Bou Rami

Khalil

Nathan Risch

Ghassan Sleilaty

Sami Richa

Maude Seneque

Patrick Lefebvre

Ariane Sultan

Antoine Avignon

Laurent Maïmoun

Eric Renard

Philippe Courtet

Sebastien Guillaume

Keywords: Anorexia Nervosa, Childhood Trauma, Inflammation, NLR, Emotional Abuse

Purpose: Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a serious mental illness that is frequently accompanied with a history of childhood maltreatment (CM) which may constitute a specific ecophenotype of the eating disorder necessitating special assessment and management. Chronic stress inflicted by CM in patients with AN may manifest through increased low grade inflammation reflected by an increase in ratios from white blood cells count such as neutrophils to lymphocytes ratio (NLR) platelets to lymphocytes ratio (PLR) and monocytes to lymphocytes ratio (MLR).

Methods: N=206 participants were evaluated in an eating disorders daycare unit in Montpellier, France between March 2013 and January 2020. CM was assessed using childhood trauma questionnaire (CTQ). AN clinical severity was assessed using eating disorder examination (EDE-Q). The MINI was used to assess other clinical characteristics.

Results: NLR has been found to be higher in patients with AN and a history of CM (p=0.029) as well as in patients with AN and a history of emotional abuse (p=0.021) when compared to patients with AN and without a history of CM. In the multivariate analysis, emotional abuse (β=0.17; p=0.027) contributed significantly to NLR's variability.

Conclusion:

NLR is a low grade inflammation marker that is influenced by multiple sociodemographic, clinical and biological factors in patients with AN. It is more directly affected by certain subtypes of CM, especially emotional abuse than by the presence or absence of a history of CM. Future studies may focus on mediators between CM and increased inflammation such as interoceptive awareness, emotional dysregulation, food addiction and stress-sensitization.

Level of evidence: Level III: Evidence obtained from well-designed cohort or case-control analytic studies

What Is Already Known On This Subject?

It is already known that NLR, as a low grade inflammation marker, is increased in some mental disorders. It is also known that psychological stress as well as AN are accompanied with an inflammatory state.

What this study adds?

This study demonstrates that patients with AN and CM have higher NLR. In addition, when controlling for possible confounding factors, patients with emotional abuse still manifest a higher inflammatory state as reflected by a higher NLR. This might be an association that contributes to the psychopathogenesis of AN in this population subgroup. Table 4: Three models (each including different category or subtype of CM) as independent variables of multivariate linear regression analysis of NLR as a dependent variable.

Introduction

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a serious mental illness estimated to affect 0.5%-1% of women during their lifetime and approximately one tenth as many men with a crude mortality rate of approximately 5.6% per decade of illness [START_REF] Smink | Epidemiology of eating disorders: incidence, prevalence and mortality rates[END_REF]. It is characterized by a restriction in energy intake, body-image disturbance, undue influence of body image on self-evaluation, and an intense fear of weight gain [START_REF] Attia | Anorexia nervosa: current status and future directions[END_REF]. Childhood maltreatment (CM) is the abuse (emotional, sexual or physical) and neglect (emotional and physical) that occurs to children under 18 years of age which results in actual or potential harm to the child's health, survival, development, or dignity [START_REF]Child Maltreatment[END_REF]. CM is known to be a non-specific risk factor for eating disorders in general and AN in particular [START_REF] Caslini | Disentangling the association between child abuse and eating disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Molendijk | Childhood maltreatment and eating disorder pathology: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis[END_REF]. Emotional dysregulation, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and food addiction have been considered as potential mediators between CM and all subtypes of eating disorders including AN [START_REF] Rijkers | Eating disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder[END_REF][START_REF] Racine | Emotion dysregulation and anorexia nervosa: an exploration of the role of childhood abuse[END_REF][START_REF] Rai | Exploring the Link Between Emotional Child Abuse and Anorexia Nervosa: A Psychopathological Correlation[END_REF][START_REF] Kong | Childhood trauma as a predictor of eating psychopathology and its mediating variables in patients with eating disorders[END_REF][START_REF] Khalil | The Impact of Retrospective Childhood Maltreatment on Eating Disorders as Mediated by Food Addiction: A Cross-Sectional Study[END_REF].

Patients with AN and a history of CM might constitute a different ecophenotype than patients with AN without CM, possibly due to chronic activation of the hypothalamopituitary adrenal (HPA) axis [START_REF] Monteleone | Deranged emotional and cortisol responses to a psychosocial stressor in anorexia nervosa women with childhood trauma exposure: Evidence for a "maltreated ecophenotype[END_REF][START_REF] Monteleone | Emotional traumatic experiences significantly contribute to identify a maltreated ecophenotype sub-group in eating disorders: Experimental evidence[END_REF]. As a matter of fact, emerging evidence has demonstrated that childhood trauma exposure has persistent detrimental effects on the HPA axis reactivity to a psychosocial stressor in adults with AN [START_REF] Monteleone | Deranged emotional and cortisol responses to a psychosocial stressor in anorexia nervosa women with childhood trauma exposure: Evidence for a "maltreated ecophenotype[END_REF]. Moreover, it seems that the ecophenotype of patients with AN and a history of CM has been more exposed to a specific type of CM such as emotional abuse [START_REF] Monteleone | Deranged emotional and cortisol responses to a psychosocial stressor in anorexia nervosa women with childhood trauma exposure: Evidence for a "maltreated ecophenotype[END_REF][START_REF] Monteleone | Emotional traumatic experiences significantly contribute to identify a maltreated ecophenotype sub-group in eating disorders: Experimental evidence[END_REF]. From another perspective, it is becoming more accepted that stress influences the HPA axis and autonomous nervous system and, ultimately, the immune system which may increase proinflammatory cytokine levels and lymphocytes activation mainly through norepinephrine secretion, oxidative stress and sleep disturbance [START_REF] Nance | Autonomic innervation and regulation of the immune system (1987-2007)[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | A review on inflammatory cytokine-induced alterations of the brain as potential neural biomarkers in post-traumatic stress disorder[END_REF][START_REF] Miller | Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Neuroprogression in Chronic PTSD[END_REF]. During the last decade, preclinical and clinical studies have started to emerge in which, aside from HPA axis disturbances and proinflammatory cytokine levels, the neutrophils to lymphocytes ratio (NLR) has been evaluated as a marker of the impact of chronic stress on the immune system [START_REF] Swan | Evaluation of the neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio as a measure of distress in rats[END_REF][START_REF] Hickman | Evaluation of the neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio as an indicator of chronic distress in the laboratory mouse[END_REF][START_REF] Penz | Stressful life events predict one-year change of leukocyte composition in peripheral blood[END_REF]. It appears that chronic stress may increase the NLR due to an increase in neutrophils and/or a reduction in lymphocytes in peripheral blood [START_REF] Swan | Evaluation of the neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio as a measure of distress in rats[END_REF][START_REF] Hickman | Evaluation of the neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio as an indicator of chronic distress in the laboratory mouse[END_REF][START_REF] Penz | Stressful life events predict one-year change of leukocyte composition in peripheral blood[END_REF]. In addition to its possible implication in the inflammatory reaction to chronic stress related to psychological trauma, NLR, platelets to lymphocytes ratio (PLR) and monocytes to lymphocytes ratio (MLR) have all been evaluated as potential markers of low grade inflammation in several psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, suicidal behavior, opioid use disorder, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, etc. [START_REF] Özdin | A comparison of the neutrophil-lymphocyte, platelet-lymphocyte and monocytelymphocyte ratios in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder patients -a retrospective file review[END_REF][START_REF] Avcil | Evaluation of the neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio, platelet/lymphocyte ratio, and mean platelet volume as inflammatory markers in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder[END_REF][START_REF] Orum | Complete blood count alterations due to the opioid use: what about the lymphocyte-related ratios, especially in monocyte to lymphocyte ratio and platelet to lymphocyte ratio?[END_REF][START_REF] Inanli | Neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio, monocyte/lymphocyte ratio, and mean platelet volume as systemic inflammatory markers in different states of bipolar disorder[END_REF][START_REF] Velasco | Neutrophil-tolymphocyte ratio: A potential new peripheral biomarker of suicidal behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Yu | Elevated Platelet Parameter in First-Episode Schizophrenia Patients: A Cross-Sectional Study[END_REF][START_REF] Fusar-Poli | Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte, Platelet-to-Lymphocyte and Monocyte-to-Lymphocyte Ratio in Bipolar Disorder[END_REF][START_REF] Dionisie | Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio, a Novel Inflammatory Marker, as a Predictor of Bipolar Type in Depressed Patients: A Quest for Biological Markers[END_REF][START_REF] Zhu | Neutrophil/lymphocyte, platelet/lymphocyte and monocyte/lymphocyte ratios in schizophrenia[END_REF].

Patients with AN manifest increased secretion and concentration of the inflammatory cytokines which leads to disturbances in neutrophils and lymphocytes proliferation and activity [START_REF] Gibson | Anorexia Nervosa and the Immune System-A Narrative Review[END_REF]. However, it is still unclear whether the witnessed disturbances in peripheral white blood cells is related to a primary immunological predisposition in patients with AN or to a non specific end result due to malnutrition [START_REF] Gibson | Anorexia Nervosa and the Immune System-A Narrative Review[END_REF]. To date, the only study evaluating NLR in patients with AN has demonstrated that it is inversely correlated to bone mineral density due to inflammation's effect on bone mineralization in adolescent girls [START_REF] Morawiecka-Pietrzak | The Relationship of Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio and Platelet-to-Lymphocyte Ratio with Bone Mineral Density in adolescent girls suffering from anorexia nervosa[END_REF]. To our knowledge, there is no study that assesses the impact of CM on the immune system of patients with AN as reflected by the NLR. It is hypothesized that the chronic stress inflicted by CM in patients with AN may determine a specific ecophenotype characterized by heightened inflammation markers that might be reflected by disturbances in NLR. The primary objective of this study is to evaluate whether NLR is higher in patients with AN and a history of CM compared to patients with AN without a history of CM. The secondary objective of this study is to explore whether the effect of CM on the NLR in patients with AN manifests specifically in some types of maltreatment.

Materials And Methods

Participants:

All outpatients with AN according to the DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) criteria who were assessed in an eating disorders unit in Montpellier, France, between March 2013 and January 2020 were eligible for the study [START_REF]APA. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders[END_REF]. Patients with AN are referred to this daycare unit for multidisciplinary assessment, diagnostic confirmation, and management. Signed informed consent was obtained from all the participants (or from the parents of underage participants). Inclusion criteria were as follows: age superior to 15 years (15-70 years), speaking French, and having a diagnosis of AN according to DSM-5 criteria. Exclusion criteria were as follows: 1) refusing to consent, 2) having a mental disability such as intellectual deficiency or a psychotic disorder, 3) having a severe physical comorbidity, 4) suffering from an autoimmune disease or a chronic infectious disease that may alter the white blood count. The data utilized here are drawn from two large studies approved by the Ethics Committee of CPP Sud-Mediterranée IV for the first one (reference number 11-04-SC) and CPP Sud-Est 6 (reference number: AU13-13) for the second study. The two cohorts were recruited in the same way between 2013 and 2017 for the first one and 2017-2020 for the second one. The study was conducted in compliance with the World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki.

Measures:

The multidisciplinary clinical assessment was carried out during a full day at the outpatient unit by experienced mental health professionals. The AN diagnosis was established on the basis of a nonstructured clinical assessment by psychiatrists, psychologists, and nutritionists, as well as a structured evaluation with the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI, Version 5.0.0). Body weight and height were collected in a standardized way during the clinical examination. Fasting peripheral blood samples were collected from the cephalic vein between 8:00 and 9:00 a.m. in EDTA tubes. Complete blood counts were performed using a Sysmex XN-10/XN-20 Hematology Analyzer (Norderstedt, Germany). NLR was calculated by subdividing the total neutrophils count by the total lymphocytes count. In addition, participants completed the following questionnaires:

 The eating disorder examination (EDE-Q) is a 28-item screening tool used to evaluate ED symptoms. It measures disordered eating over a 28-day period and is scored across four subscales that explore the four core clinical dimensions of EDs: Restraint, eating concern, body shape concern, weight concern [START_REF] Fairburn | Assessment of eating disorders: interview or self-report questionnaire?[END_REF]. The standardized Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.825 for the items of the EDE-Q in this sample (0.861 for restraint, 0.766 for eating concern, 0.902 for body shape concern and 0.834 for weight concern).  The Child Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) is a 28-item self-report instrument for the retrospective assessment of trauma exposure during childhood. The CTQ consists of five subscales representing different types of trauma (physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, physical neglect, and emotional neglect) with multiple items according to a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never true) to 5 (very often true). A higher score on a subscale indicates more severe childhood trauma [START_REF] Bernstein | Childhood trauma questionnaire: A retrospective self-report[END_REF]. In line with the recommendations from Bernstein and Fink, thresholds or cut-off scores were set for each type of CM at four levels of maltreatment: none, low, moderate and severe. These were further dichotomized as moderate/severe vs. none/low, in order to minimize false identification [START_REF] Choi | The effects of childhood abuse on symptom complexity in a clinical sample: mediating effects of emotion regulation difficulties[END_REF][START_REF] Min | Impact of childhood abuse and neglect on substance abuse and psychological distress in adulthood[END_REF]. Participants were classified in the group with moderate/severe CM [CM(+)] in case they presented at least one moderate/severe trauma subtype or else they have been classified in the group CM().

In this sample, the standardized Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.838 for emotional abuse, 0.893 for physical abuse, 0.946 for sexual, 0.898 for emotional neglect and 0.501 for physical neglect. The low Cronbach's alpha coefficient for physical neglect's subscore reduces the reliability of analysis including this CM subtype but we will show them for better comprehensiveness.

Statistical Analyses

Quantitative variables significantly departing from normality assumptions (as assessed by Shapiro-Wilk test and quartile-quartile (Q-Q plots) were expressed as medians with interquartile ranges (IQR: Q1-Q3). All the variables, except for body mass index (BMI) were not normally distributed.

In a first analysis, the NLR has been compared between groups created by categorical variables. Moreover, it has been correlated with continuous variables using Spearman's rho correlation. The bivariate comparison between the groups' characteristics was conducted using the Mann-Whitney U test and Pearson's chi-square test. Nominal variables having categories with small size (N<30) were regrouped by merging categories. Cronbach's alpha was computed for EDE-Q total score and CTQ subscales.

In a secondary analysis, Log(NLR) has been considered as the dependant variable. An independent variable was considered in the final regression model in case it showed an influence on NLR in the bivariate analysis (p<0.15). Retained continuous independent variables were classified in categories that respected their original distribution in the final regression models. Independent variables were added and retained in a forward fashion to the regression model while examining the adjusted R2 of the ANOVA, the variance inflation factor (VIF) and the degree of freedom (df) of the model.

Retained independent variables were those that assured the highest adjusted R2 and df as well as the lowest VIF. For the purpose of demonstrating the study's hypothesis, CM(+/-), emotional abuse and physical neglect were considered to be essential independent variables, each constituting a model of linear regression. Other retained independent variables were age, sex, relationship status and the restriction subscore of EDE-Q. Age and EDE-Q have been categorized according to quartiles. The Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) was calculated for all models created for the linear regression in order to compare the relative quality of these models according to the following formula: AIC = n x ln (SSres) + 2K.

The model with the lowest value of the AIC was considered as the model, which best represents the variability of NLR. Finally, all the statistical analyses were conducted using JASP 0.14.1.0 and SPSS 25.0.

Results

Study sample:

Overall N=206 participants were consecutively included in the study. 1).

Bivariate analysis:

The first bivariate analysis corresponded to a comparison of NLR, PLR and MLR between the groups CM (+) and CM (-) (Table 2, Figure 1). Among all three ratios, only NLR was significantly different between these two groups (p=0.029), and was the only lowgrade inflammatory marker to be further evaluated in bivariate analysis. Accordingly, NLR was correlated with age (Spearman's rho=0.201, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) = [0.06-0.33], p=0.005) and to the restriction subscore of EDE-Q (Spearman's rho= -0.147, 95%CI = [-5.26x10-4-(-0.28)], p=0.049). Moreover, median NLR level significantly differed according to the presence or absence of a current history of drug and/or alcohol abuse and/or dependency (p=0.034). NLR also differed significantly in participants with and without a history of moderate to severe emotional abuse (p=0.021) and physical neglect (p=0.005) (Figure 1). Finally, NLR did not present a statistical significance when compared between both genders (p=0.087), both professional status categories (p=0.087) and between single and married/divorced groups (p=0.123). However, these variables were considered in the multivariate analysis because of their relatively low p value.

Multivariate analysis:

The variability of Log(NLR) has not been found to be affected by the presence of a CM (p=0.076). Nonetheless, both emotional abuse (p=0.027) as well as physical neglect (p=0.008) significantly contributed to the variability of NLR. After comparing both models using the AIC, physical neglect seemed to be slightly better than emotional abuse as a subtype of CM explaining the variability of NLR (Table 4). However, due to the internal consistency of the physical neglect subscore of the CTQ, the variability of NLR in due to the presence of a history of emotional abuse has been considered more robust.

Discussion

In this study, we have demonstrated that chronic stress due to CM may leave an inflammatory mark detected in white blood cells count of patients with AN. As a matter of fact, NLR is significantly higher in patients with AN and a history of CM compared to patients with AN without history of CM. This finding is in line to what has been recently demonstrated during pregnancy in women who have experienced childhood sexual abuse [START_REF] Bublitz | Childhood adversity, prenatal depression, and maternal inflammation across pregnancy. Obstetric Medicine : 1753495X211011910 36[END_REF]. In this last study, NLR was significantly higher in pregnant women with a history of childhood sexual abuse independently from prenatal depression [START_REF] Bublitz | Childhood adversity, prenatal depression, and maternal inflammation across pregnancy. Obstetric Medicine : 1753495X211011910 36[END_REF]. The current medical literature points towards a role of epigenetics via DNA methylation on the HPA axis dysregulation and immune system activation after CM [36]. Besides the consistent finding of HPA axis disturbances leading to lower morning cortisol levels and a flattening of the diurnal cycle in adults with a history of CM, an accumulating body of evidence supports the fact that the immune system is chronically activated after CM [36][START_REF] Bremner | Cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone, and estradiol measured over 24 hours in women with childhood sexual abuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder[END_REF][START_REF] Power | Childhood psychosocial adversity and adult cortisol patterns[END_REF][START_REF] Carpenter | Association between plasma IL-6 response to acute stress and early-life adversity in healthy adults[END_REF][START_REF] Danese | Childhood maltreatment predicts adult inflammation in a lifecourse study[END_REF][START_REF] Bertone-Johnson | Inflammation and early-life abuse in women[END_REF]. Classically, C-reactive protein (CRP) and interleukine-6 (Il-6) have been shown to be increased in adults with CM [START_REF] Carpenter | Association between plasma IL-6 response to acute stress and early-life adversity in healthy adults[END_REF][START_REF] Danese | Childhood maltreatment predicts adult inflammation in a lifecourse study[END_REF][START_REF] Bertone-Johnson | Inflammation and early-life abuse in women[END_REF][START_REF] Coelho | Childhood maltreatment and inflammatory markers: a systematic review[END_REF]. However, after adjustment on age, sex, marital status and EDE-Q restriction score, the effect of CM on NLR was no more found in our sample. This demonstrates that the global effect of CM on NLR is multifactorial and that the variability of NLR in this population is related to the variability of other significant factors such as age, marital status and the level of eating restriction. As a matter of fact, NLR has already been shown to increase with age [START_REF] Lin | Causes of variation in the neutrophil-lymphocyte and platelet-lymphocyte ratios: a twin-family study[END_REF]. According to our data, eating restriction seems to inversely impact NLR variability. Indeed, the quality of consumed food may have an influence on NLR from one side, and eating restriction may induce cachexia and a subsequent hypercatabolic state from another side [START_REF] Wang | Diet and exercise improve neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio in overweight adolescents[END_REF][START_REF] Rodríguez-Rodríguez | Association between Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio with Abdominal Obesity and Healthy Eating Index in a Representative Older Spanish Population[END_REF][START_REF] Barker | An elevated neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio associates with weight loss and cachexia in cancer[END_REF][START_REF] Palmacci | Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio, Mediterranean Diet, and Bone Health in Coeliac Disease Patients: A Pilot Study[END_REF]. This might explain how eating restriction may exert a complex effect on the immune system independently from affecting the BMI. Nevertheless, the effect of eating restriction on NLR warrants to be studied in future studies. Finally, NLR seems to be influenced by the marital status with single participants being at a higher NLR than married/divorced ones. This might be in line with what has already been shown regarding the fact that being widowed, separated or never married may be accompanied with a significant modification in NLR levels [START_REF] Howard | Sociodemographic and lifestyle factors associated with the neutrophilto-lymphocyte ratio[END_REF]. This finding implicates that several lifestyle factors and behaviors related to marital statuses may explain immunologic differences, especially in patients with AN, that warrant further studying.

In our study, emotional abuse was associated with a higher NLR in the bivariate as well as in the multivariate analysis. Childhood abuse, in general, is known to be associated with loss of control on eating and depressive mood as symptoms leading to eating disorder's psychopathology [START_REF] Rodgers | Structural differences in eating disorder psychopathology after history of childhood abuse: Insights from a Bayesian network analysis[END_REF]. Although anxiety and depression might be the cause for inflammation in AN, this finding has not been confirmed according to available studies on the subject in the literature [START_REF] Dalton | A meta-analysis of cytokine concentrations in eating disorders[END_REF]. However, the medical literature points towards a certain role of emotional abuse as a risk factor of inflammation. In this regard, it has been demonstrated that women who reported more emotional abuse had greater percent change in CRP over time [START_REF] Matthews | Child abuse is related to inflammation in mid-life women: role of obesity[END_REF]. The link between emotional abuse and the psychopathology of AN may be related to the fact that patients exposed to emotional abuse may develop emotional dysregulation which inhibits the emotions of anger and disgust as a part of maladaptive attitudes [START_REF] Rai | Exploring the Link Between Emotional Child Abuse and Anorexia Nervosa: A Psychopathological Correlation[END_REF]. In a mixed-model investigation using network analysis, the childhood emotional abuse experience has been identified as the common node mediating the association between each type of CM and eating disorder's core symptoms [START_REF] Monteleone | The connection between childhood maltreatment and eating disorder psychopathology: a network analysis study in people with bulimia nervosa and with binge eating disorder[END_REF]. In this same study, patients with AN restrictive type have shown that interoceptive awareness was included in the shortest pathway between emotional abuse and drive to thinness [START_REF] Monteleone | The connection between childhood maltreatment and eating disorder psychopathology: a network analysis study in people with bulimia nervosa and with binge eating disorder[END_REF]. In the study conducted by Monteleone et al., emotional trauma in patients suffering from eating disorders contributed to the heightened cortisol production when exposed to stress [START_REF] Monteleone | Emotional traumatic experiences significantly contribute to identify a maltreated ecophenotype sub-group in eating disorders: Experimental evidence[END_REF]. Moreover, we have previously demonstrated that emotional abuse might be affecting the clinical severity of eating disorders through food addiction [START_REF] Khalil | The Impact of Retrospective Childhood Maltreatment on Eating Disorders as Mediated by Food Addiction: A Cross-Sectional Study[END_REF]. Accordingly, emotional abuse might be a subtype of CM determining a specific ecophenotype of maltreated patients with AN characterized, on the biological level by an increased HPA axis disturbances as well as an immune activation and on the clinical level by an increased interoceptive awareness, emotional dysregulation and food addiction. In this regard, emotional abuse as a CM may be perceived as a precursor event leading to emotional dysregulation as a coping mechanism which is a risk factor for food addiction and interoceptive awareness all of which being precipitated by HPA axis dysregulation while increasing low grade inflammation at the end of the cascade [START_REF] Parylak | The dark side of food addiction[END_REF][START_REF] Wiss | Food Addiction and Psychosocial Adversity: Biological Embedding, Contextual Factors, and Public Health Implications[END_REF][START_REF] Pivarunas | Impulsivity and emotion dysregulation as predictors of food addiction[END_REF].

Although physical neglect's subscore presented a low reliability in our study, future studies might be interested in considering it as a factor that influences the variability of NLR. Participants with physical neglect had higher NLR than those without this subtype of CM. In one study, early institutionalization interacted with stressful life events in early adolescence to predict elevated IL-6 at age 16 among individuals with prolonged institutional care. The study results are in favor of a stress-sensitizing effect of early childhood neglect [START_REF] Tang | The prospective association between stressful life events and inflammation among adolescents with a history of early institutional rearing[END_REF].

According to the stress-sensitization theory, early life deprivation may enhance reactivity to stress in later life which manifests through low grade inflammation [START_REF] Rocque | The differential relation of childhood maltreatment to stress sensitization in adolescent and young adult depression[END_REF][START_REF] Wade | Stress sensitization among severely neglected children and protection by social enrichment[END_REF]]. An increasing amount of evidence supports the fact that early life neglect influences the child and/or adolescent's brain development and slows down its maturation [START_REF] Sheridan | Variation in neural development as a result of exposure to institutionalization early in childhood[END_REF][START_REF] Herringa | Childhood maltreatment is associated with altered fear circuitry and increased internalizing symptoms by late adolescence[END_REF][START_REF] Hostinar | Associations between early life adversity and executive function in children adopted internationally from orphanages[END_REF][START_REF] Mccrory | Research review: the neurobiology and genetics of maltreatment and adversity[END_REF]. As with emotional abuse, we have previously demonstrated that physical neglect may increase eating disorders' severity through food addiction possibly due to brain connectivity dysfunctions occurring early in life [START_REF] Monteleone | Emotional traumatic experiences significantly contribute to identify a maltreated ecophenotype sub-group in eating disorders: Experimental evidence[END_REF]. Accordingly, patients with AN and a history of physical neglect may become more sensible to stress from one side because of biological changes occurring to their brain and from another side because of clinical manifestations such as increased internalizing symptoms. This may result in an increased reactivity to stress later in life as manifested by a low grade inflammation and an increase in NLR.

Our study has however several limitations. First, assessments such as EDE-Q, CTQ, MINI were self-reported which might constitute a source of bias. For example, participants with more severe clinical dimensions of AN may more easily recall incidents of CM. Second, the subgroups with physical neglect and abuse have low numbers of patients which reduces the ability to generalize our findings. Third, the Cronbach's coefficient alpha for physical neglect subtype of the CTQ shows that the participants' answers were not consistent throughout the sample which reduces the reliability of this measure. Fourth, although multiple confounding factors have been considered in the multivariate analysis, the NLR can be affected by multiple clinical and biological determinants of AN and malnutrition so other confounding factors might have been missed in our analysis.

In conclusion, this study demonstrates that NLR is higher in patients with AN and a history of CM in general as well as in patients with AN and a history of emotional abuse in particular. The effect of CM on NLR was not present in the multivariate analysis in which age, marital status and EDE-Q restriction score seemed to influence NLR variability more significantly. However, in the multivariate analysis, emotional abuse contributed significantly to NLR's variability. Although physical neglect significantly plays the same role, caution has been taken to withdraw conclusions from this finding due to the low reliability of its measuring tool. Future studies should focus on examining the relationship between emotional abuse as a psychopathological precursor of AN from one part and the mediators between CM and NLR variability from another. These mediators might possibly be interoceptive awareness, emotional dysregulation, eating restriction, food addiction and stress sensitization.

Strength and limits:

The study demonstrates that CM in general and emotional abuse in particular may be responsible of an increase in the low grade inflammation marker NLR in AN. The study's limitations, in addition to method's difficulties related to measuring childhood events, can be related to the presence of clinical and biological confounding factors influencing NLR that might have been missed in our analysis.

Figures Figure 1

Comparison between NLR levels in patients with AN categorized according to their history status of CM as well as different CM subtypes. *p<0.05

  Participants were predominantly females (N=194, 93.7%). The median age was 23.0 years old (19.5-31.1). They were most frequently single (N=149, 72.3%) with high school education level (N=90, 43.7%).

The majority of participants were employed (N=102, 49.5%). The mean of current BMI of participants was 17.71+/-2.62. Participants belonging to the group CM(+) were N=86 (41.7%). Participants with emotional neglect (N=55, 26.7%) were the most frequently represented followed by emotional abuse (N=47, 22.8%), sexual abuse (N=41, 19.9%), physical neglect (N=35, 17.0%) and physical abuse (N=23, 11.2%). The median of NLR in the study group was 1.71 (1.24-2.14) while that of PLR was 138.39 (109.67-180.91) and of MLR was 0.22 (0.17-0.27) (Table

Funding: This study received financial support from CHRU Montpellier (UF8854 and UF9804). The CHRU Montpellier had no role in the design, analysis, interpretation, or publication of this study.

Availability of data and material:

All used materials and data can be available upon request.

Code availability: Not applicable.

Ethics approval:

The study protocol has been approved by the ethics committee CPP Sud-Mediterranée IV for studying the first cohort (reference number 11-04-SC) and CPP Sud-Est 6 (reference number: AU13-13) for studying the second cohort.

Declarations

Acknowledgments: None Conflict of interests: None declared for all authors.

Tables Table 1: Description of sociodemographic, clinical and biological variables of N=206 participants with AN included in the study sample.

Table 2: Bivariate comparison of NLR, PLR and MLR levels in groups of patients with AN between CM(+) and CM(-).

Table 3: Bivariate comparison of NLR levels with sociodemographic and clinical categorical variables as well as correlation with sociodemographic and clinical continuous variables.


Intellectual property enforcement requires control mechanisms which are implemented in a variable way and which are highly sensitive to the context. Wars constitute a very special one : not only do they break normal economic circulations but they also lead to a redefinition of the economic regulations once the conflict is over. They constitute turning points, which provide a very interesting field of analysis in order to describe both continuous processes and ruptures. In other terms, beyond the control of intellectual property in times of war, the question is how such an exceptional situation can lead to structural changes. Such a process of suspension and redefinition of intellectual property took place as early as the First World War. The Versailles Treaty dealt with the industrial property system and confirmed the measures that the US and British governments had taken against German IP during the war. In the United States, the role of the Alien Property Custodian (APC) was particularly important (Wilkins 2004; Steen 2014). The Great War was thus the occasion of an expropriation of US patents held by Germans. This was particularly the case in the field of chemistry.

With the beginning of the new conflict, the APC came back into force, whereas several aspects of intellectual property -in particular the patent system -had been challenged since the 1930s. Nevertheless, the APC policy on intellectual property during WWII was apparently much more intense than in the previous conflict. It allowed the control or even the dispossession of German IP assets thanks to a well organized administration. But, at the same time, the APC policy faced important issues about patent, especially concerning antitrust policy. This paper aims to understand how the patent policy of the APC regarding the German owned patents resulted from an unstable compromise between different expectations: the mobilization of German technical knowledge, the

Americanization of the US industry and the antitrust struggle against the abuse of patents. The first section deals with the origins of the APC and reminds its creation during WWI and the debate about the patent policy during the Interwar period. Section 2 focuses on the policy and the organization of the OAPC during WWII and discusses its results. Section 3 illustrates the contradiction of the APC by examining the policy related to the General and Aniline Firm Corporation.

The origins of the Alien Property Custodian

On October 12, 1917, the Alien Property Custodian was established by an Executive Order under authority of the Trading with Enemy Act, which had been adopted almost at the same time. As in other belligerent countries, some measures were quickly taken about industrial property. However, the importance of patenting within the U.S. economy and the willingness to limit the influence of German industry led to adopt more restrictive provisions. All this policy represented an important milestone when WWII broke out.

The WWI legacy

The early 20 th century was characterized by the importance of patent in the regulation of U.S. capitalism. Whereas WWI had begun in Europe, fierce debates and litigations occurred in the US about patent. This situation sometimes made necessary a governmental intervention such as the creation of the Manufacturer's Aircraft Association in 1917, a patent pool set up under governmental pressure. Moreover, the shortage of German pharmaceutical products, which could not be easily imported anymore, made clear that a domestic production was indispensable but needed to use the patents hold by German firms [START_REF] Steen | Patents, Patriotism, and 'Skilled in the Art' USA v[END_REF][START_REF] Cooper | The Licensing of German Drug Patents Confiscated During World War I: Federal and Private Efforts to Maintain Control, Promote Production, and Protect Public Health[END_REF]Steen 2014). So before the U.S. went to war, patents had become a strategic issue.

After joining the war, the U.S. government faced a concrete but difficult problem about procedures related to patent application. Had he to allow nationals from enemy countries to file patent application? Could he took some measures against their U.S. patents even if there was a risk for retaliation? The Trading with the Enemy Act (October 6, 1917) ensured a compromise between two tendencies. The law provided that any enemy could file a patent application -but also trademark and copyright -and pay for this purpose all taxes provided for. On the other hand, a licensing system was introduced under the auspices of the Federal Trade Commission to exploit a patent.

Thus, the Trading with the Enemy Act enshrined a balance between the respect of the enemy's rights and the necessities of the US industry. 1 This balance, however, was broken with the adoption of an amendment to the Trading with the Enemy Act in March 1918. This latter was largely inspired by the Alien Property Custodian, A. Mitchell Palmer, who worked to "the americanization" of German companies. Palmer succeeded to convince president Wilson to pass through Congress a bill authorizing him to sell the companies placed under receivership. A last obstacle, however, had to be lifted because the Department of Justice had expressed doubts about the legality of such a seizure of patents. On November 4, 1918, a new amendment to the Trading with the Enemy Act was approved and promulgated and allowed the sale of the patents seized. A few weeks later, the APC sold the US Bayer subsidiary and its 1 200 patents to the Sterling Products Company of Wheeling for more than $ 5 million. 2 During the Inter-war period, the role of the APC during the First World War was subject to fierce criticism. In 1919, the sale of approximatively 4 800 German owned-patents to the Chemical Foundation occurred for only $250.000 whereas this patent portfolio was much more valuable. Besides, the WWI APC policy did not prevent German firms from taking back the control of their own interests, especially concerning industrial property.

In 1934, the APC was integrated to the Department of Justice as the Alien Property Bureau. When WWII broke out, the APC experience during the previous conflict would appear as an example not to follow.

The debates on patents during the Inter-war period

These controversies about the APC were followed by fiercer debates concerning the patent themselves. The use of patents by big firms to establish dominant positions appeared to be more and more abusive. In 1930 the Department of Justice sued Radio Corporation of America, General Electric, Westinghouse and AT & T to force them to end with their agreement on patents (Barnouw 1966, 1:252;Hart 1998, 54). In 1931, the Supreme Court judged the case Standard Oil of Indiana Co. vs United States, which had been initiated in 1924 by the US government against an alleged monopoly on gasoline based on patent contracts. Although the Supreme Court ruled against the US government, its decision was ambivalent and could be understood as an invitation to closely examine the effects of patent contracts on competition. In 1932 several bills were introduced to reform the legislation but these attempts remained unsuccessful 3 .

During the New Deal, patent reform continued to be the leverage of anti-trust action (Hart 1998, chapter 4). Some attempts were made on the legislative field. gave rise to a so strong opposition that it resulted in a real fiasco 5 .

However, the administration continued its struggle against the abuse of patents and in 1938 the Assistant Attorney General Thurman Arnold, in charge of the Antitrust division of the Department of Justice, was asked by the Temporary National Economic Committee (TNEC) to investigate about the patent system. Arnold's investigations were taken into account in the final report of the TNEC, which was published in 1941 and required the mandatory licensing of patents at fair prices [START_REF] Waller | The Antitrust Legacy of Thurman Arnold[END_REF]). But anti-trust patent mobilization were not limited to legislative initiative: it had also implications in courts. In December 1939, Arnold initiated an action against the glass-maker firm Hartford-Empire, which was accused to have created a cartel in the glass container industry thanks to a broad license contracts systems. On the eve of WWII, "patent battles" had already begun 6 . Controlling patents had thus several meanings : preventing the abuse of patents by big firms and also controlling the German influence on the US industry in the context of war.

Controlling Enemy Patents

Accordingly, the role of the APC during WWII depended on two different stakes : the control of enemy patents, which could help to the Americanization of the US industry, and also the quest of a new regulation against patent monopolies.

Defining a policy

The In April 1942, President Roosevelt took the opportunity of a press conference to give his intentions about this patent policy. His purpose was to make freely available for war production and national needs all patents which were controlled either directly or indirectly by enemies. When he was asked about bona fide American patents that were pooled with enemy-patents, Roosevelt had this very pragmatical answer:

"Well, my idea is we take everything we need, no matter what the technicalities are.

The first thing to do is to win the war" 8

Leo T. Crowley, had been nominated on Mach 11, 1942 as the new APC despite Secretary of Treasury's opposition (Weiss 1996, chapter 8). He was all the more ready to implement such a policy so since he was a key actor of Roosevelt's administration. In the early 1930s, his action at the head of the Bank of Wisconsin had been noticed by Roosevelt so that he had been nominated chairman of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) in 1934 [START_REF] Weiss | The President's Man: Leo Crowley and Franklin Roosevelt in Peace and War. 1st edition[END_REF]. 7 Federal Register, vol. 7, no. 131, July 9, 1942, p. 1. 8 Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: F.D. Roosevelt, 1942. Vol. 11. New-York, Harper, 1950, p. 213. The press conference took place on April 21, 1942.

The task however remained overwhelming. In a testimony given to the US Senate Committee on Patents, Crowley recognized that he ignored "the size of the problem

[…], exactly how many enemy owned or controlled patents are of subject to vesting, or which of these are important and which are of relatively little significance" 9 Despite this situation, he suggested six aims for his policy : 1°) taking possession of all enemy owned or controlled patent as rapidly as possible, 2°) breaking any restrictive holds about these patents, 3°) making these patents freely available to American industry, 4°)

permitting vested corporations to remain their patents and to manage those of their patents which were necessary and useful to their business, 5°) considering the possibility of turning seized patents to a Government-owned and operated corporation, 6°) using the income deriving from patents in order to finance the control itself but also research projects.

If these principles looked quite clear in Crowley's statement, it appeared that the definition of patent policy was actually much more complex. As suggested by the weekly reports of the APC Patent Administration Division, at least five months were necessary to write a patent policy statement, especially because the patent policy of corporations under APC control required some negotiations. October 3, November 2, December 15 1942. On October 3, a draft was submitted to the Custodian and to the members of the Executive Committee. On November 2, the statement was reported to be redrafted. On November 7, some discussions on the patent policy of corporations are mentioned and also discussion between "the Chief" and the representatives about Swiss Embassy about the GAF patents. On December 7, the statement was sent to President Roosevelt.

other hand, such temptation was counterbalanced by those who were attached to maintain intact the US patent system.

In January 1943, the policy statement about patents was published at last by the APC and spread on a large scale. 11 Its principle was quite clear:

"National policy clearly dictates that this Government should seize, and turn to the advantage of all its citizens, rights to the discoveries of our present enemies which have been protected is this country by patents issues by an agency of this Government. Accordingly, title to United States patents and patent applications owned by the enemy is being vested in the name of the United States Government." 12

For the APC, these patents should be available readily and immediately to serve all American industry by licensing, by using the technical knowledge embedded in these patents or by encouraging research on the inventions. Actually, the American industry was invited "to put to work patents formerly owned by the enemy." 13 Such a statement echoed implicitly a criticism against the abuse of patents in general.

Putting enemy-owned patents into work meant that some patents had been usefulness.

Of course, this dealt with "the very patents by which [the] enemies hoped to keep exclusive control of many manufacturing and scientific fields." 14 The embezzlement of patents, which had made enemies capable of impeding war production, was denounced but, at the same time, the limitations of the US patent system, which had made this situation possible, were implicitly recognized. This was the reason why "the free

Duration

The life of the patent

Reporting

Annual report to the APC

Revocability

Revocable for failure to live up to the license agreement

Actually OAPC "free licensing policy" was less clear than its stated principle (see table 1). If licenses could be delivered for every enemy-patent which had not already been licensed to American industry, two important reservations were adopted. In the case of exclusively licensed patents, the American patentee could keep his exclusive license by paying royalties to the OAPC. If the OAPC reserved its right to deliver additions licenses in case of war production, the initial licensee's interests were preserved. The case of vested corporations was more essential. The management of the vested or supervised corporations kept the control of their patents "in the legitimate interests of these corporations and of their American shareholders", who had to be preserved. Although this direct administration had to be compatible with the OAPC policy, these corporations had flexible leeway for adopting their own licensing policy.

Actually the patent policy of the OAPC was an asymmetrical one.

Building an Organization

Such a control of "enemy patents" required a strong organization and several OAPC

Ambivalent Outcomes

Torn Control : The contradictions of APC patent policy

The heterogeneity and ambiguity of the control by the OAPC was particularly obvious for enemy patents held by the vested companies. In this respect, GAF was an emblematic case. In the 1930s, American IG Chemical, the US subsidiary of a Swiss affiliate of IG Farben, controlled several US firms, which were the depository of its own patents. At the beginning of WWII in Europe, American IG Chemical changed its name to that of General Aniline and Film (GAF) corporation. A few months later, in the spring of 1940, IG Farben sold nearly 800 of his patents to the GAF in order to avoid possible seizure by the American authorities. GAF controlled also other IG Farben's patents through its control on other subsidiaries (O'Reilly 2006).

Who controls GAF patents?

After the US entered the war, the Secretary of the Treasury, by virtue of powers temporarily delegated by the President of the United States, had seized the GAF ( 16February 1942) and set up a new Executive Board. GAF's portfolio represented more than 3900 patents and was considered more important than the other 40,000 patents under the OAPC's control16 . Thus, the new direction quickly addressed the issue of patents and established its own policy on the subject:

"1. All patent holdings will be available for licensing for war requirements upon request of the proper Government authority. 2. Patent rights in these fields in which General Aniline and Film corporation is not actually engaged will be offered to American industry for licensing on reasonable terms and royalty so that most effective use may be made of the inventions covered thereby and in the many and varied phases of war production.

3. Patent rights in these fields in which General Aniline and Film Corporation is actually engaged will also be granted by it for the duration of the war on reasonable terms and royalties to responsible and capable licensees. The income which the Corporation derives from such licenses will be used, during the war period for further research directed toward the successful prosecution of the war."17

Appointed APC in the meantime, Leo T. Crowley opposed this policy being endorsed and published. For him, the management of the GAF had to comply with APC's general principles ,which aimed to make these patents easily available to the American industry.

In November 1942, Crowley asserted to President Roosevelt himself that GAF had to respect the government's intentions. GAF, for its part, argued that a general availability of patents would put the company at the mercy of its rivals in a very competitive context. These negotiations, as we have seen, resulted in the compromise expressed in the brochure Patents at Work.

However, other administrations put pressure on GAF leadership. In June 1943, the Department of Justice suggested adopting compulsory licensing of GAF patents 18 . The GAF management then expressed its strong opposition and continued to pursue its own policy. However, these latter did not really comply with APC purpose since in September 1943 GAF had granted only one license. Another front was opened against the GAF patent policy regarding the contracts which had been concluded with IG Farben in 1940 in order to sell its patents. In December 1943, the Interdepartmental Committee on Private Monopolies and Cartels adopted a program to seize patents subject to such illegal contracts. This program did not target only GAF but also the head of the APC, who was increasingly sensitive to GAF arguments. This change in attitude was reinforced when Crowley left and was replaced by his deputy James E. Markham on march 27, 1944. 19 The tension between the APC and other agencies grew with the creation of the over the work of the Committee on Private Monopolies and Cartel (Cartel Committee).

One of its goals was to struggle against German participation in international cartels and combinations.

This Cartel Committee quickly took up the question of illegal contracts and, more generally, of patents. In the autumn of 1944 he started to examine the APC policy and in April 1945 sent a memorandum to the ECEFP on the generalization of non-exclusive licenses as one means of ending the cartels dominated by the Germans 20 .

This memorandum constituted a real challenge to the APC policy about "captive patents" -ie the patents controlled by vested companies -and GAF ones. Throughout 1945, Markham tried to convince the ECEFP to renounce to its policy of general licensing.

But, in fact, Truman's arrival in the presidency changed the situation. As the former chairman of the Special Committee to Investigate the National Defense Program (so called "Truman Committee"), Truman had been sensitized to the issue of patent abuse.

In June 1942, he had already denounced the behavior of Standard Oil of New Jersey, which had helped IG Farben to protect its patents (Wilkins 2004, 533). When Truman came to the White House, he quickly initiated a reform of the patent law and invited the Secretary of Commerce to carry out an investigation in this direction. 21 Challenging OAPC's policy on captive patents resulted not only from the ECEFP objective to dismantle German cartels but, more generally, from the desire to combat patent abuses by the big firms. This change in the balance of power explains why Markham failed to convince Truman to end the ECEFP approach. On February 7, 1946, Truman decided in favor of the ECEFP, which had been also supported by the Secretary of State. Finally, the ECEFP policy drew a distinction between the firms wholly-owned and those only partiallyowned by the APC. On the one had, all patents had to vested and licensed for an 20 "Government -Wide", p. 134. 21 Harry S. Truman: "Letter to Secretary Wallace Requesting a Study of the Patent Laws.," April 26, 1945. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=12372.

nonexclusive royalty-free basis; moreover any exclusive license had to be removed in order to make possible their most widespread use. On the other hand, all patents acquired by vested firms through cloaking transactions, such as the IG Farben ones in 1940, had also to be licensed on a nonexclusive royalty-free basis. Vested companies had also to be used in order to make unvested interests follow the nonexclusive royaltyfree patent policy 22 . Such a policy, which had been the result of a conflicting process, was a step toward the adoption of London Patent Accord in July 1946, which aimed "either 1°) to put at the disposal of the public or to throw into public domain all existing patents which belonged to Germans and were in their possession or under their control according to their legislation or 2°) to grant royaty-free licenses to nationals" (Ladas 1975(Ladas , 1836)).

From division to treason ? Opening APC blackbox

The tensions within the US administration over the control of German patents resulted from antagonist positions regarding anti-trust measures, from divergent analysis of the situation depending on actor's disciplines -the opposition economists vs lawyers looked important -and maybe from obscure political reasons, which remain to be highlighted. However, they not only opposed the institutions to each other, but they opposed people within these latter, especially within the OAP. The divergence of opinion between economists and the head of the OAPC degenerated into tensions in the second half of 1945. At this moment, the Cartel Committee strengthened its position in favor of extended licensing of captive patents and of challenging illegal contracts. In September 1945, Abramson, who was the principal economist of the patent contract section, considered that "there [were] no serious legal impediments to initiate a program of cancellation or renegotiation of the vigorous illegal patent contract". 29 The lack of real initiative in this matter was regarded as genuine sabotage by certain members of the Office 30 . By the autumn 1945, the tension had increased considerably, while the ECEFP had been asked by the Cartel Committee to reexamine its positions. Raoul Berger, General Counsel of the Office, did his utmost to impose his own presence on the Cartel Committee and to weaken that of Machlup, whose position was seen as contradictory to his own. This led to a violent conflict, which carries important lessons (appendix 1). First of all, the OAPC economists had in fact invested the Cartel Committee to circumvent the internal resistance against a policy of opening captive patents. Second, there was a strong antagonism between the economic approach in favor of the abolition of monopolies and a much more conciliatory legal approach. Third, Markham's role appeared more and more ambiguous. necessary because these issues are linked to even greater stakes such as the relations maintained by certain American companies with Germany during the conflict, for example, or as the evolution of economic relations between Switzerland And the United States after the war. Despite these limitations, it is possible to draw some provisory conclusions about the control of German patents.

The first conclusion is methodological. It is necessary to open the black box of this control not only to understand all the issues at stakes but also to be able to analyze the chaotic process of its implementation. In other words, this involves opening archival boxes, crossing the various available printed sources and putting the actors in context.

In short, to make history.

Such an approach makes it possible to understand that the control of German patents during WWII was thought of in relation to what had happened during the First World

War and the scandals that followed. Moreover, the war was for some actors the means of pursuing their own political objectives by other means. So is anti-trust policy, for example. In fact, the control of German intellectual property was also a means of achieving control -and reform -of US intellectual property. Legislative initiatives subsequently confirmed this conclusion.

Finally, a detailed analysis of this policy prompts us to question the weight of this experiment on economists with a liberal tendency towards their conception of intellectual property. This will be the subject of another project.

  During the 1936 and 1940 elections, Crowley supported actively FDR and reinforced his place into the administration. His authority became stronger just after the US went to war since he held until 9 government positions. Being the new APC, Crowley benefited a strong institutional position, especially concerning the relation to other departments such as the Department of Justice.

  entities were in charge of this patent policy. Legal issues about patenting in the war context were studied by two sections of the Office of the General Counsel: the Legislative Section -which became the Legislative and Patent Problems Section from July 1, 1944 -and Corporate Owned Patent Section. The General Counsel was first A. Matt Werner and then Raoul Berger, who had been Special Assistant to US Attorney General and member of the OAPC from 1942. Two other operative entities were responsible for the control itself. Within the Division of Investigation and Research, which was managed by the economist Homer Jones, almost 200 members conducted inquiries about property subject to the authority of the OAPC. The Patent Section was one of its three investigative sections and controlled activities related to patents but also to copyright and trademarks. Moreover, the Research section of the Division of Investigation and Research played an important role by providing advice and analysis of policies questions to the APC and by representing him on different committees, especially concerning the patent policy of the OAPC. The administration of vested patents was addressed by the Division of Patent Administration, which, with more than 100 employees, one of the largest OAPC divisions. A large part of the almost 800 employees of the OAPC worked on the patent policy, which was an essential issue for the office.

  After Truman's decision in favor of an open policy, Markham adopted what appeared as an obstructive attitude. All the documentation reveals the lack of understanding and even the suspicions inspired by the wait-and-see attitude of the OAPC. In June 1946 Machlup sent a memorandum to himself expressing his reservations about Markham's proximity to IG Chemie's lawyer John J. Wilson. Anxious to prevent IG Chemie from suing the US government under Section 9 of the Trading with the Enemy Act, Markham wishes to pledge to the management of IG Chemie his proper management of the GAF. In May 1946, he planned to communicate to Wilson internal documents of the Office. On this occasion, Machlup told him of his fierce opposition by saying in substance: "Jim, I believe that you are engaging in trading with the enemy. Do not forget that we have always considered I.G. Chemie a cloak of the German I.G. Farben-industry. If you do not know what to do with the enemy." 31 Although such reservations did not prevent president Truman from praising Markham's integrity when the OAPC was reinstated in the Ministry of Justice in October 1946, this episode illustrates how the entity in charge of the control of the German patents was far from being a monolithic organization. 32 Conclusion Much work remains to be done to understand the issues related to the control of industrial property implemented by the PCA during WWII.This work is all the more 31 Box 277, folder 4, memorandum from Fritz Machlup to himself, June 24, 1946. 32 Harry S. Truman: "Letter to James E. Markham Upon the Conclusion of His Duties as Alien Property Custodian.," October 14, 1946. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/? pid=12525

  Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917 gave to the President of the United Sates the

	1941, reinforced these presidential prerogatives. In February 1942, some of them were
	delegated to the Secretary of Treasury, who began to vest some enemy interest such as
	97% of the shares of the General Aniline and Film company (GAF), the US -indirect -
	subsidiary of the German chemical firm IG Farben. On March 11, 1942, Executive
	Order No. 9095 established the Office of Alien Property Custody (OAPC) and four
	months later a new Executive Order no. 9193 specified its prerogatives, which would
	also deal with patents, copyright and trademarks. 7
	right to "investigate, regulate, or prohibit" different kinds of transactions during a
	conflict. However, the First War Powers Act, which was put into law on December 18,
	5 6	Compulsory Licensing of Patents. A Legislative History. Study of the Subcommittee on Patents, Trademarks, and Copyright of the Committee of the Judiciary. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1958, p. 15. "Patent Battles Begin", Business Week, December 16, 1939, 18-20 quoted by Hart, 1998, 91, n. 18.

Table 1 :

 1 licensing policy of this Office [was] designed to prevent the use of patents or licenses under its jurisdiction to further any monopoly or cartel contrary to national interest."15 The OAPC licensing policy (source : Patents atWork, January 1943)

	11 Patents at work. A Statement of Policy by the Alien Property Custodian of the United States, January 1943. 12 Ibid., p. 5. 13 Ibid., p. 2. 14 Ibid., p. 22. 15 Ibid., p. 18

  Executive Committee of Economic Foreign Policy in April 1944. One year before, a Committee on Post-War Economic Foreign Policy had been created and its Steering Committee had set up a Special Committee on Private Monopolies and Cartels. The increasingly influence of the Committee on Post-War Economic Foreign Policy led to a reform in April 1944 and the Committee was transformed into the ECEFP, which took

18 Hoover Institution, Fritz Machlup papers, Box 277, folder 4, "Chronology of Developments concerning Captive Patents of GAF", [May 1946], p. 1. 19 James E. Markham became APC on March 27, 1944. He was a former counsel of FDIC.

  Jones, Abramson, Director and then Machlup were linked by strong personal and/or intellectual affinities. In the 1930s, Jones had taught at Rutgers Universitywhere he was Milton Friedman's mentor -before working for the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation in Washington DC. As one of Frank Knight's former students, Jones had been involved in the famous economic debate on capital theory, which opposed Knight to Friedrich Hayek and some other Austrian economists in the mid-1930s (Caldwell 2004; Emmett 2009). Victor Abramson was also an economist. He had been a research fellow at the Brookings Institution and then member of its staff until 1940. From 1941, he became economic adviser at the Office of Price Administration and then at the OAPC (Abramson 1948). Aaron Director was also an economist who had taught at the University of Chicago from 1930 to 1934. Being in England in 1937, he had befriended Hayek (Emmett 2010, 265). These intellectual and personal connections were completed by familial ones since Director's sister married Milton Machlup was hired by the Office as a consultant in July 1943 and as the chief of the Research section from September 1943. In late 1944, Homer Jones went back to the FDIC as its Chief of the Division of Research and Statistics and became also director of the Clearing Office for Foreign Transaction and Reports of the Foreign Economic Administration, which Leo Crowley took the head in September 1943 27 . Under that circumstance, Machlup became Acting Chief of the Division of Investigation and Research from December 1944 to February 1945, when the Research Section was transformed into a specific division entrusted to him. In late September 1946, justbefore the termination of the OAPC, Machlup resigned from his function.28

	properties, and post-war requirements for the restoration of international trade and investment." 26
	Friedman in 1938.
	Last but not least, the last comer in this team played an important role. Born in 1902 in
	Austria, Fritz Machlup was trained as an economist at the University of Vienna, where
	he obtained his PhD in economics in 1923 under Ludwig von Mises' supervision. There
	he participated to his supervisor's seminar with Friedrich Hayek, who became his
	In the fall 1943, when the friend. In 1933, he obtained a Rockefeller fellowship and came in the US before being
	Cartel Committee began considering the introduction of an anti-cartel program, Homer appointed by the University of Buffalo in 1935. 25 In the early 1940s, Machlup was more
	Jones, assisted by Victor Abramson, Aaron Director and Fritz Machlup, prepared a and more interested in the problems of monopoly and had the project of studying
	memorandum describing how the OAPC could contribute to such a plan 23 . This patents. This is precisely because of this interest that Jones suggested him to join the
	initiative showed that some OAPC members defended an anti-monopoly line. Soon OAPC :
	after, in July 1943, "a clear split on the vesting issue began to appear among the Custodian's aids" 24 . " It occurred to me that because of your work on patent problems and knowledge of European economic organization you might be especially interested in that part of our work related to the renegotiation of patent contracts, the restoration a maintenance of competition in industries in which there are important vested
	22 "Terminal Report [of the] Office of Alien Property Custodian", October 1946.
	23 "Government-wide", p. 110. 24 "Government-wide", p. 54. 25 Hoover Institution, Fritz Machlup papers, Box 3, folder 2, application for federal employment.

Actually

Hoover Institution, Fritz Machlup papers, Box 277, folder 3, "Government-Wide Activities concerning Captive Patents of Vested Corporations -especially GAF" [thereafter "Government-Wide Activities"], excerpt of Homer Jones memorandum,February 5, 1944, p. 56.

"Government-Wide Activities", excerpt of GAF's report,May 5, 1942, p. 32.

Appendix 1

"It became quickly apparent that Mr. Berger and Mr. Shaulin had attempted to scheme against my work in the Committee. This became quite clear to me when Mr. Markham told me once that it was Mr. Berger's feeling that I should take him, Berger, along to the Cartel Committee meetings. Mr. Sargeant joined me as in a discussion with Mr. Markham, in which I made it clear that Mr. Berger would probably antagonize the whole Committee and create hostile sentiment against the APC. When Markham suggested that I could take M. Julius Cohen, then a lawyer in General Counsel's office, to the meetings, I pointed out that the whole Committee discussions had absolutely no legal contents or implications, that I was serving on the Committee as an economist and because of my expert knowledge of the problems of cartels and monopolies and that lawyers had no business in the formulation of purely economic policies. Mr. Markham accepted these explanations. It didn't take long until Mr. Berger called me up on the telephone and told me that it was the Custodian's wish (sic) that he accompany me to the Cartel Committee meetings. I answered that this wasill-tempered and said that if I didn't believe him he would see to it that the Custodian would give it ti me in wrinting that Berger should accompany me to the meetings. (Of course such a thing never happened.) He went on to say that he felt it was a very anormal situation, that the APC should be represented in the State Department by aperson who had views from the Custodian on important matters of policy. My reply to this was, in substance 'I am astonished to learn that the Custodian had a policy on cpative patents. I had been led to believe during the past years that it was nothing but legal obstacles which prevented the Custodian from applying to captive patents the policy which wasadopted for loose patents. Over and over again I had been assured by Berger and Markham that the legal rights of minorities and other legal maters were the only explanation for our failure to open up the captive patents.' This gave Mr. Berger a short pause, but he recovered and answered, in substance: 'I, too, believed for a long time that merely legal reasons were behind our inaction concerning captive patents. During the past few weeks, however, I have become convinced that Mr. Markham did have a policy and that it was his policy to leave the patent position of GAF position intact or even to strengthen it." I said that his was new to me but that nevertheless I saw no reason to have economic expert accompanied by the legal expert'" 33 33 Interview with Fritz Machlup, March 14, 1946 quoted in "Government-wide", p. 194-195.


Abdelhak Imoussaten
email: abdelhak.imoussaten@mines-ales.f

Benjamin Duthil
email: benjamin.duthil@univ-lr.fr

François Trousset
email: francois.trousset@mines-ales.f

Jacky Montmain
email: jacky.montmain@mines-ales.f

A highly automated recommender system based on a possibilistic interpretation of a sentiment analysis

Keywords: Possibility theory, Intervals merging, Multicriteria aggregation, Recommender system, Opinion-mining

scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

A Highly Automated Recommender System Based on a Possibilistic Interpretation of a Sentiment Analysis 1 Introduction

In recent years, many companies and web sites have set up systems to analyze the preferences of their users in order to better meet their expectations.

To date, recommendation systems are present in many areas such as tourism /leisure, advertising, e-commerce, movies, etc. Due to the exponential growth of the quantity of data available on the Internet in recent years, searching and finding products, services and relevant contents become a difficult task for the user often drowned out by the mass of information. This explains the growing interest in recommendation systems (RS) both by users as by commercial sites.

The task of recommendation has been identified as a way to help users to find information, or elements that are likely of interest. Roughly speaking, we consider a set of users and a set of items (products or services) that may be recommended to each user. In addition, a multicriteria recommendation improves the quality of a RS because it makes explicit the characteristics for which an item was proposed to the user [START_REF] Adomavicius | Multi-criteria recommender systems[END_REF] [START_REF] Manouselis | Analysis and classification of multi-criteria recommender systems[END_REF]. A RS that takes advantage of evaluation related to multicriteria preference elicitation provides users with more relevant detailed recommendations [START_REF] Adomavicius | Multi-criteria recommender systems[END_REF]. However, the implementation of such a model requires a knowledge base where the items are evaluated w.r.t a set of criteria. This constraint imposed by the model is very heavy for the user.

In [START_REF] Duthil | Opinion extraction applied to criteria[END_REF], an unsupervised multicriteria opinion mining method is proposed. It allows users to free themselves from constraining partial evaluations w.r.t each criterion: users simply submit their critics in natural language to express their opinions, and system analyzes them automatically. It first dissects the critics according to the evaluation criteria (thematic segmentation) before calculating the polarity or opinions of each of the extracts resulting from the segmentation step (opinion-mining/sentiment analysis).

Combining this method with an interactive multicriteria decision support system makes possible to have a highly automated system for recommendation purposes. However, the automated assignment only provides imprecise scores related to items that are modeled by intervals in an adequate multicriteria analysis process. Our possibility theory based approach then manages multiple imprecise assessments derived from sentiment analysis on each evaluation criterion (intervals fusion) and then aggregate them on all criteria. Finally, we try to match a user and an adequate specialized magazine in the domain of concern (movies in our application) that will provide the most suitable personalized recommendation to the user.

Section 2 summarizes opinion mining approach to extract Internet user's critics and compute opinion scores on a set of criteria. Section 3 explains how to merge these imprecise opinion scores for each criterion and introduces the notion of matching of a distribution with data available on a criterion. Section 4 describes how to deduce the multicriteria model used by a specialized magazine to assess items. Section 5 shows how these approaches can be combined to address the multicriteria recommendation problem in the case study of movie recommendations.

Opinion-Mining Process

On the basis of statistical methods, the Opinion-mining approach of [START_REF] Duthil | Opinion extraction applied to criteria[END_REF] allows us to build a lexicon of opinion descriptors for a given thematic. This lexicon is used to automatically extract the polarity of text segments that are related to the criterion. Two stages are distinguished in this multicriteria evaluation: -firstly, the segments of text related to each of the evaluation criteria are extracted with the Synopsis approach described in [START_REF] Duthil | Towards an automatic characterization of criteria[END_REF]. The text is first segmented into criteria. Then, for each criterion, the polarities of the segments that have been identified by the Synopsis approach are computed. This is opinion-mining or sentiment analysis step.

Text Segmentation by Criterion

The Synopsis approach is used to identify the text extracts that refer to the adopted criteria and consists of 3 steps:

1. automatic construction of a training corpus used to learn characteristic words (or groups of words), called descriptors, for a criterion of interest 2. Automatic learning of these descriptors and construction of a lexicon associated with the criterion 3. Text segmentation using the lexicon associated with the criterion The approach uses a set of seed words. On the one hand, they serve to semantically characterize the criterion of concern, and on the other hand to initiate the learning of descriptors of the criterion [START_REF] Duthil | Towards an automatic characterization of criteria[END_REF]. The training corpus is built automatically. The hypothesis of the learning is based on the fact that the more frequently a descriptor is found in the neighborhood of a seed word of the criterion (counting on sliding window), the greater the membership function of this descriptor to the lexical scope of the criterion.

Synopsis builds automatically its training corpus for each criterion by using web documents. This corpus is used to automatically build a lexicon of descriptors for each of these criteria. Each lexicon is then used by the segmentation process to automatically extracts parts of text dealing with this criterion. Synopsis will identify several segmentation for each criterion depending of granularity levels. Those granularities can be associated with user's level of expertise. The pertinent levels are automatically identified by Synopsis (see [START_REF] Duthil | Opinion extraction applied to criteria[END_REF] and [START_REF] Duthil | Towards an automatic characterization of criteria[END_REF] for more details).

Opinion Analysis

The opinions extraction approach is an adaptation of the Synopsis approach to the extraction of opinions both for the automatic building of the training corpus and for the descriptors learning phases. Seed words become opinion seed words [START_REF] Duthil | Opinion extraction applied to criteria[END_REF]. Two sets of words of opinion are initially distinguished the positive ones: P = {good, nice, excellent, positive, fortunate, correct, superior}; and the negative ones: N = {bad, nasty, poor, negative, unfortunate, wrong, inferior}.

Assuming a document that contains at least one word of P (resp. N) and none of N (resp. P) conveys a positive opinion (resp. negative), a set of documents associated with a seed word is built with a search engine on the web as in Synopsis (request for seed word "good" in the movie domains: movie + good -bad -nastynegative -poor -unfortunate -wrong -inferior). Opinion descriptors are limited to adjectives and adjectival groups [START_REF] Duthil | Opinion extraction applied to criteria[END_REF]. Statistical techniques of filtering with sliding windows of Synopsis are adapted to count opinion descriptors occurences.

Finally, an opinion score for a criterion is provided as a weighted sum of the text segments' membership related to the criteria and the positive/negative descriptors. Thus, since the extraction of criteria segments depends on the level of expected precision (i.e. level of expertise), the score of the opinion text related to the criterion is also affected by the discrimination threshold. For each threshold the segmentation algorithm of [START_REF] Duthil | Opinion extraction applied to criteria[END_REF] generates the corresponding text segmentation. Then the opinion scores of the text can be computed for any user's expertise level. There exists a lower and upper bound for this score. Accordingly, the opinion score is an imprecise entity which is then represented as an interval whose extremities are these lower and upper bounds.

Intervals Merging

The imprecision involved here concerns the subjectivity of a critic in the evaluation process of a text. This "subjectivity" is technically related to the imprecision of extraction. It is however "homogenized" by the automatic processing of segmentation. Then, evaluation is also uncertain because of the multiplicity of automatically collected opinions. Belief theory [START_REF] Dempster | Upper and lower probabilities induced by multivalued mapping[END_REF], [START_REF] Shafer | A mathematical theory of evidence[END_REF] provides an appropriate framework to summarize these opinions and ease their representation and manipulation in the recommendation process while respecting their imprecision and uncertainty. Possibility distributions [START_REF] Dubois | Possibility Theory: An Approach to Computerized Processing of Uncertainty[END_REF] are good approximations of belief functions. Thus they will be used to represent assessments. Also, possibility functions are appealing from an interpretation point of view in collecting confidence intervals as well as a computational point of view.

Possibility Theory

Let Ω represent a universal set of elements ω under consideration that is assumed to be finite and let 2 Ω represent the power set of Ω. A possibility distribution π is a normalized function π : Ω -→ [0, 1] (i.e. ∃ω ∈ Ω, such that π(ω) = 1). From π, possibility and necessity measures are respectively defined for all subsets

A ∈ 2 Ω : Π(A) = sup ω∈A π(ω) and N (A) = 1 -Π(A c ). Π(A) quantifies to what
extent the event A is plausible while N (A) quantifies the certainty of A. An α-cut of possibility distribution π is the classical subset:

E α = {ω ∈ Ω : π(ω) ≥ α}, α ∈]0, 1].
When a distribution has a trapezoidal form, it is classically represented by its vertices abcd.

Evidence Theory

The evidence theory shall now be formulated by the basic belief assignment (bba) m defined from 2 Ω to [0, 1], such that: {A⊆Ω} m(A) = 1 and m(∅) = 0. Elements E of 2 Ω such that m(E) > 0 are called focal elements and their set is denoted F. The bba m can be represented by two measures: the belief function Bel(A) = {E∈F/A⊇E} m(A), A ⊆ Ω and the plausibility function P l(A) = {E∈F/A∩E =∅} m(A), A ⊆ Ω. When focal elements are imprecise, the probability of any event A ⊆ Ω, denoted P r(A), is imprecise and Bel(A) and P l(A) represent respectively the lower and upper probabilities of event A, i.e. P r(A) ∈ [Bel(A), P l(A)]. Two well-known extreme cases of belief and plausibility measures are probability measures and possibility measures [START_REF] Dubois | Possibility Theory: An Approach to Computerized Processing of Uncertainty[END_REF].

Building Possibility Distributions From a Set of Intervals

Let consider a set of distinct intervals {I j , j = 1, nbi} as the focal elements and the probability of occurrence of interval I j as the bba m(I j ) assigned to this interval. When intervals are nested, i.e. I 1 ⊂ I 2 ⊂ ... ⊂ I nbi , a possibility distribution π may be built from plausibility measure, as proposed in [START_REF] Dubois | Fuzzy sets and statistical data[END_REF]: ∀ω ∈ Ω, π(ω) = P l({ω}) = j=1,nbi m(I j ).1 Ij (ω). When intervals are consistent, i.e. j=1,nbi I j = I = ∅ (all experts share at least one value), but not nested, two possibility distributions π 1 and π 2 are built: First, we consider the bba m 1 (I j ) for focal elements {I j , j = 1, nbi}.

Thus ∀ω ∈ Ω, π 1 (ω) = j=1,nbi m 1 (I j ).1 Ij (ω).
Second, r nested focal elements {E s , s = 1, r} are obtained from original data from the α-cuts of π 1 : E 1 = I and E s = E s-1 ∪ E αs (π 1 ) (s = 2, r). The new bba m 2 assigned to intervals E s are computed as proposed in [START_REF] Dubois | Fuzzy sets and statistical data[END_REF]: m 2 (E s ) = {Ij related to Es} m 1 (I j ) (each assessments I j being related in a unique way to the smallest E s containing it). Then a possibility distribution π 2 can be defined as: ∀ω ∈ Ω, π 2 (ω) = s=1,r m 2 (E s ).1 Es (ω). Membership functions π 1 and π 2 are mono modal possibility distributions since j=1,nbi I j = I = ∅ holds. Furthermore, they are the best possibilistic lower and upper approximations (in the sense of inclusion) of assessment sets {I j , j = 1, nbi} [START_REF] Dubois | Fuzzy sets and statistical data[END_REF]. It can be seen easily that π 1 ⊆ π 2 (inclusion of fuzzy subsets) as ∀α ∈]0, 1], E 1,α ⊆ E 2,α .

In general however, experts' assessment might be neither precise nor consistent. The probability and possibility representations correspond respectively to extreme and ideal situations; unfortunately, critics may reveal contradictory assessments. This means that the consistency constraint may not be satisfied in practice, i.e. j=1,nbi I j = ∅. To cope with this situation, groups of intervals, maximal coherent subsets (MCS ), with a non-empty intersection are built from original intervals, which is equivalent to find subsets K β ⊂ {1, ..., nbi} with β ∈ {1, ..., g} such that:

j∈K β I j = ∅,
with g being the number of subsets K β [START_REF] Imoussaten | A multicriteria decision support system using a possibility representation for managing inconsistent assessments of experts involved in emergency situations[END_REF].

For each group K β , lower and upper possibilistic distributions π β 1 and π β 2 are built (as in the previous case when elements are consistent). Let possibility distribution π 1 (resp. π 2 ) be the union (denoted ∼ ) of possibility distributions π β 1 (resp. π β 2 ):

π 1 = ∼ β=1,g π β 1 (resp. π 2 = ∼ β=1,g π β 2 ) ( 1 )
then π 1 and π 2 are the multi-modal (g modes) possibilistic lower and upper approximations of original intervals.

Reasoning with the lower distribution (resp. upper distribution) might correspond to a severe risk aversion position relative to the probability of information (resp. a flexible risk acceptance position). To maintain the richness of information provided by critics, the best way is to keep both distributions.

Matching between Distribution and a Set of Intervals

Let consider possibility distributions π 1 and π 2 the possibilistic approximations of intervals {I j , j = 1, nbi}. Let denote for π 1 (resp. π 2 ) (N 1 , Π 1 ) (resp. (N 2 , Π 2 )) the associated possibility and necessity measures. Then π 1 and π 2 are respectively the greatest and smallest fuzzy subsets such that [START_REF] Dubois | Fuzzy sets and statistical data[END_REF]:

∀A ⊆ Ω, [N 1 (A), Π 1 (A)] ⊆ [Bel(A), P l(A)] ⊆ [N 2 (A), Π 2 (A)].
Let still consider two possibility distributions π and π * defined on Ω. Two definitions are introduced: Definition 1. We define the degree of inclusion of π in π * as:

incl(π, π * ) = ( Ω (π * ∧ π))/ Ω π ( 2
)
Definition 2. We define the degree of matching of π to data {I j , j = 1, nbi} as:

match(π, {I j }) = [incl(π 1 , π) + incl(π, π 2 )]/2 ( 3 )
{I j } is said to match π better than π * if: match(π * , {I j }) < match(π, {I j }). We also use the notation match(π, (π 1 , π 2 )) instead of match(π, {I j }) when possible.

Remark 1. Definition 2 leads, for particular cases of π, to:

match(π,

{I j }) ∈ [0, 1]. -If π 1 ⊆ π ⊆ π 2 (inclusion of fuzzy subsets), then match(π, {I j }) = 1. -If π 2 ⊂ π, then match(π, {I j }) = [1 + ( Ω π 2 / Ω π)]/2. -If π ⊂ π 1 , then match(π, {I j }) = [( Ω π/ Ω π 1 ) + 1]/2. -If π 2 ∩ π = ∅, then match(π, {I j }) = 0.
The idea behind the matching is to consider that the distribution π (with N and Π its associated possibility and necessity measures) which guarantees

[N 1 (A), Π 1 (A)] ⊆ [N (A), Π(A)] ⊆ [N 2 (A), Π 2 (A)]
for a large number of subset A ⊆ Ω, better matches data {I j , j = 1, nbi}. This approach is similar to the one in [START_REF] Dubois | Weighted fuzzy pattern matching[END_REF] which used in fuzzy pattern matching.

Identification of Preferences Model

Aggregation models make the capture of the notion of priorities in the decisionmaker's strategy possible, and simplify the comparison of any two alternatives described through their elementary evaluation. The most commonly used operator to express decision maker preferences is the weighted average mean denoted here W AM ω . It allows giving non-symmetrical roles to criteria through a vector of relative weights ω

= (ω 1 , ..., ω n ) ∈ [0, 1] n .
The specialized press generally provides a simple overall assessment of items using evaluation scales such as: number of stars, number of bars, etc.. This score is accompanied by a more or less detailed critic in natural language which is supposed to make explicit the assessment of the journal. However it is often difficult for users to understand the exact reasons that would justify the imprecise overall score the item received. We model these imprecise scores by possibility distributions π k on [0,20] where k is an item index. To make clearer assessments allocated by a magazine to an item, we try to identify the strategy, the priorities that characterize this journal: what are the criteria that differentiate the values conveyed by this journal? As soon as a user knows which critics are of interest in the assessments of a specialized magazine, he can then choose the journal that matches the best his priorities and choose a film recommended by this magazine.

Many Internet users contribute to collaborative recommender systems but provide their opinion in natural language because they are not familiar with assessments and all the less with multi criteria assessments. Our segmentation and sentiment analysis system automatically collects all these criteria and, for each critic c that deals with an identified criterion i, it extracts an imprecise score (depending of the analysis granularity, i.e. the expected level of expertise) which is modeled as an interval as explained in section 2.2. According to the merging method presented in section 3.3 we compute two possibility distributions π k i,1 (inferior) and π k i,2 (superior) for the set of automatically collected imprecise scores for each item k and each criterion i. Let us note π α,ω k = W AM ω (π k α,1 , ..., π k α,n ) with α ∈ {1, 2}. The next step is to identify the weights of the distribution that best match the magazine's overall assessments. In other words, we search for weights ω such that π k and (π 1,ω k , π 2,ω k ) match as well as possible for a learning set of items (items). Mathematically, a possible answer is based on our function match defined in section 3.4 such as:

ω * = Arg max ω∈[0,1] n k∈items match( π k , (π 1,ω k , π 2,ω k )) (4)

Case Study

The software prototype that supports our recommendation system is based on a combination of an Internet user with a specialized journal that bears the same priorities or values as him. The case study presented in this section is based on movie recommendations. This prototype uses the multicriteria opinion extraction module in section 2, as well as, a base of movie critics written in natural language from the famous film critics site IMDB. Critics provided by IMDB (about 3000 critics per movie) provide enough information to get a representative picture of the diversity of opinions about this movie. Each film critic has been evaluated by our multicriteria opinions extraction system. To illustrate the method and simplify the presentation only two criteria are considered in this toy case study: actor and scenario. With the merger process of Section 3.3, we obtain inferior and superior distributions for 20 films in this case study. Table 1 shows the results respectively for movies: Gladiator, Avatar, Inglorious Bastard and Departed.

As we can see in table 1 multi modality is present in all distributions. It is due to the divergence found in critics' opinions: users are rarely unanimous on a movie review.

We selected 39 journals in this application. For each movies of the base, some journals provide overall assessments in the form of a number of stars (transformed into trapezoidal distributions π k ) (see table 5). The weight distribution that characterize the best the journal evaluation strategy is calculated through equation 4 for each journal: e.g. the weight distribution that explains at best the scores π k assigned to the 39 movies by the journal in the learning database. Fig. 1 shows that there are large differences between assessment strategy of journals (e.g. for Cahiers du Cinema, the weights are 0.6 for actor and 0.4 for scenario while conversely they are 0.22 and 0.78 for Charlie Hebdo). Some journals attach no importance to actors and some others to scenario.

Note that for a reliable and relevant recommendation, our model should integrate more criteria in the assessment. Finally, Fig. 1 provides to the Internet user how important criteria are considered in the 39 journals assessment strategy. He may then simply choose the journal that conveys the values that are closest to his mood of the moment and consult the hit list of this journal for a personalized recommendation. No model of user preference is need to be identified which is generally a thorny and forbidding task in collaborative RS systems. The user identifies himself the journal that suits him as best. Note that this simple principle allows the user to change his "preferences system" depending on his mood every time he goes to the cinema!

Conclusion

The automated extraction of critics related to a set of criteria, the imprecise assessment process based on our sentiment analysis and our fuzzy multicriteria analysis allows the development of highly automated recommender systems of type "multicriteria preference elicitation from evaluations" [START_REF] Adomavicius | Multi-criteria recommender systems[END_REF] free of the most constraining tasks of this type of collaborative systems. This is an important step because until now the need to manually assess a large number of documents according to several criteria represented a major obstacle to the implementation of such systems. The process we propose establishes a cognitive automation that can be easily deployed into Web applications.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Assessment strategy of movies specialized journals

Table 1 .

 1 Inferior and superior possibility distributions

Table 2 .

 2 Transformation of stars to trapezoidal distributions {0,2.5,5,7.5} {2.5,5,7.5,10} {5,7.5,10,12.5} ... {12.5,15,17.5,20}

	numbers of stars	*/2	*	*(*/2)	...	****
	abcd trapezium