Korea [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. Starting from 2004, the Donau-Universität Krems, in Austria, also offered a first professional esport and competitive computer gaming master's degree for its students, anticipating the emergence of the new economic sector [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. Finally, at the same time, game developers themselves started to see the potential offered by esport. For example, in 2001, Valve, introduced HLTV for its Counter Strike game, a website offering both news regarding the competitive scene, but also dedicated servers to watch matches. Following this initiative, more and more developers decided to include spectator mode and possibilities to watch matches in their games [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. However, at that time, the sustainability of the market outside of South Korea was still prone to debate, and only a very small portion of the esport ecosystem was able to make an actual profit. If any player or team stopped performing at the top level for even a short amount of time, they were bound to disappear.

The following years, from 2005 to 2008, marked the first phase of stability for esport, with most of the pioneer organizations surviving in the ecosystem and some events showing yet other signs of the potentiality offered by esport [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. For example, the final of the CPL World Tour, a tournament organized by the Cyberathlete Professional League in 2005 in 9 cities Chapter 2 Section 2: Introducing esport 94 all around the world for the game Painkiller, offered a cash prize of 1 000 000$. The finals were broadcasted on TV by MTV.

China also showed its first interest in esport at that time with the World esport Games hosted for players living in South Korea and China in 2005. However, even though the audience for esport was growing, there were still problems regarding the broadcasting of events. One of the only ways to watch esport was through the use of IPTV, but it was too expensive, and advertisers were not interested in using such a medium. Television seemed to be the only reliable platform to broadcast esport [START_REF] Lingle | The Complicated Past (and Future) of Esports on TV[END_REF], and tournaments such as the ESL partnered with NBC GIGA, a television broadcaster to boost their growth [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF].

At that time, internet speed was still insufficient in most of the countries to be considered a reliable option for broadcasting esport. However, the fit between esport and television was not perfect, and some esport companies vanished after poor audiences. While in the USA the esport model developed around partnerships with TV broadcasters and such, Europe saw a more organic development, with increasing tournaments gaining in popularity every year [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. Outside of European-based tournaments such as the ESWC launched in 2003, Asianbased tournaments also visited Europe, with the World Cyber Games taking place in Italy and Germany. Moreover, the launch of the Intel Extreme Master in 2006 also provided Europe with a huge tournament, focusing on a slower and more organic growth at first. Meanwhile, in South Korea, events such as the Proleague finals attracted more than 120 000 people, and players' contracts continued to get bigger. For example, in 2005, the player Lim 'BoxeR' Yo-Hwan signed a contract with the team SK Telecom T1 for an annual salary of 180 000$ with 80 000$ in bonuses [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]), thus providing another example of the growth of the esport market.

In addition to these growing business opportunities offered by esport, new organizations emerged in the early 2000s [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. For example, teams like Fnatic, or CompLexity, which acted like professional organizations since their birth, appeared, and federations emerged. A perfect example of such federations is the International esport Federation (IeSF), born in 2008 to act as an international governing body for esport. However, that federation did not get any recognition from national federations and the existing esport scene [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. Some esport teams also tried to self-regulate between them. For example, the G7 teams were Similar to many industries, the financial crisis of 2009 had a huge impact on the esport ecosystem in general. Sponsors, which represented most of the revenue for teams withdrew most of their money dedicated to esport (Messier in Christopher and [START_REF] Christophers | ESports Yearbook[END_REF]. To illustrate this crisis, we can have a look at the WCG 2010 prize pool, which was cut in half compared to 2009 (from 500 000$ to 250 000$). Some companies that supported esport also decided to reduce their investment because of the crisis, notably Nvidia. As a notable consequence, the ESWC did not recover from the loss of a sponsor like Nvidia and filed for bankruptcy in 2009.

The crisis also revealed how teams were too dependent on money coming from outsiders, and thus they decided to reorganize themselves by dropping certain players and certain games after the crisis [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. The crisis also showed opportunities for esport, notably in terms of broadcasting with the internet, and even game developers started to develop their game with audience and viewership in mind. During the crisis, three major events that have influenced esport since their existence needs to be highlighted. First, the release of the video game League of Legends in 2009 has had a huge impact on esport. Secondly, the announcement of Starcraft II, the sequel of one of the most played esport games also had an impact.

Thirdly, the launch of Twitch, a video streaming platform dedicated to the broadcasting of video games, at the initiative of the website Justin.tv, in 2011 greatly contributed to the explosion of esport worldwide. We will come back to League of Legends, the video game we decided to focus on for our field study, later. anybody could stream, and consequently, streaming or IPTV grew exponentially". Not only did tournament organizers decide to use Twitch, but even professional esport players also started to broadcast their daily games or training and decided to create other events [START_REF] Scholz | Going Beyond Ambidexterity in the Media Industry : ESports as Pioneer of Ultradexterity[END_REF].

Twitch used advertising as a way to monetize the platform, and it became an additional source of revenue for the players, thus stabilizing the esport ecosystem [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. Additionally, spectators were finally able to watch games freely, without any major technical constraints, thus leading to an explosion in esport viewership. Moreover, from a strategic point of view, Twitch was the first reliable way for esport organizers and teams to show their viewership and to show metrics that would help in negotiations with sponsors. In return, the growth of esport content of Twitch also normalized the practice of watching casual video games for fun, without any competition [START_REF] Partin | StarCraft II' : How Blizzard Brought the King of Esports Back From the Dead-Variety[END_REF]. Consequently, esport companies were not only dependent on sponsors anymore, and could finally start to develop by themselves through their audience.

Moreover, game developers that were still reluctant to esport finally saw its opportunities and started to build leagues and championships around their games, transforming esport into a "golden goose everyone was chasing" [START_REF] Pope | The impact of sport sponsorship activities, Corporate image and prior use on a consumer purchase Intent[END_REF].

In 2014, Amazon saw the potential offered by Twitch and acquired the company, marking the first interaction between esport and non-video game-related companies. Nowadays, more and more companies are interested in esport, and some even invest in it without being of that particular domain or relating to sports in any way. This is for instance the case of some wellknown luxury brands, like Louis Vuitton which achieved a partnership with League of Legends and Louis Vuitton, or even Gucci with 100 Thieves, an esport team.

Twitch, as we have seen before, it is the preferred broadcaster for esport. In 2017 there were 'only' 750 000 concurrent esport viewers daily (Statista, 2021). That number rose to 1,88 million in 2020 and is expected to reach 3,24 million in 2024. Similarly, while esport media revenues were $21.5 million in 2017, they were $196.02 million in 2020 and are expected to reach $815.32 million in 2024. On their 2020 annual review, Twitch also published some interesting numbers. League of Legends was the most-watched game in 2020, with around 1.5 billion hours watched, highlighting, once more, the potentials offered by the game.

Chapter 2 Section 2: Introducing esport 97 Similar to the audience, prize pools for tournaments also kept on growing, highlighting once more the beginning of economic stability for the esport ecosystem. The biggest esport prize pool was offered at the International, a tournament played on the game Dota 2. The 2019 edition had a prize pool of more than 34 000 000$, and the 2021 edition is expected to have a prize pool of more than 40 000 000$ (the 2020 edition was canceled due to the pandemic). Some new types of video games also emerged recently, and more and more video games have an esport component. For example, the Battle Royale genre (a type of shooter game where a lot of people gather on a map and only one team stays alive at the end) has been exploding since the release of Fortnite in 2018 [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. Epic, the editor behind the game also offered a 100 000 000$ prize pool distributed through many events throughout the year 2019. Beyond, even some definitions of esport include the term 'sport' [START_REF] Reitman | Esports Research : A Literature Review[END_REF]. In this section, we will focus on the highlighted links between sport and esport in prior research, thus justifying the study of esport under the prism of categorization theory. Before going any further, it is important to remind that this research does not pretend to solve the debate regarding the categorization of esport as a sport. However, we propose that esport can be studied under the prism of sport due to their resemblance and similarities. Witkowski (2012, p.369) was one of the first to highlight the sportivity of esport competition.

In a participative study on the game Counter-Strike, she explained how "playing in these technologically complexified contexts brings up the notion of a ''redescription of the body'' as suggested in traditional sports". Hamari and Sjöblom (2017, p.221) went even further by stating: "Esport is a form of sports where the primary aspects of the sport are facilitated by electronic systems; the input of players and teams, as well as the output of the esport system, are mediated by human-computer interfaces", highlighting once more the possible similarities between sport and esport. In their paper, they explored consumer motivations for esport consumption using the MSSC, the measurement scale for sport consumption, a tool developed by [START_REF] Trail | The Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption : Assessment of the scale's psychometric properties[END_REF] to measure sport spectators' motivations to watch sport. They found that esport spectators have somewhat similar motivations to watch esport than sport spectators have to watch sport. Besides entertainment, people watched esport for utilitarian reasons such as training or knowledge acquisition.

Betting around esport has also started to exist, like in traditional sports. However, the aesthetic motivation that exists for sports spectators does not seem to exist yet for esport spectators,

showing that, even though motivations to watch esport and sport have similarities, they are not the same. [START_REF] Hamari | What is eSports and why do people watch it?[END_REF]. The authors pointed out that rather than being a limit to the inclusion of esport in sports studies, this lack of aesthetic motives represents an opportunity for game developers to propose content and games that focus on that element to attract new spectators. [START_REF] Pizzo | Sensemaking of novelty : The dynamic nature of integrating esports within a traditional sport organization[END_REF] conducted a similar study one year later, comparing motivations for esport consumption and sport consumption, leading to similar results.

Heere (2018) also argues for the inclusion of esport in sports research. He views esport as a perfect example of the sportification of society. In his words: "Sport has many different meanings and usages, and as such, attempting to define sport might be an adverse exercise that limits understanding thereof. Thus, if sport represents an undefinable ambiguous construct, the debate of whether esport is a form of sport is a somewhat redundant exercise (p.21)." In his view, the question of the qualification of esport as a sport is important for legislation purposes mainly, but not for research. Studying esport under the prism of sport does not mean that researchers view esport as being a sport, it merely offers a context under which the growing Chapter 2 Section 3: Esport under the prism of categorization theory -Similarities between sport and esport 101 esport phenomenon can be studied. We follow Heere's recommendation by only studying esport under the prism of sport without judging of its qualification. Our concept of perceived sportivity represents, in our mind, a perfect compromise to study all sorts of leisure activities, esport being one of them.

According to most authors working on esport [START_REF] Witkowski | On the Digital Playing Field : How We "Do Sport" With Networked Computer Games[END_REF][START_REF] Taylor | Raising the Stakes : E-Sports and the Professionalization of Computer Gaming[END_REF][START_REF] Heere | Embracing the sportification of society : Defining e-sports through a polymorphic view on sport[END_REF][START_REF] Abanazir | Institutionalisation in E-Sports[END_REF][START_REF] Abanazir | E-sport and the EU : The view from the English Bridge Union[END_REF][START_REF] Reitman | Esports Research : A Literature Review[END_REF][START_REF] Pizzo | Sensemaking of novelty : The dynamic nature of integrating esports within a traditional sport organization[END_REF], the main barriers to the integration of esport as a sport is first its supposed lack of physicality. Secondly, the institutionalization of the esport ecosystem is also different from traditional sports, with esport games being properties of companies that act as governing bodies. [START_REF] Jenny | Virtual(ly) Athletes : Where eSports Fit Within the Definition of "Sport[END_REF] propose a detailed view of the fit between sport and esport. In their paper, they propose a review of the constituents of sport and apply them to esport. The only issues regarding the categorization of esport as a sport are the debatable lack of physicality, but also the lack of institutionalization. However, all the apparent similarities between esport and sport, such as the play element, the organization, the competitions, and the skills, are as many reasons that justify the investigation of esport under the prism of sport. The following table, from [START_REF] Jenny | Virtual(ly) Athletes : Where eSports Fit Within the Definition of "Sport[END_REF] proposes an overview of the fit between sport and esport. More recently, [START_REF] Pizzo | Sensemaking of novelty : The dynamic nature of integrating esports within a traditional sport organization[END_REF] argue that sports managers should embrace the esport phenomena in their strategy. Indeed, research has shown how sports managers struggle to adapt to new technology and to integrate innovation into their practices [START_REF] Funk | Consumer Behavior in Sport and Events : Marketing Action[END_REF]. Therefore, Chapter 2 Section 3: Esport under the prism of categorization theory -Similarities between sport and esport 102 esport, having redefined the frontiers of sport [START_REF] Lopez | Corporate growth strategies in an era of digitalization : A network analysis of the national basketball association's 2K league sponsors[END_REF], might represent an excellent opportunity for sports managers.

Marketing researchers have also focused on sport and esport [START_REF] Hamari | What is eSports and why do people watch it?[END_REF][START_REF] Pizzo | Sensemaking of novelty : The dynamic nature of integrating esports within a traditional sport organization[END_REF][START_REF] Andrews | Sport and prosumption[END_REF][START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF] or solely on esport [START_REF] Seo | Electronic sports : A new marketing landscape of the experience economy[END_REF](Seo, , 2015;;[START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF] According to [START_REF] Seo | Electronic sports : A new marketing landscape of the experience economy[END_REF], escapism in esport can be seen through the way players and spectators are completely immersed, both online and offline at events, blurring the boundaries between the virtual and the real. Even though [START_REF] Hamari | What is eSports and why do people watch it?[END_REF] state that esport consumers do not watch esport for aesthetic motivations, [START_REF] Seo | Electronic sports : A new marketing landscape of the experience economy[END_REF] argues that the entire esport Championship had an opening ceremony with music, lights, dancers and singers. [START_REF] Hamari | What is eSports and why do people watch it?[END_REF] and [START_REF] Pizzo | Sensemaking of novelty : The dynamic nature of integrating esports within a traditional sport organization[END_REF] also highlight the educational value in esport in their studies focusing on the exploration of consumers' motivations to watch esport. Indeed, esport events can serve as knowledge gathering tools, with players watching and learning pros' movements and strategies. Finally, the entertainment value has been highlighted by [START_REF] Seo | Electronic sports : A new marketing landscape of the experience economy[END_REF] and even earlier by Christopher and Scholz (2010;2011). Besides the entire show, Christopher and Scholz (2010[START_REF] Christophers | ESports Yearbook[END_REF] have also found that consumers find pleasure not only in playing video games, but also in watching other people play, especially when they are skilled. Moreover, in [START_REF] Seo | Electronic sports : A new marketing landscape of the experience economy[END_REF] view, esport represents a perfect example of cocreation, with players and supporters communities being highly engaged in every show.

More recently, Seo (2015) also uses esport as a subject through which he studies the serious consumption of leisure and how the consumer journey can affect his self-transformation, highlighting once more the potentiality offered by a field of study such as esport. Similarly, [START_REF] Andrews | Sport and prosumption[END_REF] have also highlighted how prosumption is important for sports spectators, using esport events. Prosumption is defined as "the interrelated process of production and consumption. (Ritzer, 2015, p.1) In their view, esport might "represents a prophetic vision of a rapidly approaching future for sporting prosumption and the sport prosumer" (p.364), thus highlighting once more the interest of research focusing on esport.

Here, the prosumer is defined as "one who engages in the process of presumption (Ritzer, 2015, p. 1).

As we have seen, sports researchers have already embraced esport research and have even argued for the inclusion of esport in sports research, despite some debates regarding some of its constitutive elements. Other researchers have also used sports research to analyze esport, thus proving that esport might represent a perfect opportunity to study perceived sportivity. More precisely, from a marketing point of view, esport has been mostly studied as an extension of sport, without actually debating its sports status. This research will also aim to reduce this gap, by studying individuals' mental representation and categorization of esport. In the following session, we will explore how sports managers deal with esport, and we will also see that many sports organizations have also embraced esport for quite a long time now.

Chapter 2 Section 3: Esport under the prism of categorization theory -Similarities between sport and esport 104

3.3

The strategic implications of similarities between esports en sports Many organizations within the sports industry are seeking growth opportunities by embracing esport (Huettermann et al., 2020). Recently, papers have highlighted the involvement of sports organizations in esport [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]Scholz, Volkel and Uebach, 2021;Lefebvre, Djaballah and Chanavat, 2021). Sport and esport industries have been shown to collaborate for quite some time now, with sports organizations involving themselves in esport at both the local, national and international levels. At the local level, sports organizations use esport to fulfill a societal role in their community. At the national and international level, many sports businesses see esport as a potential market with huge opportunities [START_REF] Hitt | Futbol Club Barcelona Enters Into Esports Collaboration With Tencent -ARCHIVE -The Esports Observer[END_REF]Scholz, Volkel and Uebach, 2021). [START_REF] Schmidt | FC Schalke 04 Esports. Decision Making in a Changing Ecosystem[END_REF] even position esport as one of the hottest topics for football clubs in terms of growth strategy. In this section, we will explore the existing business relations between sport and esport to highlight, once more, the usefulness and potentials of using our perceived sportivity scale in the context of esport.

The first official collaboration between sport and sports started in 2002, when the SSV Lehnitz, a German football organization decided to launch a Counter-Strike team in 2002 [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF].

While the football organization was a relatively small club, the esport team of SSV Lehnitz was The first professional sports team that entered esport was the Turkish sports organization Besiktas Istanbul in 2015 [START_REF] Scholz | Esports is business : Management in the world of competitive gaming[END_REF]. The multisport club entered the esport market through the acquisition of a League of Legends team. Since then, many global sports organizations have also entered esport. For example, the Paris Saint Germain, a famous French football club entered League of Legends one year later, before leaving in 2017 due to disagreements regarding the governance of the competitions by the editor Riot Games (PSG, 2017). However, this did not stop them from involving themselves in esport. Since then, the PSG has been active

Chapter 2 Section 3: Esport under the prism of categorization theory -Similarities between sport and esport 105 mainly in Asia, using esport as a way to reach a new market with huge growth potential. Many teams, and especially football clubs have involved themselves in esport, such as Schalke 04 in Germany, or FC Barcelona in Spain. (Scholz, Volek and Uebach, 2021;Lefebvre, Djaballah and Chanavat, 2021). Scholz, Volek and Uebach (2021) propose an overview of the sports teams' involvement in esport. During their research, they found 418 sports organizations that were somehow affiliated with esport, using the snowball method [START_REF] Baltar | Social research 2.0 : Virtual snowball sampling method using Facebook[END_REF].

They also explored the form sports teams used to enter esport and found seven types of sports teams' involvement in esport. The following table, adapted from Scholz, Volek and Uebach (2021), provides an overview of the type of interaction that sports teams chose to enter esport.

Table 12: Typification of sports teams involvement in esport

As we can see from Table 1, the two main types of interactions chosen by sports organizations to enter esport are either the creation of dedicated esport leagues (45.2%), and the recruitment of a player to play for the digital version of the core business (e.g a Football club recruiting a FIFA player to represent the club in competitions, 24.2%). Creating a dedicated esport league is mostly chosen by national sports associations that aim at creating a league on the simulation of their game. For example, in 2019 in Japan, the Japanese football league, the J.League, decided to have every division 1 and 2 clubs participate in an esport league on the football game simulation Pro Evolution Soccer (Scholz, Volek and Uebach;[START_REF] Kim | Service authenticity and its effect on positive emotions[END_REF]. However, more recently, the French Basketball Federation, the FFBB decided to launch a new esport league on a game that was not a simulation of basketball, but an arcade game, Rocket League, thus highlighting new opportunities for business (FFBB, 2020).

Chapter 2 Section 3: Esport under the prism of categorization theory -Similarities between sport and esport 106 However, we can also see from the table above that an important number of sports teams and organizations have also decided to enter esport through the creation of a team, the fusion with an existing esport team, or the buying of a franchise. Some esport games work with a franchising system, the same way American leagues such as the NFL or the NBA work. Two of the most successful esport titles, League of Legends (LoL), and Overwatch, a fast First Person Shooter (FPS), work with franchises. In the major leagues of LoL, we can see teams associated [START_REF] Seck | Opinion : Why Guild Esports' IPO Plans Should Raise Red Flags -ARCHIVE -The Esports Observer[END_REF].

According to Sholz, Volek and Uebach (2021), while early interest in esport was only focused on the highest level of competitions, the last few years allowed us to witness a more regional and local interest. For example, teams like the Eintracht Frankfurt and the FC St.Pauli invested themselves locally in Germany, and teams like the Olympique Lyonnais or the FC Nantes invested in national League of Legends teams in France. Lefebvre, Djaballah and Chanavat (2021) explored professional football clubs' strategies and motivations for their involvement in esport. They used qualitative interviews with 28 clubs in 24 different countries to explore the strategies used by professional sports clubs. They found many reasons for sports managers to enter the esport market. First, esport represents a way for sports entities to reach a younger audience who watches esport. Secondly, football clubs being known for having a capacity of influence beyond sport, esport is seen as one of the many areas in which sport can exert an influence. Thirdly, professional sports organizations are also known for their isomorphism [START_REF] Dimaggio | The Iron Cage Revisited : Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields[END_REF]) especially when they address new issues [START_REF] Yoo | A Longitudinal Exploration of Strategic Isomorphism : The Case of the National Football League[END_REF], therefore some sports teams also invested in esport to imitate others' strategies.

Chapter 2 Section 3: Esport under the prism of categorization theory -Similarities between sport and esport 107 Moreover, Lefebvre, Djaballah and Chanavat (2021) identified four distinct types of strategies used by football clubs when entering esport.

-The first objective, highlighted by all the respondents was the opportunities offered by the esport market to develop brand awareness and brand image. Most of the clubs see esport as a way to rejuvenate their aging image.

-Following the first objective, the second objective highlighted by most of the clubs interviewed is the targeting of a new audience. Indeed, sports clubs are seeing their fan base getting older and older, and esport games, which are mostly followed by people under 30, represent a great opportunity to reach a new audience that is normally difficult to target.

-The third strategic objective highlighted by the clubs during the qualitative interviews was the possible increase of income that esport can provide. Some clubs still have that view of esport being a "golden goose" capable of providing clubs with good amounts of money.

-Finally, the fourth strategic objective highlighted by the majority of sports clubs echoes the main objective of their sports teams: performance. Some football organizations view sport as a way to reinforce their legacy. They view the esport team as a normal member of their sports team, and expect good results from them, to maintain coherence between the football team and the esport team.

Then, Lefebvre Djaballah and Chanavat (2021) also explored the actual strategies used by the football teams to enter the esport market. First, regarding the game chosen, two strategies were used. Clubs either entered football-related video games, or other esport titles, mostly the major esport games (League of Legends, Counter-Strike, Overwatch, Hearthstone, DOTA 2, Fortnite and PUBG). While the first option is more seen as "a way to reinforce the club's connection with their existing football fans", the second option allows clubs to reach that new audience identified in the clubs' objectives highlighted previously. Concerning the technics used to enter the new esport market, most football clubs focus on partnerships with experienced people and organizations. Football clubs being known to use partnership quite often, the inclusion in the esport market did not seem to be a problem, neither did the cost of entering the market.

Moreover, sports teams also have an advantage when they enter the esport market: legitimacy. Sports organizations have knowledge and experience, and are seen as attractive for players who have dealt with young struggling esport organizations. Most clubs have three main criteria when Chapter 2 Section 3: Esport under the prism of categorization theory -Similarities between sport and esport 108 it comes to recruiting esport players: videogame skills, communication skills, and visibility. Sports teams do not only look for successful players, they also look for players who can provide them with a good image, aligned with their objectives.

Besides the strategic choices made by football companies before entering the esport market, Lefebvre, Djaballah and Chanavat (2021) also explored the actual decisions made by sports teams for the esport segment. First, most of the strategies used by sports teams followed the principles of brand extension, which has been a common practice in professional football [START_REF] Chadwick | The use of extension strategies by clubs in the English Football Premier League[END_REF]. Esport audience also responds well to sports involvement.

Secondly, football clubs have also used esport to revitalize their communication. Esport offers new content for social media and football clubs use this content. Then, to reach that new audience, most of the clubs have also created new accounts dedicated to esport on social media.

Football clubs have also used esport to launch a Twitch channel on which they broadcast training and competitions.

But esport also offers new opportunities for football clubs. According to some of the interviewees, after entering esport, some football clubs were able to form partnerships with new entities that would have never collaborated with them if their esport section did not exist. For example, some clubs developed new partnerships with computer companies and with companies specialized in providing anti-blue light glasses for gamers. Secondly, football clubs have also started to develop merchandising related to their esport section, with jerseys for example. Football clubs are now also involved in the growing online and offline "eventization" of esport competitions [START_REF] Clavio | Are esports the next major league sport? The Conversation[END_REF] by being involved in the organization of esport events. Some football clubs events created gaming space in their stadium to enrich the customer experience.

As we have seen, both from research and management, relations between sport and esport already exist, and are deemed to continue for a while. The following table provides an overview of the existing similarities and differences between sport and esport. Therefore, studying the perceived sportivity of esport seems promising, from both academic and managerial standpoints. It seems it is still impossible to judge the sports status of esport. These apparent similarities do not seem to be enough to define esport as a sport. However, using categorization theory, we can explore individuals' perception of leisure activities such as esport and see the outcomes of the categorization of such activities as being sports.

Here we are interested in the mental representation of esport consumers. Applied to esport, the categorization of esport as a sport in the consumer's mind could therefore affect the perceived legitimacy of esport, and therefore consumers. Due to the experiential nature of sport and esport, in the following chapter, we will look at the marketing consequences of categorization processes through the experiential approach. First, we will explain how sport and esports fit Chapter 2 Section 3: Esport under the prism of categorization theory -Similarities between sport and esport 110 into the experiential paradigm as a consumption object. Then we will look at this experiential approach. Finally, we will highlight work from sports and esport research that emphasizes the uniqueness of the sports and esport experience; this will allow us to introduce the need to understand and measure the process of categorizing leisure activities as sports through our tool for measuring perceived sportivity. The seminal article from [START_REF] Holbrook | The Experiential Aspects of Consumption : Consumer Fantasies, Feelings, and Fun[END_REF] initiated a switch from a utilitarian view to a more subjective view of consumption. This article represents a paradigm shift in marketing research, from a transactional-rational approach of marketing to a more relationalexperiential approach. Before this article, some authors advocated for a focus on "irrational" aspects of consumption [START_REF] Howard | The theory of buyer behavior[END_REF]. However, this small change of focus was not enough to explain phenomena such as playful leisure activities, sensory pleasures, daydreams, aesthetic enjoyment, or even emotional responses, intensifying the need for a total paradigm shift from rational consumption to experiential consumption [START_REF] Holbrook | The Experiential Aspects of Consumption : Consumer Fantasies, Feelings, and Fun[END_REF]. [START_REF] Holbrook | The Experiential Aspects of Consumption : Consumer Fantasies, Feelings, and Fun[END_REF] argue for the use of the experiential view to get a deeper understanding of what they call "playful activities". These playful activities are defined using works from game theorists such as Stephenson (1967) and [START_REF] Huizinga | Homo ludens : A study of the play element in culture[END_REF]. These two game theorists view sport as a form of play. Game theory focuses on the definition of play and its role as a founding part of culture [START_REF] Caillois | Les jeux et les hommes : Le masque et le vertige[END_REF]. In Huizinga's view, play is a central defining part of culture and is a necessary element to the generation of culture [START_REF] Huizinga | Homo ludens : A study of the play element in culture[END_REF]. Building on the same idea of game and play as central elements of culture, [START_REF] Caillois | Les jeux et les hommes : Le masque et le vertige[END_REF] proposes a typology of games. In his view, games are "free, separated, uncertain, unproductive, regulated and fictive" p.9-10). Games are free in the sense that participation is based on the willingness of the players, no players in the game are forced to play, otherwise, the game would lose all its sense. Games being "separated" means that they are played in a delimitated space and time.

The uncertainty of the games means that no winner is predetermined, every player theoretically has his/her chances to win. Games are also unproductive in the sense that they do not create any goods, money, nor directly provide any wealth for the players. Games are also regulated, and every player has to abide by these rules to play. Finally, games are fictive in the sense that they are played outside of reality, in a dedicated space and time.

Chapter 3 Section 1: Sport as an experiential game 114

In his typology, [START_REF] Caillois | Les jeux et les hommes : Le masque et le vertige[END_REF] proposes four types of games. The first one is called "Agon" and refers to all types of competitive games in which equality of chances is simulated and every contestant has the same chances of winning. Games under the "Agon" category are built in such a way that any contestant has the perfect conditions for winning the game. Sports fall under this category, as they are fictive contests in which participants follow rules that guarantee the players' equality to win against their opponent. The others three categories are "Alea", "Mimicry" and "Ilinx". The "Alea" category refers to all types of games that are purely luckdependent. In these games, everyone has the same chances of winning, but the win condition is attributed to luck, and not skill. The "Mimicry" category contains all games in which players will play a "role" in a fictive environment. Theatre or role-playing games are a good example of "Mimicry". Finally, "Ilinx" games are all types of games that focus on vertigo or work on adrenaline. The main objective in this type of game is to reach a certain adrenaline level and to stimulate the senses. Carousels, slides, or even some dances have this objective and fall under this category. As we can see from [START_REF] Caillois | Les jeux et les hommes : Le masque et le vertige[END_REF] and [START_REF] Huizinga | Homo ludens : A study of the play element in culture[END_REF], sports are a direct form of playful activities, and should therefore be put at the center of research on experiential consumption [START_REF] Holbrook | The Experiential Aspects of Consumption : Consumer Fantasies, Feelings, and Fun[END_REF]. We could affirm that sport, in the first articles about experiential consumption, was even used as a perfect example of what an experience is. Sport should therefore be studied under the prism of experience. Chapter 3 Section 1: Sport as an experiential game 115 Some of the earliest and the most influential works on customer experience used sporty activities as their field study [START_REF] Arnould | River Magic : Extraordinary Experience and the Extended Service Encounter[END_REF][START_REF] Celsi | An Exploration of High-Risk Leisure Consumption through Skydiving[END_REF]. For example, [START_REF] Arnould | River Magic : Extraordinary Experience and the Extended Service Encounter[END_REF] conducted one of the first studies on experiential river rafting. River rafting is governed by the International Rafting Federation, which is, up to this date, still not a sports federation recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC).

However, the sporty nature of rafting is not subject to debate, and the term "sport" is used by interviewees in Arnould and Price's to describe river rafting. In their study, [START_REF] Arnould | River Magic : Extraordinary Experience and the Extended Service Encounter[END_REF] found that narrative was more important than the relations between expectations and outcomes in an extraordinary experience context.

At the same time, [START_REF] Celsi | An Exploration of High-Risk Leisure Consumption through Skydiving[END_REF] conducted a study on experiential high-risk leisure consumption with skydivers, an activity recognized as a sport by the IOC and considered as a team sport by its participants but not featured in the Olympics. Therefore, sport could be a perfect example of customer experience. [START_REF] Celsi | An Exploration of High-Risk Leisure Consumption through Skydiving[END_REF] explored consumers' motives for high-risk experiential consumption and found that participation in high-risk activities is explained by an evolution of consumers' motives over time.

Since then, many researchers have argued for, or used sports as a context in which customer experience is measured and managed (e.g. [START_REF] Holt | How Consumers Consume : A Typology of Consumption Practices[END_REF][START_REF] Kozinets | Themed flagship brand stores in the new millennium : Theory, practice, prospects[END_REF][START_REF] Kozinets | Ludic Agency and Retail Spectacle[END_REF]Madrigal;2006, 2008;[START_REF] Decrop | Pride in contemporary sport consumption : A marketing perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Klaus | Bridging the gap for destination extreme sports : A model of sports tourism customer experience[END_REF][START_REF] Seo | Electronic sports : A new marketing landscape of the experience economy[END_REF][START_REF] Seo | Professionalized consumption and identity transformations in the field of eSports[END_REF][START_REF] Scott | Selling Pain to the Saturated Self[END_REF]Cova, 2017, van Everdingen, Hariharan and[START_REF] Van Everdingen | Gear Manufacturers as Contestants in Sports Competitions : Breeding and Branding Returns[END_REF], highlighting once more the experiential nature of sports consumption. The following table provides an overview of existing marketing research focusing on studying sport and associated leisure activities under the prism of experiential consumption. (1993) Why do people engage in extraordinary hedonic experiences (River Rafting)

White water river rafting provides a dramatic illustration of some of the complex features of delivering an extraordinary experience The narrative is central in the extraordinary experience, rather than relations between expectations and outcomes. personal growth and self-renewal, "communitas", and harmony with nature are significant in explaining overall satisfaction.

Celsi, [START_REF] Celsi | An Exploration of High-Risk Leisure Consumption through Skydiving[END_REF] Motivations for high-risk consumption (skydiving)

Different motives for high-risk consumption are highlighted. The authors build a model that explains both macro-environmental and inter-and intrapersonal influences and motives for highrisk consumption. [START_REF] Holt | How Consumers Consume : A Typology of Consumption Practices[END_REF] How sport spectators consumer (baseball)

Establishment of a typology of consumption practices: consuming as experience, consuming as integration, consuming as play and consuming as categorization. [START_REF] Wakefield | The Effects of Team Loyalty and Selected Stadium Factors on Spectator Attendance[END_REF] The effect of team loyalty and stadium factors on spectator attendance (US football)

Although team loyalty strongly affects attendance, stadium design and stadium services also directly influence spectators' desire to stay, and hence, attend games at the stadium.

Greenwell, [START_REF] Greenwell | Assessing the Influence of the Physical Sports Facility on Customer Satisfaction within the Context of the Service Experience[END_REF] Influence of the Physical Sports Facility on customer Satisfaction (ice hockey)

Facility elements, when taken together, predict customer satisfaction. However, facility elements individually have little impact. Both perceptions of service personnel and the physical facility contributed to customer satisfaction over and above the impact of customers' perceptions of the core product.

Kozinets et al. (2002)

Sport-themed retail brand store (ESPN Zone Chicago)

The growing importance of themed environments in retailing to create experiences, Mindscaperelated themes, which combine entertainment, therapeutics, and spiritual growth, are at the frontier of retail theming. Flagship brand stores not only promote a more engaging experience of the brand's essence but also satisfy consumers looking for entertainment alongside their shopping. Independently of other differences between live and taped broadcasts, the indeterminacy of events makes watching them live more exciting and more preferable.

Robinson (2007) Customer expectations of sports organizations

From their review, authors report that there is little in the service quality field that applies expectations to sports organizations, thus leading to a call for future research.

Rowley Kupiec-Teahan and Leeming ( 2007)

Customer Community and Cocreation -Case study (kiteboarding)

The company's innovative product development acts as the basis for the co-creation of a customer experience. Its marketing actively helps in co-creating experiences with customers, fostering a sense of community among users, facilitating communication within that community, acting on the feedback, and continuously developing and maintaining the community relationship.

Madrigal (2008)

Effect of appraisal and attribution on emotion in a sports event context

Appraisal is a more efficient predictor of emotion than attribution. Appraisal also mediates the effect of attribution on the negative emotions, but only partial mediation is found for the positive emotions. Secondary appraisal is more highly related to negative emotion but the contribution of each appraisal type to positive emotion is nearly equivalent. [START_REF] Miller | Double play : Creating the sport customer experience using an interdisciplinary framework for managing service employees[END_REF] Social identification process for sport clubs employees

Results showed significant effects of human resource management practices and employees' identification with the club and with customers, influencing employees' customer orientation [START_REF] Decrop | Pride in contemporary sport consumption : A marketing perspective[END_REF] Pride in contemporary sports consumption (soccer)

A multidimensional process view of pride is offered. Four types of pride are put into light (i.e. introspective, vicarious, contagious, and conspicuous). Making consumers proud of the brand/company may lead to stronger commitment and loyalty, increased consumption, positive WOM, and co-creation of value.

Simmons et al. (2010)

Crowd wisdom in a sports gambling context

When predicting against biased point spreads, crowds were systematically biased and ultimately unwise. People are likely to reinforce themselves for intuitive predictions and punish themselves for non-intuitive predictions. Although crowds are unwise when the question is posed as it usually is in real-world betting contexts, they may be wise when the question is posed differently.

Bodet and Bernach-Assollant (2011)

Consumer loyalty in sport spectatorship services

In a ice hockey context, nsumer transaction-specific satisfaction was found to be the stronger predictor for consumer attitudinal loyalty alongside team identification and the average number of home games attended per year

Chapter 3

Section 1: Sport as an experiential game 118 [START_REF] Clemes | Analysing the professional sport experience : A hierarchical approach[END_REF] Spectators' perceptions of service quality (rugby)

Establishment of a conceptual model of professional sports experience with service quality influencing value and satisfaction; value influencing satisfaction, fanship influencing service quality, satisfaction, future attendance and recommendation, and finally satisfaction influencing future attendance and recommendation. Service quality encompasses three dimensions (interaction quality, physical environment quality and outcome quality).

Klaus and Maklan (2011)

Modeling a sports tourism customer experience (mountainbiking)

Customer experience is conceptualized with five dimensions (i.e. hedonic pleasure, personal progression, social interaction, efficiency and surreal feeling). Hedonic pleasure and personal progression are the core experiences valued by customers. Core experience generates surreal feelings, incomparable and memorable evaluations of the overall experience. Social interaction facilitates the core experience, efficiency enables the core experience.

Ko et al. (2011)

Event quality in major spectator sports (baseball)

Development of a comprehensive model of event quality for spectator sport and a measurement scale of event quality in spectator sports (5 dimensions, 12 sub-dimensions).

Gal (2012) Salivation to material rewards (sports cars)

Salivary secretion is stimulated by material rewards in the presence of a highly active goal to obtain the rewards and the motivation to acquire material rewards might more closely resemble physiological hunger than previously assumed.

Lee et al. (2012) Development of a scale of sports attendees' sensory experience

The sensoryscape scale contains 5 dimensions: sight, sound touch, smell, taste and, combined with social interaction and sense of home, has a positive direct effect on fan satisfaction and subsequently on revisit intentions in both major and minor league venues.

Yang, [START_REF] Yang | It's Not Whether you Win or Lose, It's how you Play the Game? The Role of Process and Outcome in Experience Consumption[END_REF] the Role of Process and Outcome in Experience Consumption (a sports game)

As a game spectator, independents' (vs. interdependents') experience consumption evaluations are more likely to be influenced by outcome, while interdependent (vs. independent) consumers are more likely to be affected by process.

Seo (2013) Esports under the prism of Experience Economy

Collaborative efforts of gaming companies, players, online communities, governing bodies, and many other stakeholders play important roles in enriching and sustaining the experiential value of eSports consumption.

Uhrich (2013) Co-creation processes in team sports

Five customer-to-customer co-creation practices occur across these platforms: associating and dissociating, engaging and sharing, competing, intensifying, and exchanging. Implications: Identifying and classifying customer-to-customer value co-creation platforms is an important first step toward developing approaches for team sports firms to become involved in and manage value co-creation among customers. Results show that the increase in the service price worsens the perception of service performance. As expected, satisfaction, perceived value and future intentions decrease following an increase in the service price. Perceived value also serves as a more effective predictor of future intentions than satisfaction. Finally, price increase has a low direct effect on predicting future intentions of sports users. Chanavat and Bordet (2014) Experiential marketing in sport spectatorship services (rugby)

Even if experiential marketing influenced brand awareness and brand associations, those associations were not always perceived positively, especially from the most committed and connoisseur fans. This marketing strategy did not seem to have any conspicuous positive result in terms of brand loyalty.

Fernandes and Neves (2014)

servicescape as a driver of customer value in an experiential context (football stadium)

Servicescape influences consumer perceived value, attitudes, and behavior when creating service experiences: value-in-context generates customers' satisfaction, which in turn has a positive effect on their desire to repeat the experience.

Guevarra and Howel (2015)

Effects of consuming experiential products (sports equipment)

Experiential products provide similar levels of well-being compared to life experiences and more well-being than material items. experiential products, when compared to life experiences, lead to more feelings of competence but less feelings of relatedness.

Woermann and Rokka (2015)

How consumption practices shape temporal experiences (paintball and freeskiing)

Five practice elements shape temporal experience (i.e. material set-up, bodily routines and skills, teleoaffective structures, rules, and cultural understandings). Misalignments of practice elements induce experiences of temporal drag or rush associated with experiences such as boredom and stress.

Seo (2016) Professionalized consumption and identity transformation (esport)

Professionalized pursuits can be conceived as distinct fields of cultural production, characterized by the unique ethos that juxtaposes this form of consumption against both casual leisure and work. Consumer transformations occur by embarking on a serious leisure career, through which the consumer journeys away from the mainstream culture toward becoming a skilled adherent of the professionalized consumption field.

Funk (2017) Development of a Sports Experience Design Framework

The framework consists of three interrelated elements: (a) the sport context in which a sports consumer navigates through an experience and interacts with touchpoints, (b) the sport user, with mental processes, psychological needs, and personal characteristics, and (c) the sports organization. The framework provides a holistic consumer-centered approach that considers Yoshida ( 2018) Customer experience quality extended to sports management Establishment of a framework explaining the sports customer experience. Series of propositions to understand the role of customer experience quality in sports customer decision-making, the conditions under which sports customers are more likely to be satisfied, behave and engage accordingly.

van Everdingen, Hariharan and Stremersch (2019)

Branding returns of gear manufacturers in sports competition (Formula One)

Only gear manufacturers with relatively high levels of R&D spending obtain a positive and significant breeding return from competing in sports contests. While most brands obtain positive branding returns, the lower the level of advertising spending for the brand, the greater the branding returns they obtain from competing in these contests.

Happ et al. (2020)

Customer experience in retail sports stores

Because sports products have several unique features, such as high emotional involvement or a sense of community, sports customers emphasize multisensory brand experience at the point of sale. Sports customers strive not only for functional benefits inherent in the interaction with customers and employees but also for social benefits.

Huston, Cruz and Zoppos (2021)

Understanding consumer journeys to professional play Consumer journeys in the esports field are fluid, with consumers moving across the different dimensions according to their broader life context. Consumer journeys in esport can be dimensionalized on two axes "skill vs culture" and "serious vs casual".

Paek et al. (2021)

Fan behaviors in a professional sports League (volleyball)

Results showed that sports fan motives significantly affect relationship quality and behavioral intention regarding sports consumption, with emotional motivation exerting a considerable association. The study also demonstrated that relationship quality mediates the association between emotional motives and behavioral intentions.

Yuksel, [START_REF] Yuksel | Fantasy sports and beyond : Complementary digital experiences (CDXs) as innovations for enhancing fan experience[END_REF] Complementary digital experience to enhance fan experience (Fantasy football)

Complementary digital experiences are customer touchpoints that affect the core brand experience, several dimensions of the fan experience (cognitive, emotional, social). The fantasy football experience contains 5 dimensions: control, camaraderie, continuation, competition and customization.

Table 14: Overview of existing research on sport consumption experience

Chapter 3 Section 1: Sport as an experiential game 121

As we can see from Table 14, sports consumption and sport consumers' perceptions and outcomes have been extensively studied under the prism of experience in the last 30 years.

Therefore, analyzing the effect of the categorization of leisure activities as sports should also be done under the prism of experiential consumption. In the following section, we will first go back to the notion of experience and explore behavioral intention models that have been developed to measure experiences' effects. Then, we will focus on sports literature, to explore the possible uniqueness of sport as an experience. The foundations of experience -Experiential marketing

According to [START_REF] Holbrook | The Experiential Aspects of Consumption : Consumer Fantasies, Feelings, and Fun[END_REF]p.132), the experiential perspective is "phenomenological in spirit and regards consumption as a primarily subjective state of consciousness with a variety of symbolic meanings, hedonic responses, and aesthetic criteria.

Holbrook and Hirschman categorize these elements into two categories: "Environmental (external) inputs" and "Consumer (internal) inputs". Holbrook and Hirschman argue that prior research focuses too much on tangible benefits extracted from material goods that perform utilitarian functions and that a focus on symbolic meanings, such as sociability or aesthetics is needed. In their view, every product, even a toothbrush or a pack of pasta carries a symbolic meaning in the sense of [START_REF] Levy | The Status Seekers[END_REF][START_REF] Levy | Toward a Broader Concept of Marketing's Role in Social Order[END_REF].

The work of [START_REF] Holbrook | The Experiential Aspects of Consumption : Consumer Fantasies, Feelings, and Fun[END_REF] argues more for an expansion of research by including the emotional and subjective aspect of consumption, rather than a total shift in marketing practices. They conclude their research by highlighting seven neglected research topics that should benefit from an experiential view: the role of aesthetic products, multisensory aspects of product enjoyment, the syntactic dimensions of communication, time budgeting in the pursuit of pleasure, product-related fantasies and imagery, feelings arising of consumption, and the role of play in providing enjoyment and fun. Even though a lot of work has been done

in experiential consumption research, we here go back to the origins of the field. Specifically, we position our research in one of the topics mentioned by Holbrook and Hirschman, namely "the role of play in providing enjoyment and fun".

A few years later, after some research on specific customer experiences (e.g., [START_REF] Arnould | River Magic : Extraordinary Experience and the Extended Service Encounter[END_REF][START_REF] Celsi | An Exploration of High-Risk Leisure Consumption through Skydiving[END_REF][START_REF] Holt | How Consumers Consume : A Typology of Consumption Practices[END_REF][START_REF] Miller | A Theory of Shopping[END_REF][START_REF] Ritzer | Enchanting a Disenchanted World : Revolutionizing the Means of Consumption[END_REF]Vézina, 1999) Pine and Gilmore (1999) propose the first definition of experience in what they call the "Experience Economy". In their view, we now live in an economy in which customer experiences represent the most premium and differentiated offering possible. In their opinion, this experience economy represents the fourth stage of the progression of economic value. The first stage, called the commodity stage, was not concerned with providing experiences or even building products. According to the authors, the first stage was merely about extracting raw materials and substances from all around the world. Then, the second stage started, according

Chapter 3 Section 2: Defining customer experience 124 to the authors, began with the Industrial Revolution of the 19 th Century and the manufacturing of products. This stage did not entirely replace the first one but rather represented its extension, by adding economic value with the transformation of commodities into products. The third stage emerged in the 20 th Century with the beginning of services as intangible offerings. Finally, the experience economy started in the late 20 th Century, in developed societies where businesses started to stage more educational and entertaining experiences to consumers. In their view, there are seven differences between customer experiences, services, goods and commodities. Table 4 below, adapted from Pine andGilmore (1999, 2011) Pine andGilmore, 1999, 2011) Therefore, experiences, contrary to commodities, goods and services, appear to be staged, memorable, and personal. They are only revealed over a certain time, are provided by a stager for guests, and are sought after for the sensations they provide (Pine andGilmore, 1999, 2011).

Building on that idea of memorable customer experience put forward by Pine and Gilmore (1999), Arnould, Price and Zinkham (2002) propose a first temporal conceptualization of all the possible interactions with marketing objects that can result in experiences. They position their four "consumptions experiences" on a temporal axis, where phase 1 is called "anticipated consumption", phase 2 "purchase experience", phase 3 "consumption experience" and phase 4

"remembered experience". Table 5 summarizes and defines these four consumption interactions.

Chapter 3 Section 2: Defining customer experience 125

Phase Definition

Anticipated Consumption

It involves searching for and planning for future purchases, daydreaming, foreseeing, budgeting, fantasizing, or imagining the experience.

Purchase Experience

It refers to the choice, the payment, the packaging, and the encounter with the service and the environment (the atmospherics).

Consumption Experience

It includes the sensation, the emotion, the satiety, the satisfaction/ dissatisfaction, the irritation/flow, and the transformation that come with the sensory experiences.

Remembered Consumption

It is related to memory; it activates them to relive an experience through history, nostalgia, talks with friends. It can be about comparing old and new, playing "what if", daydreaming, or other mementos.

Table 16: The four phases of consumption's interactions [START_REF] Arnould | Consumers[END_REF][START_REF] Carù | Revisiting Consumption Experience : A More Humble but Complete View of the Concept[END_REF]) [START_REF] Carù | Revisiting Consumption Experience : A More Humble but Complete View of the Concept[END_REF] propose a first critical review of customer experience and the concept of Experience Economy. They argue that there is a lack of a solid foundation and definition regarding experiential consumption. Moreover, they argue that the" experience" is ideological and only includes an American view of the term. In their opinion, experiences do not have to be extraordinary [START_REF] Arnould | River Magic : Extraordinary Experience and the Extended Service Encounter[END_REF][START_REF] Lasalle | Priceless : Turning Ordinary Products Into Extraordinary Experiences[END_REF] or even memorable (Pine and Gilmore, 1999) to be considered experience. To explain their opinion and propose a more "humble" view of experience [START_REF] Carù | Revisiting Consumption Experience : A More Humble but Complete View of the Concept[END_REF], they explore the nature of the term in different disciplines. First, in science, the word "experience" is similar to the word "experiment", and the meaning of "scientific experience" is different from "experience". The objective of an experience in a science context is to provide universal knowledge, valid for everybody. The subject in a science experience moves from common sense and subjectivity to proof, validity [START_REF] Carù | Revisiting Consumption Experience : A More Humble but Complete View of the Concept[END_REF]. In philosophy, an "experience" has a transformative component". Contrary to the scientific definition of "experience", it is viewed as individual and not universal [START_REF] Dilthey | Dilthey Selected Writings[END_REF]. In sociology and psychology, [START_REF] Dubet | Sociologie de l'expérience[END_REF] defines experience

as "a cognitive ability, a test or a means to construct reality and, above all, to verify it." Through multiple experiences, individual subjectivity is constructed. Moreover, in sociology, experiences have a special connection with aesthetics, and when they are very strongsuch as peak experiences [START_REF] Maslow | Religions, values, and peak-experiences[END_REF], flow experiences [START_REF] Csikszentmihalyi | Finding flow : The psychology of engagement with everyday life[END_REF], or epiphanic experiences [START_REF] Denzin | Symbolic Interactionism and Cultural Studies The Politics of Interpretation[END_REF]) -, they are important in constructing individualities [START_REF] Denzin | Symbolic Interactionism and Cultural Studies The Politics of Interpretation[END_REF].

Finally, in anthropology and ethnology, experiences are "how individuals live their own culture and, more precisely, how events are received by consciousness" [START_REF] Bruner | The Anthropology of Experience[END_REF].

Chapter 3 Section 2: Defining customer experience 126 Even in consumption behavior and marketing, [START_REF] Carù | Revisiting Consumption Experience : A More Humble but Complete View of the Concept[END_REF] argue that the definition of experience is not consensual and that many distinct interpretations of the term exist. For example, while for [START_REF] Arnould | River Magic : Extraordinary Experience and the Extended Service Encounter[END_REF] experiences are extraordinary in nature, for [START_REF] Vezina | Pour comprendre et analyser l'expérience du consommateur[END_REF], they are a central element of consumers' life. Therefore, a more comprehensive approach to experience is needed, taking into account a more general view of the concept and not only the American approach [START_REF] Carù | Revisiting Consumption Experience : A More Humble but Complete View of the Concept[END_REF]. In their opinion, the American bias of the term "experience" comes from the European romantic view of the term, which can be found in two of the most influential work on experience, from [START_REF] Holbrook | Romanticism, introspection, and the roots of experiential consumption : Morris the Epicurean[END_REF] and [START_REF] Schmitt | Experiential Marketing[END_REF].

Romanticism is a philosophy that can be found in the books of authors such as Byron (1788-1824), Hugo (1802-1885), or Stendhal (1783-1842) to state a few. It is associated with the search for intense pleasures and high arousal, in contrast to the tepid mediocrity of everyday life. A parallel can be drawn between the experiential view of consumption that contrasts with the classic utilitarian view of consumption and the Romanticism quest for intense pleasure that emerged to contrast with the former Classicism philosophy that argues for rationalism. Building on that idea, early research on experiential consumption positioned the consumer as the "hero" of his novel [START_REF] Holbrook | Romanticism, introspection, and the roots of experiential consumption : Morris the Epicurean[END_REF] who strives for exceptional experiences to escape the boredom of his daily life. However, how can this view explain ordinary experiences such as reading a book, watching television, or playing a game?

To answer this question, and building on what they call a "Latin perspective" [START_REF] Carù | Revisiting Consumption Experience : A More Humble but Complete View of the Concept[END_REF] propose that ordinary experiences also exist and that they do not have to be extraordinary to be called experiences. They build on work from philosophers (Agamben, 1989;[START_REF] Bruckner | L'euphorie perpétuelle[END_REF] emphasizing the importance of ordinary in providing experiences to propose a general model of the consumption experience (see figure 1). As we can see from [START_REF] Carù | Revisiting Consumption Experience : A More Humble but Complete View of the Concept[END_REF], research on consumption experience emerged at a time when researchers did not see and define experience the same way. More recently, several authors have proposed a review of customer experience and experiential marketing [START_REF] Schmitt | Customer experience and Experiential Marketing : A Critical Review[END_REF][START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF][START_REF] Chaney | Consumption experience : Past, present and future[END_REF].

In the next section, we will focus on these authors to propose our view of experiential marketing and customer experience.

In 2013, after 30 years of research on experiential marketing, Schmitt and Zarantonello propose a critical review of the field. After building on that idea of "Experience Economy" and defining the term "experience", [START_REF] Schmitt | Customer experience and Experiential Marketing : A Critical Review[END_REF] propose a literature review of the term and its use in different disciplines and scientific fields based on [START_REF] Carù | Revisiting Consumption Experience : A More Humble but Complete View of the Concept[END_REF]. In their work, the authors first point out the importance of understanding customer experiences, not only for academics but also for practitioners who could gain insight for positioning and providing appealing experiences for consumers through "experiential marketing", an area of marketing dedicated to understanding customer experiences [START_REF] Schmitt | Experiential Marketing[END_REF]. However, even though many researchers coined the term "experience", what is its concrete definition?

According to [START_REF] Schmitt | Customer experience and Experiential Marketing : A Critical Review[END_REF], and Webster's Third New International

Means of provision

Chapter 3 Section 2: Defining customer experience 128 Dictionary, the term "experience" has two distinct meanings. Experience can be defined as a "direct observation of or participation in events: an encountering, undergoing, or living through things in general as they take place in the course of time". It can also be a reference to the past, in the sense of "knowledge, skill, or practice derived from direct observation of or participation in events: practical resulting from what one has encountered, undergone, or lived".

In their paper, [START_REF] Schmitt | Customer experience and Experiential Marketing : A Critical Review[END_REF] adopt a broader view of experience, not focused only on extraordinary experiences. In their paper, they first argue that one of the key tenets of experiential marketing is that value does not only reside in the utilitarian and functional benefits of objects and services, but it also resides in what they call "experiential elements" that surround the product/service. They also go back to Pine and Gilmore's (1999) idea of experience being a new stage of economic offering. In their words, experience does not represent the next level of offering as Pine and Gilmore proclaimed: "Rather than entering a new economic stage, it may be more appropriate to view what is happening in today's economies and markets as a new way of marketing products and services, and perhaps even commodities" [START_REF] Schmitt | Customer experience and Experiential Marketing : A Critical Review[END_REF]p.27).

Experience can be direct (direct participation) or indirect (through advertising or media for example), focus on products or services, and can occur online or offline. Regarding direct or indirect experiences, some authors argue that they both can be studied objectively through experimentation, while others argue for an interpretive approach to experiences due to their subjective nature. That interpretive approach, taking into account the subjectivity of consumer and their ability to model their consumptions depending on their mood, desires, and emotions has been acknowledged since then by the majority of customer experiences researchers [START_REF] Jantzen | Just for fun? The emotional regime of experiential consumption[END_REF][START_REF] Gilovich | A wonderful life : Experiential consumption and the pursuit of happiness[END_REF][START_REF] Chaney | Consumption experience : Past, present and future[END_REF].

Moreover, using [START_REF] Holbrook | Consumption experience, customer value, and subjective personal introspection : An illustrative photographic essay[END_REF] definition of consumption experience -or "an emergent property that results from a complex system of mutually overlapping interrelationships in constant reciprocal interaction with personal, environmental, and situational input" -, [START_REF] Schmitt | Customer experience and Experiential Marketing : A Critical Review[END_REF] argue that the concept of consumption experience is broader than the product and service, or offline and online experience.

More recently, [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF] have also proposed a general definition of customer experience. In their view, customer experience "is a multidimensional construct focusing on a customer's cognitive, emotional, behavioral, sensorial, and social responses to a firm's Chapter 3 Section 2: Defining customer experience 129 offerings during the customer's entire purchase journey." Experiences can relate to specific aspects of the offerings, such as a product (e.g. [START_REF] Kempf | Consumer Processing of Product Trial and the Influence of Prior Advertising : A Structural Modeling Approach[END_REF], a service (e.g. [START_REF] Helkkula | Characterising the concept of service experience[END_REF] a brand (e.g., [START_REF] Brakus | Brand Experience : What is It? How is it Measured? Does it Affect Loyalty?[END_REF], or technology (e.g., [START_REF] Mccarthy | Technology as experience[END_REF]. In this research, we will follow this definition to position the categorization of a leisure activity as sporty, that its perceived sportivity, as an experience element that firms can manage to influence consumer outcomes.

With this definition, Lemon and Verhoef agree on the multidimensional nature of experience.

They also argue for the consumer's role in the experience they live. Consumers are not the only recipient of their experiences; they are also actors and interact with them. Building on Pucinelli et al. ( 2009), [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF] go further and argue that experience "consists of individual contacts between the firm and the customer at distinct points in the experience, called touchpoints" [START_REF] Schmitt | Customer Experience Management : A Revolutionary Approach to Connecting with Your Customers[END_REF]Homburg, Jozic and Kuehnl, 2017). Therefore, experiences should be influenced by a various range of different interactions between the firm and the customer, what we call "touchpoints".

To fully understand the concept of experience, [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF] also argue that customer experience integrates multiple existing marketing concepts and streams of literature.

They integrate seven of them chronologically to fully develop and contribute to customer experience. Table 6 proposes a review of these seven streams of literature based on Lemon and Verohef (2016).

Chapter 3 Section 2: Defining customer experience 130

Marketing concept

Authors Period Contribution

Customer buying behavior process models [START_REF] Howard | The theory of buyer behavior[END_REF], [START_REF] Webster | A General Model for Understanding Organizational Buying Behavior[END_REF], [START_REF] Sheth | A Model of Industrial Buyer Behavior[END_REF] Foundation for the holistic thinking of the customer experience as a process the consumer goes through (i.e. the consumer journey). Highlights the three phases of interaction between a consumer and a brand (pre-purchase, purchase, post-purchase) Customer satisfaction and loyalty [START_REF] Oliver | A Cognitive Model of the Antecedents and Consequences of Satisfaction Decisions[END_REF], [START_REF] Bearden | Selected Determinants of Consumer Satisfaction and Complaint Reports[END_REF], Oliver and Winer (1987) 1970s -1980s Provides the first metrics for measuring the customer experience (satisfaction and loyalty). Integration of consumer expectations in the measurement of satisfaction. First inclusion of consumer emotions Service Quality [START_REF] Parasuraman | SERVQUAL : A multiple-Item Scale for measuring consumer perceptions of service quality[END_REF]; [START_REF] Bitner | Evaluating Service Encounters : The Effects of Physical Surroundings and Employee Responses[END_REF][START_REF] Bitner | Servicescapes : The Impact of Physical Surroundings on Customers and Employees[END_REF] [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF] With this table, we can see that the customer experience concept finds its roots in most of the most widely used consumer behaviors concepts over the past 60 years. It also highlights the evolving nature of the concept. Even though the term was coined in the 80s [START_REF] Holbrook | The Experiential Aspects of Consumption : Consumer Fantasies, Feelings, and Fun[END_REF], the way we conceptualize, measure, and link customer experiences to cognitive, affective, and behavioral intention outcomes has changed.

Chapter 3 Section 2: Defining customer experience 131 Many researchers have highlighted the importance of these "touchpoints" when conceptualizing and defining experience (LaSalle and Britton, 2002;[START_REF] Frow | Towards the 'perfect' customer experience[END_REF][START_REF] Brakus | Brand Experience : What is It? How is it Measured? Does it Affect Loyalty?[END_REF][START_REF] Schmitt | Customer experience and Experiential Marketing : A Critical Review[END_REF][START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF][START_REF] De Keyser | Moving the Customer Experience Field Forward : Introducing the Touchpoints, Context, Qualities (TCQ) Nomenclature[END_REF]. These touchpoints reflect all the possible individual contacts between a customer and a firm/brand across the entirety of his/her consumer journey and are perceived as the elements through which the customer experience is lived or managed. They serve different purposes, such as the gathering of information, the payment, the unpacking, the usage, or the feedback [START_REF] De Keyser | Moving the Customer Experience Field Forward : Introducing the Touchpoints, Context, Qualities (TCQ) Nomenclature[END_REF].

While [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF] differentiate touchpoints in terms of temporality (prepurchase, purchase and post-purchase) to explain the customer journey (see Figure 2 customer experience focuses on firm-initiated touchpoints [START_REF] Verhoef | Customer Experience Creation : Determinants, Dynamics and Management Strategies[END_REF][START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF]. However, recent research has also acknowledged non-firm controlled touchpoints by recognizing the growing importance of customers in the contact with a firm [START_REF] Gao | Customer Equity Drivers, Customer Experience Quality, and Customer Profitability in Banking Services : The Moderating Role of Social Influence[END_REF][START_REF] De Keyser | Moving the Customer Experience Field Forward : Introducing the Touchpoints, Context, Qualities (TCQ) Nomenclature[END_REF]. Finally, researchers have also paid attention to the role of a third party in the touchpoint control, such as competitors or other brands/firms [START_REF] Tax | The Service Delivery Network (SDN) : A Customer-Centric Perspective of the Customer Journey[END_REF][START_REF] Kranzbühler | Outsourcing the pain, keeping the pleasure : Effects of outsourced touchpoints in the customer journey[END_REF].

The second criterion used by De Keyser et al. ( 2020) to differentiate touchpoints is their nature.

According to the authors, touchpoint nature "reflects the way in which the brand/firm is represented in the touchpoint. A touchpoint can be human (e.g., frontline employee), digital (e.g., ATM, website), physical (e.g., store environment) or a combination thereof". Most of the early literature on experience focused on human and physical touchpoints (e.g., [START_REF] Arnould | River Magic : Extraordinary Experience and the Extended Service Encounter[END_REF][START_REF] Hui | Perceived Control and the Effects of Crowding and Consumer Choice on the Service Experience[END_REF][START_REF] Schouten | Transcendent customer experience and brand community[END_REF]. However, the growing usage of digital technology has encouraged recent research to explore digital touchpoints, with many papers focusing on online customer experience (e.g., Rose et al. Finally, the third element of touchpoint categorization is the stage [START_REF] De Keyser | Moving the Customer Experience Field Forward : Introducing the Touchpoints, Context, Qualities (TCQ) Nomenclature[END_REF]. It refers to the temporal categorization of touchpoints that [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF] highlighted (the pre-purchase stage, the purchase stage, and the post-purchase stage). The pre-purchase stage refers to all the possible interactions between the consumer and the brand/firm before the act of purchasing. It mostly refers to phases of need recognition, information seeking, and evaluation of alternatives [START_REF] Puccinelli | Customer Experience Management in Retailing : Understanding the Buying Process[END_REF]. The purchase stage refers to all the interactions between the firm and the consumer during the buying process. It encompasses different moments, including consumer choice, ordering, paying, pick-up and delivery [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF]. The post-purchase stage refers to all the contact points that relate to the actual usage and consumption of the product/service. It can refer to brand communities (Shouten McAlexander and Koenig, 2007;[START_REF] Carù | The Impact of Service Elements on the Artistic Experience : The Case of Classical Music Concerts[END_REF] or product-return points [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF]. As we can see from this review on touchpoints, experiences can occur at any moment in the relationship between the consumer and the brand. To summarize, customer experience is a multidimensional construct that encompasses the entirety of the relationship between a consumer and a brand. It can also refer to a particular interaction at a certain point in time. It describes the consumer's cognitive, emotional, behavioral, sensorial, and social responses to a firm/brand or its offerings. Customer experience finds its root in the entirety of the consumer behavior literature. In the next section, we will first distinguish experience from other marketing concepts. It is of the utmost importance considering how broad customer experience is. Then, we will focus on the motivations and outcomes of customer experiences and on how firms can manage them to create value.

The nomological network of customer experience

When it comes to conceptualizing customer experience, it is important to distinguish it from other constructs. [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF] do so by differentiating the construct from satisfaction, service quality, trust, commitment, brand involvement, brand attachment and consumer engagement. According to Lemon and Verhoef, satisfaction is a component of the global experience. Moreover, the experience might be a way to broaden consumer satisfaction, which is one of the most studied consumer outcomes in a marketing context. Therefore, satisfaction can be seen as an outcome of customer experience.

Regarding constructs such as trust and commitment, [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF] classify them as outcomes of experience. In their view, a positive experience with a product/service/brand will provide commitment and trust on the consumer's side, even though trust and experience are not directly related. However, we could also argue that trust in a brand might influence brand experience. It is logical to think that, our experience with a brand, a product, or a service will be different depending on how much we trust it.

According to [START_REF] Brakus | Brand Experience : What is It? How is it Measured? Does it Affect Loyalty?[END_REF], experience, and more precisely brand experience, is related to brand involvement and brand attachment. In their work, Brakus et al. used attachment and brand involvement to assess the discriminant validity of their brand experience scale, without specifying the nature of the relations between the constructs. According to [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF], customer experience is also related to consumer engagement [START_REF] Hollebeek | Demystifying Customer Brand Engagement : Exploring the Loyalty Nexus[END_REF].

In their view, even though extant research has neglected the relationship between experience and engagement, engagement or what they call "reaching out", constitutes consumers' journey touchpoints that result in cognitive, emotional, behavioral, sensorial and social responses from Chapter 3 Section 2: Defining customer experience 134 the consumer and are part of the overall customer experience. In that sense, consumer engagement might represent a component of customer experience through specific interactional touchpoints. Finally, brand loyalty in addition to satisfaction represents one of the main outcomes of customer experience [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF].

Other authors have also proposed antecedents and outcomes of customer experience [START_REF] Aaker | Dimensions of Brand Personality[END_REF][START_REF] Berry | Cultivating service brand equity[END_REF][START_REF] Ramaseshan | Connecting the dots between brand experience and brand loyalty : The mediating role of brand personality and brand relationships[END_REF][START_REF] Chaney | Consumption experience : Past, present and future[END_REF][START_REF] Pizam | Experienscape : Expanding the concept of servicescape with a multistakeholder and multi-disciplinary approach (invited paper for 'luminaries' special issue of International Journal of Hospitality Management)[END_REF][START_REF] Tasci | An expanded nomological network of experienscape[END_REF]. For example, Aaker's work on brand personality (1997) has been used to show how brand personality judgments are formed based on consumers' experiences with brands and any contact or touchpoints with the brand [START_REF] Berry | Cultivating service brand equity[END_REF][START_REF] Ramaseshan | Connecting the dots between brand experience and brand loyalty : The mediating role of brand personality and brand relationships[END_REF]. Brand personality is an important cue that marketers can use to signal the brand's relevance to consumers. It also generates value and strengthens consumer-brand relationships [START_REF] Aaker | Measuring Brand Equity Across Products and Markets[END_REF][START_REF] Ramaseshan | Moderating effects of the brand concept on the relationship between brand personality and perceived quality[END_REF][START_REF] Ramaseshan | Connecting the dots between brand experience and brand loyalty : The mediating role of brand personality and brand relationships[END_REF]. Ramaseshan and Stein's study aimed at identifying the links between brand experience and brand loyalty. They found links between brand experience and loyalty, attachment and commitment, but also the mediating role of brand personality in the relationships between brand experience and consumer outcomes.

More recently, Chaney, Lunardo and Mencarelli (2018) position experience as an outcome of brand usage that "depends on the positioning of and meanings conveyed by the brand and that can explain why consumers decide to create and maintain a relationship with a specific brand".

In that sense, brand usage could also be considered as a touchpoint in the brand experience.

Based on [START_REF] Verhoef | Customer Experience Creation : Determinants, Dynamics and Management Strategies[END_REF]. In a research context, Chaney, Lunardo and Mencarelli (2018) also propose different elements that influence experience: the social environment, the service interface, the retail atmosphere, the assortment, the price, the retail brand, and alternatives experiences. To resume, the entire physical environment surrounding an offering, i.e. the servicescape [START_REF] Bitner | Servicescapes : The Impact of Physical Surroundings on Customers and Employees[END_REF]) also influences experience. Moreover, even prior experiences influence actual and future experiences. Finally, [START_REF] Chaney | Consumption experience : Past, present and future[END_REF] also mention a link between customer experience and consumer value. The relation between value and experience has been studied both ways, either with experience as a driver of value, or with value as a driver of experience. The view that considers experience as a driver of value creation finds its foundation with [START_REF] Holbrook | Special Session Summary Customer Value C a Framework For Analysis and Research[END_REF] who conceptualized experience as "an interactive, relativistic preference that underlies the creation of all customer value" [START_REF] Chaney | Consumption experience : Past, present and future[END_REF]. Most of the research studying the relation between experience and value Chapter 3 Section 2: Defining customer experience 135 adopt this view (e.g., [START_REF] De Ruyter | The dynamics of the service delivery process : A value-based approach[END_REF][START_REF] Babin | Atmospheric Affect as a Tool for Creating Value and Gaining Share of Customer[END_REF][START_REF] Mathwick | The effect of dynamic retail experiences on experiential perceptions of value : An internet and catalog comparison[END_REF][START_REF] Jones | Hedonic and utilitarian shopping value : Investigating differential effects on retail outcomes[END_REF][START_REF] Bonnefoy-Claudet | Modélisation et tests des effets d'une stratégie d'enrichissement expérientiel : Application au contexte touristique[END_REF][START_REF] Terblanche | Revisiting the supermarket in-store customer shopping experience[END_REF]. However, others researchers, such as [START_REF] Sandström | Value in use through service experience[END_REF], or Heinonen, Strandvik and Voima. ( 2010) adopt the opposing view by positioning customer experience as an outcome of consumer value. The problem in the clarification of this relation might come from the lack of a clear conceptualization of value in some research. For example, Helkkula, Kelleher and Pihlström (2012) even merge the two concepts in one called "value in the experience". In that sense, value might be a component of experience, or even a measurement of experience. In this work, we adopt the classical view of experience as a driver of value. The following table provides an overview of the antecedents and outcomes of customer experience. Finally, Tasci andPizam (2019, 2020), in a tourism context, propose the experiencescape, an extension of the servicescape [START_REF] Bitner | Servicescapes : The Impact of Physical Surroundings on Customers and Employees[END_REF], to explore the nomological network of experience, based on the Stimulus-Organism-Response model (Mehrabian and Russel, 1974). Their work proposes the different components of experiences, the cognitive, affective, behavioral, and consumer outcomes, but also some moderators of customer experience. The following figure, As we can see from the above figure, the nomological network of customer experience appears to be complex, with experience having a multitude of cognitive, affective and behavioral outcomes for consumers. The figure also shows how many moderators can affect customer experience. In the following section, we will explore customer experience from the firm's point of view, and explore how they can manage experience to suit their consumers' needs.

Customer Experience Management -Experiential marketing

In this section, we will focus on companies' efforts to manage and foster customer experiences, and explain why managing experience is important for companies. We also propose perceived sportivity as a tool that companies can use to design their offering and that will foster more engagement from consumers. Several authors have pointed out the need for experience management for companies (e.g. [START_REF] Berry | Managing the Total Customer Experience Managing the Total Customer Experience[END_REF]Grewal, Levy and Kumar, 2009;[START_REF] Puccinelli | Customer Experience Management in Retailing : Understanding the Buying Process[END_REF]Palmer, 2010;[START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF][START_REF] Gilovich | Consumers' pursuit of material and experiential purchases : A review[END_REF][START_REF] Klink | Measuring customer experience management and its impact on financial performance[END_REF].

As early as 2002, Berry, Carbone and Haeckel wrote one of the first papers on the importance of managing customer experience for companies in the MIT Sloan Management Review. They focus on five important elements needed to create a positive experience for customers, namely "Recognizing the clues", "Building new competency", "Emergency room connections", "Trying harder -and succeeding", and "Competing with experiences". "Recognizing the clues"

is the first step in managing the experience for companies. There are two types of clues in an experience: clues related to the actual functioning of the good / service provided, and clues related to the emotions and senses of the consumer during his / her encounter with the offerings.

According to [START_REF] Berry | Managing the Total Customer Experience Managing the Total Customer Experience[END_REF], companies must understand and manage the emotional component of experience at the same level as their offer. Next, "Building a new competency" refers to the process that companies must follow to create adequate clues for the consumer. "Emergency room connections" is all about following up with the provided experience, and listening to consumers' opinions. Then, "Trying harder" is similar to step three and concerns the understanding of consumers' need to provide them with an adequate answer.

Finally, "Competing with experiences" points out the need of paying attention to what the competition is doing. At the same time, in France, [START_REF] Aurier | Comprendre Les Expériences De Consommation Pour Mieux Gérer La Relation Client[END_REF] highlighted how, understanding customer experiences could be usefull in imporving customer relationships.

Chapter 3 Section 2: Defining customer experience 139 However, international academic interest in customer experience management emerged in the late 2000s with a special issue of the Journal of Retailing and works from Grewal, Levy and Kumar (2009), [START_REF] Puccinelli | Customer Experience Management in Retailing : Understanding the Buying Process[END_REF], [START_REF] Verhoef | Customer Experience Creation : Determinants, Dynamics and Management Strategies[END_REF] and [START_REF] Brakus | Brand Experience : What is It? How is it Measured? Does it Affect Loyalty?[END_REF]. While the first two papers focused on customer experience management in a retailing context, Brakus et al. focused on brand experience management and developed a first tool to measure and interpret brand experience. In the retailing context, [START_REF] Puccinelli | Customer Experience Management in Retailing : Understanding the Buying Process[END_REF] listed all the elements that constitute the customer experience and affect it, namely goals, schemas and information processing, memory, involvement, attitudes, affect, atmospherics and customers' attributions.

In their opinion, firms can influence all these elements to create a better experience for consumers that will ultimately lead to enhanced satisfaction and better sales. During the same year, [START_REF] Verhoef | Customer Experience Creation : Determinants, Dynamics and Management Strategies[END_REF] argue for the importance of store environment, service interface, past customers' experiences and store brand on future experiences. Therefore, the customer experience seems to contain elements that firms can control (e.g. service interface, retail atmosphere, assortment, and price) but also factors outside of the firm's control (e.g. influence of others, purpose of shopping). [START_REF] Verhoef | Customer Experience Creation : Determinants, Dynamics and Management Strategies[END_REF] also point out the need of considering the customer's experience in the store but also with other channels. Similarly, firms must also pay attention to the evolution of the experience over time.

Grewal, Levy and Kumar (2009) provide an organizing framework for managing customer experience. In their view, two elements strongly influence customer experience: Macro Factors and Firm Controlled Factors. Macro Factors influence both the customer retail experience and the Firm Controlled Factors. They are factors that the firm cannot control and that have an influence on consumer's behavior, such as the 2009 financial crisis or the recent Pandemic.

Firms controlled factors refer mainly to the elements highlighted by both [START_REF] Puccinelli | Customer Experience Management in Retailing : Understanding the Buying Process[END_REF] and Grewal, Levy and Kumar (2009).

More recently, [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF] provided an overview of existing research on customer experience management. In their view, before any management action regarding the customer experience, firms must focus on two aspects. First, they must analyze their actual customer journey. The goal of a customer journey analysis is to "describe it and to understand the customer's options and choices for touchpoint in multiple purchase phases" [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF]. Customer journey analysis finds its roots in both service management and multichannel management according to [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF]. In service management, [START_REF] Bitner | Service Blueprinting : A Practical Technique for Service Innovation[END_REF] propose the service blueprinting methodology, a customer-focused approach Chapter 3 Section 2: Defining customer experience 140 for service innovation and service improvement as a tool to understand and analyze the customer journey. Service blueprinting maps out the entire service delivery process from backoffice internal processes to front-facing customer interactions and has been used extensively by firms since its implementation. However, the service blueprinting also has some limitations.

According to [START_REF] Bitner | Service Blueprinting : A Practical Technique for Service Innovation[END_REF], the service blueprinting lacks a strong customer focus, which may explain why some internal process-oriented customer journey approaches are not effective [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF]. However, the service blueprinting literature suggests two key insights for marketers in the analysis of the customer journey. First, it provides a valid and robust starting point for companies to map their customer journey. Secondly, in addition to the service blueprinting, the customer journey analysis should also take into account the customer perspective and thus requires input on the customer's side. Service blueprinting might therefore offer a starting point in the customer experience analysis but should be completed with insights from the customers.

Then, before the proper customer experience management, [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF] also point out the importance of measuring customer experience. Indeed, being able to measure the customer experience plays a critical role for firms. This research offers a tool to measure experiences in terms of their perceived sportivity. Usually, firms attempt to measure the overall experience through several metrics that have been developed over the last few years. The first real tool to measure experience was the brand experience scale, developed by [START_REF] Brakus | Brand Experience : What is It? How is it Measured? Does it Affect Loyalty?[END_REF]. This scale measures four aspects of the customer brand experience, namely "sensory", "affective", "intellectual" and "loyalty". Following [START_REF] Brakus | Brand Experience : What is It? How is it Measured? Does it Affect Loyalty?[END_REF], other authors also developed tools to measure experience (e.g. [START_REF] Maklan | Customer Experience : Are We Measuring the Right Things[END_REF]Klaus andMaklan, 2011, 2013;[START_REF] Verleye | The co-creation experience from the customer perspective : Its measurement and determinants[END_REF]. While many of these scales focus on similar aspects, [START_REF] Klaus | Towards a Better Measure of Customer Experience[END_REF] focus on four different aspects to measure experience: "peace of mind", "moment of truth", "outcome focus" and "product experience". However, these overall customer experience measures are not widely used by practitioners [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF], and firms tend to use single-item measures that are easily understood by both managers and respondents. Usually, satisfaction is the most measured outcome to evaluate an experience. However, some authors have also proposed other singleitem measures, such as the Net-Promoter Score (NPS; [START_REF] Reichheld | The One Number You Need to Grow[END_REF] or the Customer Effort Score (CES; [START_REF] Dixon | Stop Trying to Delight Your Customers[END_REF] to measure the overall experience. Even though these indicators are intuitive and easy to use and comprehend, they lack a strong theoretical Chapter 3 Section 2: Defining customer experience 141 foundation, and some authors have also argued that they show no difference with classic satisfaction measures (De Haan, [START_REF] De Haan | The predictive ability of different customer feedback metrics for retention[END_REF][START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF].

Consequently, [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF] posit that there is no agreement on measurement indicators for the global customer experience, even though service management approaches such as SERVQUAL or the blueprint might offer good starting points to analyze the experience and manage it.

Regarding the actual management of the customer experience, existing literature is rather scarce. [START_REF] Schmitt | Customer Experience Management : A Revolutionary Approach to Connecting with Your Customers[END_REF] published the first framework on experience management, consisting of five phases: analyzing the experiential world of the customer, building the experiential platform, designing the brand experience, structuring the customer experience, and engaging in continuous innovation. However, touchpoints do not appear to be central in Schmitt's book despite their growing interest for practice-oriented, authors such as [START_REF] Rawson | The Truth About Customer Experience[END_REF] or [START_REF] Edelman | Competing on Customer Journeys[END_REF]. Similarly, academics also point out the importance of touchpoints in managing experience [START_REF] Homburg | New Product Design : Concept, Measurement, and Consequences[END_REF][START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF]Becker and Jaakola, 2020).

According to [START_REF] Homburg | New Product Design : Concept, Measurement, and Consequences[END_REF], customer experience can only be managed through touchpoints and firms should analyze and focus on their customer journey through these touchpoints and the use of data analysis. Similarly, [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF] state that the best way to manage customer experience is to focus on the customer journey design through touchpoints during the different phases of the customer experience.

More recently, Becker and Jaakola (2020), in a review of customer experience, focus on stimuli and the manageable aspects of customer experience. In their view, the global customer experience cannot be properly managed and measured. Instead, practitioners should focus on all the stimuli that affect it. This statement relates and offers yet another justification for the study of perceived sportivity. Indeed, in an experiential context, perceived sportivity might act as a stimulus affecting consumers' perceptions and ultimately consumer behavioral intentions and brand-related outcomes. In their framework, they develop four premises of customer experience, with a research agenda and potential research topics for each of them. The following table, extracted from Becker and Jaakkola (2020) provides an overview of these premises. Becker and Jaakola, 2020) In this research, following previous research on customer experience, we propose that perceived sportivity is a factor that influences the customer perception of the stimuli he/she experience, ultimately leading to positive consumer outcomes. We also propose that firms, through perceived sportivity, can manage stimuli and even some touchpoints.

In the next section, we will discuss the uniqueness of the sports experience, and explain why a scale of perceived sportivity is needed. Section 3: The uniqueness of the sports experience -The need for a scale of perceived sportivity

Sport as a unique type of experience

In the previous sections, we first explored how esport can be studied as a sport if it is categorized as such by consumers. We also linked sport and experience and explored customer experience as a concept. In this section, building on existing research and examples from sport and marketing literature, we will propose that sport can affect brand experiences, and therefore customer outcomes in different ways. Moreover, we will also explore the uniqueness of the sports experience. Finally, we will discuss the usefulness and the need for a perceived sportivity scale, both for practitioners and researchers.

Research linking customer experience and sports consumption emerged as soon as the 1990s, both in the sports literature (e.g. [START_REF] Wakefield | The Effects of Team Loyalty and Selected Stadium Factors on Spectator Attendance[END_REF] and in the customer experience literature (e.g. Arnould and Thompson, 1993;[START_REF] Celsi | An Exploration of High-Risk Leisure Consumption through Skydiving[END_REF][START_REF] Holt | How Consumers Consume : A Typology of Consumption Practices[END_REF]. [START_REF] Wakefield | The Effects of Team Loyalty and Selected Stadium Factors on Spectator Attendance[END_REF] were among the first to recognize the importance of factors outside the game in predicting fan attendance. More specifically, they studied the effect of several customer experience elements, such as stadium parking, stadium cleanliness, perceived crowding, food service, other fans' behavior, and fan loyalty on fans' willingness to stay and attend games at the stadium. Results showed the direct influence of fan loyalty, stadium design and stadium services on desire to stay and attend games at the stadium. [START_REF] Miller | Double play : Creating the sport customer experience using an interdisciplinary framework for managing service employees[END_REF], a few years later, adopted a managerial view and developed a model of sports customer experience focusing on employee identification with the sports club. They found results similar to Zeithaml and Bitner (2000) and argued that expenditure on service alone is not sufficient for organizational success and that supporting elements are equally important. They also found that identification processes play a central role in creating the customer experience in the leisure sector. [START_REF] Klaus | Bridging the gap for destination extreme sports : A model of sports tourism customer experience[END_REF] also proposed a model of customer experience in sport, but focused on extreme sports. Studying mountain bikers, they found how the core extreme sport experience was influenced by not only the company but also by other participants. Therefore, the sports experience could be dependent not only on the customer's perception of the sport and the organizer's efforts, but also on the relationship with other participants.

Chapter 3 Section 3: The uniqueness of the sports experience -The need for a scale of perceived sportivity 146 More recently, Yoshida (2017) proposed a review of existing customer experience research and applied it to the sports management context. Building on Grewal, Lévy and Kumar (2009), [START_REF] Verhoef | Customer Experience Creation : Determinants, Dynamics and Management Strategies[END_REF], and [START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF], Yoshida points out the importance of understanding the very essence of experiential consumption for sports organizations. In his view, the sport customer experience is defined as "sport consumers' cognitive, affective, social, and physical reactions to direct (e.g., purchase and consumption) and indirect (e.g., media and social network) encounters with a sports organization, its products, and other consumers".

Yoshida (2017) also proposes a conceptual framework including all the possible direct and indirect encounters between the customer and the firm (i.e. touchpoints). The following figure represents Yoshida's sports customer experience framework. As we can see from the above figure, the sports experience could represent one of the many touchpoints of a classic customer experience and should be linked to all the other types of encounters in the customer journey. As with any other service encounter, the sports encounter is expected to provide satisfaction for the consumer and influence its brand experience. This brand experience should then influence brand identification, ultimately leading to behavioral consequences for the consumer, such as loyalty, or purchase intention. Finally, Paek et al.

(2021), focusing on professional sports consumption, developed a model that explains the antecedents and outcomes of relationship quality initiatives in the context of professional sports, and a professional sports fan motivation framework. Consistent with previous findings on the role of emotional motives on consumer behavior (Fournier, 1988), they found that emotional motives have a strong influence on relationship quality for consumers and sport consumption behavioral intention. However, they also found a non-significant relationship between cognitive motives, behavioral motives, and relationship quality and consumption intention. Therefore, one might conclude that the aforementioned importance of the emotional component in the sports customer experience may be explained by a certain degree of uniqueness in the sports experience. This uniqueness will be discussed in the following part.

Even though sport seems to represent a perfect example of customer experience, it also appears to have its specificities. First of all, as highlighted by Holbrook and Hirschman's comments (1982) and by Holt's typology of consumption (1995) the play element is central in sports consumption and could play a unique role for the consumers. Then, emotional motives appear to be the most important predictors of relationship quality and behavioral intention in the sports context [START_REF] Ismail | Customer experiences with brands : Literature review and research directions[END_REF][START_REF] Paek | Examining the relationship for sport motives, relationship quality, and sport consumption intention[END_REF]. This could represent a certain form of uniqueness. Many authors have explored motivations for sports consumption and have developed instruments to measure consumers' motivations in both online and offline contexts [START_REF] Wann | Preliminary Validation of the Sport Fan Motivation Scale[END_REF][START_REF] Trail | The Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption : Assessment of the scale's psychometric properties[END_REF][START_REF] Allen | Social Motivation in Youth Sport[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | Development and validation of instruments for assessing sport spectator involvement and factors affecting sport spectator involvement[END_REF]Mallet et al., 2007;[START_REF] Seo | Development of the Motivation Scale for Sport Online Consumption[END_REF].

Moreover, as we have seen previously, the sports encounter represents a specific type of touchpoint in the sports customer experience (Yoshida, 2017). Therefore, the sole perception of an activity as being sporty could influence the entire customer experience. Authors have also pointed out the unique importance of loyalty in the sports context. [START_REF] Smith | The special features of sport : A critical revisit[END_REF].

Other research has also highlighted how elements such as nostalgia [START_REF] Fairley | In Search of Relived Social Experience : Group-Based Nostalgia Sport Tourism[END_REF], pride

Chapter 3 Section 3: The uniqueness of the sports experience -The need for a scale of perceived sportivity 149 [START_REF] Decrop | Pride in contemporary sport consumption : A marketing perspective[END_REF], or fanaticism [START_REF] Chung | Exploring Consumer Fanaticism : Extraordinary Devotion in the Consumption Context[END_REF] can have a special influence on sport consumption behaviors.

Therefore, a multitude of elements could influence the sports experience, and we argue that, because of the unique nature of the sports experience, even the sole perception of sportivity in any activity could influence consumers' perception and ultimately their behaviors.

3.2

Why are a conceptualization and measurement scale of perceived sportivity needed?

As highlighted above, the sports experience is thought to be unique, and the sole categorization of an activity as being a sport in the consumer's mind could lead to different outcomes in brand perception and consumer behavioral intention. Moreover, all the previous sports studies have focused on one type of customer experience in a particular context, and findings in a sports context might not replicate in other sports, rendering them difficult to generalize. To fill this gap, a scale of perceived sportivity could offer a first way of examining the influence of the experience categorized as sporty in a wide set of contexts, sports and leisure activities.

In addition, the sports definition seems to be constantly evolving, as evidenced by instances of leisure activities becoming sports (e.g. surf, skateboard, climbing, MMA, etc.). The recent inclusion in the Olympics of new sports such as skateboard, surf, or even climbing provides the perfect example of such evolution. Therefore, studying the elements that influence consumers' perception and categorization of any activity as a sport could help firms in managing their offerings to position them as sporty or not depending on consumers' perception and categorization. Perceived sportivity could represent a way to create a good fit between consumers' perceptions and a firm offering.

As we have seen in the introduction with the polls from YouGov in the UK and the USA, there is a discrepancy between consumers' perception of sport and the institutional view of sport. Activities such as Chess are not considered as a sport by the majority of respondents despite its sports status being recognized by the IOC, and other activities recognized as sports by consumers have gained an official sport status and are now featured in international sport mega-events such as the Olympics.

Chapter 3 Section 3: The uniqueness of the sports experience -The need for a scale of perceived sportivity 150 Recent research on sport has also started to study objects outside the classic sports realm, such as esport (e.g. [START_REF] Seo | Professionalized consumption and identity transformations in the field of eSports[END_REF][START_REF] Jenny | Virtual(ly) Athletes : Where eSports Fit Within the Definition of "Sport[END_REF]Cunningham, 2018;[START_REF] Funk | eSport management : Embracing eSport education and research opportunities[END_REF]Hallmann and Giel, 2018;[START_REF] Lefebvre | The deployment of professional football clubs' eSports strategies : A dynamic capabilities approach[END_REF]Scholz, Volek and Uebach, 2021). Therefore, the use of a perceived sportivity scale could help researchers study different objects under the prism of sportivity more easily.

Our research aims at building and using such a scale in a real-life context, using both existing literature reviews on sport and consumer insights.

Contributions

 Developing a scale of perceived sportivity to study consumers' perceptions of leisure activities and their categorization  Developing and testing a model explaining how perceived sportivity influences consumers and brand outcomes Table 20: Overview of existing research fields and contributions of this research

As we have seen in this chapter on predictive models of behavioral intention in experiential marketing, the importance of consumer perception is emphasized. In a sports context, for example, many have studied consumption motivations. However, to date, no scale measures consumers' mental representation and categorization of the sportivity of activities, even though categorization processes have been shown to influence consumers' perceptions. However, it seems that this variable plays a determining role in the cognitive, affective and behavioral process that the consumer goes through when engaging in a consumption process. Thus, in our context, measuring consumers' perception and their mental representation and categorization of -what we refer to as "perceived sportivity"esports seems to offer many academic and managerial opportunities. In the following chapter, we present the development of the perceived sportivity scale, using an updated version of Churchill's paradigm (1979). This measure aims to find out whether, for a given activity, attitudes and behavior change according to the perception of the activity as being sporty or not. To answer this question, one may be able to measure perceived sportivity and its outcomes. However, because the conceptualization of Perceived Sportivity has to our knowledge not been the object of attention so far, no measure for this construct exists. Therefore, in this chapter, we aim to provide a measurement of Perceived Sportivity to examine its influence and see if there is an attitudinal or behavioral change following the perception of the sporty dimension of an activity from consumers.

To construct such a scale, some essential steps must be followed in a meticulous manner [START_REF] Didellon | Mode de persuasion et mesure d'efficacité du parrainage : Une application au domaine sportif[END_REF]. First of all, it is crucial to put forward all the characteristics that make an activity be categorized as a sport or not by consumers. These elements were first brought forward through a comprehensive literature review on the different definitions and interpretations of sport, as seen in the previous section. Because we here focus on the consumers' perceptions of sportivity, we present a qualitative exploratory phase looking at the different perceptions of consumers. Once this qualitative phase is carried out, a set of quantitative analyses will be carried out to study and classify the different dimensions of Perceived Sportivity highlighted during the qualitative phase [START_REF] Pham | Effects of Involvement, Arousal, and Pleasure on the Recognition of Sponsorship Stimuli[END_REF] accordingly with their importance. Finally, a test phase will allow us to analyze the validity of the scale and its effectiveness.

Once the scale is developed, we will use it in an experiment and in a field study to verify the underlying relationships associated with Perceived Sportivity. These possible relationships will be put forward through research hypotheses. The experiment and the field study mentioned above will be the focus of the next chapters. Chapter 4 focuses solely on the whole process of scale development. This process follows an updated [START_REF] Churchill | A Paradigm for Developing Better Measures of Marketing Constructs[END_REF] Anderson andGerbing (1988, 1992), [START_REF] Gerbing | Monte Carlo Evaluations of Goodness of Fit Indices for Structural Equation Models[END_REF], as well as that of [START_REF] Fornell | Assumptions of the Two-Step Approach to Latent Variable Modeling[END_REF], which allow us to reflect more on this process and give us a clearer and more detailed methodology. Finally, the work of [START_REF] Peter | Reliability : A Review of Psychometric Basics and Recent Marketing Practices[END_REF] on construct validity in marketing, which we have also followed, provides us with a guarantee of the validity of our construct.

Another method detailing a scale development processthe C-OAR-SE methodwas put forward by [START_REF] Rossiter | The C-OAR-SE procedure for scale development in marketing[END_REF]. This method is considered more flexible and less focused on empirical indicators than [START_REF] Churchill | A Paradigm for Developing Better Measures of Marketing Constructs[END_REF] method. However, there have been many criticisms of this method, such as the use of face validity and expert opinion as the only indicators of validity [START_REF] Diamantopoulos | The C-OAR-SE procedure for scale development in marketing : A comment[END_REF][START_REF] Finn | How fine is C-OAR-SE? A generalizability theory perspective on Rossiter's procedure[END_REF]. Furthermore, although [START_REF] Rossiter | The C-OAR-SE procedure for scale development in marketing[END_REF] defines his approach as 'rationalist', thus being the opposite of empirical approaches, the use of experts in the whole scale creation process appears to be a paradox. Moreover, as Rigdon et al ( 2011) note, the C-OAR-SE method sometimes seems to go back to a time before that of Churchill, when "most measures were measures only because someone defined them as such, not because they met standard evaluation criteria" (Jacoby, 1978, p.91). However, Rossiter's criticisms of reliability indicators seem justified, and it is therefore important that we do not rely solely on these indicators when developing the scale and that we give equal value to experts' opinions. This is why, during the different stages of the construction of the scale, we chose to consult experts. Beyond Rossiter's approach, [START_REF] Diamantopoulos | Index Construction with Formative Indicators : An Alternative to Scale Development[END_REF] have also proposed a method for developing scales based on formative indicators. Indeed, even before focusing on the relations that may exist within a construct, it is essential to concentrate on the very nature of the measurement items and the dimensions that make them up. Indeed, these indicators and dimensions may be reflective or formative. Measurement items are often considered to be reflective, or a reflection of the construct they measure. In contrast, formative items are items that define and describe the construct they measure [START_REF] Diamantopoulos | Advancing formative measurement models[END_REF]Petter, Straud and Rai, 2007). Formative items are often harder to identify and require special attention. Indeed, mishandling of these items can frequently lead to Type I and Type II errors [START_REF] Jarvis | A Critical Review of Construct Indicators and Measurement Model Misspecification in Marketing and Consumer Research[END_REF][START_REF] Mackenzie | The Problem of Measurement Model Misspecification in Behavioral and Organizational Research and Some Recommended Solutions[END_REF]. Furthermore, the presence of formative items would require a modification of the structural model of the scale to effectively analyze the data [START_REF] Maccallum | The use of causal indicators in covariance structure models : Some practical issues[END_REF]. It is, therefore, appropriate to consider the nature of the measurement items when developing a scale. When one uses reflective items, the internal consistency of the model is very important. This is not the case for formative items. This is because formative models minimize the amount of residual variance within the model [START_REF] Fornell | Two Structural Equation Models : LISREL and PLS Applied to Consumer Exit-Voice Theory[END_REF], and therefore errors should be addressed at the construct level, not at the item level [START_REF] Jarvis | A Critical Review of Construct Indicators and Measurement Model Misspecification in Marketing and Consumer Research[END_REF].

In our case, our methodological approach, as well as the very nature of our concept, encourages us to see our items as reflective and not formative. Indeed, our concept of Perceived Sportivity exists independently of its dimensions, and it is the basis of our review and our various studies.

It is from the concept of Perceived Sportivity that we have determined different dimensions.

Moreover, because formative models may vary in the number and structure of measures and factors used [START_REF] Howell | Is formative measurement really measurement? Reply to Bollen (2007) and Bagozzi[END_REF][START_REF] Bagozzi | Measurement and Meaning in Information Systems and Organizational Research : Methodological and Philosophical Foundations[END_REF][START_REF] Edwards | The Fallacy of Formative Measurement[END_REF], it makes their use less appropriate in our context. Science, and Marketing Scienceover the last 10 years. We found 37 papers detailing a scale development process, and for each of them, analyzed the steps followed in the development of the scales. The following table provides an overview of these papers and of the different steps that were followed to develop the measurement scales. As we can see from the table, the most used steps in developing a scale are the performance of Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), and the tests of the external discriminant validity and nomological validity. Convergent validity is often overlooked, and internal discriminant validity seems to only apply when the measures developed are multidimensional. Therefore, following previous research focusing on scale development, we decided to follow the steps recommended by [START_REF] Hair | Multivariate Data Analysis : Pearson New International Edition[END_REF], that is EFA, CFA, convergent validity, discriminant validity (internal and external for the second-order factor) and finally nomological validity. Regarding the item generation processes used in scale development papers, most of the research used either qualitative interviews with experts or consumers, literature reviews, or both, thus comforting our idea of conducting qualitative interviews in addition to our literature review.

To specify the domain of the construct, a thorough literature review was carried out, focusing on different sociological concepts related to sport. This review was developed in the previous section notably through explanations of the concepts of sportivisation, sportification, and sportisationthree concepts focusing on the sociology of sportas well as their components and influences on society and consumers. A historical review on the evolution of sport was also carried out to explore other aspects of the subject. Once the review was completed, potential dimensions related to sport were highlighted.

The interview guide was divided into 3 distinct parts. The first part used projective methods with nine images of various activities (images are available in Appendix 1). to allow the respondents to highlight the different characteristics of each activity that could make them be seen as sporty. The value of using projective methods in marketing was first highlighted by [START_REF] Haire | Projective Techniques in Marketing Research[END_REF] and has been highlighted in several research studies [START_REF] Boddy | Projective Techniques in Market Research : Valueless Subjectivity or Insightful Reality? A Look at the Evidence for the Usefulness, Reliability and Validity of Projective Techniques in Market Research[END_REF][START_REF] Ramsey | Application of Projective Techniques in an E-business Research Context : A Response to 'Projective Techniques in Market Research -Valueless Subjectivity or Insightful Reality?[END_REF][START_REF] Soley | Projective techniques in US marketing and management research : The influence of The Achievement Motive[END_REF][START_REF] Pich | The Elicitation Capabilities of Qualitative Projective Techniques in Political Brand Image Research[END_REF]. Projective methods have many advantages. Firstly, they allow us to enter the "private world" of the consumer and gain access to their subjective perception of the product [START_REF] Haire | Projective Techniques in Marketing Research[END_REF]. Secondly, projective techniques facilitate the expression of repressed thoughts by allowing the respondent to project their thoughts onto someone or something else [START_REF] Boddy | Projective Techniques in Market Research : Valueless Subjectivity or Insightful Reality? A Look at the Evidence for the Usefulness, Reliability and Validity of Projective Techniques in Market Research[END_REF]. Finally, projective techniques help to overcome how market research is conducted; that is, in a functionalist, technical, and narrow-minded manner (Caterall and Ibbotson, 2000).

Chapter 4 Section 1: Perceived Sportivity scale development -Methodology and Qualitative Exploratory Phase 164 However, projective techniques are not quick fixes, and several authors have pointed out the need to compare the results obtained after a study using projective methods and a similar study not using them [START_REF] Will | Projective and enabling techniques explored[END_REF][START_REF] Boddy | Projective Techniques in Market Research : Valueless Subjectivity or Insightful Reality? A Look at the Evidence for the Usefulness, Reliability and Validity of Projective Techniques in Market Research[END_REF]. Similarly, their effectiveness has also been questioned [START_REF] Yoell | The Fallacy of Projective Techniques[END_REF]. However, the advantages of using these techniques in the study of ambiguous, abstract, and consumer-interpreted topics have encouraged us to use them. Indeed, several studies have demonstrated their usefulness in the study of motivations [START_REF] Cooper | Inside the consumer mind : Consumer attitudes to the arts[END_REF][START_REF] Hussey | Projecting the right image : Using projective techniques to measure brand image[END_REF][START_REF] Hofstede | Projective techniques for brand image research : Two personification-based methods explored[END_REF]). In the context of qualitative research, projective methods are said to offer "a pathway to the invisible layers of the mind" [START_REF] Chandler | Developing Brands with Qualitative Market Research[END_REF], thus enabling "the unlocking and clarification of elements that are out of consciousness or difficult to express" [START_REF] Wardle | Developing Advertising with Qualitative Market Research[END_REF]. Finally, the use of projective methods also allows respondents to fill a possible vocabulary gap by relying on the use of images or other stimuli [START_REF] Hofstede | Projective techniques for brand image research : Two personification-based methods explored[END_REF].

Even though sport has been defined from an institutional point of view, as we saw in the previous chapter, the multiple aspects it has taken on over time, as well as the multiple debates regarding its nature, encouraged us to use projective methods in the qualitative interviews, to allow respondents to express themselves as easily as possible.

The projective methods used in the first part of the interview put forward nine images of activities for the respondents to describe. The second part of the interview focused on the nine dimensions highlighted in the literature review by studying the respondents' perceptions when these dimensions were highlighted in activities. Finally, the third and last part looked at the respondents' overall perception of sport, as well as their socio-demographic profile.

The next subsection will present the entire process carried out during the qualitative exploratory phase, i.e. the entire phase preceding the generation of items. The second part will focus on the quantitative phase, which will lead to the creation of an 8-item, 2-dimension scale.

In the next section, we focus on the scale development methodology, as well as the qualitative exploratory phase that led to the generation of 130 items. The second part will focus on the quantitative phase.

2.2: Qualitative exploratory phase

The first qualitative phase took place over several months during the first year of the thesis, from December 2018 to April 2018. Following readings on different concepts related to sport, we realized that it was impossible to elaborate on an objective definition of the subject. Indeed, the numerous concepts put forward in the first part of the thesis mention many elements to characterize an activity as sporty, but none of them proposes a finite definition of sportivity.

Thus, the categorization of an activity as sporty would mostly be a matter of individuals and their perceptions. For this reason, we also decided to carry out individual qualitative interviews.

Therefore, a first definition of Perceived Sportivity can be put forward. In an experiential paradigm, Perceived Sportivity is concerned with the consumers' viewing practices of leisure activities of a professional or amateur nature. The professional character is defined by the legal and economic regulation of the activity by a supervisory institution. In this context, Perceived Sportivity seeks to highlight the different elements that enable a consumer to define an activity as being sporty or not. Perceived Sportivity is therefore concerned with the perception of consumers, and not with the legal status of the leisure activity. It can therefore be applied to any type of leisure activity that is likely to be viewed by consumers. Through the development of the scale, the definition of Perceived Sportivity will be refined, in particular by highlighting the different dimensions that make it up.

However, although the different concepts and theories seeking to characterize sport do not propose a finite definition of the construct, they do allow us to highlight several possible dimensions. All the dimensions put forward by the different concepts studied are presented in the table below. All of these dimensions are highlighted in a section during the creation of the qualitative interview guide.

Social

Sport is one of the components of the process of civilization and is also born of the desire of citizens to participate in less and less violent activities.

Entertainment

Sport plays a role as a simulacrum of war, allowing a break with the routinization of the daily lives of citizens living in newly industrialized societies.

Regulation

Sport is above all a practice that has been able to spread, while remaining the same, in England, then in Europe and the rest of the world thanks to rules.

Agon / Ludus

Roger Caillois John Huizinga

Competition

The term "Agon" groups all types of competitive games. All sports fall under this category.

Equality

In competitive games, opponents face each other under ideal conditions, where equality of opportunity is artificially created, whether by rules, a defined playing space, or similar Equipment.

Training

The practice of Agon presupposes appropriate training, as well as assiduous efforts and a will to win.

Sportivisation

Jean-Marie Brohm

Marc Perelman

Politics

Sportivisation was first used to illustrate the institutional and ideological imposition of sport in Physical and Sports Education (EPS) by the French state.

Physical

sportivisation is associated with a practical ordering of bodily sports. The process of sportivisation described by Brohm was initially intended to maintain and perfect bodies through controlled physical practice.

Diffusion

While Brohm mentions an ideological subjugation of PE to qualify sportivisation, [START_REF] Attali | La « Sportivisation » de l'éducation physique est-elle une réalité historique[END_REF] mention a generalization of physical and sports practices as the main educational issue.

Sportification Allen Guttmann

Bo Carlsson

Equality

Sport puts forward conditions that theoretically allow everyone to participate on an equal footing, with the same rules for all participants.

Training Defined as a specialization by Guttmann, the notions of training and professionalization also seem to be at the heart of modern sports. Indeed, already in ancient Greece, athletes were specialized, trained and paid for their practice.

Institutions

All modern sports have become bureaucratized, with the setting up of national and international federations regulating all practices.

Quantification (Science)

The notion of quantification is omnipresent in modern sport. Indeed, this has even allowed science to intervene in practices (with Equipment). Quantifying a result or a performance is the first step to follow to aim at a constant improvement for the athletes.

Record

All modern sports tend towards the achievement of records, exacerbated by the use of statistics and Equipment allowing the quantification of all the performances of an athlete.

Table 23: Existing measurement scales dedicated to consumers' motivations and behaviors in sport

The creation of a scale highlighting the elements that can influence consumers' perception of sport in a leisure activity is therefore of real managerial interest, both for marketers and for all leisure activity organizers. Indeed, sport is associated with the notion of effort, whose influence on the concepts of value and consumer engagement has already been highlighted in the literature [START_REF] Kruger | The effort heuristic[END_REF]Morales, 2005 Passyn and[START_REF] Passyn | Skill-based versus effort-based task difficulty : A task-analysis approach to the role of specific emotions in motivating difficult actions[END_REF][START_REF] Leung | Highlighting Effort Versus Talent in Service Employee Performance : Customer Attributions and Responses[END_REF].

For example, [START_REF] Kruger | The effort heuristic[END_REF] through an experiment using 3 stimuli (a poem, a painting and a suit of armor) showed that the more effort consumers perceived in the design of products, the more they defined them as being of better quality and having more value. The following year, [START_REF] Morales | Giving firms an « E » for effort : Consumer responses to high-effort firms[END_REF] extended the research of [START_REF] Kruger | The effort heuristic[END_REF] to the company-consumer relationship, studying consumers' perception of organizational transparency. Through several experiments, she highlights the fact that when a company is perceived to put in more effort, consumers are more likely to buy its products, to choose it over another company, and even to Chapter 4 Section 1: Perceived Sportivity scale development -Methodology and Qualitative Exploratory Phase 168 evaluate it positively, even if the products are not of better quality. [START_REF] Passyn | Skill-based versus effort-based task difficulty : A task-analysis approach to the role of specific emotions in motivating difficult actions[END_REF] also looked at the perception of effort, this time in the context of the business relationship between an employee and a customer. The results showed that employees who were perceived as putting in more effort by consumers were seen as warmer. Going further, [START_REF] Leung | Highlighting Effort Versus Talent in Service Employee Performance : Customer Attributions and Responses[END_REF] showed that when the employee was seen as putting in effort rather than being naturally good, consumers were more likely to engage in behaviors aimed at helping the employee. Similarly, several authors have highlighted consumers' appreciation of effort (Cho and Schwartz, 2008;[START_REF] Buell | The labor illusion : How operational transparency increases perceived value[END_REF][START_REF] Norton | The IKEA effect : When labor leads to love[END_REF]Buell, Kim, and Tsay, 2016). Therefore, because effort is associated with forms of consumer engagement, and sport is, by definition, associated with the notion of effort, it is interesting to study the constituent elements of sport for consumers from both a theoretical and managerial perspective.

To explore consumers' perception of sport, we decided to go for qualitative individual interviews. We decided to ignore focus groups for several reasons. Firstly, focus groups are more useful when we are interested in intra-group relations linked to a concept, which is not our case. Secondly, as the object of study is sport, and therefore has an important social connotation, the setting up of focus groups might facilitate various social and affective biases, and thus prevent certain elements, particularly negative ones, to emerge. [START_REF] Dovidio | Group Representations and Intergroup Bias : Positive Affect, Similarity, and Group Size[END_REF].

In the context of the study of sport, an object with a strong social and cultural influence, as we saw in the first part, it seems more than essential to opt for individual interviews, so that the respondents can express themselves as freely as possible, without the slightest pressure.

Regarding the form of these interviews, we decided to conduct semi-structured interviews, with open-ended questions, to leave as much space as possible for the respondents. Closed questions could effectively limit the responses.

We also decided to ignore direct observation. Indeed, direct observations are more efficient when analyzing actual behaviors, and not subjective perceptions (Wells and Lo Sciutto, 1966;Gobb and Hoyer, 1985). As we identified in the first phase of the literature review, the main concepts used to highlight possible dimensions of sport were all institutional in scope, often leaving out the individual perception of consumers. As our research is concerned with consumer perception, it was considered essential to study the different perceptions of consumers concerning these dimensions via interviews. Therefore, we decided to conduct a second qualitative exploratory phase, this time in the form of individual interviews.

Firstly, we turned to exploratory analysis for several reasons. Firstly, we are not studying the importance of sportsmanship, or its quantification, but its possible existence, its composition [START_REF] Walker | Applied Qualitative Research[END_REF], as well as the perception that individuals have of it, which justifies the interest of a qualitative study rather than a quantitative one [START_REF] Heyink | The function of qualitative research[END_REF][START_REF] Spiggle | Analysis and Interpretation of Qualitative Data in Consumer Research[END_REF].

When creating an interview guide, we do not aim to measure the importance of each element of the construct but to explore its dimensions; we are still in an exploratory phase. The quantification phase will come later in the process of creating the scale.

The first part of the interview guide, therefore, included nine images of different activities: esport, dance, football, chess, golf, Uno, MMA, drone racing, and pogo stick. The respondents were asked to describe and characterize these images. These nine images were not randomly chosen, however, and all had different elements to allow respondents to express themselves as much as possible.

 Esport: This activity was chosen because it is a hot topic, at the heart of a debate concerning its categorization as a sport or not. In addition, esport contains both a generational and technological aspect that can lead to debate.

 Dance: Also an activity at the between sport and art. In addition, the image of a dance class containing a teacher at the center, a teaching aspect could also be identified and discussed by the respondents.

 Football: This image was chosen because of the importance of football, the mostwatched and played sport in the world. In addition, the large presence of the public in the image is intended to provide food for thought for the respondents.

 Chess: The French Chess Federation is recognized as a sports federation since January 2000, and its status as a sport is very often contested. Moreover, it is an activity where physical performance is minimal, and where strategy and reflection are emphasized.

 Golf: Although golf is considered a sport, it is often perceived as a solitary activity, far from technological considerations. Furthermore, golf is also perceived by some as being reserved for a certain, more affluent category of people and is not seen as being accessible.

 Uno: Uno is an American card game sold since 1971. Here the activity has no obvious sporting characteristics. However, it does involve the notion of chance, and the image chosen emphasizes feelings such as well-being and cohesion.

 Mixed Martial Arts: MMA was chosen to represent a purely physical activity.

MMA is defined as a full combat sport, combining pugilism and hand-to-hand combat. It is extremely associated with the notion of physical strength and is sometimes seen as very violent. Furthermore, MMA acquired the status of a sport in France in 2020, via the French boxing federation, which makes its study among our respondents fully justified.

 Drone Racine: The eighth activity chosen for the interview was an activity using new technologies. Halfway between classic racing and new technologies, the study of a new unknown activity can also bring new elements from the respondents.

 Pogo Stick: This last activity highlights another notion from Caillois, that of vertigo (1958), or the search for strong sensations. In addition, an aspect of artistic representation, which may be similar to the dance put forward earlier, will also make it possible to gather new elements from the respondents.

Results of the qualitative interviews

The interview guide was presented to 24 people (Mage=42.5 years, Nwomen =12). Of these, 41.7% declared themselves to be sportsmen and women. The interviews were all conducted face-toface and ranged in length from 21 to 87 minutes. The interview administration period was quite short, with the first interview being recorded on November 1 st, 2019, and the last interview being recorded on December 2 nd, 2019. Thereafter, all transcriptions were made between November 21 st of 2019 and January 7 th of 2020.

Furthermore, in order not to bias the answers, the word sport was never mentioned or written by the interviewer when using projective techniques. Firstly, respondents were shown an image of the activity (esport). Then, respondents were asked to identify, among 8 images, the one that was the furthest from the first one. The objective of this first question was to allow the respondent to highlight various elements of the images by forcing a comparison between two very distinct activities. Next, the respondent was asked to describe and characterize the other 7

images. Here, we aimed to study the characteristic elements of different activities, independently of their level of sportivity. Indeed, as the objective was to study Perceived Sportivity, we decided to start our interview with images that did not represent sport only. It is the quantitative analysis, which will come later, that will allow us to associate, or not, the different elements put forward by the respondents with sport. Below you will find a table

summarising the different activities used during the interview, as well as the main characteristics of these activities put forward by the respondents. The full interview guide is available in the annex.

The main elements highlighted by the respondents for each activity are derived from a lexical analysis of word frequencies carried out using the Sphinx software. Lexical analysis is useful because it allows for a link between the coding of qualitative data and the analysis of quantitative data by providing an automated coding method [START_REF] Bolden | Bridging the Quantitative-Qualitative Divide : The Lexical Approach to Textual Data Analysis[END_REF]. As the set of questions in the interview guide is open-ended, textual data analysis seems to be crucial.

"sport" was not mentioned in either the first or second part of the interview. Thus, this formatting allowed us to analyze the occurrences of the term 'sport' for each activity as objectively as possible. The table below presents a summary of the occurrences of terms from the "sport" vocabulary for each of the 10 questions. As a reminder, since the physical dimension seems to be at the heart of the debates concerning the inclusion of certain activities as sport, we decided to allocate two questions to it: one concerning the presence of a single physical activity, and another concerning the absence of a physical dimension in an activity.

Studied dimension Question wording Occurrences

Sponsor

In my opinion, when an activity is sponsored, it is:

Mention of the term "Sport": 50%

Physicality (absence of) In my opinion, when an activity is not physical, it is:

Mention of the term "Sport": 25%

Physicality

In my opinion, when an activity is purely physical, it is:

Mention of the term "Sport": 58,3%

Media

In my opinion, when an activity is largely broadcasted on different media, it is:

Mention of the term "Sport": 58,3%

Diffusion

In my opinion, when an activity is practiced worldwide, it is:

Mention of the term "Sport": 50%

Regulation

In my opinion, when an activity is controlled by umbrella institutions (such as federations), it is:

Mention of the term "Sport": 58,3%

Competition

In my opinion, when an activity put teams or people in opposition; it is:

Mention of the term "Sport": 50%

Social

In my opinion, when an activity favors social integration, it is:

Mention of the term "Sport": 66,7%

Quantification and record

In my opinion, when practitioners of an activity face each other to achieve records, it is:

Mention of the term "Sport": 29,2%

Science/Equipment

In my opinion, when an activity uses science to enhance practitioners' performance, it is:

Mention of the term "Sport": 62,5% 175 Thus, we can see that some of the dimensions highlighted in the literature review do not seem to naturally be linked to sport by consumers. This is notably the case for the dimension "Quantification and record" which was only linked to sport by 29% of respondents. For the other dimensions, the results are fairly homogeneous, but not unanimous. The dimensions highlighted in the literature review, therefore, require further investigation. They do seem to be related to sport, but not exclusive to it.

Finally, the last part looked at the respondents' perception of sport. This time, the term "sport" was explicitly mentioned, and respondents were asked three questions about their perception of sport. This part came last to avoid biasing respondents by misusing the term "sport". The first two parts were also intended to make respondents think about what sport is, first by a projective method and then by open questions. The table below provides a summary of the responses to each of the sport-related questions.

Questions Highlighted elements

In As the subject of these questions is sport, we decided to retain all the terms that were highlighted by the respondents in their answers, including items that were mentioned only a few times.

After this first lexical analysis, several dimensions seem to influence consumers' perception of sport. However, to go further, a manual analysis of all the responses was also carried out. This allowed us to isolate certain turns of phrase and vocabulary elements to highlight several verbatims. This analysis enabled us to put forward a list of potential items to be tested via an exploratory factorial analysis. This analysis makes it possible to associate, or dissociate, the Chapter 4 Section 2: Qualitative interview guidedevelopment and administration items highlighted by the two qualitative analyses with sport. Even before the EFA, four marketing experts were contacted to judge the facial validity of the 130 items. As a reminder, "face validity estimates the extent to which the scale under consideration reflects the construct under study. For the researcher, it consists of studying the items of the scale one by one to ensure that each of them truly measures the phenomenon being studied and that it truly adapts to the research context" (Touzani, 2006, p.115). In a similar vein, Holden (2010) defines face validity as the degree to which respondents to a test see its items as actually falling within the defined construct. Face validity and the use of experts are an integral part of [START_REF] Rossiter | The C-OAR-SE procedure for scale development in marketing[END_REF] C-OAR-SE method. Although we decided to focus also on the psychometric characteristics of the scale by following an updated [START_REF] Churchill | A Paradigm for Developing Better Measures of Marketing Constructs[END_REF] paradigm, we also decided to focus on the facial validity of our scale by using experts. We contacted four academics from KEDGE Business School and submitted the 130 items and the definition of Perceived Sportivity to them. Some of the items were subsequently modified according to the experts' comments. However, the novelty of the scale and the experts' comments encouraged us to test all our items.

The themes of Perceived Sportivity:

After the first analysis, all the 130 items were grouped into 10 themes. In the following section, we will detail these 10 themes of Perceived Sportivity. The exploration of sport being done with French respondents for convenience purposes, we back-translated all of them in English with the help and approval of two English-speaking experts. The original French version of the items is available in Appendix 2.

The physical theme:

The physical theme contains 22 potential items, divided into 4 sub-themes. As the name suggests, this theme seems to correspond to the level of Physicality of activities. An activity, to be considered as a sport by the respondents, should have a physical component, including an effort dimension. Indeed, for an activity to be considered a sport, the physical notion would be essential, which seems to correspond to previous literature on the subject. The four sub-themes are strength, technique, movement, and skill. These sub-themes highlight the diversity of the physical notion, which therefore does not seem to be limited to simple physical strength, but also contains elements related to movement or agility. A second theme highlighted during the qualitative interviews by the respondents is the mental theme, comprising 20 possible items classified into four sub-themes. These sub-themes, called tactics, concentration, reflection and spirit, seem to refer to all the elements that take place in a person's head when practicing an activity, and which influence that practice. Moreover, the tactical aspect also refers to elements decided before the practice of an activity, elements prepared by the different participants of the same activity. Thus, the spontaneous character of an activity could perhaps allow it to be dissociated from sport. The practice of sport, beyond the simple physical component, would therefore also include a so-called mental part, which is more invisible and also takes place in the heads of the participants.

The commercial and financial theme:

The third theme identified through the analysis of the qualitative study is the commercial and financial theme, comprising 8 items classified in three sub-themes: money, marketing and media. This theme refers to activities that are external to the practice, and would rather be consequences of a practice at a professional level. Indeed, professional sport is mediatized, used for marketing purposes, and allows practitioners to earn money. Thus, the evolution of sport, as presented in the first part of this work, since the Los Angeles Olympic Games in 1984, would have been such that it would have changed consumers' perceptions. Consumers now see the whole commercial process associated with sport as one of its defining elements.

The institutional theme:

An institutional theme was also put forward by the respondents during the various interviews. This theme includes an institutional sub-theme, with two items, and a sub-theme called regulation, with three items. Thus, an activity, to be a sport, should take place within a precise framework, delimited by rules, and regulated by institutions, as described by [START_REF] Guttmann | From ritual to record : The nature of modern sports (Updated with a new afterword[END_REF] for example. This theme, although invisible in the context of practice, should therefore exist in the eyes of consumers for an activity to be perceived as a sport.

The performance theme:

Chapter 4 Section 2: Qualitative interview guidedevelopment and administration 178 A theme that was highly mentioned by respondents was the performance theme, with 24 possible items highlighted after analysis of the literature review and qualitative interviews. This theme also includes four sub-themes: Training, ranking, records, competition. They all refer to the idea of repetition of practice, as well as to the famous victory/defeat dichotomy, mentioned as early as the 1930s by Huizinga. Thus, its confrontation aspect would also define sport, always including at least a winner and a loser.

The health theme:

The health aspect was also very much emphasized by the respondents during the qualitative interviews, especially in the last part, which dealt with the respondents' perception of sport in general. This theme was divided into two sub-themes during the qualitative analysis: mental health and well-being, and physical health, containing 23 items. Indeed, sport, via the practice of physical activity, would not only allow for good physical health, but would have a positive influence on the respondents' well-being and mental health. However, as with the commerciality, this theme seems to be more of a consequence of Perceived Sportivity rather than one of its components, as we will see in the next session.

The scientific/material theme: Sport could also have a scientific component. Indeed, several respondents highlighted this theme during the interview, under three different forms: Equipment, technology, and medicine. Indeed, sport is practiced with specialized Equipment and has benefited from science to improve, which has sometimes led to drug abuse such as doping. Moreover, this theme also seems to relate to performance, as all the sub-dimensions, namely Equipment, technology and medicine, exist to improve practitioners' performance. It, therefore, seems interesting to study these sub-themes via the 9 items extracted from the analysis of the qualitative interviews.

The social theme:

Another theme often put forward by the different respondents during the interview was the social theme, comprising two sub-themes: integration, with 3 items, as well as gathering, with 6 items. Thus, according to the respondents, sports activities bring people together. According Chapter 4 Section 2: Qualitative interview guidedevelopment and administration 179 to the respondents, sport is also a vehicle for social integration. This theme should therefore be tested in the exploratory factor analysis. However, as with the financial and the health theme, this social theme also seems to be more of a consequence of Perceived Sportivity rather than one of its components.

The ludic theme:

The ninth theme highlighted in the various interviews was the ludic theme. This is the only theme, with its 5 possible items, that does not have a sub-theme. Indeed, in line with Caillois' (1958) typology, which includes sports in the Agon, which he calls "competitive games", respondents also highlighted the playful and fun aspect of the activities. Sport, although competitive and focused on performance and winning, would therefore have retained its playful and enjoyable component, even for viewers.

The environmental theme:

Finally, the tenth and last theme identified after the analysis of the qualitative interviews was the environmental theme. This theme was divided into two sub-themes: place, representing the physical environment, and atmosphere, representing the non-physical environment, or mood. Indeed, according to the respondents, sport would take place in defined, prepared and dedicated places, all in a particular atmosphere and ambiance. Therefore, this theme and its 8 items should also be included in the exploratory factor analysis.

As mentioned earlier, the second part of this chapter will therefore deal with the testing and reduction of these 130 items from both the literature review and the various qualitative interviews, via an EFA and then a CFA. These analyses were carried out between January 2020 and June 2020 and led to the creation of a measurement scale comprising 8 items and 2 dimensions. Finally, the chapter will conclude with the various validity tests to ensure that the scale works. As mentioned in the previous section, the literature review and the qualitative interviews yielded 130 potential Perceived Sportivity measurement items. Referring to the process of creating a measurement scale according to [START_REF] Roehrich | Les consommateurs-innovateurs : Un essai d'identification[END_REF], the fourth step consists in the verification of the structure of the measure. To achieve this objective, we decided to turn to EFA, a tool frequently used in scale creation [START_REF] Shook | An assessment of the use of structural equation modeling in strategic management research[END_REF][START_REF] Marsh | Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling : An Integration of the Best Features of Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis[END_REF] Although

EFAs are an important precursor to CFA [START_REF] Cudeck | Factor Analysis at 100 : Historical Developments and Future Directions[END_REF], they are often seen as less useful, because they are considered to be solely exploratory, and should only be used when researchers have absolutely no opinion about the structure of their construct [START_REF] Marsh | Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling : An Integration of the Best Features of Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis[END_REF]. However, by nature, EFAs freely compute the set of cross-factor weights, whereas they are forced to a value of zero in CFAs. Because of these parameters, many CFAs fail to explain results that are evident in EFAs [START_REF] Anderson | Assumptions and Comparative Strengths of the Two-Step Approach : Comment on Fornell and Yi[END_REF][START_REF] Marsh | Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling, Integrating CFA and EFA : Application to Students' Evaluations of University Teaching[END_REF][START_REF] Marsh | A new look at the big five factor structure through exploratory structural equation modeling[END_REF]. For these reasons, and also because researchers usually go for both an EFA and CFA when developing a measurement scale, we decided to go for a combination of both analyses, first conducting an exploratory analysis to reduce our items and get a first structure, and then using a confirmatory analysis to check all the fit indicators in the model. The following section focuses on the EFA.

Exploratory factor analysis

Following the formulation of 130 items that were possibly related to Perceived Sportivity, we decided to carry out an exploratory factor analysis (EFA). This analysis had two objectives.

The first objective was the identification of a multidimensional structure of Perceived Sportivity. Secondly, the EFA aimed at reducing the number of items on the scale, based on psychometric characteristics.

Development and administration of the questionnaire

The questionnaire was set up via the Qualtrics website, a website frequently used for questionnaire creation and data collection in research. Among the reasons that led us to choose this site, the main one is that the site offers us to export our data directly in SPSS format, which

is the software we used to analyze our results. The questionnaire was distributed on the Prolific platform. As the questionnaire was in French, we decided to limit access to our questionnaire to French-speaking respondents on the Prolific platform, where the majority of respondents are English-speaking.

Chapter 4 Section 3: Refining the Perceived Sportivity measurement scale 182

We were aware that the qualitative questionnaire incorporated the use of projective techniques involving images of activities that were not, a priori, of a sporting nature. However, the need to obtain as much variance as possible from our respondents reinforced our choice to use Qualtrics. Indeed, using a single stimulus to highlight a single activity would not have allowed us to study sport as a whole. Therefore, for each respondent, a randomly selected stimulus from sports images was used. To justify our stimuli, we restricted our choice to activities registered as sports within the IOC, the International Olympic Committee, which is responsible for the recognition of all sports institutions and federations. However, as the study focuses on individual perceptions of sport and not on the institutional recognition of sport, we also decided to include the number of French license holders as an inclusion criterion, our respondents being French people. Thus, we selected the 10 activities recognized as sports by the IOC with the most members in France. After being exposed to the image, the respondents were asked to answer the 130 possible items from the qualitative research phase using a Likert scale (1932). This Likert scale contained 7 points, ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree). Once the 130 items were completed, respondents were asked their age and gender. However, the admission of a questionnaire with 130 items can lead to many problems. A long questionnaire can discourage respondents (Festinger and Katz, 1965;Brook, 1977), encourage respondents to abandon the questionnaire without finishing it [START_REF] Rossi | Handbook of survey research[END_REF], or reduce the quality of Chapter 4 Section 3: Refining the Perceived Sportivity measurement scale 183 responses due to fatigue caused by the length of the questionnaire. To avoid these problems and to limit a possible fatigue bias, two solutions were implemented. Firstly, the order in which the items are displayed in the questionnaire was made random, so that the same items were not always proposed at the end of the questionnaire. Secondly, we introduced an attention measure with the item "If you read this item, please answer 'Strongly disagree'".

Authors have shown that at least 5% of respondents answer measurement scales without paying attention [START_REF] Johnson | Ascertaining the validity of individual protocols from Web-based personality inventories[END_REF]. This number can be as high as 60% in cases where respondents perceive no motivation to complete a questionnaire [START_REF] Berry | MMPI-2 random responding indices : Validation using a self-report methodology[END_REF][START_REF] Meade | Identifying careless responses in survey data[END_REF][START_REF] Hauser | Attentive Turkers : MTurk participants perform better on online attention checks than do subject pool participants[END_REF]. These figures call into question the validity of many scales and can lead to poor results and misinterpretations (e.g. [START_REF] Maniaci | Caring about carelessness : Participant inattention and its effects on research[END_REF]Huang, Liu, and Bowling, 2015;[START_REF] Bowling | Who cares and who is careless? Insufficient effort responding as a reflection of respondent personality[END_REF]. It is for these reasons that we decided to include an attention measurement item in our questionnaire and to financially reward our respondents.

These attention check items are recommended by many researchers. (e.g. [START_REF] Berinsky | Separating the Shirkers from the Workers? Making Sure Respondents Pay Attention on Self-Administered Surveys[END_REF]Huang et al., 2015;[START_REF] Curran | Methods for the detection of carelessly invalid responses in survey data[END_REF]. Their purpose is to identify unfocused respondents during their interview, so that they can be discarded during the various statistical analyses, to obtain the purest possible measures [START_REF] Schmitt | Factors defined by negatively keyed items : The result of careless respondents?[END_REF][START_REF] Maniaci | Caring about carelessness : Participant inattention and its effects on research[END_REF].

However, some authors have also highlighted certain limitations related to the use of attention check items (e.g. [START_REF] Curran | Methods for the detection of carelessly invalid responses in survey data[END_REF][START_REF] Curran | I'm paid biweekly, just not by leprechauns : Evaluating valid-butincorrect response rates to attention check items[END_REF]. Indeed, recent studies have shown that the use of these attention measurement items altered the way respondents approached the questions [START_REF] Hauser | Attentive Turkers : MTurk participants perform better on online attention checks than do subject pool participants[END_REF]. This study highlighted a new risk of invalidity for scales using attention check items, which led to further research. In interviews, respondents emphasize a scientific side when answering a questionnaire, and always seek to know the purpose of the questionnaires they answer [START_REF] Schwarz | Judgment in a Social Context : Biases, Shortcomings, and the Logic of Conversation[END_REF][START_REF] Schwarz | Self-reports : How the questions shape the answers[END_REF]. When subjected to questions measuring their intention, respondents understand the purpose of the question, which is not the case when subjected to other items [START_REF] Hauser | Attentive Turkers : MTurk participants perform better on online attention checks than do subject pool participants[END_REF]. Thus, the use of attention check items may lead respondents to be more reflective and deliberate in their responses following the attention measurement item. Several studies have already highlighted the fact that when in a more reflective state of mind, respondents tend to show a different judgment, as well as to modify their decision-making process (e.g. [START_REF] Frederick | Cognitive Reflection and Decision Making[END_REF]Stanovich andWest, 2000, 2008). Based on this literature and to answer the various questions raised above, [START_REF] Kung | Are Attention Check Questions a Threat to Scale Validity[END_REF] conducted two studies using attention measurement items. The results of both studies contradicted existing literature. Indeed, neither study found evidence of a change in responses as a function of the presence of attention measurement items, thus comforting the use of attention check items in research.

For this reason, we chose to include an attention check item in our questionnaire. Regarding the form of the attention check items, we decided to choose the most commonly used form. This form is called the indicated response item [START_REF] Bowling | Who cares and who is careless? Insufficient effort responding as a reflection of respondent personality[END_REF][START_REF] Meade | Identifying careless responses in survey data[END_REF][START_REF] Ward | Using virtual presence and survey instructions to minimize careless responding on Internet-based surveys[END_REF]. These items are used in scales and contain, in their formulation, an obvious correct answer. Among these items, the most common formulations are: "Please select four for this item" or "Please select 'somewhat disagree' for this item" [START_REF] Huang | Detecting and Deterring Insufficient Effort Responding to Surveys[END_REF]. For these reasons, we formulated our item in this way. In addition, as our items are mostly positive, we chose to ask respondents to answer: "Strongly disagree", as this answer is the least likely to appear throughout our questionnaire.

After analysis of the attention measurement item, 19 responses were deleted, bringing the number of respondents to 319 (49.8% women; Mage= 29.7; S.D=12.5).

Results of the exploratory factor analysis:

Once the data was cleaned and prepared, we turned to the exploratory factor analysis. Two methods are commonly used in exploratory factor analysis: principal component analysis (PCA), and factor analysis [START_REF] Hair | Multivariate Data Analysis : Pearson New International Edition[END_REF]. Although these two analyses share the same objective, that is reducing the number of dimensions within a matrix called R-matrix via the highlighting of inter-variable correlations, there are still some differences between them [START_REF] Field | Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics[END_REF]. Firstly, it should be noted that, for both types of analysis, the models obtained are linear, and the weights of the items are expressed in matrices where the factors/dimensions are present in columns, with the respective weight of each item being indicated for the corresponding dimension. Regarding factor analyses, they work based on the common variance of the measured items and aim to use a maximum number of factors. [START_REF] Hair | Multivariate Data Analysis : Pearson New International Edition[END_REF]. They also aim to measure and highlight constructs that cannot be measured directly. In contrast, in principal component analysis, or PCA, it is the total variance, not the joint variance, that is used in the exploratory analysis. In a PCA, we seek to predict the components, or factors, from the measured variables. Thus, according to [START_REF] Hair | Multivariate Data Analysis : Pearson New International Edition[END_REF], PCAs are used when the main objective is to summarise as much of the original information as possible in a small number of factors. Conversely, factor analyses are used when the objective is to identify factors or dimensions, not emphasized, that reflect the common variance of the items. Furthermore, one of the main assumptions of factor analysis is that the factors highlighted by the analysis are supposed to represent 'real world' dimensions. However, this notion remains unclear, and some researchers believe that the reality of these dimensions is purely statistical [START_REF] Field | Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics[END_REF].

For our exploratory analysis, we decided to use factor analysis, and not a principal component analysis (PCA), for several reasons. Firstly, as mentioned earlier, the notion of Perceived Sportivity, and the concept of sport itself, has always been defined from an institutional point of view, and never at the individual level. Moreover, even the institutional definition of sport is often questioned and subject to much debate. Our main objective of identifying the underlying dimensions that allow for the identification of an activity as a sport is, therefore, more akin to the use of factor analysis. We do not aim to reuse, and reduce items into reduced dimensions, but rather to identify the whole components of the construct. Moreover, the choice of analysis is often left to the discretion of the researcher, and the results are often similar (Guandagnoli and Vilecer, 1988). Usually, most of the solutions provided by PCA differ very little from the solutions provided by factor analysis, as long as more than 30 variables are analyzed, and low factor scores (below 0.4) are discarded [START_REF] Stevens | Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social Sciences[END_REF]. Since our study involved more than 130 items and discarded all factor scores below 0.65, we have every reason to believe that the results would be very similar if we had used principal component analysis. However, other authors are also more critical of PCAs [START_REF] Cliff | Analyzing multivariate data[END_REF]. Thus, our choice to go for factor analysis was comforted.

Secondly, regarding the number of factors/dimensions to be extracted, we followed standards by determining the number of dimensions to be retained based on the eigenvalue greater than 1. Although the use of the eigenvalue as a criterion for determining the number of factors to be retained in an EFA has been criticized in the past, it remains the most widely used indicator in marketing [START_REF] Patil | Efficient theory development and factor retention criteria : Abandon the 'eigenvalue greater than one' criterion[END_REF]. Indeed, as the study concerned a previously unmeasured concept, we decided to go for a statistical verification, rather than choosing a predefined number of factors based on the literature. Once the type of analysis was chosen, we also had to consider the different rotation techniques possible in the context of exploratory factor analysis. Two types of rotations are generally proposed, orthogonal rotations and oblique rotations [START_REF] Hair | Multivariate Data Analysis : Pearson New International Edition[END_REF]. Orthogonal rotations aim to maintain independence between different factors, while oblique rotations allow for interfactor correlations. Among the different possible orthogonal rotations, we opted for the Varimax rotation, whose main objective is the simplification of the factor matrix. Also, according to [START_REF] Hair | Multivariate Data Analysis : Pearson New International Edition[END_REF], Varimax rotations are the ones that seem to offer the most distinct separations between factors. Moreover, it is one of the most widely used rotations and is considered to be a good general approach for a simplified interpretation of the factors [START_REF] Field | Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics[END_REF]. Finally, to keep only the items with a real influence on the scale, we decided to keep only the items with a factor weight higher than .65 in our scale to avoid possible validity problems later on [START_REF] Hair | Multivariate Data Analysis : Pearson New International Edition[END_REF].

After a first run of the EFA, a structure grouping the items into 28 factors emerged, thus approximating the 27 classes put forward during the qualitative analysis and the literature review. After analysis of this structure, 38 items with a factorial weight greater than .65 were kept for a second factorial analysis. Only 10 of the 28 factors contained items with factor loadings higher than .65. The following table includes all these 38 items, with their respective Factor. A second iteration of the exploratory factor analysis was repeated with the remaining items, again using factor analysis with a Varimax rotation. This factor analysis resulted in our first scale, comprising 26 items divided into 4 dimensions based on the Eigenvalue criterion. The Regarding the percentage of variance explained by each factor, factor 1 explained 31.01% of the total variance, factor 2 accounted for 11.15%, and factors 3 and 4 accounted for 10.36% and 8.83% respectively. Taken together, our measurement instrument thus explained 61.43% of the total variance. The first dimension was named "Physicality", and contains items from the "Physical" class that were highlighted in the qualitative analysis. The second dimension was named "Commerciality", and was similar to the "Commercial and Financial" theme highlighted earlier. The third and fourth dimensions, respectively named "Well-being" and "Equipment", were similar to the sub-themes bearing the same names.

Items

To establish an initial measure of the reliability of each of the dimensions, we decided to compute the Cronbach's alpha of each of them. This indicator, put forward by [START_REF] Cronbach | Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests[END_REF], is the most widely used in research when looking at reliability in social science constructs, with over 17,000 citations of the 1951 article on Google Scholar [START_REF] Peterson | On the relationship between coefficient alpha and composite reliability[END_REF].

However, due to its popularity, Cronbach's alpha has also been studied and criticized numerous times [START_REF] Cortina | What is coefficient alpha? An examination of theory and applications[END_REF][START_REF] Schmitt | Uses and abuses of coefficient alpha[END_REF][START_REF] Sijtsma | On the use, the misuse, and the very limited usefulness of Cronbach's alpha[END_REF]. Meta-analyses works, such as [START_REF] Peterson | A Meta-analysis of Cronbach's Coefficient Alpha[END_REF], and [START_REF] Rodriguez | Meta-analysis of coefficient alpha[END_REF], have empirically explored factors that can influence the value of the alpha coefficient under various conditions. One of the most frequent conclusions of these meta-analyses is that alpha underestimates the true reliability of measurement instruments under certain conditions, notably those related to tau-equivalence (Osburn, 2000 p.344). Moreover, Cronbach [START_REF] Cronbach | My Current Thoughts on Coefficient Alpha and Successor Procedures[END_REF] himself acknowledges the tendency of his indicator to underestimate reliability because of a "small mathematical detail that forces the indicator to run at a slightly lower value than desired".

Because the Cronbach alpha tended to underestimate the true reliability of a construct, many alternatives have been proposed, such as the stratified alpha (Cronbach, Schonemann and Mckie, 1965), the Raju coefficient, the Angoff-Feldt coefficient, the lambda 2 coefficient, or the Feldt-Ginner coefficient. Osbourn (2000) reviewed ten of these alternatives in his article and compared them to Cronbach's alpha, with the same conclusions: Cronbach's alpha underestimates the true reliability of the constructs, even more so when they have two factors.

In conclusion, Cronbach's alpha is more restrictive than the other indicators. However, other indicators have been put forward via structural equation models (e.g. [START_REF] Heise | Validity, Invalidity, and Reliability[END_REF][START_REF] Jöreskog | Simultaneous factor analysis in several populations[END_REF][START_REF] Fornell | Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error[END_REF][START_REF] Bacon | Composite Reliability in Structural Equations Modeling[END_REF][START_REF] Raykov | Scale Reliability, Cronbach's Coefficient Alpha, and Violations of Essential Tau-Equivalence with Fixed Congeneric Components[END_REF][START_REF] Graham | Congeneric and (Essentially) Tau-Equivalent Estimates of Score Reliability : What They Are and How to Use Them[END_REF][START_REF] Green | Commentary on Coefficient Alpha : A Cautionary Tale[END_REF][START_REF] Yang | Coefficient Alpha : A Reliability Coefficient for the 21st Century?[END_REF]. When the reliability of a measure is estimated via a structural equation model, it is usually defined as studying the Chapter 4 Section 3: Refining the Perceived Sportivity measurement scale 190 composite reliability (abbreviated as CR). To compare this composite reliability to Cronbach's alpha, [START_REF] Peterson | On the relationship between coefficient alpha and composite reliability[END_REF] analyzed 2524 pairs of Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability by analyzing 381 studies in 327 articles. The results, while confirming the overall trend that Cronbach's alpha is too restrictive in calculating true reliability, also highlighted some situations in which alpha was less restrictive than composite reliability, supporting the results of other previous works [START_REF] Raykov | Bias of Coefficient afor Fixed Congeneric Measures with Correlated Errors[END_REF][START_REF] Bentler | Alpha, Dimension-Free, and Model-Based Internal Consistency Reliability[END_REF][START_REF] Green | Commentary on Coefficient Alpha : A Cautionary Tale[END_REF]. However, the reasons for these variations between alpha and composite reliability have not been clearly defined. Thus, since Cronbach's alpha is defined as the most restrictive, we decided to use it as an indicator of reliability for each dimension. Composite Reliability will be added to Cronbach in the next session when we will focus on the CFA and structural equation modeling (SEM). Several remarks and questions regarding the measurement scale can then be put forward.

Firstly, the dimension "Physicality" contains many items compared to the rest of the scale. CFA should therefore also be used to explore the possibility of reducing this dimension. Furthermore, while the dimensions "Physicality, Commerciality, and Equipment" are all dimensions that highlight elements that can be observed by the respondents, the dimension "Well-being" seems more abstract, and could be more of a consequence of Perceived Sportivity rather than one if its component.

At this stage of the scale construction, we decided to analyze the face validity of our construct by presenting the scale to a panel of 4 academic experts. Among the various remarks made by the experts on the construct's face validity, one important element emerged: While the dimensions "Physicality" and "Equipment" seem to be at the very origin of the definition of sport, the dimensions "Well-being" and "Commerciality" seem to be consequences of the Perceived Sportivity and not defining element. Indeed, it is because a practice is sporty that it becomes marketable, and not the other way around. Similarly, well-being might be the result of the practice/spectating of sport, not an inherent element of the practice. Given what precedes, we decided to follow the experts' remarks and to exclude "Well-Being" and "Commerciality" from the scale. However, because the experts consider them as consequences of the Perceived Sportivity, they will be included in the nomological validity to test their relations to Perceived Sportivity.

We, therefore, decided to run a new EFA with the two final dimensions of the scale, namely Physicality and Equipment. The structure remained the same, with Physicality explaining 40,3% of the variance and Equipment explaining 12,8% of the variance

Confirmatory factor analysis

Method for the CFA In the context of our scale, the CFA was carried out using AMOS, a module of the SPSS software that allows structural equation models to be tested [START_REF] Arbuckle | Amos 7.0 User's Guide[END_REF]. To test the structure with a CFA, we used the same method of data collection as in the exploratory analysis.

Respondents were presented with the same 10 images of institutional sports with the most licensees in France and were subjected to the 17 items extracted from the EFA. As the study was much shorter than the first one, we did not judge it necessary to include an item measuring attention. [START_REF] Brown | Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research[END_REF] highlights several objectives of CFA, as well as preconditions for its use. Firstly, the use of CFA is hypothesis-dependent, so it can only be used when the researcher has an overall view of the structure of his or her model. In our case, the exploratory study played this role by highlighting an initial factor structure. In addition, the CFA emphasizes the psychometric qualities of the model, measured by numerous indicators that are not available when conducting an exploratory factor analysis. Thus, the use of a CFA is an important step in the creation of a measurement scale, which should be carried out even before the structural equation model is constructed.

Among the many indicators and indexes that attest to the successful completion of a CFA, [START_REF] Bagozzi | Measurement and Meaning in Information Systems and Organizational Research : Methodological and Philosophical Foundations[END_REF]Yi (1988, 2012) propose three distinct types of evaluation that group together all the analyses that must be carried out. The following table provides an overview of the steps to follow when conducting a CFA. [START_REF] Bagozzi | On the evaluation of structural equation models[END_REF]2012) Some of these indicators have been subject to several criticisms. First, the chi-square test has been heavily criticized for being too sensitive to the sample size measured [START_REF] Hu | Can test statistics in covariance structure analysis be trusted?[END_REF][START_REF] West | Structural equation models with nonnormal variables : Problems and remedies[END_REF][START_REF] Curran | The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis[END_REF]Schlermelleh-Engel et al. 2003;[START_REF] Vandenberg | Introduction : Statistical and Methodological Myths and Urban Legends: Where, Pray Tell, Did They Get This Idea?[END_REF]). Similarly, one of the most widely used model fit indices, the GFI, has also been subject to much criticism [START_REF] Hu | Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis : Conventional criteria versus new alternatives[END_REF][START_REF] Sharma | A simulation study to investigate the use of cutoff values for assessing model fit in covariance structure models[END_REF][START_REF] Bagozzi | Specification, evaluation, and interpretation of structural equation models[END_REF]. Indeed, like the chi-square test, the GFI index is very sensitive to the size of the sample used. Thus, several authors have proposed 4 indices to analyze the fit of a measurement model (Hu andBentler 1998, 1999;[START_REF] Netemeyer | Scaling Procedures[END_REF][START_REF] Fan | Sensitivity of Fit Indexes to Misspecified Structural or Measurement Model Components : Rationale of Two-Index Strategy Revisited[END_REF][START_REF] Bagozzi | Specification, evaluation, and interpretation of structural equation models[END_REF] -The non-normed fit index (NNFI), also called the Tucker and Lewis index (TLI) (1973). Its threshold of acceptance is set at 0.9 or 0.95 in most restrictive research (Bentler and Chapter 4 Section 3: Refining the Perceived Sportivity measurement scale 193 [START_REF] Bentler | Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures[END_REF]Hu andBentler, 1998, 1999;[START_REF] Netemeyer | Scaling Procedures[END_REF][START_REF] Awang | Structural equation modeling using amos graphic[END_REF][START_REF] Bagozzi | Specification, evaluation, and interpretation of structural equation models[END_REF]. Although a value of 0.9 is acceptable, a value above .95 is evidence of a good fit of the measurement model.

-The comparative fit index (CFI). Its acceptance threshold is set at .90, or .95 for most restrictive authors [START_REF] Bentler | Comparative fit indexes in structural models[END_REF][START_REF] Hu | Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis : Conventional criteria versus new alternatives[END_REF][START_REF] Hair | Multivariate Data Analysis : Pearson New International Edition[END_REF][START_REF] Xia | RMSEA, CFI, and TLI in structural equation modeling with ordered categorical data : The story they tell depends on the estimation methods[END_REF].

As with the NNFI, although a value of 0.9 is acceptable, a value above .95 is evidence of a good fit of the measurement model -The Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). Its maximum value is set at .06, .08, or even .10 depending on the authors [START_REF] Steiger | Statistically based tests for the number of common factors[END_REF][START_REF] Steiger | Structural Model Evaluation and Modification : An Interval Estimation Approach[END_REF][START_REF] Browne | Alternative Ways of Assessing Model Fit[END_REF][START_REF] Jöreskog | LISREL 8 : Structural Equation Modeling with the SIMPLIS Command Language[END_REF][START_REF] Hair | Multivariate Data Analysis : Pearson New International Edition[END_REF][START_REF] Xia | RMSEA, CFI, and TLI in structural equation modeling with ordered categorical data : The story they tell depends on the estimation methods[END_REF].

However, the standard maximum value of the index is mostly considered to be .08.

-The Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) is a standardized version of the Square Residual Index developed by [START_REF] Jöreskog | Recent Developments in Structural Equation Modeling[END_REF]. Its threshold of acceptance is set at .1 or .08 in its most restrictive interpretation (Hu andBentler, 1995, 1998;[START_REF] Bagozzi | Specification, evaluation, and interpretation of structural equation models[END_REF][START_REF] Hair | Multivariate Data Analysis : Pearson New International Edition[END_REF].

To comply with the latest recommendations, we have therefore chosen to base our assessment of model fit on these four indicators. However, research has shown a slight sensitivity of these four indicators to the size of the sample used [START_REF] Fan | Effects of sample size, estimation methods, and model specification on structural equation modeling fit indexes[END_REF][START_REF] Cangur | Comparison of Model Fit Indices Used in Structural Equation Modeling Under Multivariate Normality[END_REF]Shi, Lee and Maydeu-Olivares, 2017;[START_REF] Xia | RMSEA, CFI, and TLI in structural equation modeling with ordered categorical data : The story they tell depends on the estimation methods[END_REF]. Indeed, although their sensitivity is lower than that of the Chi-square or the GFI, the CFI and NNFI adjustment values tend to be underestimated as a function of the sample size; whereas the RMSEA and SRMR tend to be overestimated as the sample size increases.

For these reasons, we decided to use the most restrictive minimum value of .95 for the CFI and NNFI, the most restrictive value of .06 for the RMSEA, and .08 for the SRMR. We also decided to study the standardized residuals directly, in line with the recommendations of [START_REF] Bagozzi | Measurement and Meaning in Information Systems and Organizational Research : Methodological and Philosophical Foundations[END_REF]Yi (1988, 2012) to assess our internal model fit.

Chapter 4 Section 3: Refining the Perceived Sportivity measurement scale 194

Results of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis

In total, 440 respondents took part in this study (52.7% women; Mage = 47.17; SD = 15.81).

After analysis of the results, the structure of the scale structure was modeled using AMOS26.

Before the confirmatory analysis, the reliability of each of the dimensions was assessed via Cronbach's alphas. Results were satisfying, with both Physicality (α=.962) and Equipment (α=.848) having an alpha higher than .70.

After modeling the scale in Amos, the 14 highlighted Physicality items did relate to the Physicality dimension, and the 3 other items did relate to their respective dimension: To respect the AMOS procedure, a constraint (a factorial weight) was imposed on one item for each dimension (here Phys1, and Equip1). As we can see from the table, each item does seem to have a sufficient weight on its construct to be kept in the structure. [START_REF] Hair | Multivariate Data Analysis : Pearson New International Edition[END_REF] recommend a minimum factor weight of .70 for each item on their respective construct in a CFA. Furthermore, the table of inter-dimension correlation below confirms that Perceived Sportivity is indeed a second-order reflexive construct. Even though the TLI, the CFI and the SRMR respect the less restrictive critical value (CFI and TLI >.90 and SRMR <.10), the RMSEA does not fall below the critical value and indicate a possible error in our model. These errors appear to be more evident when studying the internal fit of the model. Indeed, the analysis of standardized residuals, a step put forward by [START_REF] Bagozzi | On the evaluation of structural equation models[END_REF], reveals that some items are problematic within the Physicality dimension. We decided to delete the items with the highest standardized residual, following [START_REF] Bagozzi | On the evaluation of structural equation models[END_REF]2012). AMOS also proposes different modification indices to examine and procedures to follow to increase the fit of a model. The following table provides an overview of the standardized residuals in the model. After following recommendations from the modification indices and deleting items with high standardized residuals, which are indicators of a bad incremental model fit [START_REF] Hoelter | The Analysis of Covariance Structures : Goodness-of-Fit Indices[END_REF][START_REF] Bagozzi | On the evaluation of structural equation models[END_REF]Maydeu-Olivares and Shi;2017[START_REF] Maydeu-Olivares | Assessing Fit in Structural Equation Models : A Monte-Carlo Evaluation of RMSEA Versus SRMR Confidence Intervals and Tests of Close Fit[END_REF], we ran another iteration of the CFA containing 8 items, 5 for "Physicality" (α = .933), and 3 for "Equipment" (α = .848). The following table provides an overview of the factor scores of every item within its respective dimension.

Table 36: 8-item structure factor score -CFA

As with the first analysis, the use of AMOS requires adding a constraint on the factor weight of an item per dimension. Thus, the items Phys1 and Equip1 had this constraint imposed.

Before assessing the fit of the model, we first decided to test the correlation between the two dimensions of our construct. Then we also modeled Perceived Sportivity as a second-order construct regrouping the two dimensions of Physicality and Equipment. The following table provides an overview of the correlations between the dimension of the construct, as well as the factor weight of both dimensions on the second-order construct. It also comforts our view of Perceived Sportivity as a second-order construct. The final step in the CFA relates to the assessment of the model fit through indicators of incremental (CFI) fit and absolute fit (TLI, SRMR, RMSEA). The model fit was assessed for the model testing the correlation between the first-order constructs, but also for the model including the second-order construct of Perceived Sportivity. To test the validity of the secondorder construct, we built an alternative model, linking directly all the items to the global Perceived Sportivity construct and compared it to the model including the first-order constructs (Physicality and Equipment) and the second-order construct. The following figure provides an overview of the two models, while the following table provides an overview of the model fit indicators for both models. -This activity requires a specific Equipment -In this activity, there is a dedicated Equipment -This activity cannot be practiced without adequate Equipment

Table 39: The final Perceived Sportivity Scale

To remain true to our approach and [START_REF] Rossiter | The C-OAR-SE procedure for scale development in marketing[END_REF] comments on the problems associated with the lack of facial validity in scale development, we decided to call upon the same four experts to ask their opinion on the scale. After reviews from the experts, no major issues were mentioned with the scale, so we decided to move on to the first phases of scale validity, convergent and discriminant validity. Once the exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses have been carried out, we can turn to the various validity tests. As face validity had already been discussed with experts throughout the entire scale development process, we were able to approach the convergent, the discriminant and, finally, the nomological validity tests.

Convergent and internal discriminant validity tests

The objective of convergent validity is to test the scale's capacity to provide results close to those of other measures of the same trait, whereas the objective of discriminant validity is to test the capacity of a construct to provide different results from measures of related constructs [START_REF] Roehrich | Les consommateurs-innovateurs : Un essai d'identification[END_REF]. Historically, the measurement of convergent validity was based on Campbell and Fiske's (1959) Multi-Trait, Multi-Method Matrix (MTMM), but a more recent and less constraining procedure has been preferred since the 1980s: Fornell and Larker's procedure (1981).

Recently, [START_REF] Henseler | A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling[END_REF] proposed a new procedure to test the discriminant validity of a construct. This procedure called the heterotrait, monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT) is based on the MTMM matrix of [START_REF] Campbell | Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitraitmultimethod matrix[END_REF]. It is done by calculating a ratio between the average correlations between constructs, with the geometric mean of the correlations of the items within the same construct. This test was proposed to be easily understood and to be less restrictive than others. A value approaching or exceeding 1 in the HTMT procedure is proof of a lack of discriminant validity between constructs. As the technique is still young, the fixed ratio is not determined, but [START_REF] Henseler | A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling[END_REF] suggest 0.85 and 0.90 as good indicators of validity. This approach has also been tested by Voorhees et al. (2015).

The results of the comparisons show that, although both techniques are effective in some aspects, the HTMT matrix performs better when it comes to highlighting discriminant validity issues related to several common factor weights between two dimensions. Conversely, when a single item has a factorial weight on two constructs, the procedure of [START_REF] Fornell | Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error[END_REF] seems to work better. It is for these reasons that we chose to conduct both analyses, Fornell and Larcker's AVE-SV procedure first, then Henseler's HTMT procedure. Concerning convergent validity, it is historically determined by following the procedure of Fornell and Larcker [START_REF] Laroche | Targeting consumers who are willing to pay more for environmentally friendly products[END_REF][START_REF] El Akremi | How Do Employees Perceive Corporate Responsibility? Development and Validation of a Multidimensional Corporate Stakeholder Responsibility Scale[END_REF]. However, other authors [START_REF] Jöreskog | A General Method for Estimating a Linear Structural Equation System*[END_REF] rho to attest to the internal reliability of a construct and its convergent validity. In the context of our scale, we decided to attest to the convergent validity with both Fornell and Larcker's procedure on the average extracted variance (AVE), but also by considering Cronbach's alphas and the composite reliability of each of our two dimensions.

To test the convergent and internal discriminant validity of our scale, we conducted a new study.

Using the same method as when testing the structure of our scale, respondents were presented with one of the 10 pictures in a randomized fashion and were asked to respond to all items of our measurement scale. In total, 217 observations were retained for the discriminant validity tests after cleaning the dataset via an attention check (37.8% female; Mage = 29.74; SD = 9.507).

To ensure the reproducibility of the data, we tested the test-retest reliability of our scale and performed a new CFA, the results are available in the tables below. As we can see, the dimensions look reliable, and each item has a large and significant factor weight on its dimension. Moreover, all the indicators of model fit are satisfying, thus confirming once again the two-dimensional structure of the Perceived Sportivity scale. Once these analyses were completed, we were able to focus on the various tests of convergent and discriminant validity.

According to [START_REF] Fornell | Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error[END_REF], convergent validity is established when the Average Extracted Variance (AVE) of each of the construct dimensions is greater than 0.5. Then, the scale is considered reliable if the Cronbach's alpha of each dimension is greater than 0.70 and if the composite reliability of each dimension is greater than 0.80. To facilitate the reading of the results, the table below shows the average extracted variance (AVE), Cronbach's alpha (α), as well as the composite reliability (CR) for each of the two dimensions of the scale.

Dimension

Physicality Equipment AVE (>.5) 0,758 0,743 α (>.7) 0,915 0,818 CR (>.8) 0,940 0,896

Table 41: Convergent validity -results

As the table shows, all indicators exceed the critical values, and the scale does not seem to suffer from a convergent validity issue. Therefore, we can turn to tests of discriminant validity.

The classic Fornell and Larcker procedure (1981) argues that discriminant validity of a construct is achieved when the square root of the AVE from each construct is greater than all the correlations between the constructs. This method must be used with standardized coefficients and is the most widely used method in marketing (Voorhees et al., 2015). While it was intended to complement the MTMT method of [START_REF] Campbell | Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitraitmultimethod matrix[END_REF], which postulated that the discriminant validity of a construct was achieved when it was not highly correlated with other constructs, it has gradually replaced it. It is also for this reason that we decided to include the matrix of [START_REF] Henseler | A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling[END_REF] which is based on the MTMT matrix.

This procedure consists in the calculation of a ratio between the mean of inter-construct correlations and the geometric mean of the items correlations of the same construct. It was proposed and quickly accepted for its easiness of use. The closer a value is to or exceeds 1, the lower the discriminant validity of the construct. Although [START_REF] Henseler | A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling[END_REF] suggest a

Chapter 4 Section 4: Testing the Perceived Sportivity scale's validity 204 maximum value of 0.85 or 0.90 for this ratio, Voorhees et al. (2015), after comparing this procedure with that of [START_REF] Fornell | Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error[END_REF], proposes a maximum acceptable value of 0.85 for the HTMT ratio. Because of its novelty, the HTMT procedure will be detailed later.

The Fornell and Larcker procedure, coupled with the HTMT ratio has already been used by [START_REF] Klink | Measuring customer experience management and its impact on financial performance[END_REF] following recommendations from Voorhees et al. (2015).

Concerning the Fornell and Larcker procedure, the AVE for each of the dimensions was calculated when studying the convergent validity of the scale. The table below shows these AVEs and their square root (highlighted in bold), as well as the inter-dimension squared correlation of the two dimensions of the scale.

Dimension Physicality Equipment

Physicality 0,758 (0,871)

Equipment

.266 0,743 (0,862)

Table 42: Discriminant Validity -Fornell and Larcker

As shown in the table above, the scale does not show any problems of discriminant validity following the procedure of [START_REF] Fornell | Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error[END_REF]. We can therefore look at the HTMT matrix. As mentioned before, the HTMT ratio of two constructs is calculated by taking the average of inter-constructs items correlations of two constructs, and by dividing them by the root of the multiplication between the two intra-constructs items correlations [START_REF] Henseler | A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling[END_REF].

To explain the functioning of the HTMT ratio most simply, we will detail the calculation of the HTMT ratio between the Physicality dimension and the Equipment dimension. To calculate this ratio, we need to know three elements: the geometric mean of the correlations of the Physicality dimension items with each other (more commonly called the monotraitheteromethod ratio or MTHT ratio); the geometric mean of the correlations of the Equipment dimension items with each other (more commonly called the MTHT ratio2 ); and the geometric mean of the correlations of items of Physicality with the items of Equipment (more commonly called the heterotrait-heteromethod ratio or HTHT ratio). The calculation of the HTMT ratio is done with the following operation. Let x be the Physicality dimension and y the Equipment dimension:

Chapter 4 Section 4: Testing the Perceived Sportivity scale's validity 205 𝐻𝑇𝑀𝑇𝑥𝑦 = 𝐻𝑇𝐻𝑇𝑥𝑦 / √𝑀𝑇𝐻𝑇𝑥 × 𝑀𝑇𝐻𝑇𝑦 In our example, the MTHT ratio of the Physicality dimension is equal to 0.696, the MTHT ratio of the Equipment dimension is equal to 0.612, and the HTHT ratio of the Physicality and Equipment dimensions is equal to 0.193.

The HTMT ratio between Physicality and Equipment is therefore equal to:

𝐻𝑇𝑀𝑇𝑥𝑦 = 0,193 / √0,696 × 0,612 = 0,296
The HTMT ratio between the Physicality dimension and the Equipment dimension is equal to 0.296 < 0.85 [START_REF] Henseler | A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling[END_REF], so we can say that there is no discriminant validity problem between these two dimensions.

As this procedure is rather novel, we decided to apply it manually to become familiar with it.

Nevertheless, a plugin developed for the Amos software exists that allows the direct calculation of the HTMT ratios of a model 1 . To check our calculations, we also used the said plugin, which confirmed our results and revealed no discriminant validity issue within our scale.

For our two dimensions, the table below shows all the correlations of the scale. [START_REF] Henseler | A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling[END_REF]. Following most of the recent research developing measurement scales in the last 10 years (e.g [START_REF] Batra | Brand Love[END_REF][START_REF] Böttger | Customer Inspiration : Conceptualization, Scale Development, and Validation[END_REF][START_REF] Price | The Fresh Start Mindset : Transforming Consumers' Lives[END_REF][START_REF] Warren | Brand Coolness[END_REF][START_REF] Drolet | The Preference for Moderation Scale[END_REF][START_REF] Wilson | Consumer Minimalism[END_REF][START_REF] Nunes | The Concept of Authenticity : What It Means to Consumers[END_REF], we decided to test the external discriminant validity of our scale within its nomological network.

In line with previous research on discriminant validity [START_REF] Fornell | Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error[END_REF][START_REF] Henseler | A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling[END_REF] we decided to apply two complementary procedures to test the discriminant validity,

The Fornell and Larcker procedure, and the HTMT criterion. We also tested the reliability of all the scales used for validity with Cronbach alphas.

External discriminant validity and nomological validity

The primary objective of nomological validity is to test whether a measurement instrument behaves as it is supposed to with other constructs. Through this analysis, we check whether the hypothesized relationships between our scale and other constructs are empirically proven. To carry out this step in the best possible way, it is advisable to create a nomological network to represent the relationships between the different variables under study [START_REF] Cronbach | Construct validity in psychological tests[END_REF]. This is called a nomological network. To carry out this step in the best possible way, it is also advisable to use a different sample from the one used for the previous analyses (Nunally, 1978). Before carrying out the various tests of nomological validity, it is, therefore, necessary to associate all the items in our scale with antecedents or consequences. In our case, we focused on the consequences of our two dimensions, but also on our second-order construct of Perceived Sportivity.

To establish a reliable nomological network, it is necessary to go back to our literature to study each of the existing relationships between our constructs and already established constructs.

Before detailing each measurement scale, we feel it is important to specify that all adaptations

Chapter 4 Section 4: Testing the Perceived Sportivity scale's validity 207 of English-speaking scales were subjected to a translation and then validated by an Englishspeaking expert before being published. Indeed, To remain constant in our scale development process, every study was realized with French-speaking people.

Regarding the Physicality dimension, which is directly linked to the notion of effort that has already been studied in marketing [START_REF] Kruger | The effort heuristic[END_REF][START_REF] Morales | Giving firms an « E » for effort : Consumer responses to high-effort firms[END_REF]Choe and Schwartz, 2008;[START_REF] Buell | The labor illusion : How operational transparency increases perceived value[END_REF][START_REF] Norton | The IKEA effect : When labor leads to love[END_REF][START_REF] Passyn | Skill-based versus effort-based task difficulty : A task-analysis approach to the role of specific emotions in motivating difficult actions[END_REF]Buell, Kim, and Tsay, 2016;[START_REF] Leung | Highlighting Effort Versus Talent in Service Employee Performance : Customer Attributions and Responses[END_REF], we have chosen to use a measure of engagement intention. Indeed, Physicality represents effort, and this perception of effort by consumers leads to engagement intention and involvement [START_REF] Passyn | Skill-based versus effort-based task difficulty : A task-analysis approach to the role of specific emotions in motivating difficult actions[END_REF]Sujan 2012, Leung, Kim and[START_REF] Leung | Highlighting Effort Versus Talent in Service Employee Performance : Customer Attributions and Responses[END_REF]. To measure engagement intention, we decided to follow recommendations from several authors [START_REF] Sheppard | The Theory of Reasoned Action : A Meta-Analysis of Past Research with Recommendations for Modifications and Future Research[END_REF][START_REF] Warshaw | Disentangling behavioral intention and behavioral expectation[END_REF]Davis 1989, Kim, Rao andLee 2009). According to them, the best way to measure consumers' behavioral intention is to use direct measurement items. We have therefore included three items to directly measure intention to engage in a given activity.

-I would like to engage in this activity -I would like to try this activity out -I would like to buy products related to this activity

To measure involvement, we adapted [START_REF] Strazzieri | Mesurer l'implication durable vis-à-vis d'un produit indépendamment du risque perçu[END_REF] French PIA (Relevance Interest Attraction) scale into 3 items:

-It is an activity that really matters to me -It is an activity that interests me -I feel particularly attracted to this activity Regarding the possible consequences of the Equipment dimension, research in design and art shows the role of Equipmentand in particular of costumesin the creation of emotion in the consumer's mind, but also its determining role in the search for escapism for spectators. [START_REF] Pullman | Ability of Experience Design Elements to Elicit Emotions and Loyalty Behaviors[END_REF][START_REF] Dean | Somatic movement and costume : A practical, investigative project[END_REF][START_REF] Figueiredo | Costume Design : Ergonomics in Performance Art[END_REF]. Thus, we decided to include adaptations of one emotion measure and one escapism measure in our scale, all of which come from marketing and psychology. The first measure of emotion is a multi-item measure of emotion adapted from the work of [START_REF] Lawler | Emotion and group cohesion in productive exchange[END_REF]. This scale is bipolar and Next, for the measure of escapism, we turned to an adaptation of the Russell, Norman and Heckler (2004) connectivity scale. One of the dimensions of this scale deals with escapism and has 3 items that we adapted. We decided to use this scale because its primary context of use, i.e. watching television programs, seemed close to our context:

-Watching this activity allows me to escape -Watching this activity allows me to forget my daily problems -If I am in a bad mood, watching this activity makes me feel better Finally, to test the nomological validity of our second-order construct, we first decided to include the Well-being dimension that was previously removed from our scale based on the recommendation of the experts. Indeed, we saw this dimension as being a consequence of Perceived Sportivity during the different stages of face validity, so it seemed justified to include these scales To verify its role as a possible consequence of Perceived Sportivity.

Finally, as with Physicality, Perceived Sportivity is associated with effort and is therefore linked to the concept of value. Sport as an object of value has already been the subject of debate in the field of sport (Bocrath and Franke, 1995). We, therefore, decided to include a value scale to test the nomological validity of our scale. We decided to go for a global value scale, and more specifically for the [START_REF] Williams | Children's Perceived Value : Conceptualization, Scale Development, and Validation[END_REF]

Tests and results of nomological validity

To verify the relationships outlined above, we developed another study. Indeed, while the previous tests aimed to study the internal reliability of our scale, this experiment aims to test its external applicability. Therefore, it seemed important to use other stimuli, more diverse and varied than the previous ones, which all represented images of sports activities. As we were in a viewing setting, we also chose to abandon the photo format and use videos that allow for more immersion and engagement than pictures in online settings (Tiago, Moreira and Borges-Tiago, 2019).

To avoid sound and quality bias in the videos, the sound was removed, and all videos were formatted to be of similar quality. Also, all videos had a similar length of 45 seconds. The activities chosen consisted of a video of a choreographed dance group, a FIFA20 sports video game football match, a free-diving scuba diver performing a choreography, a Rocket League competitive video game match, skateboarding, snowboarding, surfing, teqball (a mix between football and table tennis), a theatre performance, ToughMudder (a 10-15km obstacle course based on common human fears such as fire, water, height and electricity), ultimate (Frisbee), mountain biking, and a yoga class.

Once the activities to be displayed were chosen, we were able to develop our questionnaire. To avoid common variance and questionnaire reading bias, several steps were taken. First, after being exposed to one of the 14 videos randomly, respondents were exposed to the first block of items incorporating all possible measures of the consequences of Perceived Sportivity and its dimensions. The order in which all these items were displayed was random for each respondent.

Then, respondents were exposed to the items of our measurement scale, the order of which was also random. Finally, as in previous studies, we decided to include an attention check item in our scale. This item was worded as follows: "If you see this statement, please answer Strongly disagree". The CFA also showed good results, with all items loading strongly on their respective dimension, and all model fit indicators being above their threshold value. As we can see with the tables above, the different analyses showed no issue within our scale, thus confirming once again its replicability. We also followed [START_REF] Henseler | A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling[END_REF] and

Chapter 4 Section 4: Testing the Perceived Sportivity scale's validity 212 measured the HTMT ratio of our scale (HTMT =.358). Results were satisfying, and we could therefore turn to the tests of external discriminant validity and the test of nomological validity.

The following table provides an overview of the different tests of discriminant validity at the first-order level. As we can see with the above tables, both the Fornell and Larcker procedure and the HTMT analyses show a problem of discriminant validity between involvment and intention to engage, but no problem between our two dimensions and the other first-order constructs. We can therefore turn to the assessment of the external discriminant validity of the second-order construct.

Chapter 4 Section 4: Testing the Perceived Sportivity scale's validity 213

We assessed the discriminant validity of our second-order construct by testing the discriminant validity of our two dimensions with constructs related to Perceived Sportivity, following actual procedures and previous recommendations from authors [START_REF] Anderson | Structural equation modeling in practice : A review and recommended two-step approach[END_REF][START_REF] Lastovicka | Lifestyle of the Tight and Frugal : Theory and Measurement[END_REF][START_REF] Netemeyer | Scaling Procedures[END_REF][START_REF] Wilson | Consumer Minimalism[END_REF][START_REF] Luchs | Consumer Wisdom for Personal Well-Being and the Greater Good : Scale Development and Validation[END_REF][START_REF] Cheng | Identifying Picky Shoppers : Who They Are and How to Spot Them[END_REF]. [START_REF] Anderson | Structural equation modeling in practice : A review and recommended two-step approach[END_REF] and [START_REF] Netemeyer | Scaling Procedures[END_REF] also recommend the correlation analysis between the second-order construct and its related constructs to attest to second-order discriminant validity. According to them, discriminant validity is achieved if we can determine whether the confidence interval (± 2 standard errors) around the correlation estimate between the two factors includes 1.0. We also followed this procedure and analyzed the correlations between Perceived Sportivity and the three related constructs. As with the first-order external discriminant validity, we first tested the reliability of the scale with Cronbach, and then examined second-order discriminant validity with the Fornell and Larcker procedure, the HTMT matrix, and the correlation matrix. Results are available in the table below. As we can see with the table above, the three procedures showed no discriminant validity issue, both with the two first-order constructs of Physicality and Equipment and with the second-order construct of Perceived Sportivity. Moreover, the table also shows how Perceived Sportivity correlates, even moderately, with the three constructs of global value, commerciality, and wellbeing, thus confirming the nomological validity of our scale, as predicted.

Chapter 4 Section 4: Testing the Perceived Sportivity scale's validity 214 Sarstedt et al. (2019) propose another method to assess the external discriminant validity of a second-order construct using the HTMT criterion. Indeed, while the first-order validity assessment uses the correlations between the items, the second-order construct validity can be done by using the correlation between items and composite first-order constructs.

We will illustrate the method by explaining step by step the assessment of the discriminant validity between Perceived Sportivity and Global Value. To do so, we first need to compute our first-order constructs of Physicality and Equipment. Then, we need to compute the correlation [START_REF] Donaldson | Mechanics and Metagame : Exploring Binary Expertise in League of Legends[END_REF]. Each of the 10 players gets to choose between one of the 156 playable characters called "Champions" before entering the map, called the "Summoner's Rift". The map is the same for every game. There are two sides on this map, the blue side, and the red side. Each team has to attack the other side to destroy their base, called the nexus. Once the opponent's nexus is destroyed, the game is over. To do so, the two Nexuses are connected through three lanes that the players take to cross the map. The rest of the map is called the "Jungle" and looks like a maze. The following figure provides an overview of the map. All the competitions take place on this map. In addition to the players, there are also Non-Playable Characters (NPCs) all around the map and mainly in the jungle that players can hunt to gain time-limited advantages over the opponents (e.g., enhanced attack damage).

The competitive history of League of Legends started in 2010 with the Los Angeles World Cyber Games tournament won by the American team Counter Logic Gaming. The following year, the European team Fnatic won the second major tournament, the DreamHack, in Sweden, with a cash prize of 50 000$ and a total audience of 1.6 million people, and a peak audience of 210 000 people during the semi-finals of the tournament. The success of the first DreamHack encouraged Riot Games, the editor, to propose a huge cash prize of $5,000,000 for the next edition. The Taiwanese team Taipei Assassins won the 2012 edition, in front of 8000 spectators at the Los Angeles Galen Center and more than 8 million spectators online. Consequently, Riot Games decided to launch, in 2013, official regional leagues in both North America and Europe, marking the first professionalization of the game. The leagues work as a closed championship, without relegations, and players received a fixed salary that can go up to more than 1 million $ for the bests. At the same time, in July 2013, the United States Department of State recognizes the best esport players as professional sportsmen To facilitate their visas.

Since then, the League of Legends ecosystem has kept on growing in terms of players, viewers, cash prizes and sponsors. There are nowadays 12 major regional leagues all around the world that are closed; and a multitude of minor leagues all around the world. In all league of legends competitions, there are two segments throughout the year, the Spring Split, and the Summer Split. At the end of each split, the best teams of every region gather into two worldwide tournaments, the Mid-Season Invitational (MSI) at the end of the Spring Split, and the World Championship, after the Summer Split. While the MSI is a competition between only the 12 winners of the Major Leagues Spring Split, the Worlds are the biggest yearly event in League of Legends, regrouping 24 of the best teams in the world. We will detail some of the main numbers regarding these events in the next section.

To provide an example of a national League of Legends ecosystem, we will focus on France. In France, the League of Legend European Championship is the major league, a closed league in which one French esport team, Vitality, compete since 2015 with other European teams. There are also three different minor leagues, the Ligue Française de LoL (LFL), the LFL Division 2 (Div 2) and the Open Tour France. The LFL Division 2 works, as its name implies, as the second professional French division. It works in two splits, similarly to the major leagues, and contains 10 teams. At the end of the season (i.e. after the two Splits), the best two teams of the Div 2 confront the lowest two seeds of the LFL for a spot in the French elite division.

The Ligue Française de Lol (LFL) is the best French minor league, created in 2019. 10 teams take part in the two splits. In the end, while the bottom two teams have to compete with the best two teams from the Div 2 to keep their spot, the best three teams qualify for the EU Masters, a regional minor event regrouping the best team from twelve minor European Leagues. However, there is no way to access any Major League, such as the LEC, which are closed leagues, through sheer performance.

To summarize, there are two different types of competition in the League of Legends ecosystems. First, there is the major league ecosystem, comprising 12 closed leagues worldwide. Secondly, there is the minor league ecosystem, containing promotions and relegations, with many leagues all around the world and a minor regional event at the end of the season. Now that the League of Legends ecosystem has been explained, we can explore a few numbers that will explain why we chose this esport title, and especially why we chose to analyze the Spring Splint 2021 of the Ligue Française de Lol.

League of Legends in numbers:

We chose to study League of Legends because of its popularity as an esport. Besides being one of the most played games in the world, with more than 8 000 000 people playing the game daily Moreover, the scale being developed with French consumers, it seemed logical to apply it in a French context. The relative youth of the esport and LoL audience was also a positive factor for its study, the respondents were easy to reach through social media and influencers. Finally, in a difficult Covid 19 context, many events were either canceled or delayed, and the opportunity to study live events was non-existent. Therefore, the LFL Spring Split 2020, a fully online event that lasted around 3 months with more than 6 million hours of watching time and which was not affected by the pandemic, seemed like a perfect opportunity for our research.

Before focusing on our field study and our experiment, we will first explore our nomological network, based on our first chapter and previous research. Then, we will turn to our field study, the study of the Perceived Sportivity of the LFL. Finally, with an experiment, we will manipulate Perceived Sportivity In this section, we will present our conceptual model. Specifically, we will introduce and justify our hypotheses. As we have seen in our first chapter on customer experience, we posit that, during any touchpoint in an experiential context, Perceived Sportivity will affect consumers' perception and judgment of the experience. More precisely, we posit that Perceived Sportivity will influence two levels: first consumers' brand perceptions, and then consumers' behavioral outcomes.

2.1

Consequences of perceived sportivity on consumers' brand perceptions:

At the brand level, we expect perceived sportivity to have a direct influence on brand personality, and an indirect effect on brand identification and perceived brand legitimacy.

Brand personality:

Brand personality is defined as: "the set of human characteristics associated with a brand" (Aaker, 1997, p.347), and has been extensively studied over the last 20 years (e.g.

Diamantopoulous, Smith and Grime, 2005;Donaya and Rosenberger,2007;[START_REF] Freling | Brand personality appeal : Conceptualization and empirical validation[END_REF]Malär et al., 2011;Mathur, Jain and Maheswaran, 2012;Karjaluto, Munnukka and Salmi, 2016;Sundar and Noseworthy, 2016;Hohenberger and Grohs (2020). Brand personality is usually defined as a multidimensional construct comprising five dimensions: sincerity, competence, excitement, sophistication and ruggedness [START_REF] Aaker | Dimensions of Brand Personality[END_REF]. Studying evolution in the dimensions of brand personality is important because they can influence both the evaluation and the consumption of products (Swaminathan, Page and Gurhan-Canli, 2007;Mathur, Jain and Maheswaran, 2012). Brand personality development is based on consumers' interactions with a brand and firms' marketing efforts (Johar et al., 2005;Fitzsimons, Chartrand and Fitzsimons, 2008;Mathur, Jain and Maheswaran, 2012).

Brand personality, in a sports context, has mostly been studied in sponsoring conditions (e.g. Donaya and Rosenberger, 2007;[START_REF] Karjaluoto | How do brand personality, identification, and relationship length drive loyalty in sports?[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | A Structural Validation of Brand Personality Scale : Assessing the Congruence Effects of Sport Sponsorship[END_REF]Hohenberger and Grohs, 2020). For example, Donaya and Rosenberger (2007) explored how brand personality congruence between a sponsor and a brand had a positive effect on the effectiveness of image transfer in a Formula One context. Karjaluoto, Munnulla and Salmi (2016) explored the outcomes of brand personality and found how it has a positive impact on

Chapter 5 Section 2: The conceptual model brand identification. In their words (p.54), "using perceived brand values and consumer values to measure value congruity is similar to the brand personality congruity (BPC) concept where, instead of user-imagery, brand personality is used to assess brand image (Parker, 2009)". Therefore, value congruity and brand personality should have a similar effect on consumer brand identification. [START_REF] Tuškej | The role of consumer-brand identification in building brand relationships[END_REF] found a positive significant effect of value congruity on brand identification, but also a mediating role of consumer brand identification in the relationship between value congruity and brand commitment.

In a sports context, Carlson, Donovan and Cumiskey (2009) found similar results, with brand personality affecting cognitive brand identification. We, therefore, expect similar results in our context, and propose: H2: The excitement dimension of brand personality has a direct positive effect on consumer brand identification.

Brand legitimacy

Legitimacy, as a social process, has been defined by Suchman (1995, p.574) as "a generalized perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper, or appropriate within some socially constructed system of norms, values, beliefs and definitions". Most of the existing research on brand legitimacy uses that definition (e.g. [START_REF] Kates | The Dynamics of Brand Legitimacy : An Interpretive Study in the Gay Men's Community[END_REF]Guo et al., 2015;[START_REF] Hu | Love or hate, depends on who's saying it : How legitimacy of brand rejection alters brand preferences[END_REF]Lee, Yoon and O'Donnel, 2018, Miotto and Youn;2018). Therefore, brand legitimacy refers to the general assumption that the actions of a brand are desirable, proper, and appropriate for consumers.

Past research in marketing suggests that higher perceived legitimacy yields multiple benefits for firms or brands, such as higher shopping intentions (Handelman and Arnould, 1999;[START_REF] Chaney | Making the store a place of learning : The effects of instore educational activities on retailer legitimacy and shopping intentions[END_REF] or firm performance (Park, Auh, Maher, & Singhapakdi, 2012).

In a psychology context, authors have explored the links between personality and legitimacy.

For example, [START_REF] Porter | Backing up behaviors in teams : The role of personality and legitimacy of need[END_REF] have shown how, in teams, personality and legitimacy are linked. In an entrepreneurial context, [START_REF] Gundolf | Strong ties, personality, and legitimacy of entrepreneurs : The case of private physicians[END_REF] have shown how entrepreneurs' personality affects their perceived legitimacy. In management, Brown (1997, p. 654) explicitly In an ethical marketing context, [START_REF] Miotto | The impact of fast fashion retailers' sustainable collections on corporate legitimacy : Examining the mediating role of altruistic attributions[END_REF] recently explored how altruistic attributions had an influence on corporate legitimacy and showed, following Deephouse et al.

(in [START_REF] Greenwood | The SAGE Handbook of Organizational Institutionalism[END_REF] how isomorphism between brand's and consumer's values provides corporate legitimacy. In their paper, they found how brand identification was a factor leading to perceived brand legitimacy. Moreover, brand identification has also been found to be a driver of consumption and a huge asset in building relations between brands and consumers [START_REF] Lam | Exploring the dynamics of antecedents to consumer-brand identification with a new brand[END_REF][START_REF] Elbedweihy | Customer relationship building : The role of brand attractiveness and consumer-brand identification[END_REF]. Therefore, following previous findings, we expect a mediating effect of consumer brand identification on the relationship between brand personality and perceived brand legitimacy and we propose:

H4a: Consumer brand identification has a direct positive effect on perceived brand legitimacy.

H4.b: Brand identification positively mediates the relationship between the excitement dimension of brand personality and perceived brand legitimacy.

The following table represents an overview of the first part of our theoretical model including the relation between perceived sportivity and brand perception. Then, we also expect consumers' brand perceptions to affect consumer behavioral outcomes.

More precisely, we expect perceived sportivity to have an indirect effect, through brand perceptions on consumer engagement, perceived value, and purchase intention.

Consumer engagement has been defined as: "A customer's voluntary resource (network assets, persuasion capital, knowledge stores, and creativity) contribution to a firm's marketing function, going beyond financial patronage" (Harmeling et al., 2017, p.312). Engagement goes beyond the mere act of purchase. Consumer engagement has gained attention in the marketing literature over the last 15 to 20 years, and researchers have conceptualized it based on research in other fields, including sociology, psychology, and organizational behavior [START_REF] Brodie | Customer Engagement : Conceptual Domain, Fundamental Propositions, and Implications for Research[END_REF]. Consumer engagement recognizes the central role that customers play in a wide variety of marketing functions (e.g., customer acquisition and retention, product innovation, marketing communication, merchandising) (Malthouse et al. 2013;[START_REF] Harmeling | Toward a theory of customer engagement marketing[END_REF].

Existing research has highlighted how perceived legitimacy influences consumer engagement.

Recently, in a Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) context, Martin-de Castro (2021) showed how the perceived legitimacy of firms' CSR actions influenced stakeholders' willingness to engage with them. In the same logic, Blanco-Gonzàlez, Del-Castillo-Feito and Miotto (2021) also found how perceived legitimacy in higher education had a positive effect on faculty engagement in an ethical and educational context. Handelman and Arnould (1999) to posit that companies must achieve social legitimacy to gain support from consumers in the long run. We expect this relationship to extend in our context, with higher levels of brand legitimacy leading to higher levels of brand engagement. Therefore, we propose: H5: Perceived brand legitimacy has a direct positive effect on consumer brand engagement.

Prior research has also explored the consequences of consumer brand engagement. Since the emergence of the stream of research on consumer engagement, perceived value has been proposed as a possible outcome of engagement [START_REF] Van Doorn | Customer Engagement Behavior : Theoretical Foundations and Research Directions[END_REF][START_REF] Hollebeek | Demystifying Customer Brand Engagement : Exploring the Loyalty Nexus[END_REF].

In a brand context, [START_REF] Hollebeek | Demystifying Customer Brand Engagement : Exploring the Loyalty Nexus[END_REF] proposed co-created value, a form of perceived value, as a consequence of consumer brand engagement. She also proposed customer value, based on [START_REF] Zeithaml | Consumer Perceptions of Price, Quality, and Value : A Means-End Model and Synthesis of Evidence[END_REF] definition of value as a potential outcome of consumer engagement with a potential positive relationship between the two constructs. According to Zeithaml (1988, p.14), perceived value is defined as "The consumer's overall assessment of the utility of a product based on perceptions of what is received and what is given". Research has started to empirically explore the relationship between consumer brand engagement and perceived value (e.g. [START_REF] Brodie | Consumer engagement in a virtual brand community : An exploratory analysis[END_REF]Dovalienne et al., 2015). For example, [START_REF] Brodie | Consumer engagement in a virtual brand community : An exploratory analysis[END_REF] Moreover, Hollebeek (2011) also proposes behavioral loyalty (i.e. repeated purchase) as a potential outcome of consumer brand engagement, not only highlighting the potential relation between engagement and perceived value but also between engagement and purchase intention.

More recently, researchers have tested these hypothetical relations in an online context (Marbach, Lages and Nunan, 2015;[START_REF] Yusuf | Influence of e-WOM engagement on consumer purchase intention in social commerce[END_REF][START_REF] Prentice | The influence of brand experience and service quality on customer engagement[END_REF] Chapter 5 Section 2: The conceptual model 230 Loureiro, 2019). Marbach Lages and Nunan (2015), in their research on online consumer engagement, confirmed the role of perceived value as an outcome of consumer engagement.

Similarly, [START_REF] Yusuf | Influence of e-WOM engagement on consumer purchase intention in social commerce[END_REF] explored the influence of Word of Mouth (WoM), a form of consumer engagement on purchase intention [START_REF] Trusov | Effects of Word-of-Mouth versus Traditional Marketing : Findings from an Internet Social Networking Site[END_REF].

Findings revealed a significant positive influence of online WoM on purchase intention, revealing the potential role of brand engagement as an antecedent of purchase intention. Finally, drawing on social identification theory, Prentice, [START_REF] Prentice | The influence of brand experience and service quality on customer engagement[END_REF] showed how consumer identification within online communities led to engagement, and subsequently how engagement led to purchase intention, thus reinforcing our argument that brand engagement has a positive influence on purchase intention. Therefore, we propose: H7: Consumer brand engagement has a direct positive effect on purchase intention.

We also expect perceived value to have a positive influence on purchase intention. The influence of perceived value on purchase intention has already been found in a commerce context [START_REF] Gan | The influence of perceived value on purchase intention in social commerce context[END_REF], with value being the most salient factor influencing purchase intention, followed by hedonic value and social value. Moreover, in a sports context, [START_REF] Kwon | The Mediating Role of Perceived Value : Team Identification and Purchase Intention of Team-Licensed Apparel[END_REF] also found how that perceived value had a positive influence on purchase intention. More generally, the role of perceived value on purchase intention has been explored in many contexts (Sanchez et al., 2006;Sànchez-Fernàndez and Iniesta-Bonillo, 2007;[START_REF] Kuo | The relationships among service quality, perceived value, customer satisfaction, and post-purchase intention in mobile value-added services[END_REF][START_REF] Ashton | Hotel Restaurant Dining : The Relationship between Perceived Value and Intention to Purchase[END_REF][START_REF] Hsu | An empirical examination of consumer adoption of Internet of Things services : Network externalities and concern for information privacy perspectives[END_REF]. Therefore, we included this relation in our model and expect the perceived value of the activity to have a positive influence on purchase intention. Therefore, we propose: H8a: Perceived value of the activity has a direct positive effect on purchase intention. H8b: Perceived value positively mediates the relationship between consumer brand engagement and purchase intention.

Moderators of consumers' brand perceptions

Finally, we will also explore the role of narcissism as a moderator in the relations between the three components of brand perception in our model: brand personality, brand identification and Chapter 5 Section 2: The conceptual model 231 brand legitimacy. Narcissism is defined as "an agentic, egocentric, self-aggrandizing, dominant and manipulative orientation (Sedikides et al., 2007, p. 254). Because narcissists are addicted to self-esteem (Baumeister and Vohs, 2001) and strive toward self-enhancement (Sedikides et al., 2002), research has shown that they manifest exhibitionism, vanity, and a relentless need to validate their overly favorable self-beliefs in the presence of others (Wallace and Baumeister, 2002;Cizek et al., 2014). Narcissists are also status-oriented (Bradlee and Emmons, 1992), power-driven (Horton and Sedikides, 2009), and engage in grandiose-self-displays (Buss and Chiodo, 1991;Campbell, 1999).

In psychology, narcissistic people "understand their wishes as needs and then demand their gratification and fulfillment as inherently legitimated" (Holzhey- Kunz, 1988). Moreover, Brown (1997) argues that the concept of narcissism can serve as a psychoanalytic concept to explain the behavior of individuals in organizations (p648). He then kinks narcissism, identification and legitimacy by stating that "the degree of identification between an individual and a social category will depend crucially on the collective regulation of individual's selfesteem through narcissistic ego-defenses processes" (p.665). In this research, we empirically test this relation and propose: H9: Narcissism moderates the relationship between consumer brand identification and perceived brand legitimacy, such that when brand identification increases, higher levels of narcissism lead to higher levels of perceived brand legitimacy.

All these relations will be tested in our field study. Then, an experiment will also be conducted to replicate the results of the field study. The following figure provides an overview of our theoretical model, including all our hypotheses. To provide empirical evidence for our conceptual model and the predicted effects of Perceived Sportivityand therefore for the external validity of our researcha field study was performed.

In this section, we will detail the rationales for our choices about questionnaire design and our method of administration.

As Participants had to respond to every item previously mentioned, which were randomized, and the number of games and hours watched during the Spring Split were also used as covariates.

People who were under 18 at the time of completion of the questionnaire were also removed to conform to internet protection regulations (N=32). After an analysis of the attention check, 385 participants were kept (Mage = 23,5; SD = 4.37; 94% men). Regarding the low representation of women in our field study, gender distribution in esport viewership has never been empirically studied. However, according to a 2019 Nielsen survey, 22% of global esport fans are women.

In France, that number rises to 23%. However, this number concerns the global esport audience and does not consider the type of esport watched. Regarding specific esport titles, gender The questionnaire contained our Perceived Sportivity scale, as well as 7 other scales adapted from previous research that measured brand personality, brand identification, perceived brand legitimacy, consumer brand engagement, perceived value, purchase intention and narcissism.

First, regarding brand personality, we could not use the 42-item brand personality scale from [START_REF] Aaker | Dimensions of Brand Personality[END_REF] because of its length. However, we decided to follow [START_REF] Brakus | Brand Experience : What is It? How is it Measured? Does it Affect Loyalty?[END_REF] in their adaptation of Aaker. Akker's original scale contained 5 dimensions, 15 sub-dimensions and 42 items. [START_REF] Brakus | Brand Experience : What is It? How is it Measured? Does it Affect Loyalty?[END_REF] decided to measure the 15 sub-dimensions as items reflecting the five dimensions, with success. We, therefore, decided to use their 5-dimensions, 15-item scale in our field study. For brand identification, we followed [START_REF] Tuškej | The role of consumer-brand identification in building brand relationships[END_REF], and used their 3-item scale adaptation of the organizational identification instrument from [START_REF] Podnar | Corporate reputation, orgnizational identification and commitment[END_REF]. Concerning perceived legitimacy, we adapted the 7-item scale from Handelman and Arnold (1999), used recently by [START_REF] Chaney | Making the store a place of learning : The effects of instore educational activities on retailer legitimacy and shopping intentions[END_REF].

Regarding Consumer behavioral outcomes, for consumer brand engagement, we decided to use and adapt the multidimensional 10-item generalized customer engagement scale from [START_REF] Vigarello | A Generalized Multidimensional Scale for Measuring Customer Engagement[END_REF]. This scale was chosen due to its theoretical general applicability to many contexts.

Concerning Perceived value, we followed recommendations from Leroi-Werelds and Bradly (2014). In their paper, the authors propose a review of the most commonly used methods and scales for assessing perceived value. They also propose a guideline for choosing customer value assessment depending on the nature of the product, the role of value in the model, and the main purpose of the research. Our product being a "feel product", not a "think product", and perceived value being only one of the many factors of our model and not the central construct, we, therefore, decided to follow an adapted version of the scale from [START_REF] Dodds | Effects of Price, Brand, and Store Information on Buyers' Product Evaluations[END_REF]. More precisely, we follow Chaney, Lunardo and Bressolles (2016) and adapt their 3-item perceived value scale, itself adapted from [START_REF] Dodds | Effects of Price, Brand, and Store Information on Buyers' Product Evaluations[END_REF] in Chapter 5 Section 3: Field Study 236 [START_REF] Sweeney | The role of perceived risk in the quality-value relationship : A study in a retail environment[END_REF]. To measure purchase intention, we adapted the 2-item scale used by [START_REF] Yoo | Developing and validating a multidimensional consumer-based brand equity scale[END_REF] in their brand equity development scale.

Finally, we decided to use the 4-item measure of narcissism from Jonason and Webster (2010) to measure narcissism in our field study. We chose this measure and not the classic 40-item Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI; [START_REF] Raskin | A principal-components analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and further evidence of its construct validity[END_REF] used in psychology for two reasons. First, its length is problematic and may cause fatigue for some participants (Jonason and Webster, 2010). Second, the NPI test is subject to high rates of impression management [START_REF] Auerbach | Validation of two scales for narcissistic personality disorder[END_REF].

The following table provides an overview of the scale and all the items used during the field study. As we can see from the following table, there is a minor issue with the convergent validity of the perceived legitimacy scale (AVE <.5). However, the scale reliability being good and its use in research recognized, we decided to keep it.

To further explore the discriminant validity in our field study, we also decided to conduct the HTMT analysis. The following table provides an overview of the HTMT Matrix for the assessment of discriminant validity. As we can see from the above table, the HTMT matrix showed no discriminant validity issue within our field study. Finally, one last step before focusing on the results of the model is to test its fit using both incremental and absolute model fit indicators. Following the recommendations highlighted during the scale development process [START_REF] Bagozzi | Measurement and Meaning in Information Systems and Organizational Research : Methodological and Philosophical Foundations[END_REF]Yi, 1988, 2012). We decided to ignore the GFI once again and to focus on the CFI, TLI, RMSEA and SRMR to test our model fit. The following table provides an overview of the different indicators, their cut-off value, and their value in our model. of our field study.

Results

Our field study analysis was conducted using structural equation modelling (AMOS 26 Results showed that narcissism did not exhibit bipolarity. We also tested cluster analysis to form groups within our responses to conduct multigroup analysis, without satisfying results.

Therefore, we decided to reject multigroup analysis. Hair et al. (2019) also propose another solution for moderation; that is modeling a metric by creating interaction terms similar to those required with a regression approach. This approach is done by multiplying the indicator and the moderator together and computing the results through a new variable. The continuous nature of our scale of narcissism led us to choose this method to measure the role of narcissism as a moderator in the relation between brand identification and brand legitimacy. Moderation is assumed if the interaction effect of narcissism and brand identification on legitimacy is significant.

To test the interaction effect of narcissism and brand identification on brand legitimacy, narcissism was therefore included in our analysis, and the model fit was once again assessed.

Results were all satisfying (CFI = .999; TLI = .982; RMSEA = .033; SRMR = .037) and we could therefore turn to the analysis of the interaction effect.

Results showed a significant effect of the interaction between narcissism and brand identification on perceived legitimacy (β = 0.092; p < 0.05) such that the relation between brand identification and brand legitimacy is higher for people highly narcissistic.

To obtain our index of moderated mediation and to graph this interaction, we built a model for the macro PROCESS using the SPSS syntax. Because our model did not fit into the pre-existing models in the macro PROCESS, we built our model using the SPSS Syntax. Results replicated Chapter 5 Section 3: Field Study 244 the moderating effect of narcissism (β= 0.078; p<0.05) and revealed an index of moderated mediation of .0366 (.0095; .0648). The following graph, computed with the macro CAHOST [START_REF] Carden | CAHOST : An Excel Workbook for Facilitating the Johnson-Neyman Technique for Two-Way Interactions in Multiple Regression[END_REF], represents the interaction between brand identification, brand legitimacy and narcissism.

Figure 39: Interaction effect of narcissism in the relation between brand identification and brand legitimacy

As the above figure shows, the higher the score in narcissism, the higher the predicting power of brand identification on brand legitimacy. We can therefore validate H9. The following table

provides an overview of the field study, containing all our hypotheses.

Method

To expand the results of our field study, this experiment will aim at replicating the results in another leisure context. For the purpose of the study, we choose to study Kendama, a Japanese game similar to cup-and-ball (bilboquet). Kendama was chosen because it is likely non-familiar to most respondents, thus limiting potential biases regarding its categorization by consumers as sporty or not. To explore the scale's validity in another context, we also decided to conduct the experiment with English-speaking respondents. Manipulation in the experiment is done using images and text. In the non-sporty condition, we described Kendama as non-physical nor needing any equipment. Kendama was thus presented as a construction game in which participants have to use small wooden planks to build the most complex constructions possible (similar to KAPLA bricks). In this situation, we also mentioned that dedicated equipment was not necessary and that any type of wooden piece could replace a Kendama brick. The text in the non-sporty condition was: "Kendama is a Japanese activity in which participants assemble blocks called Kendama (the blocks in the photo below) to build the most complex constructions possible. This activity is accessible to all and does not require any particular physical effort to be played. There is no equipment needed to play the Kendama other than the Kendama. Any wooded piece can also replace a Kendama. Kendama is commercialized by the brand KRON, base in Japan".

In the sport condition, Kendama was presented as a cup-and-ball (bilboquet) game in which participants have to use an object called Kendama To execute complex tricks. In this situation, we highlighted the physicality of the activity and the need for dedicated equipment. The text in the sporty condition was: "Kendama is a Japanese activity in which participants perform complex tricks with an object called a Kendama (the hammer in the photo below) to win as many points as possible. This activity is accessible to all but requires a great deal of physical effort to perform complex tricks. In addition, special equipment, such as wrist protection and loose clothing to allow total freedom of movement, is absolutely necessary to practice Kendama. Kendama is commercialized by the brand KRON, based in Japan.

A Pretest was conducted with 99 participants recruited online (44.4% women; Mage = 35.88; S.D = 12.87). In this between-subjects pretest, participants were randomly exposed to one condition and had to complete both dimensions of our perceived sportivity scale, as well as an item asking them to rate the extent to which they considered the activity to be a sport. The item was phrased: "Please rate, on a scale from 1 (Not a sport at all) to 7 (Totally a sport), how much you consider this activity as sporty". Fifty respondents were exposed to the non-sporty condition. Forty-nine people were exposed to the sporty condition.

Chapter 5 Section 4: The Kendama experiment 249 Assessment of the manipulation was done with an ANOVA testing the between-group difference in our manipulation check item. The manipulation of the framing of the activity was effective, the perception of Kendama as a sport being significantly higher in the sporty condition (M Sport =3,92) than in the non-sporty condition (M NoSport =2,50, p<.001). Similarly, perceptions of physicality (M NoSport = 2,13; M Sport = 4,80; p<.001) and equipment (M NoSport = 4,34; MSport = 6,03; p<.001) were also significantly higher in the sport condition than in the non-sporty condition. Results showed a good model fit, with all indicators being above the most restrictive threshold values. Reliability was also assessed using Cronbach Alpha. Alphas being above .70 for both physicality (α = .941) and equipment (α = .847), and both scales showing convergent and discriminant validity (AVEphys = .829; AVEequip = .802; HTMT = .538), we could therefore turn to the experiment.

Chapter 5 Section 4: The Kendama experiment 250

Data Collection

A sample of 300 participants was recruited online for the experiment (49.7% women; Mage = 36.02; S.D = 13.13). To measure the excitement dimension of brand personality, consumer brand identification, perceived brand legitimacy, perceived value, purchase intention and narcissism, we decided to use the same measurement scales used in the field study.

We also decided to include an attention check due to the length of the questionnaire, as well as the same manipulation check that was included in the pretest.

However, because the multidimensional structure of the customer brand engagement scale from

Results

After analysis of the attention check item, 18 answers were deleted, and we conducted the analyses with the 282 remaining items (48.4% women; M age = 36.18; S.D = 13.35) Assessment of the manipulation was done with an ANOVA testing the between-group difference in our manipulation check item. The manipulation of the framing of the activity was effective, the perception of Kendama as a sport being significantly higher in the sporty condition (MSport=3,99) than in the non-sporty condition (MNoSport=2,06, p<.001). Similarly, perceptions of physicality (MNoSport = 2,37; MSport = 4,94; p<.001) and equipment (MNoSport = 4,08; MSport = 5,84; p<.001) were also significantly higher in the sport condition than in the non-sporty condition.

We first conducted an EFA with the Consumer Brand Engagement Scale from [START_REF] Fernandes | Consumer brand engagement, satisfaction and brand loyalty : A comparative study between functional and emotional brand relationships[END_REF]. Results were similar to the field study, with consumer brand engagement being a unidimensional construct explaining 69.62% of the variance, and not a 3-dimension construct.

We then assessed reliability, convergent validity and discriminant validity within the scale. The following table provides an overview of the results. We identified one minor discriminant validity issue between brand identification and brand legitimacy. However, because the HTMT criterion between Brand Legitimacy and Consumer Brand Engagement only exceeded the most restrictive threshold value for discriminant validity (,85) and not the least restrictive value (,90) we decided to carry on with the analysis.

We also conducted a CFA within our model. Results showed a good model fit (TLI = .954; CFI = .96; RMSEA = .042; SRMR = .052), and we therefore turned to the analysis of our theoretical model.

The theoretical model was designed with AMOS, following recommendations from Hair et al.

(2019) and Collier (2020) regarding the assessment of indirect effects and interaction effects.

Results were similar to the field study for the direct effects. However, the interaction effect of narcissism and the mediating effect of perceived value was not significant. The following table provides an overview of the results of the experiment. To explore further the moderating role of narcissism in the relationship between brand identification and brand legitimacy, we also decided to conduct another analysis using the macro PROCESS in SPSS. Results showed a significant moderating effect of narcissism (β= 0.044; p<0.05), such that higher levels of narcissism lead to higher levels of brand legitimacy;

thus corroborating with the results in the field study. The following figure represents a graph of the interaction effect of narcissism. This research provides several implications, both for research and management. The following section will provide an overview of these implications, divided into three categories; theoretical implications, managerial implications, and methodological implications. While theoretical and managerial implications will mostly focus on the field study, the methodological implications will be more related to the scale development process. Finally, this chapter will also explore future indications for research, the limitations of our current work and finally a conclusion concerning this entire research.

Theoretical implications

First, many theoretical implications derive from the perceived sportivity scale development.

Experiential market research has been a fruitful topic for marketing since [START_REF] Holbrook | The Experiential Aspects of Consumption : Consumer Fantasies, Feelings, and Fun[END_REF] pioneering work. Similarly, sport has been an important object of study, with entire journals dedicated to sports research in various fields such as philosophy, sociology, management, law and obviously marketing. However, to our knowledge, sport has always been defined from an institutional standpoint, and no research has explored consumers' perceptions of sport. The first main theoretical implication of this thesis is therefore the comprehension of consumers' perception of sport. Following an adapted version of [START_REF] Churchill | A Paradigm for Developing Better Measures of Marketing Constructs[END_REF] paradigm for scale development, we highlighted the two main elements influencing consumers' perception of the sportivity of leisure activities, namely physicality and equipment.

Next, looking at the debated unique nature of sports consumers [START_REF] Funk | Sport Consumer Behavior : Marketing Strategies[END_REF][START_REF] Fujak | Are Sport Consumers Unique? Consumer Behavior Within Crowded Sport Markets[END_REF] we expected perceived sportivity to have a positive influence on consumer brand perceptions and also on their behavioral intentions. More precisely, we positioned perceived sportivity as a categorization process in the consumer's mind that influences their perceptions and behaviors. Both in the field study and in the experiment we found positive results, with brand organizing sporty activities being seen as more exciting, providing more brand identification, and perceived as more legitimate in the consumer's mind.

First, we showed how the categorization of activity as sporty had positive outcomes for brands.

Both the field study and the experiment showed that a sporty perception led to the perception Chapter 6 Section 1: Discussion 259 of the brand as being more exciting, which then led to more legitimacy through the mediating effect of brand identification. Therefore, using sporty activities could be useful for a brand in developing an exciting image in the consumer's mind.

Then both the field study and the experiment showed promising effects of perceived sportivity on consumer behavioral outcomes. More precisely, we showed how perceived sportivity, through its effect on brand perception, had a positive impact on consumer brand engagement, and how consumer brand engagement had a positive effect on both perceived value and purchase intention. In the field study, perceived value had a mediating role in the relationship between consumer brand engagement and purchase intention. However, the experiment did not replicate this relation. Therefore, offering sporty activities could offer many opportunities for firms, and could lead to high levels of both consumer engagement and purchase intention.

We also provided empirical evidence regarding the moderating role of narcissism in the relationship between consumers and brands. More precisely, in the field study, we showed how narcissism moderated the relationship between brand identification and brand legitimacy, with higher levels of brand identification leading to higher levels of brand legitimacy for people highly narcissistic. The experiment replicated these results through regression analysis using the macro PROCESS. These results offer many opportunities for companies to position their offering and call for more research regarding the moderating role of narcissism in consumer behavior.

More generally, we argue that our research provides insight into the role of perceived sportivity on consumer cognitive and behavioral responses. We also extend previous findings into a new context and a new field of study: esports. Our research also highlights the potential offered by this new form of entertainment called esport. Even though esport is continuously growing in terms of business and research, we argue that our study of the phenomenon under the prism of perceived sportivity might offer opportunities for future research on esport.

Finally, we also argue that perceived sportivity offers a wide range of opportunities for researchers. We argue that any form of leisure or entertainment can be studied under the prism of perceived sportivity. We strongly believe that perceived sportivity of any activity, leisure, or entertainment will generate interesting consumer outcomes, both for researchers and managers.

Sport being one of the most common forms of entertainment, leisure research could gain from Chapter 6 Section 1: Discussion 260 sport research to understand how consumer perception of leisure can affect consumer cognitive, behavioral, or even affective outcomes. For example, work on extraordinary experiences could gain from taking the sporty aspect of experiences into account. Maybe the memorable character of extraordinary experiences (Arnould andPrice, 1993, Celsi, Rose and[START_REF] Celsi | An Exploration of High-Risk Leisure Consumption through Skydiving[END_REF] comes from the sporty categorization of such experiences by consumers. Similarly, in esport, maybe the categorization of disciplines and events as sporty could lead to significant differences in terms of consumers outcomes but also motivations.

Therefore, our research offers several implications for researchers, both from our scale development process and our field of study. Moreover, we also argue that our work provides several managerial opportunities for practitioners looking to gain competitive advantages over their competition or just looking to understand their consumers' needs. The following section provides an overview of the managerial implications we found during our research.

Managerial implications

As we have highlighted before, we argue that our research offers several managerial implications for practitioners. More precisely, event organizers, sponsors, and any practitioner interested in esport could gain from our research. We also think that any company or organization wishing to change their perception in the consumer's eye could gain from our work.

First, any company promoting activities, leisure, or events could use our scale to have a better understanding of their positioning in the consumer's mind. Depending on the level of perceived sportivity of their offering, companies could adapt their targeting, their advertising, or even their positioning to correspond to consumers. Our scale is short, easy to use for practitioners.

We argue that managers could use our scale to understand or even modify their position in the consumer's mind. Moreover, using our work on perceived sportivity, we argue that managers could shape their offer to be perceived as more sporty and therefore to generate positive consumers outcome. In that sense, perceived sportivity might offer a competitive advantage for practitioners over their competitors. Due to the popularity of sporting events, perceived sportivity could also be used to attract new consumers. Moreover, companies looking to generate perceived value for their offering could position it as sporty thanks to our scale. As we have seen in our field study, perceived sportivity represents a tool in creating perceived value Chapter 6 Section 1: Discussion 261 for consumers. We even argue that perceived sportivity can be used as a tool in building an entertainment/leisure offering. Companies looking to have a relationship based on sport with their consumers could use the perceived sportivity scale to adapt their offering to their target.

As we have seen before, perceived sportivity represents a useful tool for companies looking to identify with their consumers. It also represents a good way for companies to shape their brand personality to be seen as exciting. Therefore, companies could use perceived sportivity to affect the way consumers see them and therefore encourage potential behavioral outcomes, such as brand engagement and purchase intention. Purchase intention is logically one of the most researched outcomes for companies as it creates financial value for them. However, the growing popularity of consumer engagement and consumer brand engagement as a strategy used by companies to create bonds with their consumers also highlights many managerial opportunities that arise with perceived sportivity. In that sense, perceived sportivity goes beyond its simple influence, and can be used as a tool to gather people around a community and to foster engagement on their part. Companies looking to build communities and engagement could therefore use perceived sportivity To do so. This research has also, in line with previous work, highlighted the importance of building legitimacy in their respective field for companies.

Perceived sportivity represents a tool to build such legitimacy, consequently leading once again to consumer engagement.

Then, the opportunities offered by the growing esport market are also highlighted in this research. Esport has been put at the center of attention recently due to its growing popularity worldwide. Millions of people are watching esport every day, and understanding this market might represent a huge opportunity for practitioners to reach a new market. Moreover, that market is mostly composed of a new audience, who is mainly reluctant to classic forms of advertising and difficult to reach. Some companies have understood the possibilities offered by esport, even companies that do not seem related to the field. For example, in France, Team Vitality is sponsored by companies like Aldi, Orang and Afflelou (Vitality, 2021), Team Solary is sponsored by Aldi, Justin Bridou andObjectifCode, and Team Karmine Corp is sponsored by Chupa Chups and Michelin. This highlights the fact that big companies that have at a first sight nothing to do with esport, video games, or even electronics have seen the potential offered by esports and decided to invest in it. French Companies like Credit Agricole or Air France have also used their name to create esport competitions, highlighting once more the growing opportunities offered by that market. Companies could use esport for many reasons. First, it Chapter 6 Section 1: Discussion 262 would help them identify with new consumers, leading them to be seen as more legitimate in their field. Second, it would also help them to build a certain type of brand personality. And finally, it would lead to increase consumer engagement with the brand, and ultimately to purchase intention. Therefore, this research provides a non-exhaustive overview of the opportunities offered by the new esport market.

Behind perceived sportivity and esport, this research also highlights the importance of brand personality in building brand legitimacy for companies. Companies, by using means of sponsoring or by creating events, could increase their perceived legitimacy in the consumer's mind. The role of perceived legitimacy in building consumer behavioral responses has also been highlighted in our research, with brand legitimacy being a decisive factor in generating consumer engagement, and ultimately purchase intention. Therefore, companies should also focus on building legitimacy in their respective field, To generate consumer engagement, value and purchase intention.

Methodological implications

Besides management and research, the scale development process also led us to develop some methodological implications regarding scale development. These implications will be detailed here.

While we agree with some of [START_REF] Rossiter | The C-OAR-SE procedure for scale development in marketing[END_REF] critics regarding [START_REF] Churchill | A Paradigm for Developing Better Measures of Marketing Constructs[END_REF] paradigm for scale development, we also still considered psychometric indicators important. Instead of choosing only one way to develop scales, we argue for a combination of both. During the scale development procedure, we initially followed Churchill's paradigm, using an exploratory study to generate items and then using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis to reduce them, but we also included experts at every step as a means of confirmation. Calling experts helped us better identify our scale's structure, and ultimately led us to build a more robust scale; both from an applicability standpoint and a psychometric standpoint. We recommend the inclusion of both elements from [START_REF] Rossiter | The C-OAR-SE procedure for scale development in marketing[END_REF] and [START_REF] Churchill | A Paradigm for Developing Better Measures of Marketing Constructs[END_REF] in a scale development process.

We argue for the inclusion of face validity and content validity at the same level as convergent and discriminant validity. Regarding the confirmatory factor analysis in the development process, we also argue for the use of proper psychometric characteristics to delete items. Following [START_REF] Bagozzi | On the evaluation of structural equation models[END_REF]2012) we found the use of standardized residuals useful in reducing items and enhancing model fit. However, we found few research papers explaining how to use such standardized residuals (see Maydeu-Olivares and Shi, 2017, for an exception). We also found some methods used to reduce the numbers of items quite arbitrary, and argue for the use of a proper methodology when deleting items.

Model fit indicators also need to be used properly in research. Indicators such as the Goodness of Fit index are still largely used in research, despite their strong sensitivity to sample size [START_REF] Hu | Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis : Conventional criteria versus new alternatives[END_REF][START_REF] Sharma | A simulation study to investigate the use of cutoff values for assessing model fit in covariance structure models[END_REF][START_REF] Bagozzi | Specification, evaluation, and interpretation of structural equation models[END_REF]. The chi-square test, also still heavily used in some research has been heavily criticized for its sensitivity to the sample size [START_REF] Hu | Can test statistics in covariance structure analysis be trusted?[END_REF][START_REF] West | Structural equation models with nonnormal variables : Problems and remedies[END_REF][START_REF] Curran | The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis[END_REF]Schlermelleh-Engel et al. 2003;[START_REF] Vandenberg | Introduction : Statistical and Methodological Myths and Urban Legends: Where, Pray Tell, Did They Get This Idea?[END_REF]. We argue for the use of other indicators in assessing model fit in a CFA. More specifically, we argue for the use of the CFI, the TLI, the RMSEA and the SRMR. These four indicators offer a general view of a model fit, with the TLI being a relative model fit index, and the CFI, the RMSEA and the SRMR being absolute fit indexes that focus on different parameters [START_REF] Xia | RMSEA, CFI, and TLI in structural equation modeling with ordered categorical data : The story they tell depends on the estimation methods[END_REF].

Then, in the scale development process, when exploring previous works, we also found a lack of homogeneity in the steps followed by researchers, even in the top journals (see table 9). As an example, we found many articles ignoring convergent validity in their scale development process. We argue for the integration of all the steps highlighted in research during a classic scale development process, namely content validity, exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, convergent validity, discriminant validity, nomological validity and face validity. Content validity and face validity are done with the help of experts. Regarding discriminant validity, while some authors tested it in the nomological network or with theoretically related construct, some others used it internally. We argue for the use of internal discriminant validity when developing multidimensional constructs. As an example, we found no proof of internal discriminant validity in [START_REF] Vigarello | A Generalized Multidimensional Scale for Measuring Customer Engagement[END_REF]. When we used this scale in our field study, we found issues between the dimensions of the scales. Items were to highly correlated and we had to treat consumer engagement as a ten-item unidimensional construct instead of a ten-item three-dimension construct. Therefore, we strongly argue for the use of internal discriminant validity when developing multidimensional scales.

Chapter 6 Section 1: Discussion 264 Regarding discriminant validity, we also argue for the implementation of [START_REF] Henseler | A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling[END_REF] procedure when testing discriminant validity, in addition, and not in replacement, of [START_REF] Fornell | Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error[END_REF]. Recent research has started to use the HTMT matrix in marketing (e.g. Voorhees et al., 2015;Porcu, Del Barrio-Garcia and Kitchen, 2016;[START_REF] Guo | A Path Analysis of Greenwashing in a Trust Crisis Among Chinese Energy Companies : The Role of Brand Legitimacy and Brand Loyalty[END_REF][START_REF] Koo | Sponsor-event congruence effects : The moderating role of sport involvement and mediating role of sponsor attitudes[END_REF]Ahmed and Ting, 2019;[START_REF] Allison | Investigating firm level drivers of salesperson brand identification[END_REF]. Therefore, we argue for the use of both and also call for more research regarding the assessment of discriminant validity with the HTMT matrix and Fornell and Larcker procedure.

To summarize, we also provide the following table, offering a global review of the managerial, theoretical and methodological implications of our work. Our research thus offers several implications at different levels, and both researchers and practitioners could benefit from it. However, as with every research, a few limitations have also been highlighted during our work. Our research also offers several opportunities for future research. In this section, we will first explore our limitations, and then offer a non-exhaustive list of future research opportunities.

Limitations of the research

During the three years that were needed to conduct this research, our work was featured in several national and international conferences, namely the AFM doctoral colloquium 2020, the AMS 2021 conference, the EMAC 2021 conference, and more recently the ACR 2021 conference. We had the chance to have many experts highlighting the opportunities of our research, but also its eventual limitations. This section aims at exploring both our limitations and future opportunities for research.

The first limitation of our research concerns its possible generational and geographical character. As history has shown, sport itself has been an ever-evolving construct, subject to changes over the years. One example of such evolution could be the recent introduction of new sports activities such as skateboarding, climbing and surfing in the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. As we have highlighted in our historical and sociological literature review of sports, activities that were originally not considered as sports have gained the status of a sport over the year, and some activities that will gain that same status and affect the perception of sport are bound to emerge. We can also see opposite examples, with activities such as chess that, despite being recognized as a sport by the IOC, are not considered as being a sport by most of the consumers. Therefore, our scale might be subject to change over time. Some experts have also highlighted the possible regional or even national differences in sport as a possible limitation for our research. Taking the example of the United State and how they adapted sport to their own culture, perceived sportivity could also be localized. Originally, we aimed at using the scale in an international context; however, due to the pandemic, most international events were postponed, and we had to focus on a national event in France.

However, we hope to be able to use this scale with international respondents as soon as possible.

Chapter 6 Section 2: Limitations and future research 268 And we recognize that more investigations are needed to fully explore the possible geographical and generational limitations of our scale.

Similarly, experts have also highlighted the absence of sports elements in the scale that appear central in literature, namely institutions and competitions. As we have seen with the examples of skateboard or surf, sport can also be born from the sole desire of practitioners, and institutions, which used to appear central in the development of sport sometimes seem to appear as a consequence of practitioners' desire. Moreover, our research aimed at identifying elements, in all form of leisure that influences consumers' perception. Therefore, we are not surprised not to see institutions as a constitutive element of perceived sportivity. Regarding competition, which is at the essence of sport according to authors such as [START_REF] Caillois | Les jeux et les hommes : Le masque et le vertige[END_REF], we expected it to be considered as a central element of perceived sportivity. However, despite being tested with many possible items, results showed no influence of competition of perceived sportivity.

However, the equipment dimension could also be seen as a dimension reflecting the idea of competition and performance. Indeed, new equipment in sport also serve to enhance performance.

A few remarks can explain this absence. First, as we have already said, our research did not aim at classifying activities as being institutional sports or not. Secondly, as it has been highlighted, the term sport has been used at many levels, so much that it has been a polysemous, even pansemic term [START_REF] Parlebas | Une rupture culturelle : Des jeux traditionnels au sport[END_REF]. Therefore, it has gained a multitude of meanings in consumers' minds. Third, the idea of competition in sport is also quite vague. Does it only concern competition with others? Does it also concern competition with oneself? When we see a 100M runner elite athlete trying to beat his own record, can we say that he is not doing sport because he is not competing against other people? Similarly, when after a game, we see footballers running for post-match recovery, do we see that a being sporty? Therefore, we are not entirely surprised by the absence of competition in the perceived sportivity scale, and it does not alter its validity since it is only concerned with consumers' perception, and not with the actual nature of sport. However, we do recognize that more investigation is needed to clarify this absence.

The final limitation of our research lies in the complex context in which it had to be conducted.

The research started in 2018. Our original plan was to conduct an offline field study to apply previous online findings in a physical experiential context. We recognize that the online nature of experience might be a reason for the replication of the previous findings in online contexts.

Chapter 6 Section 2: Limitations and future research 269 However, due to the pandemic that arrived in 2020, just before the end of our scale development process, all major events were either postponed or canceled, leaving us with the only option to conduct our field study online. However, we found ourselves lucky to be able to study the LFL League, because it was not an offline event adapted to the online context because of the pandemic, but an event that was built entirely to be watched and lived online. However, we recognise that our research would benefit from an offline study, which is our next objective as soon as the world situation allows it. Besides these few limitations, our work also offers several opportunities for research, which will be highlighted in the next section.

Recommendations for future research

Our research offers several opportunities for future research. First, as we have seen with our preliminary study exploring the interest of studying perceived sportivity, some moderators influence consumers' willingness to engage in activities they consider sporty, narcissism being one of them. Therefore, we can expect perceived sportivity and its outcomes to be affected by several moderators as well. We plan to explore the influence of narcissism on our conceptual model, but we could also expect other moderators, such as competitive mindset or involvment in sport to affect also the relations between perceived sportivity and brand perception. Future research could therefore explain the possible influence of moderators in our model.

Other elements could also be included in our model, such as brand loyalty [START_REF] Tucker | The Development of Brand Loyalty[END_REF][START_REF] Yi | Effects of Loyalty Programs on Value Perception, Program Loyalty, and Brand Loyalty[END_REF][START_REF] Lai | How quality, value, image, and satisfaction create loyalty at a Chinese telecom[END_REF][START_REF] Nam | Brand equity, brand loyalty and consumer satisfaction[END_REF]. Research has already highlighted the importance of building brand loyalty for companies, and the role of identification and legitimacy in building such loyalty [START_REF] Yi | Effects of Loyalty Programs on Value Perception, Program Loyalty, and Brand Loyalty[END_REF][START_REF] Nam | Brand equity, brand loyalty and consumer satisfaction[END_REF]. Therefore, our model could be extended to include such variables. Existing research has also explored motivation for sport consumption [START_REF] Wann | Preliminary Validation of the Sport Fan Motivation Scale[END_REF][START_REF] Trail | The Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption : Assessment of the scale's psychometric properties[END_REF][START_REF] Allen | Social Motivation in Youth Sport[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | Development and validation of instruments for assessing sport spectator involvement and factors affecting sport spectator involvement[END_REF]Mallet et al., 2007;[START_REF] Seo | Development of the Motivation Scale for Sport Online Consumption[END_REF], and we propose that perceived sportivity could influence, or even moderate motivations for sport consumption.

Similarly, in our first chapter, we also discussed the possible transformative nature of experience. Besides behavioral outcomes, customer experience can also influence consumers' self-identity and foster well-being. During our scale development process, we even highlighted how well-being was a consequence of perceived sportivity. However, such outcomes were not explored in our final model, and we argue that perceived sportivity could have that type of Chapter 6 Section 2: Limitations and future research 270 influence. We even argue that perceived sportivity could be used to encourage consumer participation in health-related activities, and that it could be used from an ethics perspective.

Building on the findings from the field study and the experiment, we also argue that future research should extend our findings regarding the moderating role of narcissism in the relationship between consumers and brands. Moreover, future research should also further explore the relationship between consumer brand engagement, perceived value, and purchase intention.

Finally, we also argue that the global concept of perceived sportivity could be extended to tangible products as well as intangibles. For example, we argue that the perceived sportivity of a car could be a decisive element explaining consumers' choices. Therefore, we argue for an extension of the perceived sportivity concept to other fields. The following table provides an overview of our main limitations and our recommendations for future research opportunities. -There are possibilities to link perceived sportivity with existing research on motivation for sports consumption.

-There are possibilities of using perceived sportivity in an ethical context -The influence of perceived sportivity could be extended to tangibles

Conclusion

Throughout our entire work, we showed how perceived sportivity could be of use, both for researchers and practitioners. From the start of our work with our experiment on consumer willingness to engage in a sports activity to our final field study, we believe to have shown the potential of studying leisure, entertainment, and even tangibles products under the prism of perceived sportivity.

We followed an adapted version of [START_REF] Churchill | A Paradigm for Developing Better Measures of Marketing Constructs[END_REF] paradigm in our scale development process, taking into account and integrating recommendations from [START_REF] Rossiter | The C-OAR-SE procedure for scale development in marketing[END_REF]. Perceived sportivity, in an experiential context, is a two dimensions construct that relates to consumers' perception of leisure activities. In that context, perceived sportivity identifies the different visual elements that will influence consumers' perception of an activity as being sporty. It focuses only on spectators, and not on activity practitioners. Perceived sportivity contains two dimensions: physicality and equipment. Physicality refers to the observable physical condition needed for consumers to see an activity as sporty, while equipment refers to the tools needed in the practice of the activity to be seen as a sport by spectators.

Perceived sportivity offers a range of opportunities for both practitioners and researchers, at the brand level but also the activity level. For example, we have shown how perceived sportivity could shape how consumers perceive and legitimate brands, which influences perceived value, consumer engagement, and purchase intention, three highly researched outcomes in marketing.

We strongly believe in the opportunities offered by our context, and strongly believe that it can be applied to a large variety of contexts. We even argue that perceived sportivity could be used with tangibles, and that it could have opportunities for research on ethics and well-being.

Finally, we are also aware of the limitations of our work and have advocated for future research on the subject. There are still many questions to address and answer regarding perceived sportivity and its use in marketing. [START_REF] Arnould | Consumers[END_REF][START_REF] Carù | Revisiting Consumption Experience : A More Humble but Complete View of the Concept[END_REF]

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

FIELD STUDY

Perceived Value The quality of the activity was excellent.

Cette activité est d'excellente qualité I found the activity of great value.

J'ai trouvé que cette activité avait une grande valeur

With regard to the efforts and sacrifices I've made to participate, it was worth participating.

En prenant en compte les efforts et les sacrifices que j'ai effectué pour assister à cette activité, cela valait la peine d'y assister Perceived Legitimacy This brand sets an example for how other retailers should conduct their activities.

Cette marque montre l'exemple sur la façon dont les autres marques devraient conduire leurs activités This brand carries products that satisfy my needs.

Cette marque propose des produits qui satisfont mes besoins

This brand is committed to meeting the standards that people expect of brands Cette marque est soucieuse de respecter les normes que les gens attendent des marques en général This brand is the kind of place that I can get my money's worth.

Cette marque est le genre de marque avec laquelle j'en ai pour mon argent This brand carries the latest trends in products and services that meet my needs.

Cette marque est à l'origine des dernières modes en matière de produits et de services qui correspondent à mes besoins. This brand genuinely listens to the demands that people put on it. Tout ce qui est lié à cette marque attire mon attention I like to learn more about this brand J'aime en apprendre plus sur cette marque I pay a lot of attention to anything about this brand J'accorde beaucoup d'attention à tout ce qui touche à cette marque I spend a lot of my discretionary time into this brand J'accorde beaucoup de mon temps personnel à cette marque I am heavily into this brand Je suis très intéressé.e par cette marque I am passionate about this brand Je suis un.e passionné.e de cette marque My days would not be the same without this brand Mon quotidien ne serait pas pareil sans cette marque I love talking about this brand with my friends. J'aime parler de cette marque avec des amis I enjoy talking about this brand more when I am with others. J'aime encore plus parler de cette marque quand je suis avec du monde Talking about this brand is more fun when other people around me do it too Parler de cette marque c'est plus amusant quand d'autres personnes autour de moi le font aussi Purchase Intention I would like to buy products related to this activity J'aimerais acheter des produits liés à cette activité I intend to purchase products related to this activity' J'ai l'intention d'acheter des produits liés à cette activité EXPERIMENT Consumer Brand Engagement I would think a lot about the brand KRON the brand KRON would stimulate my interest When I would use the brand KRON I would forget everything Time would fly when I interact with the brand KRON The brand KRON would inspire me I would proud of using the brand KRON I would use the brand KRON with total dedication Using the brand KRON would make me happy I would feel enthusiastic about the brand KRON I would spend a lot of time using the brand KRON The brand KRON would be the one I often go for in Kendama brands Within Kendama brands I would always use the brand KRON I would feel like using the brand KRON

Section 1 :

 1 The interest of a research on sport -Economic and cultural importance of sport ...................................................................................................................................... 12 Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions ........... 25 Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport .............................. 52 CHAPTER 2: INDIVIDUALS' PERCEPTION OF LEGITIMACY AND CATEGORIZATION THEORY -STUDYING ESPORT AS A SPORT .. 72 Section 1: A perception-based approach -The contribution of categorization models ....... 72 Section 2: Introducing esport ............................................................................................... 86 Section 3: Esport under the prism of categorization theory -Similarities between sport and esport .................................................................................................................................... 99 CHAPTER 3: PREDICTIVE MODELS OF CONSUMER BEHAVIORAL INTENTIONS AND BRAND-RELATED OUTCOMES -SPORT AS AN EXPERIENCE ............................................................................................. 113 Section 1: Sport as an experiential game........................................................................... 113 Section 2: Defining Customer experience .......................................................................... 123 Section 3: The uniqueness of the sports experience -The need for a scale of perceived sportivity ............................................................................................................................. 145 CHAPTER 4: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERCEIVED SPORTIVITY SCALE .......................................................................................................... Section 1: Perceived Sportivity scale development -Methodology and Qualitative Exploratory Phase .............................................................................................................. Section 2: Qualitative interview guidedevelopment and administration........................ Section 3: Refining the Perceived Sportivity measurement scale ...................................... Section 4: Testing the Perceived Sportivity scale's validity .............................................. CHAPTER 5: APPLICATION OF THE PERCEIVED SPORTIVITY SCALE: THE FRENCH LEAGUE OF LEAGUE OF LEGENDS ........... Section1: League of Legends as an object of study ........................................................... Section 2: The conceptual model ....................................................................................... Section 3: Field Study ........................................................................................................ Section 4: The Kendama experiment ................................................................................. CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION, LIMITS AND CONCLUSION .................. Section 1: Discussion ........................................................................................................ Section 2: Limitations and future research .........................................................................

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Intel World Open: The first esport tournament co-organized by the IOC and Intel

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Redbull Soapbox Race: One of the many sporty events organized by Red Bull that gather tens of thousands of people every year

o 1 :

 1 Chapter 1: Sport as an object of study: The cultural, economic and social importance of sport  Chapter 2: Individual's perception of legitimacy and categorization theory -Studying esport as a sport  Chapter 3: Predictive models of consumer behavioral intentions and brand-related outcomes -Sport as an experience Chapter 4: Development of the perceived sportivity scale  Chapter 5: Application of the perceived sportivity scale to esport: the French League of League of Legends  Chapter 6: Discussion, limits and conclusion Section The interest of a research on sport -Economic and cultural importance of sport o Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions o Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport Chapter 2: Categorization theory -Studying esport as a sport  Chapter 3: The sports consumption experience -Brand-related outcomes and consumer behavioral outcomes Chapter 1 Section 1: The interest of a research on sport -Economic and cultural importance of sport 12 CHAPTER 1: SPORT AS AN OBJECT OF STUDY -THE CULTURAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF SPORT Section 1: The interest of a research on sport -Economic and cultural importance of sport 1.1

Figure 6 :

 6 Figure 6: The 2010 Nike Commercial after Tiger Wood's scandal

Figure 7 :

 7 Figure 7: Sponsor response to transgression Model (from[START_REF] Wilson | Player transgressions and the management of the sport sponsor relationship[END_REF]

 1 :

 1 Chapter Sport as an object of study -The cultural, economic and social importance of sport o Section 1: The interest of a research on sport -Economic and cultural importance of sport o Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions o Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport  Chapter 2: Categorization theory -Studying esport as a sport  Chapter 3: The sports consumption experience -Brand-related outcomes and consumer behavioral outcomes Chapter 1

Figure 9 :

 9 Figure 9: Dr. James Naismith, the inventor of Basketball

Figure 10 :

 10 Figure 10: Logo of the Bordeaux Athletic Club, the oldest French Amateur Football Club

Figure 11 :

 11 Figure 11: The first Tour de France, launched on July 1st, 1903

Figure 13 :

 13 Figure 13: The Georges Carpentier -Jack Dempsey Fight in 1921

  Certificat d'Aptitude au Professorat d'Education Physique et Sportive (CAPEPS) a diploma for sport educators, introduced in 1943.

  distancing from religious institutions by a population looking for emancipation from classical pillars of identity construction. At the same time, other affinity movements emerged. For example, the organization of the Stoke Mandeville International Games in 1948 gave rise to the Paralympic Games in 1960 (Bailey, 2008). In France, the Amicale sportive des mutilés de France (ASMF) was founded in 1954. It became, after much tension, Fédération Française Handisport (FFH) in 1977.

Figure 14 :

 14 Figure 14: The 1948 Stoke Mandeville International Games

Figure 15 :

 15 Figure 15: The Black Power Movement during the 1968 Mexico Olympics

o

  Section 1: The interest of a research on sport -Economic and cultural importance of sport o Section 2: An historical approach of sport -Emergence, diffusion and institutions o Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport  Chapter 2: Categorization theory -Studying esport as a sport  Chapter 3: The sports consumption experience -Brand-related outcomes and consumer behavioral outcomes Chapter 1 Section 3: Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport 52

  Sport through the lens of sociology -The meaning of sport 62

Figure 17 :

 17 Figure 17: The American athlete Jesse Owens during the 1936 Berlin Olympics



  Chapter 1: Sport as an object of study: The cultural, economic and social importance of sport  Chapter 2: Individual's perception of legitimacy and categorization theory -Studying esport as a sport  Chapter 3: Predictive models of consumer behavioral intentions and brand-related outcomes -Sport as an experience Chapter 4: Development of the perceived sportivity scale  Chapter 5: Application of the perceived sportivity scale to esport: the French League of League of Legends  Chapter 6: Discussion, limits and conclusion

  on familiarity and expertise. The authors (1987) built on psychological work on categorization models to propose that consumer expertise is dependent on 5 dimensions -Cognitive efforts, Cognitive structure, Analysis, Elaboration and Memoryand that these five dimensions have an influence on decision making for consumers. The following figure provides an overview of the categorization process through the five dimensions of consumer expertise and their relations.

  Figure 20: The Five dimensions of Customer Expertise (from[START_REF] Alba | Dimensions of Consumer Expertise[END_REF]

  perception-based approach -The contribution of categorization models 79

Figure 21 :

 21 Figure 21: The digital camera adds from Morau,[START_REF] Moreau | Entrenched Knowledge Structures and Consumer Response to New Products[END_REF]



  Chapter 1: Sport as an object of study -The cultural, economic and social importance of sport  Chapter 2: Individuals' perception of legitimacy and categorization theory -Studying esport as a sport o Section 1: A perception-based approach -The contribution of categorization models o Section 2: Introducing esport o Section 3: Esport under the prism of categorization theory -Similarities between sport and esport  Chapter 3: The sports consumption experience -Brand-

Finally

  , in 2020, Reitman et al. propose a literature review of existing esport research, explore and define esport through the lens of different fields of research, namely business, sports Chapter 2 Section 2: Introducing esport 87 science, cognitive science and psychology, informatics, law, media studies and technology.

Figure 22 :

 22 Figure 22: Typology of esport practices (from https://www.france-esports.org/)

Figure 23 :

 23 Figure 23: The 1997 Red Annihilation Tournament Logo

  initiative of seven Counter-Strike teams as a governance body aiming to 'promote the cooperation, amicable relation and unity of the member teams' (G7, 2007). The years from 2005 to 2008 showed a beginning of regulation and a stabilization of the esport ecosystem and business models, but also revealed several opportunities around it.

Figure 24 :

 24 Figure 24: The first Twitch Logo



  Chapter 1: Sport as an object of study -The cultural, economic and social importance of sport  Chapter 2: Categorization theory -Studying esport as a sport o Section 1: A perception-based approach -The contribution of categorization models o Section 2: Introducing esport o Section 3: Esport under the prism of categorization theory -Similarities between sport and esport  Chapter 3: The sports consumption experience -Brand-related outcomes and consumer behavioral outcomes Chapter 2 Section 3: Esport under the prism of categorization theory -Similarities between sport and esport 99 Section 3: Esport under the prism of categorization theory -Similarities between sport and esport3.1 The similarities between sport and esport in researchAs we have seen in the previous section, research interest in esport has been growing over the last few years, with more and more papers referencing terms such as 'esport' 'e-sport'or even "League of Legends'. The following figure provides a view of the numbers of research articles including the term esport, e-sport, or esports each year on Google Scholar.

Figure 25 :

 25 Figure 25: References to the term 'esport', e-sport' or 'esports' in the literature since 2005 (source: Google Scholar)

  . In 2013, Seo explained how esport marketing could represent a new marketing landscape for the experience economy, with his findings showing how "collaborative efforts of gaming companies, players, online communities, governing bodies, and many other stakeholders play important roles in enriching and sustaining the experiential value of esport consumption" (p.1542). Building on the Experience Economy framework (Pine and Gilmore, 1999), Seo showed how esport represents a good opportunity to create customer experiences by illustrating how it can provide escapism, aesthetics, education, entertainment and ultimately great value for consumers. The following figure proposes an experiential value network of esport consumption by Seo (2013).

Figure 26 :

 26 Figure 26: The experiential value network of esport consumption (from[START_REF] Seo | Electronic sports : A new marketing landscape of the experience economy[END_REF]

  Esport under the prism of categorization theory -Similarities between sport and esport 103 experience can provide aesthetic value. This value emerges mostly offline, with shows being organized around matches. For example, the 2019 finals of the League of Legends World

  a powerhouse on Counter-Strike from 2003 to 2006, with an international focus(Scholz, Volkel and Uebach, 2021). The team had players from Austria and Sweden, competed in worldwide events such as the 2003 World Cyber Games, and even tried to expand to other competitive games, like Warcraft 3 and Battlefield. In their words, SSV Lehnitz added esport into their strategy to gain an international dimension and recognition, to reach a young audience, attract new sports consumers and increase their image and the global image of esport.(Scholz, Volkel and Uebach, 2021). However, because of their incapacity to form legal contracts with players due to their non-profit organization status and to the problems caused by the German legal framework of that time, SSV Lehnitz left esport in 2006 (Skrobek inHiltscher, 2005).

  with sports clubs such as the Schalke 04 esport team competing under the same name and the same logo as the football club, the Brazilian football club Corinthians with the Immortals esport teams, or the Philadelphia 76ers, an NBA franchise, with the Dignitas esport teams. In Overwatch, franchises like the Los Angeles Gladiators, Philadelphia Fusion, or the Vancouver Titans, owned by organizations, also invested in traditional sports. Nowadays, even sports stars and legends use their name to invest in esport. For example, sports stars such as Earvin "Magic" Johnson, David Beckham, Shaquille O'Neal, or Antoine Griezmann have invested in esport, either by financing existing teams; what Magic Johnson and Shaquille O'Neal did, or by creating teams. David Beckham launched Guild Esport in 2020, and Antoine Griezmann launched Grizi Esport the same year

 1 :

 1 Chapter 1: Sport as an object of study: The cultural, economic and social importance of sport  Chapter 2: Individual's perception of legitimacy and categorization theory -Studying esport as a sport  Chapter 3: Predictive models of consumer behavioral intentions and brand-related outcomes -Sport as an experience Chapter 4: Development of the perceived sportivity scale  Chapter 5: Application of the perceived sportivity scale to esport: the French League of League of Legends  Chapter 6: Discussion, limits and conclusion Chapter 1: Sport as an object of study -The cultural, economic and social importance of sport  Chapter 2: Individuals' perception of legitimacy and categorization theory -Studying esport as a sport Chapter Sport as an experiential game

Figure 27 :

 27 Figure 27: Caillois' typology of games (from Caillois, 1958).

  engage in consumption marketed as painful? Through sensory intensification, pain allows individuals to rediscover their corporeality. Painful extraordinary experiences operate as regenerative escapes from the self. Pain provides temporary relief from the burdens of self-awareness. Pain helps consumers create the story of a fulfilled life (when leaving marks and wounds).



  Chapter 1: Sport as an object of study -The cultural, economic and social importance of sport  Chapter 2: Individuals' perception of legitimacy and categorization theory -Studying esport as a sport  Chapter 3: The sports consumption experience -Brandrelated outcomes and consumer behavioral outcomes o Section 1: Sport under the prism of experience o Section 2: Defining customer experience o Section 3: The uniqueness of the sports experience -The need for a

Figure 28 :

 28 Figure28:The "less ideological" view of consumption experience (from[START_REF] Carù | Revisiting Consumption Experience : A More Humble but Complete View of the Concept[END_REF]

  ), De Keyser et al. (2020) extend this work to differentiate touchpoints in terms of control, nature, and stage of the consumer journey.

Figure 29 :

 29 Figure 29: Customer journey and experience process model (from[START_REF] Lemon | Understanding Customer Experience Throughout the Customer Journey[END_REF]

  2012; Klaus and Maklan 2013; Mclean, Al-Nabhani, and Wilson 2018; Bleier, Harmeling, and Palmatier 2019). De Keyser et al. (2020) also highlight the emergence of new research focusing on touchpoints of a new nature: smart services (Hoffman and Novak, 2018).

Figure 30 :

 30 Figure 30: Nomological network of customer experience (adapted from[START_REF] Tasci | An expanded nomological network of experienscape[END_REF]

 1 :

 1 Chapter Sport as an object of study -The cultural, economic and social importance of sport  Chapter 2: Individuals' perception of legitimacy and categorization theory -Studying esport as a sport Chapter

Figure 31 :

 31 Figure 31: Sport customer experience framework (fromYoshida, 2017)

 1 :

 1 Chapter Sport as an object of study: The cultural, economic and social importance of sport  Chapter 2: Individual's perception of legitimacy and categorization theory -Studying esport as a sport  Chapter 3: Predictive models of consumer behavioral intentions and brand-related outcomes -Sport as an experience Chapter 4: Development of the Perceived Sportivity scale  Chapter 5: Application of the Perceived Sportivity scale to esport: the French League of League of Legends  Chapter 6: Discussion, limits and conclusion

  Sportivity scale development -Methodology and Qualitative Exploratory Phase 157

  Finally, to ensure the quality of our scale development process, we also decided to explore similar research dedicated to scale development. With this objective, we conducted a benchmark and tracked papers detailing a scale development process in the 6 FT ranked marketing journalsnamely Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Consumer Psychology, Journal of the Academy of Marketing

  Sportivity scale development -Methodology and Qualitative Exploratory Phase 163

  Sportivity scale development -Methodology and Qualitative Exploratory Phase 165

o

  Section 1: Perceived Sportivity scale development -Methodology o Section 2: Qualitative interview guidedevelopment and administration o Section 3: Refining the Perceived Sportivity measurement scale o Section 4: Testing the Perceived Sportivity scale's validity  Chapter 5: Application of the Perceived Sportivity scale: the French League of League of Legends  Chapter 6: Discussion, limits and



  Chapter 4: Development of the Perceived Sportivity scale o Section1: Perceived Sportivity scale development -Methodology and Qualitative Exploratory Phase o Section 2: Qualitative interview guidedevelopment and administration o Section 3: Refining the Perceived Sportivity measurement scale o Section 4: Testing the Perceived Sportivity scale's validity  Chapter 5: Application of the Perceived Sportivity scale: the French League of League of Legends  Chapter 6: Discussion, limits and conclusion Chapter 4 Section 3: Refining the Perceived Sportivity measurement scale 181 Section 3: Refining the Perceived Sportivity measurement scale

  Refining the Perceived Sportivity measurement scale 188 following figure represents the scree plot of our Eigenvalues, and the following table represents the structure of the scale after the EFA.

Figure 32 :

 32 Figure 32: Eigenvalues scree plot -EFA

1 - 5 -

 15 the model (achieved under the following conditions): -Negative variance errors -Errors of variance not significantly different from zero (except in certain exceptional cases) -Correlations greater than Correlations too close to 1 (within two standard deviation units) -Factor weights too low (<.5) or too high (>.95) -Very large standard errors Measure of the fit of the overall model (achieved under the following conditions): -Chi-square test not significant (p>.95) -Adequate chi-square statistical power -Satisfactory incremental model fit indices -Satisfactory model fit index -Satisfactory model comparisons -Low root mean square error residuals (usually expressed with the RMSEA) -Linear Q plot of standardized residuals with a curve greater than one -Large coefficients of determination -Satisfactory critical N -Good ratio between sample size and number of parameters to be measured (a ratio of at least 5 participants for each parameter) Internal structure of the model (achieved under the following conditions): -High composite reliability (CR>.6) and high item reliability (p<.05) -Average variance extracted (AVE) greater than .Significant parameter estimates confirming the hypothesis -Standardized residuals less than 2 -Modification indices less than 3.84 -Adequate power of causality detection.

Figure 33 :

 33 Figure 33: Representation of the model fit assessment in AMOS

  more satisfying in terms of model fit, thus comforting the idea of Perceived Sportivity as a second-order construct. Here is an overview of the final scale of Perceived Sportivity: Physicality: -This activity requires a certain physical condition -This activity requires a lot of energy -This activity requires a good physical preparation -This activity requires endurance -This activity demands a good physical shape Equipment:

o

  Section 1: Perceived Sportivity scale development -Methodology and Qualitative Exploratory Phase o Section 2: Qualitative interview guidedevelopment and administration o Section 3: Refining the Perceived Sportivity measurement scale o Section 4: Testing the Perceived Sportivity scale's validity  Chapter 5: Application of the Perceived Sportivity scale: the French League of League of Legends  Chapter 6: Discussion, limits and conclusion Chapter 4 Section 4: Testing the Perceived Sportivity scale's validity 201 Section 4: Testing the Perceived Sportivity scale's validity

  Testing the Perceived Sportivity scale's validity 202 have determined the convergent validity of their constructs by following other procedures and indicators. For example, for Hildebrandt et al. (1987), convergent validity is established when each item has a factor score on its construct >.50. Hollebeek et al. (2014) used Cronbach's alphas to determine the convergent validity of their scale of consumer brand engagement via social networks. Other authors propose composite reliability indicators, such as

  that were presented preceded by the sentence "After watching this activity, how do you feel?" :

  scale which we adapted to our context: -Watching this activity makes me feel good -I love watching this activity -I like watching this activity -This activity is well done -This activity does what it is supposed to do Chapter 4 Section 4: Testing the Perceived Sportivity scale's validity 209 -Watching this activity meets my needs With all the possible consequences of Perceived Sportivity highlighted, we can now turn to the nomological validity testing.

  Testing the Perceived Sportivity scale's validity 210 In this study, 404 people were selected online via a panelist to complete the questionnaire. After cleaning the data by analyzing the responses, and in particular the item measuring attention, 367 usable responses were kept (44.1% female; M age = 30.19; SD = 10.695). Before looking at the validity tests, we decided to repeat the EFA, the CFA and the convergent and discriminant validity tests of our scale To ensure the reproducibility of the data. The results are available in the tables below.



  Chapter 1: Sport as an object of study: The cultural, economic and social importance of sport  Chapter 2: Individual's perception of legitimacy and categorization theory -Studying esport as a sport  Chapter 3: Predictive models of consumer behavioral intentions and brand-related outcomes -Sport as an experience Chapter 4: Development of the Perceived Sportivity scale  Chapter 5: Application of the Perceived Sportivity scale to esport: the French League of League of Legends  Chapter 6: Discussion, limits and conclusion of Legends as an object of study League of Legends (LoL) is a video game created by Riot Games and released in 2009. This game is classified as a Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA) in which two teams of five players fight against each other. It combines elements of role-playing, real-time strategy, and tower defense games genres

Figure 34 :

 34 Figure 34: Overview of the map in LoL

  of Legends as an object of study 220 The Open tour France is an open competition created in 2018 for professional and semiprofessional teams. It contains different tournaments throughout the year. Since 2020, the best two teams of the Open Tour France face the two lowest seeds of the LFL Division 2 for a sport in the next season of the Div 2.

  of Legends as an object of study 221 according to RiotGames (2019), it is also the most-watched esport game on Twitch, with an average daily viewership of more than 170 000 on Twitch in 2021. During the World Cup 2020, the average number of daily viewers was above 1 000 000. Moreover, League of Legends is also the second biggest game in terms of weekly hours of viewership with 40 million hours of watching(Statista, 2021), and the biggest esport game in terms of peak viewership with 45.95 million concurrent viewers watching the world cup finals in 2020. As these numbers illustrate, League of Legends represents a huge marketing opportunity thanks to its worldwide audience.However, researchers have also shown a growing interest regarding the game, with more papers focusing on it since its release in 2009. In 2020, there were more than 1900 research papers including the term "League of Legends" on Google Scholar. The following figure provides an overview of the evolution of research exploring League of Legends.

Figure 35 :

 35 Figure 35: References to the term 'League of Legends' in the literature since 2009 (source: Google Scholar)

o

  Chapter 4: Development of the Perceived Sportivity scale  Chapter 5: Application of the Perceived Sportivity scale: the French League of League of Legends o Section1: League of Legends as an object of study Section

  an antecedent of legitimacy by stating that "legitimacy attributions are mediated by identification processes.However, up to this date, no marketing research has empirically explored the relationship between brand personality and brand legitimacy. Only Fournier (1998) mentions this possible relation but does not empirically test it. Therefore, this research aims to test that relation, and we propose, in our context: H3: The excitement dimension of brand personality has a direct positive effect on perceived brand legitimacy.

Figure 36 :

 36 Figure 36: Theoretical model -Perceived Sportivity and Consumer Brand Perception

  context, Vanhamme and Grobben (2009) build on

  found how consumer brand engagement had a positive effect on value in use and value in exchange. Similarly, Dovalienne et al. (2015) found how the affective and the behavioral dimensions of consumer brand engagement had a positive effect on overall perceived value. In our research, we empirically test this relationship between consumer engagement and perceived value and propose: H6: Consumer brand engagement has a direct positive effect on the perceived value of the activity.

o

  Figure 37: Overview of the theoretical model

  a reminder, the study focused on League of Legends French consumers. More precisely, we only reached out to viewers of the main French Competition of League of Legends: The Ligue Française de LoL. Participants were recruited online, through social media. Indeed, most of the French esport community uses Twitter to share information and news. French League of Legends influencers and casters were contacted, and some of them relayed the questionnaire through their social media account. To gather more respondents, a giveaway was implemented with the questionnaire. At the end of the study, ten of the respondents were randomly offered a 20$ gift card on the gaming platform of their choice. The field study was done with French respondents, every item was translated, reviewed, and validated by experts through an iterative process before admission. The questionnaire was built with Qualtrics.Thanks to the influencers and the giveaway, 450 respondents completed the questionnaire. To ensure the quality of the responses, screening out questions regarding the number of games watched and an attention check were included in the questionnaire. The admission of the questionnaire started on the 9 th of March 2021, during the last week of the Spring Split of the LFL, and lasted 17 days. The questionnaire was closed after the end of the Spring Split 2021.

  been partially studied in terms of players and tournaments. According to Escharts, an esport data specialized website (2021), there is no League of Legends tournaments in the most popular esport tournaments among women. Moreover, the most popular female esport disciplines appear to be Mobile Legends: Bang Bang, Valorant, and Counter-Strike: Global Offensive. Riot Games, League of Legends' editor has only recently started their plans for a women esport scene.

Figure 38 :

 38 Figure38: Repartition of the narcissism scores in the field study(in %)

o

  Chapter 4: Development of the Perceived Sportivity scale  Chapter 5: Application of the Perceived Sportivity scale: the French League of League of Legends o Section1: League of Legends as an object of study o Section 2: The conceptual model Section

Figure

  Figure 40: A Kendama

Figure 41 :

 41 Figure 41: Pictures used in the non-sporty condition

Figure 42 :

 42 Figure 42: Pictures used in the sporty condition

Figure 43 :o

 43 Figure 43: Interaction effect of narcissism in the relation between brand identification and brand legitimacy in the experiment

o

  Chapter 4: Development of the Perceived Sportivity scale  Chapter 5: Application of the Perceived Sportivity scale: the French League of League of Legends  Chapter 6: Discussion, limits and conclusion Section

  of competition and institutions despite their omnipresence in institutional sports research might raise some questions that have been partially answered -The pandemic prohibited us from using our scale in an offline international context -Extend research on the relation between narcissism and consumer-brand relations -The mediating role of Perceived Value in the relationship between consumer engagement and purchase intention should be further explored -Brand loyalty, a much-researched outcome for companies could be included in our model -Perceived sportivity being in an experiential context, we could also explore transformational outcomes for consumers, such as well-being.

  Games (from Wenn,2015) ........................................................................................................ Table 3: Declared Olympic bid cities for the Olympic and Olympic Winter Games, 1972-2012. (from Wenn, 20015) .................................................................................................................Table 4: The social values and benefits of sport (from Evens, Iosfidis and Smith, 2013) ....... Table 5: The main constitutive elements of sport highlighted in the literature ........................ Table 6: The three pillars of institutions (from Scott, 2005) .................................................... Table 7: The Legitimacy typology (adapted from Suchman, 1995) ........................................ Table 8: Typology of information processing models of categorization (from Cohen and Bsu,1987) ......................................................................................................................................... Table 9: Overview of existing research using categorization theory (adapted from Loken, Barsalou and Joiner, 2008; and Vergne and Wry, 2013) ......................................................... Table 10: Most watched esport games in 2019 (Statista, 2020) ............................................... Table 11: Where esports fit within the defining characteristics of sport. (from Jenny et al., 2017) ................................................................................................................................................ Table 12: Typification of sports teams involvement in esport ............................................... Table 13: Existing similarities between esport and sport ....................................................... Table 14: Overview of existing research on sport consumption experience .......................... Table 15: The seven characteristics of memorable customer experiences (From Pine and Gilmore, 1999, 2011) .............................................................................................................

  .......................................................................................................................................Table 17: The foundations of customer experience (adapted from Lemon and Verhoef, 2016) ................................................................................................................................................ Table 18: Antecedents and outcomes of customer experience............................................... Table 19: The four Premises of customer experience: an integrative framework (adapted fromBecker and Jaakola, 2020)...................................................................................................... Table 20: Overview of existing research fields and contributions of this research ............... Table 21: Overview of recent scale development paper from the FT50 top marketing journals ................................................................................................................................................ Table 22: The highlighted possible dimensions after the sociological and historical literature review of sport ........................................................................................................................ Table 23: Existing measurement scales dedicated to consumers' motivations and behaviors in sport ........................................................................................................................................ Table 24: Dimension highlighted by respondents in the first part of the qualitative interview. ................................................................................................................................................ Table 25: Summary of sports vocabulary occurrences for part 2 of the interview guide ...... Table 26: Respondents' perception of sport -Occurrences ................................................... Table 27: The 10 most practiced sports in France -Number of licensees (source: INJEP ... Table 28: Structure of the scale after the first EFA ................................................................ Table 29: Structure of the scale after the second iteration of the EFA .................................. Table 30: Reliability of the scale's dimensions -EFA ...........................................................

Table 31 :

 31 Steps to follow for a successful CFA (from Bagozzii nd[START_REF] Bagozzi | On the evaluation of structural equation models[END_REF] 2012) ............. Table 32: 17-item Construct-Item factor score table -CFA .................................................. Table 33: Inter-dimension covariance and correlation -CFA ................................................ Table 34: Model fit indicators -CFA ....................................................................................Table 35: Standardized residual covariance matrix -CFA ................................................... Table 36: 8-item structure factor score -CFA ....................................................................... Table 37: Second-order -Dimensions factor scores -CFA ................................................... Table 38: Model fit assessment -2 nd CFA ............................................................................ Table 39: The final Perceived Sportivity Scale ...................................................................... Table 40: Convergent Validity -CFA for test-retest reliability ............................................ Table 41: Convergent validity -results .................................................................................. Table 42: Discriminant Validity -Fornell and Larcker ......................................................... Table 43: Discriminant validity -item-correlation matrix ..................................................... Table 44: Nomological validity -Test-retest reliability -EFA ............................................. Table 45: Nomological validity -Test-retest reliability -CFA ............................................. Table 46: Nomological validity -Test-retest reliability -Convergent validity ..................... Table 47: Nomological validity -Test-retest reliability -Discriminant Validity -Fornell andLarcker ................................................................................................................................... Table 48: First-order external discriminant validity -Nomological network........................ Table 49: External discriminant validity -Nomological validity tests -Second-order level . Table 50: Item-Factor correlation matrix -External Discriminant Validity......................... Table 51: Second-order External Discriminant validity test .................................................. Table 52: Overview of the items used in the field study ........................................................ Table 53: PCA for the generalized multidimensional scale of consumer engagement .......... Table 54: Field Study -Scales' reliability assessment .......................................................... Table 55: Field Study -Fornell and Larcker Procedure ........................................................Table 56: HTMT Matrix for discriminant validity assessment in the field study .................. Table 57: Field Study -Test-retest reliability -Model Fit .................................................... Table 58: Field Study -Testing the direct effects in the model ............................................. Table 59: Direct Effects -Overview of the validated hypotheses ......................................... Table 60: Field Study -Overview of the results .................................................................... Table 61: Test-Retest reliability -CFA -Pretest Experiment ................................................ Table 62: Overview of the scales used in the experiment ...................................................... Table 63: Validity assessment -Experiment ........................................................................ Table 64: Results overview -Experiment ............................................................................. Table 65: Research implications ............................................................................................ Table 66: Main limitations and future opportunities -Overview ...........................................

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Intel World Open: The first esport tournament co-organized by the IOC and Intel ...

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Redbull Soapbox Race: One of the many sporty events organized by Red Bull that gather tens of thousands of people every year ...........................................................................

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Product categorization based on Kotler et al. (2006) (from Beech and Chadwick, 2007) .........................................................................................................................................

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Sport Product-Service Continuum (from Beech and Chadwick, 2007)....................

Figure 5 :

 5 Figure 5: The Brand Image Transfer through Sponsoring Framework (from Smith, 2004) ....

Figure 6 :

 6 Figure 6: The 2010 Nike Commercial after Tiger Wood's scandal .........................................

Figure 7 :

 7 Figure 7: Sponsor response to transgression Model (from Wilson, Stavros and Westberg (2008) ..................................................................................................................................................

Figure 8 :

 8 Figure 8: Illustration of the fight between Tom Molineux and Tom Cribb .............................

Figure 9 :

 9 Figure 9: Dr. James Naismith, the inventor of Basketball .......................................................

Figure 10 :

 10 Figure 10: Logo of the Bordeaux Athletic Club, the oldest French Amateur Football Club ...

Figure 11 :

 11 Figure 11: The first Tour de France, launched on July 1st, 1903 ............................................

Figure 12 :

 12 Figure 12: The 1896 Athens Olympic Games ..........................................................................

Figure 13 :

 13 Figure 13: The Georges Carpentier -Jack Dempsey Fight in 1921 ........................................

Figure 14 :

 14 Figure 14: The 1948 Stoke Mandeville International Games ..................................................

Figure 15 :

 15 Figure 15: The Black Power Movement during the 1968 Mexico Olympics ..........................

Figure 16 :

 16 Figure 16: The updated Sportification Process ........................................................................

Figure 17 :

 17 Figure 17: The American athlete Jesse Owens during the 1936 Berlin Olympics...................

Figure 18 :

 18 Figure 18: The 1962 Algerian National Liberation Front football team ..................................

Figure 19 :

 19 Figure 19: NIT and company-institutions-consumers relations (from Chaney, Ben Slimane and Humphreys, 2015 .....................................................................................................................

Figure 20 :

 20 Figure20: The Five dimensions of Customer Expertise (from[START_REF] Alba | Dimensions of Consumer Expertise[END_REF]

Figure 22 :

 22 Figure 22: Typology of esport practices (from https://www.france-esports.org/) ...................

Figure 23 :

 23 Figure 23: The 1997 Red Annihilation Tournament Logo.......................................................

Figure 24 :

 24 Figure 24: The first Twitch Logo .............................................................................................

Figure 25 :

 25 Figure 25: References to the term 'esport', e-sport' or 'esports' in the literature since (source: Google Scholar) ..........................................................................................................

Figure 26 :

 26 Figure 26: The experiential value network of esport consumption (from Seo, 2013) ...........

Figure 27 :

 27 Figure 27: Caillois' typology of games (from Caillois, 1958). ..............................................

Figure 28 :

 28 Figure 28: The "less ideological" view of consumption experience (from Carù and Cova, 2003) ................................................................................................................................................

Figure 29 :

 29 Figure 29: Customer journey and experience process model (from Lemon and Verhoef., 2016) ................................................................................................................................................

Figure 30 :

 30 Figure 30: Nomological network of customer experience (adapted from Tasci and Pizam, ................................................................................................................................................

Figure 31 :

 31 Figure 31: Sport customer experience framework (from Yoshida, 2017) ............................

Figure 32 :

 32 Figure 32: Eigenvalues scree plot -EFA................................................................................

Figure 33 :

 33 Figure 33: Representation of the model fit assessment in AMOS .........................................

Figure 34 :

 34 Figure 34: Overview of the map in LoL.................................................................................

Figure 35 :

 35 Figure 35: References to the term 'League of Legends' in the literature since 2009 (source: Google Scholar) ......................................................................................................................

Figure 36 :

 36 Figure 36: Theoretical model -Perceived Sportivity and Consumer Brand Perception ........

Figure 37 :

 37 Figure 37: Overview of the theoretical model........................................................................

Figure 38 :

 38 Figure 38: Repartition of the narcissism scores in the field study (in %) ..............................

Figure 39 :

 39 Figure 39: Interaction effect of narcissism in the relation between brand identification and brand legitimacy ...............................................................................................................................

Figure 40 :

 40 Figure 40: A Kendama ...........................................................................................................

Figure 41 :

 41 Figure 41: Pictures used in the non-sporty condition .............................................................

Figure 42 :

 42 Figure 42: Pictures used in the sporty condition ....................................................................

Figure 43 :

 43 Figure 43: Interaction effect of narcissism in the relation between brand identification and brand legitimacy in the experiment ..................................................................................................

  The interest of a research on sport -Economic and cultural importance of sport 13

					Chapter 1
	Section 1: Dates	Broadcasted event	Estimated	Reference
				audience
				(billions)
	11/06/2021 -11/07/2021		UEFA Euro 2020	5.23	UEFA (2021)
	07/09/2016 -18/09/2016		Rio 2016 Summer Paralympics	4.1	IPC (2017)
	27/07/2012 -12/08/2012	London 2012 Summer Olympics	3.6	IOC (2012)
	05/08/2016 -21/08/2016		Rio 2016 Summer Olympics	3.6	Statista (2018)
	14/06/2018 -15/07/2018		Russia 2018 FIFA World Cup	3.572	FIFA (2018)
	08/08/2008 -24/08/2008		Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics	3.51	IOC (2012)
	19/07/1996 -04/08/1996		Atlanta 1996 Summer Olympics	3.5	Hajeski (2013)
	15/09/2000 -01/10/2000	Sydney 2000 Summer Olympics	3.5	Stavroulakis (2003)
	13/08/2004 -29/08/2004		Athens 2004 Summer Olympics	3.5	Ritzer (2008)
	10/06/1998 -12/07/1998		France 1998 FIFA World Cup	3.4	Kotabe and Helsen (2004)
	11/06/2010 -11/07/2010	South Africa 2010 FIFA World Cup	3.2	FIFA (2011)
	12/06/2014 -13/07/2014		Brazil 2014 FIFA World Cup	3.2	FIFA (2015)
	31/05/2002 -30/06/2002	2002 FIFA World Cup (Korea & Japan)	3	Luxbacher (2005)
	09/06/2006 -09/07/2006	Germany 2006 FIFA World Cup	3	Statista (2018)
	30/05-2019 -14/07/2019		ICC Cricket World Cup 2019	2	ICC (2019)

Table 1 :

 1 The 15 most-watched television broadcasts of all time

  The interest of a research on sport -Economic and cultural importance of sport

				Chapter 1
	Section 1: Olympic year	Date of the award of	Winter	Summer
		host city status
	1972	1964	4	4
	1976	1970	4	3
	1980	1974	1	2
	1984	1978	3	1
	1988	1981	3	2
	1992	1986	6	6
	1994	1988	4	-
	1996	1990	-	6
	1998	1991	5	-
	2000	1993	-	5
	2002	1995	9	-
	2004	1997	-	11
	2006	1999	6	-
	2008	2001	-	10
	2010	2003	8	-
	2012	2005	-	9

Table 5 :

 5 The main constitutive elements of sport highlighted in the literature

Table 6 :

 6 The three pillars of institutions (from[START_REF] Scott | Institutional theory : Contributing to a theoretical research program[END_REF]

		Regulative	Normative	Cultural-Cognitive
	Basis of compliance	Expedience	Social obligation	Taken-for-grantedness
				Shared understanding
	Basis of order	Regulative rules	Binding expectations	Constitutive schema
	Mechanism	Coercive	Normative	Mimetic
	Logic	Instrumentality	Appropriateness	Orthodoxy
	Indicators	Rules	Certification	Common beliefs
		Laws	Accreditation	Shared logic of action
		Sanctions
	Basis of legitimacy	Legally Sanctioned	Morally governed	Comprehensible
				Recognizable
				Culturally supported

Table 10 :

 10

Most watched esport games in 2019 (Statista, 2020)

A 2021 market study from Statista provides a good overview of the esport market and its opportunities, despite the pandemic. Between 2019 and 2020, the esport market revenue remained roughly the same (from $957,5 million to $947,1 million) and is expected to grow in the next years to reach $1091,1 million in 2021 and $1617,7 million in 2024. Similarly, the global esport audience grew from 2019 (397.8 million) to 2021 (474 million) and is expected to reach 577,2 million in 2024. Similarly, cash prizes, media rights and sponsoring have also been growing up since 2019, and are expected to reach unprecedented heights in the next few years. Therefore, studying esport, if only from an economic point of view, represents huge opportunities for companies.

Table 11 :

 11 Where esports fit within the defining characteristics of sport. (from[START_REF] Jenny | Virtual(ly) Athletes : Where eSports Fit Within the Definition of "Sport[END_REF]

		Example of activity not considered as	Does esport
	Sport characteristics	a sport due to said characteristic	qualify?
	It includes play (voluntary, intrinsically motivated	Doing the homework to avoid
	activity)	punishment	Yes
	It is organized (governed by rules)	Kendama	Yes
	It includes competition (outcome of a winner and
	a loser)	Solitaire (Card game)	Yes
	It is comprised of skill (no chance)	Dice games	Yes
	It includes physical skills (skillful and strategic
	use of one's body)	Board games	Debatable
	It has a broad following (beyond a local fad)	Hornuss	Yes
	It has achieved institutional stability where social
	institutions have rules which regulate it, stabilizing
	it as an important social practice	Hula-hoop	Debatable

Table 13 :

 13 Existing similarities between esport and sport

  results indicate that service quality consistently affects overall satisfaction across both customer groups; service quality is a major driver of loyalty only for novice customers, while overall satisfaction is a major driver of customers' future behaviors.

		Chapter 3
		Section 1: Sport as an experiential game
	Avourdiadou and Theodorakis (2014)	Impact of service quality and satisfaction on loyalty (fitness and sports centers)
	Calabuig et al. (2014)	Effect of price increase on future intentions (sport consumers)
		119

  highlights these distinctions.

	Economic Offering Commodities	Goods	Services	Experiences
	Economy	Agrarian	Industrial	Service	Experience
	Economic Function Extract	Make	Deliver	Stage
	Nature of Offering	Fungible	Tangible	Intangible	Memorable
	Key Attribute	Natural	Standardized	Customized	Personal
	Method of Supply	Stored in bulk	Inventoried after production	Delivered on demand	Revealed over a duration
	Seller	Trader	Manufacturer	Provider	Stager
	Buyer	Market	User	Client	Guest
	Factors of Demand	Characteristics	Features	Benefits	Sensations

Table 15 :

 15 The seven characteristics of memorable customer experiences (From

Table 17 :

 17 The foundations of customer experience (adapted from

Table 18 :

 18 Antecedents and outcomes of customer experience

	Construct / Element	Status / Relation	Reference
	Physical Environment / Servicescape Antecedent	Verhoef (2009)
			Chaney, Lunardo and Mencarelli
	Prior experience	Antecedent	(2018)
			Chaney, Lunardo and Mencarelli
	Usage	Antecedent	(2018)
			Chaney, Lunardo and Mencarelli
	Alternative experiences	Antecedents	(2018)
		Antecedent /
	Brand Engagement	Outcome	Lemon and Verhoef (2016)
		Antecedent /
	Trust	Outcome	Lemon and Verhoef (2016)
	Perceived Value	Outcome	Mathwick Malhotra and Rigdon, 2002
	Attachment	Outcome	Brakus et al. (2009)
	Brand involvement	Outcome	Brakus et al. (2009)
	Loyalty	Outcome	Lemon and Verhoef (2016)
	Brand Personality	Outcome	Ramaseshan and Stein (2014)
	Commitment	Outcome	Lemon and Verhoef (2016)
	Satisfaction	Outcome	Lemon and Verhoef (2016)
	Brand attachment	Outcome	Brakus et al. (2009)

Table 19 :

 19 The four Premises of customer experience: an integrative framework (adapted from

  The following table -numbered 8 and based on Kuehnl, Jozic and Homburg (2019)provides an overview of existing research fields related to our research and this work's contributions.

	Research Field	Customer Experience Customer Experience	Sport Experience	Sport Management
			Management
		Holbrook and	Brakus et al., 2009;	Klaus and Maklan	Wakefield and Sloan,
		Hirschman, 1982;	Grewal et al.,	(2011	1995; Miller and
		Holt, 1995; Schmitt,	2009;Verhoef et al.,		Johnson, 2008; Klaus
	Key Studies	1999; Pine and Gilmore, 1999; Carù	2009; Lemke et al., 2011; Lemon and		and Maklan, 2011; Yoshida, 2017; Paek
		and Cova, 2003;	Verhoef, 2016;		et al., 2021
		Lemon and Verhoef,	Homburg et al., 2017
		2016
		Understanding the	Managing customer	Understanding the	Factors enhancing
		drivers and	experience for firms	drivers and outcomes	the sports customer
	Focus of studies	behavioral outcomes		of the sports	experience
		of customer		experience
		experience
	Gaps in research
		Customer	Emotions, Social	Motivations,	Stadium features, fan
		Satisfaction,	touchpoints, context	fanaticism, pride,	loyalty, social
		Customer Loyalty,		nostalgia	factors,
		Service Quality,			communication
	Other constructs	Customer			factors
	considered	engagement, Value,
		Equity,
		Atmospherics,
		Environment,
		Emotions

 No actual definition of what activity falls under the category of sport or not

 There is still a need for a better understanding of "playful activities"  Does the sole perception and categorization of an activity as a sport influence consumer behavioral intention?

  paradigm which describes

	Chapter 4
	Section 1: Perceived Sportivity scale development -Methodology and Qualitative Exploratory Phase
	also rely on the work of
	156

Table 22 :

 22 The highlighted possible dimensions after the sociological and historical literature review of sportHaving highlighted all these concepts in the literature review, we also looked at the different measurement tools that exist in marketing and sociology to measure the different changes in Chapter 4 Section 1: Perceived Sportivity scale development -Methodology and Qualitative Exploratory Phase 167 consumer behavior in sport. Unfortunately, no research investigating differences in consumer perceptions was found during this research. However, several scales dealing with consumer behavior and motivations for sports consumption have been put forward. These different studies, presented below, are of interest in terms of investigating differences in consumer perceptions based on perceived levels of sportivity.

	Scale	Authors	Measurement objectives
	Motivation Scale for Sport	Trail and James (2001)	Motivations explaining sport
	Consumption		consumer behaviors
	Motivation Scale for Sport Online	Seo and Green (2008)	Online motivations for sports
	Consumption		consumption
	Sport Motivation Scale	Mallett et al. (2007)	Motivation for practicing sport
	Sport Spectator Involvement Scale Kim (2003)	The degree of involvment (both
			psychological and behavioral) in
			sport
	Sport Fan Motivation Scale	Wann (1995)	Factors allowing to measure the
			degree of "fan" identification of
			consumers
	Perceived Belonging in Sport	Allen (2003)	Factors highlighting the sense of
	Scale		belonging in sports, with social
			connections associated

Table 25 :

 25 Summary of sports vocabulary occurrences for part 2 of the interview guide

	Chapter 4

Table 26 :

 26 Respondents' perception of sport -Occurrences

  The results are available in the table below. These data are retrieved from the report "Tableaux statistiques relatifs au recensement des licences sportives de 2018" of the Institut National de la Jeunesse et de l'Education Populaire (INJEP), a French national service.

	Name of the federation	Remark	Number of licensees (2018)
	Football FF		2 108 811
	Tennis FF		985 551
	Equestrian FF		628 262
	Handball FF	(Data from 2017)	549 295
	Judo-jujitsu and associated disciplines FF		546 954
	Basketball FF		525 040
	Golf FF		412 726
	Rugby FF		334 853
	Gymnastics FF		317 270
	Athletics FF		314 692

Table 27 :

 27 The 10 most practiced sports in France -Number of licensees (source: INJEP

Table 28 :

 28 Structure of the scale after the first EFA

	Factor	Factor Weight

Items Factor Physicality Commerciality Well-being Equipment

	This activity requires a certain physical condition	0.826
	This activity requires a lot of energy	0.820
	This activity requires a good physical preparation	0.802
	This activity requires endurance	0.789
	This activity demands a good physical shape	0.781
	In this activity, we need some physical capabilities	0.768
	Practicing this activity requires a lot of movement	0.766
	This activity implies a lot of movement	0.746
	You have to be athletic to do this activity	0.737
	This activity is physically exhausting	0.736
	This activity implies a lot of action	0.716
	You sweat a lot doing this activity	0.707
	Practicing this activity allows you to exercise while	0.688
	moving
	After doing this activity, you should be very tired	0.673
	This activity has marketing interests	0.786
	This activity is generally very sponsored	0.785
	When you are very good at this activity, you can earn a lot	0.737
	of money
	This activity generates a lot of related merchandise	0.712
	There is a lot of communication around this activity	0.712
	Doing this activity feels good	0.789
	This activity makes you feel good in your head	0.743
	This activity allows you to relax your mind	0.736
	Doing this activity is a pleasure	0.701
	This activity requires a specific Equipment	0.836
	In this activity, there is a dedicated Equipment	0.824
	This activity cannot be practiced without adequate	0.735
	Equipment

Table 29 :

 29 Structure of the scale after the second iteration of the EFA

	Chapter 4

Table 30 :

 30 Reliability of the scale's dimensions -EFA

	Dimension	Physicality	Commerciality	Equipment	Well-being
	α	.950	.861	.844	.857

Table 31 :

 31 Steps to follow for a successful CFA (from Bagozzii nd

Table 32 :

 32 17-item Construct-Item factor score table -CFA

	Factor Score	S.E.	C.R.	P

Table 33 :

 33 Inter-dimension covariance and correlation -CFAIndeed, all dimensions of Perceived Sportivity are significantly correlated (p<.01).

	Chapter 4

Table 34 :

 34 Model fit indicators -CFA

Table 35 :

 35 Standardized residual covariance matrix -CFA

	Chapter 4

Table 37 :

 37 Second-order -Dimensions factor scores -CFA

				Estimate	S.E.	C.R.	P	Label
	Phys5	<---	Physicality	0,854	0,038	24,573	***	par_1
	Phys4	<---	Physicality	0,847	0,041	24,149	***	par_2
	Phys3	<---	Physicality	0,886	0,039	26,457	***	par_3
	Phys2	<---	Physicality	0,833	0,04	23,383	***	par_4
	Phys1	<---	Physicality	0,883
	Equip1	<---	Equipment	0,814
	Equip2	<---	Equipment	0,854	0,06	17,339	***	par_5
	Equip3	<---	Equipment	0,766	0,067	16,325	***	par_6

Table 38 :

 38 Model fit assessment -2

	Index	TLI / NNFI CFI	SRMR	RMSEA
	Critical value	>.95	>.95	<.08	<.06
	Perceived Sportivity as first-order	.684	.774	.17	.248
	Perceived Sportivity as second-order .993	.995	.0151	.036

nd CFA

As we can see in this table, modeling Perceived Sportivity as a first-order construct containing all the items leads to a non-satisfying model. Moreover, the model with the second-order

Table 40 :

 40 Convergent Validity -CFA for test-retest reliability

		α	Factor score	S.E.	C.R.	P
	Physicality	.915
	Phys1 <--Physicality		.872
	Phys2 <--Physicality		.810	0,061	71,247	***
	Phys3 <--Physicality		.887	0,057	79,816	***
	Phys4 <--Physicality		.745	0,078	63,315	***
	Phys5 <--Physicality		.856	0,053	90,185	***
	Equipment	.818
	Equip1 <--Equipment		.912
	Equip2 <--Equipment		.787	0,123	40,327	***
	Equip3 <--Equipment		.661	0,13	31,308	***
	Model fit indicators	CFI	TLI	RMSEA	SRMR
		.991	.986	.049	.0475

Table 43 :

 43 Discriminant validity -item-correlation matrix

Table 44 :

 44 Nomological validity -Test-retest reliability -EFA

	The EFA showed good results, with Physicality explaining 58,6% of the variance and
	Equipment explaining 25,4% of the variance.

Table 45 :

 45 Nomological validity -Test-retest reliability -CFA

Table 46 :

 46 Nomological validity -Test-retest reliability -Convergent validitySimilarly, both dimensions proved to be reliable and valid in terms of convergent validity, with both Physicality (0.752) and Equipment (0.781) having an AVE greater than .50.

	Dimension	Physicality	Equipment
	Physicality	0,867
	Equipment	0,333	0,884

Table 47 :

 47 Nomological validity -Test-retest reliability -Discriminant Validity -Fornell and Larcker

HTMT Matrix -First-order level Physicality Equipment Intention to engage Emotion Escapism Involvment

			Fornell and Larcker -First-order level
		Physicality Equipment Intention to engage Involvment Emotions Escapism
	α (>.7)	0,945	0,924	0,860	0,904	0,899	0,894
	AVE (>.5)	0,752	0,781	0,705	0,754	0,695	0,761
	Physicality	0,867
	Equipment	0,333	0,884
	Intention to engage	0,093	0,069	0,840
	Involvment	0,130	0,066	0,883	0,868
	Emotions	0,317	0,222	0,565	0,614	0,834
	Escapism	0,178	0,147	0,604	0,689	0,618	0,873
	Physicality	--
	Equipment	0,358	--
	Intention to engage	0,106	0,074	--
	Emotion	0,339	0,245	0,623	--
	Escapism	0,193	0,162	0,69	0,675	--
	Involvment	0,141	0,07	1	0,667	0,763	--

Table 48 :

 48 First-order external discriminant validity -Nomological network

and Confidence Intervals (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988)

		Fornell and Larcker (1981)
		Physicality	Equipment	Global Value	Well-Being
	α (>.7)	0,945	0,924	0,873	0,89
	AVE	0,752	0,781	0,553	0,674
	Physicality	0,867
	Equipment	0,333	0,884
	Global Value	0,277	0,156	0,744
	Well-Being	0,353	0,262	0,608	0,821
		HTMT Matrix (Henseler et al., 2015)
		Physicality	Equipment	Global Value	Well-Being
	Physicality	-
	Equipment	0,358	-
	Global Value	0,306	0,176	-
	Well-Being	0,389	0,330	0,69	-
	Correlations Perceived Sportivity	Global Value	Well-Being
	Perceived Sportivity	-		[0,355 ; 0,519]	[0,476 ; 0,618]
	Global Value	0,441	-	[0,579 ; 0,699]
	Well-Being	0,551	0,643	-

Table 49 :

 49 External discriminant validity -Nomological validity tests -Second-order level

  table between the items of global value and the first-order constructs of Equipment and Physicality. The following table presents this correlation table.

				Global	Global	Global	Global	Global	Global
		Physicality Equipment	Value 1	Value 2	Value 3	Value 4	Value 5	Value 6
	Physicality	--
	Equipment	0,333	--
	Global Value 1 0,223	0,156	--
	Global Value 2 0,288	0,175	0,741	--
	Global Value 3 0,290	0,165	0,761	0,821	--
	Global Value 4 0,246	0,089	0,438	0,441	0,495	--
	Global Value 5 0,112	0,138	0,357	0,320	0,351	0,415	--
	Global Value 6 0,119	0,001	0,631	0,665	0,633	0,349	0,379	--

Table 50 :

 50 Item-Factor correlation matrix -External Discriminant Validity

	With that correlation matrix, we can calculate both our MTHT ratios for Perceived Sportivity
	(0,333) and the MTHT ratio for Global Value (0,520) and our HTHT ratio (0.167), the mean of
	the correlation between the global value item and the two factors of Perceived Sportivity.
	Therefore, our HTMT ratio for Perceived Sportivity (x) and Global Value (y) is:
	𝐻𝑇𝑀𝑇𝑥𝑦 = 𝐻𝑇𝐻𝑇𝑥𝑦 / √𝑀𝑇𝐻𝑇𝑥 × 𝑀𝑇𝐻𝑇𝑦
	𝐻𝑇𝑀𝑇𝑥𝑦 = 0,167 / √0,333 × 0,520 = 0,401

Table 51 :

 51 Second-order External Discriminant validity testTherefore, we can provide our final definition of Perceived Sportivity, which, in an experiential, context refers to a two-dimension construct that relates to consumers' perception of leisure activities. Perceived Sportivity contains two dimensions: Physicality and Equipment.Physicality refers to the observable physical condition needed for consumers to categorize an activity as sporty, while Equipment refers to the tools needed in the practice of the activity to be categorized as a sport by spectators. In that context, perceived sportivity refers to the identification of the different elements that influence consumers' categorization of an activity as being sporty.

	The scale being fully developed and validated, we can now turn to its use in a field study. The
	next two chapters will focus on the field study we developed to test our scale in a nomological
	network. Chapter 5 will introduce in detail the context of our study: League of Legends esport,
	present a field study conducted in that context, and then present an experiment conducted on
	Perceived Sportivity.

  This brand is committed to meeting the standards that people expect of retailers This brand is the kind of place where I can get my money's worth. This brand carries the latest trends in products and services that meet my needs. This brand genuinely listens to the demands that people put on it. This brand sets an example for how other retailers should behave

			Chapter 5
			Section 3: Field Study
	Concept	Dimension	Items
		Physicality
	Perceived
	Sportivity
			I feel that my personality and the personality of this brand are very
			similar
	identification		I have a lot in common with other people using this brand
			I feel that my values and the values of this brand are very similar
			This brand sets an example for how other retailers should conduct their
			activities.
			This brand carries products that satisfy my needs.
	Perceived
	Legitimacy
		Conscious Attention	Anything related to this brand grabs my attention. I like to learn more about this brand I pay a lot of attention to anything about this brand
			I spend a lot of my discretionary time into this brand
	Consumer	Enthused	I am heavily into this brand
	brand	Participation	I am passionate about this brand
	engagement		My days would not be the same without this brand
			I love talking about this brand with my friends.
		Social	I enjoy talking about this brand more when I am with others.
		Connection	Talking about this brand is more fun when other people around me do it
			too
			The quality of the activity was excellent.
	Perceived		I found the activity of great value.
	Value		With regard to the efforts and sacrifices I've made to participate, it was
			worth participating.
	Purchase		I would like to buy products related to this activity
	intention		I intend to purchase products related to this activity
			I tend to want others to admire me.
	Narcissism		I tend to want others to pay attention to me. I tend to expect special favors from others.
			I tend to seek prestige or status
			237

Table 52 :

 52 Overview of the items used in the field studyFirst, to test our dataset for Common Method Variance (CMV), we followed recommendations from[START_REF] Tehseen | Testing and Controlling for Common Method Variance : A Review of Available Methods[END_REF] and conducted Harman's single factor test, the most common procedure used to test for common method bias. With this method, the presence of CMV is indicated by the emergence of either a single factor or a general factor accounting for the majority of covariance among measures. In our context, the single indicator only explained 21.5% of our variance, therefore indicating no common method bias within our dataset.The reliability of each scale was assessed with Cronbach Alphas and Composite Reliability.Moreover, the multidimensional scales were also subject to a principal component analysis (PCA) To ensure their structure. Results of the PCA for the engagement scale revealed issues within the scale, later confirmed by discriminant validity issues. The scale's dimensions appear to be too highly correlated to be used as different dimensions. Moreover, the scale appears to show better validity and reliability when used as a unidimensional 10-item scale containing all the previous items. The PCA revealed a one-factor 10-item structure, accounting for 54.411 % of the total variance. Therefore, we decided to measure the scale as a whole unidimensional scale containing the former three dimensions. The following table provides an overview of the principal component analysis of the generalized measure of engagement.

	Chapter 5
	Section 3: Field Study

Table 53 :

 53 PCA for the generalized multidimensional scale of consumer engagementOnce the issues within the consumer engagement scale were solved, we could turn to the analysis of the reliability of our other scales. The following table provides an overview of the Cronbach alphas and composite reliability indicators of all our scales.

	Chapter 5
	Section 3: Field Study

Table 54 :

 54 Field Study -Scales' reliability assessmentResults showed no issue regarding the reliability of the scales. To assess the convergent and discriminant validity of the measures, we followed the same procedure as during the scale development and used both[START_REF] Fornell | Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error[END_REF] and[START_REF] Henseler | A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling[END_REF]. The convergent validity was assessed using the Average Variance Extracted (AVE), while the discriminant validity of the model was assessed with the Fornell and Larcker procedure and the HTMT matrix. The following table provides an overview of the Fornell and Larcker procedure for assessing convergent and discriminant validity in our model.

				FORNELL AND LARCKER
		Phy	Equi	BP Exci	Iden	Leg	CBE	Value	Purcha	Narc
	AVE	.746	.737	.596	.678	.485	.544	.670	.859	.577
	Physicality	0,864
	Equipment	0,515	0,858
	Brand
	Personality	0,171	0,135	0,772
	Excitement
	Brand identification	0,178	0,111	0,467	0,823
	Brand Legitimacy	0,101	0,093	0,552	0,624	0,696
	Consumer
	Brand	0,080	0,122	0,423	0,669	0,531	0,738
	Engagement
	Perceived Value	0,038	0,085	0,263	0,334	0,256	0,310	0,819
	Purchase Intention	0,133	0,028	0,132	0,353	0,250	0,324	0,311	0,927
	Narcissism	0,077	0,075	0,061	0,223	0,100	0,194	-0,059	0,144	0,760

Table 55 :

 55 Field Study -Fornell and Larcker Procedure

	Chapter 5
	Section 3: Field Study

Table 56 :

 56 HTMT Matrix for discriminant validity assessment in the field study

Table 57 :

 57 Field Study -Test-retest reliability -Model FitAs we can see with the four indicators, our model fit is excellent, and respects the most restrictive cut-off values highlighted in the literature. Consequently, we can turn to the results

	Chapter 5
	Section 3: Field Study

  ). First, a model testing the direct effects in our model was designed To test hypotheses1, 2, 3, 4a, 5, 6, 7 and 8a. The following table provides an overview of the direct effects in our model.

		Model Fit		CFI	TLI	RMSEA SRMR
				.990	.980	0.040	0.031
		Relation		Standardized Estimate	S.E.	C.R.	P
	Brand Personality Excitement	<---	Perceived Sportivity	0,212	0,1	3,324	***
	Brand Identification	<---	Brand Personality Excitement	0,469	0,044	10,566	***
	Brand Legitimacy	<---	Brand Indentification	0,468	0,042	11,226	***
	Brand Legitimacy	<---	Brand Personality Excitement	0,333	0,042	7,998	***
	Consumer Brand Engagement	<---	Brand Legitimacy	0,784	0,08	9,776	***
	Perceived Value	<---	Consumer Brand Engagement	0,508	0,072	7,065	***
	Purchase Intention	<---	Consumer Brand Engagement	0,197	0,052	3,801	***
	Purchase Intention	<---	Perceived Value	0,226	0,049	4,631	***
	Equipment Dimension	<---	Perceived Sportivity	0,637
	Physicality Dimension	<---	Perceived Sportivity	0,809	0,432	2,94	0,003

Table 58 :

 58 Field Study -Testing the direct effects in the modelAll the direct effects in our model being statistically significant, we can validate our first eight hypotheses. The following table provides an overview of the validated hypotheses.

  Finally, we also conducted a CFA to verify the structure of the perceived sportivity scale. Results are available in the table below.

	Model Fit		CFI	TLI	RMSEA SRMR
			.996	.984	0.040	0.031
			Standardized Estimate	S.E.	C.R.	P
	Phys5	<---Physicality	0,908
	Phys4	<---Physicality	0,815	0,07	13,858	***
	Phys3	<---Physicality	0,894	0,064	17,037	***
	Phys2	<---Physicality	0,906	0,061	17,611	***
	Phys1	<---Physicality	0,843	0,069	14,858	***
	Equip1	<---Equipment	0,926
	Equip2	<---Equipment	0,708	0,076	9,284	***
	Equip3	<---Equipment	0,774	0,082	10,221	***
			Covariance	Correlation	S.E.	C.R.	P
	Equipment <--> Physicality	1,361	0,509	0,269	5,057	***
			Factor Score
	Physicality <---Perceived S	0,76
	Equipment <---Perceived S	0,67

Table 61 :

 61 Test-Retest reliability -CFA -Pretest Experiment

  [START_REF] Vigarello | A Generalized Multidimensional Scale for Measuring Customer Engagement[END_REF] did not hold in our field study, we decided to use another scale and adapted the 13-item multidimensional consumer brand engagement scale from[START_REF] Fernandes | Consumer brand engagement, satisfaction and brand loyalty : A comparative study between functional and emotional brand relationships[END_REF]. The following table provides an overview of the scale used in the experiment. Engagement

	Cognitive dimension	I would think a lot about the brand KRON the brand KRON would stimulate my interest When I would use the brand KRON I would forget everything
		Time would fly when I interact with the brand KRON
	Affective dimension	The brand KRON would inspire me I would be proud of using the brand KRON I would use the brand KRON with total dedication
		Using the brand KRON would make me happy
		I would feel enthusiastic about the brand KRON
	Behavioral Dimension	I would spend a lot of time using the brand KRON The brand KRON would be the one I often go for in Kendama brands Within Kendama brands I would always use the brand KRON
		I would feel like using the brand KRON
		The quality of the activity is excellent.
	Perceived Value	I find the activity of great value With regard to the efforts and sacrifices needed to participate in this activity, it
		is worth participating
	Purchase intention	I would like to buy products related to this activity I intend to purchase products related to this activity
		I tend to want others to admire me.
	Narcissism	I tend to want others to pay attention to me. I tend to expect special favors from others.
		I tend to seek prestige or status

Table 62 :

 62 Overview of the scales used in the experiment

	Chapter 5
	Section 4: The Kendama experiment

Table 63 :

 63 Validity assessment -Experiment

Table 64 :

 64 Results overview -Experiment

Table 66 :

 66 Main limitations and future opportunities -Overview

	Chapter 6

Table 1 :

 1 The 15 most-watched television broadcasts of all time .............................................

Table 2 :

 2 Cost / Revenue comparison between Montreal, Moscow, and Los Angeles Olympic

Table 16 :

 16 The four phases of consumption's interactions

  ..... Pratiquer cette activité permet de se dépenser en bougeant This activity implies a lot of movement Cette activité implique beaucoup de mouvement This activity implies a lot of action Cette activité implique beaucoup d'action In this activity, there is action Dans cette activité li y a de l'action For this activity, certain movements need to be mastered Il faut maitriser certains mouvements pour faire cette activité This activity requires a good coordination Cette activité demande une bonne coordination This activity requires a good synchronization Cette activité demande une bonne synchronisation This activity requires to be technical Dans cette activité il faut être assez technique This activity asks for more than simple gestures Cette activité demande plus que de faire de simples gestes This activity requires a certain precision Cette activité exige une certaine précision This activity requires dexterity Cette activité demande de la dextérité For this activity, you need to know the good gestures Pour cette activité, Il faut savoir faire les bons gestes This activity requires skill Cette activité demande de l'adresse This activity requires a good balance Pour faire cette activité, il faut avoir un bon équilibre To succeed in this activity, tactics are mandatory Pour réussir dans cette activité, il faut mettre en place des tactiques To be performant in this activity, strategy is needed. Pour être performant dans cette activité il faut être stratégique This activity requires a great focus Cette activité demande d'être très concentré This activity requires a good attention span Cette activité nécessite une certaine capacité d'attention A sharp mind is needed for this activity Il faut avoir l'esprit vif pour faire cette activité It takes discipline to do this activity Il faut de la rigueur pour pratiquer cette activité This activity requires you to use your brain Cette activité demande de faire marcher son cerveau This activity is a cerebral gymnastics C'est activité c'est une gymnastique cérébrale It is an activity where you need to think C'est une activité où l'on a besoin de réfléchir It is an intellectual activity C'est une activité intellectuelle To be good at this activity, you need to be intelligent Pour être bon à cette activité, il faut être intelligent This activity requires a good spirit Cette activité fait appel au mental This activity requires a lot of energy Cette activité demande beaucoup d'énergie This activity is mentally demanding Cette activité est mentalement éprouvante This activity requires personal investment Cette activité nécessite de l'investissement personnel This activity requires a certain amount of personal will Cette activité demande une certaine volonté personnelle It takes courage to do this activity Il faut faire preuve de courage pour pratiquer cette activité It takes motivation to do this activity Il faut de la motivation pour faire cette activité When doing this activity, self-sacrifice is sometimes required Quand on pratique cette activité, il faut parfois faire preuve d'abnégation Success in this activity is directly related to merit Dans cette activité, la réussite est directement liée au mérite There are many financial aspects to this activity Il y a beaucoup d'aspects financiers dans cette activité When you are very good at this activity, you can earn a lot of money Quand on est très bon dans cette activité, on peut gagner beaucoup d'argent This activity is generally very sponsored En général, cette activité est très sponsorisée This activity has marketing interests Cette activité a des intérêts marketing This activity generates a lot of related merchandise Cette activité génère beaucoup de produits dérivés There is too much focus on this activity Il y a trop de focalisation autour de cette activité This activity could be shown on TV Cette activité pourrait passer à la télé There is a lot of communication around this activity Il y a beaucoup de communication qui est faite autour de cette activité This activity is organised by an institution Cette activité est organisée par une institution There is a federation that manages this activity Il y a une fédération qui gère cette activité To practice this activity you must know the rules Pour pratiquer cette activité il faut connaître les règles There are rules to respect when practicing this activity Il y a des règles à respecter lorsque l'on pratique cette activité This activity leaves very little to chance Cette activité ne laisse que très peu de place au hasard Practicing this activity requires training La pratique de cette activité demande de l'entrainement To do this activity you need to train Pour faire cette activité il faut s'entrainer To reach a good level in this activity, you need to train several hours a week Pour arriver à un bon niveau dans cette activité, il faut s'entrainer plusieurs heures par semaine This activity requires a good mental preparation Il faut une bonne préparation mentale pour faire cette activité This activity requires a good physical preparation Cette activité nécessite une bonne préparation physique In this activity there is always a winner and a loser Dans cette activité il y a toujours un gagnant et un perdant This activity is mostly about winning Cette activité, on la fait surtout pour gagner When you do this activity, the goal is to win Quand on fait cette activité, le but c'est surtout de gagner The aim of this activity is to make a good result Le but de cette activité c'est de faire un bon résultat The aim of this activity is to beat your opponent Le but de cette activité c'est de battre son adversaire This activity is mainly practiced to achieve the best possible performance Cette activité, on la pratique surtout pour atteindre la meilleure performance possible The aim of this activity is above all to achieve a certain performance Le but de cette activité, c'est surtout d'atteindre une certaine performance This activity allows you to surpass yourself Cette activité permet de se dépasser When you do this activity, you can try to beat a record Quand on fait cette activité, on peut chercher à battre un record There are champions in this activity Dans cette activité, il y a des champions This activity can be practiced in competition Cette activité peut être pratiquée en compétition You need to have a competitive spirit to do this activity Il faut avoir l'esprit de compétition pour faire cette activité This activity is quite competitive Cette activité est assez compétitive This activity can be organized as a tournament Cette activité peut être organisée sous la forme d'un tournoi There is no competition in this activity Dans cette activité, il n'y a pas de compétition Those who do this activity compete against each other Ceux qui pratiquent cette activité s'opposent les uns aux autres When you do this activity there is some confrontation Quand on fait cette activité il y a une certaine confrontation For this activity, there is a championship Pour cette activité, il existe un championnat In this activity, the best wins Dans cette activité, c'est le meilleur qui gagne Doing this activity is a pleasure Pratiquer cette activité est un plaisir This activity allows you to relax your mind Cette activité permet de se détendre l'esprit Doing this activity feels good Pratiquer cette activité, ça fait du bien Doing this activity clears the head Pratiquer cette activité ça vide bien la tête This activity is just fun Cette activité, c'est juste du plaisir This activity allows you to relax Cette activité permet de se détendre This activity allows you to blossom Cette activité permet de s'épanouir This activity makes you feel good in your head Cette activité permet de se sentir bien dans sa tête This activity makes you feel good about your body Cette activité permet de se sentir bien dans son corps You get pleasure from doing this activity On retire du plaisir quand on fait cette activité This activity is a stress reliever Cette activité permet d'évacuer le stress This activity has a therapeutic aspect Cette activité a un aspect thérapeutique This activity makes you feel better about yourself Cette activité permet d'être mieux dans sa peau This activity demands a good physical shape Cette activité demande d'être en forme physique You must not be tired to do this activity Il faut ne pas être fatigué pour faire cette activité After doing this activity, you should be very tired Après avoir pratiqué cette activité, on doit être bien fatigué You sweat a lot doing this activity On transpire beaucoup en faisant cette activité You have to be athletic to do this activity Il faut être athlétique pour faire cette activité This activity allows you to let off steam Cette activité permet de se défouler This activity is good for your health Cette activité est bonne pour la santé This activity requires endurance Cette activité demande de l'endurance This activity can be painful to do On peut souffrir à pratiquer cette activité This activity requires a specific equipment Cette activité demande un équipement particulier In this activity there is a dedicated equipment Dans cette activité, il y a un équipement dédié This activity cannot be practised without adequate equipment Sans équipement adéquat, cette activité ne peut pas être pratiquée For the practice of this activity a material preparation is necessary Pour la pratique de cette activité il y a une préparation matérielle qui est nécessaire To be good at this activity, we use science Pour être bon dans cette activité, on utilise la science To improve in this activity, there are specific techniques Pour s'améliorer dans cette activité, il existe des techniques précises There are technologies to get better at this activity Il existe des technologies pour s'améliorer dans cette activité There may be doping around this activity Il peut y avoir du dopage autour de cette activité Certain substances may be used to make you better at this activity On peut avoir recours à certaines substances pour être meilleur dans cette activité This activity is associated with the notion of respect for others Cette activité, je l'associe à la notion de respect des autres This activity brings people together Cette activité rapproche les gens This activity brings people together in a community Cette activité réunit des personnes autour d'une communauté This activity brings many people together around the same passion Cette activité rassemble beaucoup de monde autour d'une même passion This activity brings a lot of people together Cette activité rassemble beaucoup de monde This activity is very popular Cette activité est très populaire This activity is accessible to everyone Cette activité est accessible à tout le monde This activity is unifying Cette activité est fédératrice This activity is more fun in a team Cette activité est plus sympa en équipe This activity is mainly a game Cette activité c'est surtout un jeu This activity is mainly a leisure activity Cette activité c'est surtout un loisir This activity is mostly for fun Cette activité, on la pratique surtout pour s'amuser It is a recreational activity C'est une activité récréative This activity is mainly a ludic activity C'est une activité surtout ludique Those who participate in this activity are like gladiators in an arena Ceux qui participent à cette activité sont comme des gladiateurs dans une arène This activity is practiced in a dedicated place Cette activité se pratique dans un lieu dédié To do this activity you have to be in a particular place Pour faire cette activité il faut être dans un endroit particulier This activity can be organized as an event Cette activité peut s'organiser sous la forme d'un événement This activity can be organized as a match Cette activité on peut l'organiser sous forme de match Attending this activity is a real spectacle Assister à cette activité, c'est un vrai spectacle There is a good atmosphere around this activity Il y a une bonne ambiance autour de cette activité This activity is a real entertainment Cette activité est un vrai divertissement

	APPENDIX 2
	English Version	French Version
	PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENT
	EFA / CFA
	This activity requires physical strength	Pour faire cette activité Il faut une certaine force physique
	In this activity, we need some physical	Pour cette activité, il y a besoin de certaines
	capabilities	capacités physiques
	This activity requires muscles	Pour faire cette activité il faut des muscles
	This activity is physically exhausting	Cette activité est physiquement éprouvante
	This activity requires a certain physical	Cette activité demande une certaine condition
	condition	physique
	Practising this activity requires a lot of	Pratiquer cette activité demande de beaucoup
	movement	bouger
	Practising this activity allows you to exercise
	while moving

  Cette marque écoute sincèrement les demandes que lui font les gens This brand sets an example for how other retailers should behave Cette marque montre l'exemple sur la façon dont les autres marques devraient se comporter

	Brand Personality
	This brand is down-to-earth	Cette marque est réaliste
	This brand is honest	Cette marque est honnête
	This brand is wholesome	Cette marque est saine
	This brand is cheerful	Cette marque est gaie
	This brand is daring	Cette marque est audacieuse
	This brand is spirited	Cette marque est pleine d'entrain
	This brand is imaginative	Cette marque est pleine d'imagination
	This brand is up-to-date	Cette marque est moderne
	This brand is reliable	Cette marque est digne de confiance
	This brand is intelligent	Cette marque est intelligente
	This brand is successful	Cette marque a du succès
	This brand is upper-class	Cette marque est aristocratique
	This brand is charming	Cette marque est charmante
	This brand is outdoorsy	Cette marque est virile
	This brand is tough	Cette marque est solide
	Brand Identification
	I feel that my personality and the personality of	Je sens que ma personnalité et celle de cette
	this brand are very similar	marque sont très similaires
	I have a lot in common with other people using	J'ai beaucoup de choses en commun avec les
	this brand	gens qui utilisent cette marque
	I feel that my values and the values of this	Je sens que mes valeurs et les valeurs de cette
	brand are very similar	marque sont très similaires
	Consumer Brand Engagement
	Anything related to this brand grabs my
	attention.

Remerciements

This activity requires a certain physical condition This activity requires a lot of energy This activity requires a good physical preparation This activity requires endurance This activity demands a good physical shape Equipment This activity requires a specific equipment In this activity, there is a dedicated equipment This activity cannot be practiced without adequate equipment Brand Personality Excitement This brand is daring This brand is spirited This brand is imaginative This brand is up-to-date Brand Physicality This activity requires a certain physical condition This activity requires a lot of energy This activity requires a good physical preparation This activity requires endurance This activity demands a good physical shape Equipment This activity requires a specific Equipment In this activity, there is a dedicated Equipment This activity cannot be practiced without adequate Equipment Brand Personality Excitement This brand is daring This brand is spirited This brand is imaginative This brand is up-to-date Brand identification I feel that my personality and the personality of this brand are very similar I have a lot in common with other people using this brand I feel that my values and the values of this brand are very similar Perceived Legitimacy This brand sets an example for how other retailers should conduct their activities. This brand carries products that satisfy my needs. This brand is committed to meeting the standards that people expect of retailers This brand is the kind of place that I can get my money's worth. This brand carries the latest trends in products and services that meet my needs. This brand genuinely listens to the demands that people put on it. This brand sets an example for how other retailers should behave Consumer Brand

Thus, as we can see in the table above, many dimensions, not mentioned in the literature, were highlighted by the respondents. As a reminder, the interview first focused on the perception of different activities. The sporty character will come into play later in the guide and even more so in the exploratory factorial analysis. Here, the analysis was done around the term "sport". Again, to avoid possible bias, the term To explore the mediating effect of brand identification on the relationship between the excitement dimension of brand personality and brand legitimacy, we followed recommendations from Hair et al., (2019) and Collier ( 2020) and first standardized our data.

Results showed a positive mediating effect of brand identification on the relationship between brand personality and brand legitimacy (β = 0.22; p < 0.05), but also a positive mediating effect of perceived value on the relationship between consumer brand engagement and purchase intention (β = 0.12; p < 0.05); therefore validating both H4b and H8b.

To test the moderating effect of narcissism on the relation between brand identification and perceived brand legitimacy, we here again followed recommendations from Hair et al. (2019).

They propose two solutions to test a moderating effect using SEM. First, when using a categorical variable, a multigroup analysis can be conducted with the two (or more) groups in the dataset. They define multigroup analyses as a "form of SEM analysis comparing the same model across multiple samples of respondents" (p.726).

When the moderator is a continuous variable, multigroup analyses can also be applied if the continuous variable shows bimodality in its distribution, that is, if the variable shows two clear peaks instead of one. To test the possibility of a multigroup analysis, we examined the repartition of our narcissism scores. The following figures represent this distribution.