Pénélope Troude

Janesquires

Laurence Foix L'hélias

Jean Bouyer

Elise De

La Rochebrochard

Ages and Stages Questionnaires: feasibility of postal survey for child follow-up

Background:

The Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ), completed by parents and caregivers, has been shown to be an accurate tool for screening children who need further developmental assessment.

Aims: to assess the feasibility of using the French Canadian translation of the ASQ in an epidemiological cohort of children from the French general population.

Study design: follow-up study by postal questionnaire at 12 and 36 months, using the ASQ.

Subjects: 339 French families recruited at the birth of their child in 2006 in two hospitals in the Paris suburbs.

Outcome measure: response rates and French ASQ results at 12 and 36 months. The ASQ was scored as indicated in the manual.

Results: A high response rate of 79% was observed at the children's 1st and 3rd birthdays.

Parents were enthusiastic about participating; half of them wrote comments on the questionnaires, most of them positive. Low scores at the 12-month assessment were associated with birth characteristics such as prematurity and transfer to the neonatology unit after birth, whereas at 36 months they tended to be associated with both birth and family socio-demographic characteristics.

Conclusions: Use of the French ASQ in a research cohort appears feasible as response rates were high. Moreover, known links between child development measured by ASQ and birth and social characteristics were observed. However, further French studies are needed to understand differences observed in 12-month ASQ gross motor scores compared with US norms. For research purposes, further analysis of the ASQ in innovative, quantitative approaches, is needed.

INTRODUCTION

Follow-up of large cohorts of children requires a reliable method of evaluating children's development at a low individual cost. It would indeed be too costly to have each child examined individually by a professional. One possibility is to question parents directly about their infant's behavior; however, no specific tool has been validated for child development monitoring in research cohorts. Various parent-completed questionnaires have been developed in the last twenty years to screen children who need further investigation by a medical professional. The Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS), the Child Development Inventories (CDI) and the Ages and Stages Questionnaires (ASQ) are described by the American Academy of Pediatrics as very good instruments with excellent psychometric properties [START_REF] Academy | Bright Futures Steering C, Medical Home Initiatives for Children With Special Needs Project Advisory C. Identifying infants and young children with developmental disorders in the medical home: an algorithm for developmental surveillance and screening[END_REF]. Moreover, they are increasingly used by physicians in clinical practice for the screening of developmental delay [START_REF] Hix-Small | Impact of implementing developmental screening at 12 and 24 months in a pediatric practice[END_REF][START_REF] Drotar | Selecting developmental surveillance and screening tools[END_REF][START_REF] Marks | Lowering developmental screening thresholds and raising quality improvement for preterm children[END_REF][START_REF] Sices | PEDS and ASQ developmental screening tests may not identify the same children[END_REF]. Thus, one possible way of monitoring child development in a large research cohort could be to use a parent-completed questionnaire [START_REF] Bricker | Questionnaires sur les étapes du développement -Evaluation de l'enfant par les parents 2ème édition-a translation of the Ages and Stages Questionnaires -translated and adapted[END_REF]. The ASQ screening system was developed by the University of Oregon's Center on Human Development during the 1980s and 1990s in response to a growing need for early and accurate identification of children who have developmental delays or disorders [START_REF] Squires | The ASQ user's guide for the Ages and Stages Questionnaires: a parent-completed child monitoring system[END_REF]. The ASQ screening system has been validated in multiple languages, including French Canadian. This system was developed to be used originally in a mail-out format. The original ASQ screening system is composed of 19 questionnaires that span the age range of 4 months to 60 months (5 years) and are designed to be completed by parents or primary caregivers (1999 version); the newly revised 3 rd edition consists of 21 questionnaires covering the 2-66 month age span (2009 version). Parents are asked to attempt every activity with their child, and to try again later if their child is noncompliant. Each questionnaire consists of 30 items that give equal cover to 5 areas: communication, gross motor, fine motor, problem solving and personal-social. For each developmental item, three responses are possible depending on how the child performs the behavior specified in the item: "yes" (10 points), "sometimes" (5 points) and

"not yet" (0 points). For each area, the total score is obtained by adding the scores of the 6 items and cut-offs have been defined for each area (2 SD or less below the mean score). When the child does not pass at least one area (i.e. score under the cut-off), a consultation with a medical professional for further investigation is indicated. The ASQ system is used in clinical practice but clinicians tend to refer for specialized consultation only those children who do not pass at least two areas [START_REF] Sices | PEDS and ASQ developmental screening tests may not identify the same children[END_REF]. This decreases the sensitivity of the ASQ screening but increases its specificity. Such an approach, with better balance between sensitivity and specificity, could be preferentially used when medical resources are scarce or when the objective is not clinical screening but research, as in the follow-up of large cohorts of children.

The psychometric properties of the ASQ have been studied by the authors [START_REF] Squires | The ASQ user's guide for the Ages and Stages Questionnaires: a parent-completed child monitoring system[END_REF] and by others in different countries [START_REF] Bricker | The validity, reliability, and cost of a parent-completed questionnaire system to evaluate at-risk infants[END_REF][START_REF] Skellern | A parent-completed developmental questionnaire: follow up of ex-premature infants[END_REF][START_REF] Heo | Cross-cultural adaptation of a pre-school screening instrument: comparison of Korean and US populations[END_REF][START_REF] Elbers | The Ages and Stages Questionnaires: feasibility of use as a screening tool for children in Canada[END_REF][START_REF] Kerstjens | Support for the global feasibility of the Ages and Stages Questionnaire as developmental screener[END_REF]. In terms of reliability, internal consistency of correlations between area and overall score ranged from 0.70 to 0.83 for both the 12-month and the 36month ASQ intervals. The percentage of agreement between two questionnaires completed by parents at a 2-week interval was used to assess test-retest reliability and was 94% (n=175).

Inter-observer reliability, measured as the percentage of agreement between results of the questionnaire completed by parents and results of those completed by two examiners, was 94% (n=112). Questionnaire validity has been studied using various professionally administered standardized developmental tests such as the Revised Gesell and Amatruda Developmental and Neurological Examination and the Bayley Scales of Infant Development.

For the 12 and 36-month ASQ, sensitivity ranged from 70% to 90% and specificity from 83% to 91% [START_REF] Squires | The ASQ user's guide for the Ages and Stages Questionnaires: a parent-completed child monitoring system[END_REF]. Other studies in general populations, as well as in at-risk populations, have from 67% to 100% and specificity from 76% to 100% [START_REF] Bricker | The validity, reliability, and cost of a parent-completed questionnaire system to evaluate at-risk infants[END_REF][START_REF] Skellern | A parent-completed developmental questionnaire: follow up of ex-premature infants[END_REF][START_REF] Heo | Cross-cultural adaptation of a pre-school screening instrument: comparison of Korean and US populations[END_REF][START_REF] Elbers | The Ages and Stages Questionnaires: feasibility of use as a screening tool for children in Canada[END_REF][START_REF] Kerstjens | Support for the global feasibility of the Ages and Stages Questionnaire as developmental screener[END_REF].

The aim of our study was to assess the feasibility of using the French Canadian translation of the ASQ in an epidemiological cohort of children from the French general population (6).

Children were followed up at 12 and 36 months. We also aimed to explore the association of ASQ results with health characteristics at birth, and with socio-economic characteristics of parents.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

STUDY POPULATION

Families were recruited at the child's birth, between January 1 and February 4, 2006, in two maternity hospitals in the suburbs of Paris, France [START_REF] Troude | Apgar scores reported in personal child health records: validity for epidemiological studies?[END_REF]. The research protocol included recruitment of all women giving birth during this period. A follow-up study concerning children's activities was proposed to the 339 mothers who responded to the birth questionnaire, who accepted the follow-up and had a valid address. The study was approved by the French Data Protection Authority (CNIL; authorization number 05-1335, 905304 versions 1 and 3).

PROCEDURE

The postal survey took place between January and February 2007 for the 12-month ASQ and between January and February 2009 for the 36-month ASQ. After two or three weeks, a reminder letter was sent to those who had not replied and two to three weeks later, a duplicate postal ASQ questionnaire was again sent to those who had not yet replied. One year after the survey, the parents received a newsletter presenting the final results of the study. Postal addresses were updated annually. For parents whose child did not pass several areas of the ASQ and who did not state that the child was receiving medical follow-up, a brief letter was enclosed with the results of the study, containing an invitation to consult a pediatrician and giving the contact details of the pediatrician of the maternity department where the parents had been recruited.

MEASURES

The 1 st and 3 rd birthday questionnaires included items on parents' socio-demographic characteristics as well as the ASQ 12 or 36-month questionnaires (second edition, French Canadian translation). Information on newborn health status was extracted from the medical record during the birth survey (birth weight, sex, gestational age and transfer to neonatology unit). Information on the parents' socio-demographic characteristics was available from the birth questionnaire filled out by the mother six weeks after the birth (age, nationality, level of education). Information on income was approached by a question on perception of financial situation that has been shown to be relevant [START_REF] Van Praag | The perception of income inequality[END_REF][START_REF] Easterlin | Explaining happiness[END_REF]. At the end of the 12 and 36-month questionnaires, parents were asked whether they had completed the parent-child activities specified on the ASQ. They were also asked if their child was willing or unwilling to perform these activities. Questionnaires were scored by the research team as indicated in the ASQ user's guide [START_REF] Squires | The ASQ user's guide for the Ages and Stages Questionnaires: a parent-completed child monitoring system[END_REF]. Questionnaires completed outside the 2-month window of administration were not included in the sample.

As our aim was to evaluate child development in a research cohort and not to clinically screen development, we defined at-risk children as those with two areas under the suggested cut-off scores in order to achieve a better balance between sensitivity and specificity. In multiple pregnancies (n=9), only the first-born of the twins or triplets was included in the analyses to satisfy the independence assumption.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Response rates and usable questionnaire rates were tabulated for each phase. To explore potential selection bias, factors associated with response rate were investigated using the chisquare test or Fisher's exact test.

We recorded the percentage of children who did not pass the ASQ at 12 and at 36 months.

Area mean scores were compared with reference mean scores published in the ASQ User's Guide for the Ages and Stages Questionnaires (1999) (Student's t test) [START_REF] Squires | The ASQ user's guide for the Ages and Stages Questionnaires: a parent-completed child monitoring system[END_REF].

Associations between the child's failure in at least two areas, neonatal characteristics and parents' socio-demographic factors were investigated for the 12-month and the 36-month ASQ using logistic regression. The following neonatal characteristics were studied: sex, birth weight (low birth weight i.e. < 2500 g vs ≥ 2500 g), gestational age (premature i.e. < 37 WA vs ≥ 37 WA), and newborn transfer to neonatology unit (yes vs no). As development is known to be linked to the child's socioeconomic environment, the following parental characteristics were also studied: mother's and father's age at the birth of the child (< 35 years vs ≥ 35 years), mother's and father's educational level (> or ≤ 2 years after high school diploma), parents' nationality (French vs other), family situation (parents living together vs parents separated), mother's occupational status (mother working at the child's 1 st or 3 rd birthday vs not working), and smoking during pregnancy (yes vs no).

Variables included in the multivariate models were selected by a backward stepwise procedure with a significance level for removal from the model of 0.20.

We also investigated correlations between 12-month and 36-month ASQ results with the Pearson correlation coefficient.

All statistical analyses were performed using STAT/SE 10.0 (Stata Press, College Station, TX, USA).

RESULTS

Participation figures in the two phases of the study are presented in Figure 1. For the 1 st and 3 rd birthday assessments, 79% of mothers responded to the postal questionnaire (268/339 and 205/260). Among the questionnaires returned, 85% (12 months: 229/268) and 87% (36 months: 179/205) were usable. The main reason for exclusion of questionnaires was delay in response, leading the child to fall outside the "age window" for valid scoring (74%). Missing dates of questionnaire completion, meaning that the child's exact age at completion was not known, accounted for 14% of excluded questionnaires, while missing answers on the ASQ making it impossible to calculate the score accounted for 12% of excluded questionnaires.

Finally, 265 families that completed a usable 12 and/or 36-month ASQ questionnaire were included. Both the 12 and 36-month questionnaires were completed and usable by 143 families (229-143=86 families had only the 12-month ASQ questionnaire completed and usable and 179-143=36 families had only the 36-month ASQ questionnaire completed and usable).

Characteristics of the study population are presented in Table 2 (n=265). The mother's median age at the child's birth was 32 years and the father's was 33 years. About 60% of mothers and 50% of fathers had completed at least 2 years of education beyond the high school diploma, and 71% of couples reported that their financial situation was "comfortable" or "fair". At the child's 1 st birthday, 70% of mothers worked outside the home whereas 79% worked outside the home on the child's 3 rd birthday. Concerning the child, 8% had a birth weight lower than 2500 g and 9% were premature.

Detailed results of the 12 and 36-month ASQ are presented in Table 3. Of the 229 12month ASQs, 14% of the infants did not pass at least two areas. The area most often failed was gross motor (26.6%), followed by communication (17.9%) and problem solving (12.7%).

All area mean scores in our study were significantly lower than the reference mean scores.

The mean total score was 197.3 (SD=51.3). Of the 179 36-month ASQs, 7% of children did not pass at least two areas. The area that children most often failed was fine motor (11.7%), whereas less than 7% of children failed all other areas. Mean scores did not significantly differ from reference mean scores for communication and gross motor areas but were significantly lower for fine motor, problem resolution and personal-social areas. The mean total score was 257.6 (SD=36.8).

Factors associated with failure in the 12 and the 36-month ASQ are presented in Table 3.

Twelve-month ASQ results were associated with the child's health at birth (prematurity and transfer to neonatology unit after birth). Neither the mother's nor the father's educational levels were associated at 12 months, but the mother's educational level tended to be associated with the 36-month ASQ results (p=0.06). The proportion of children living in a single-parent family (mainly the mother) was nearly two-fold higher among children who did not pass the questionnaires, but this did not reach statistical significance. In multivariate analysis (data not shown), for the 12-month ASQ only prematurity remained associated with ASQ failure with an odds ratio of 4.6 (95% CI [1.7-12.3], p=0.002) but single-parent families tended to be associated with ASQ failure with an odds ratio of 3.4 (95% CI [0.8-14.4], p=0.09). At 36 months, ASQ failure was associated with a low level of maternal education (OR=0.2, 95% CI [0.05-0.9], p=0.03) and tended to be associated with the newborn's transfer to a neonatology unit (OR=3.7, 95% CI [0.8-16.1], p=0.09).

Among the 143 children with a usable questionnaire at 12 and 36 months, the correlation between the 12 and the 36-month ASQ total scores was 0.62 (p < 0.01). Of the 18 children who did not pass the 12-month ASQ and whose parents completed the 36-month ASQ, 72% passed at 36 months. Of the 125 children who passed the 12-month ASQ and had 36-month results, 5% did not pass the 36-month questionnaire. Finally, among the 143 children with 12 and 36-month results, only 5 (3%) did not pass both questionnaires. Of these children, 3 failed the same areas at 12 months and 36 months.

To explore potential selection bias in our sample, response rates were studied according to family characteristics and, for the 36-month questionnaire, they were also studied according to the results of the 12-month ASQ. The proportion of respondents did not significantly differ according to the mother's educational level, and none of the child's characteristics at birth were associated with response rate for either of the two study phases (data not shown). Moreover, response rates to the 36-month ASQ were not associated with the results of the 12month ASQ. In the group of children who did not pass the 12-month ASQ, 75% of their parents responded to the 36-month ASQ, and among children who passed the 12-month ASQ, 85% of parents responded (p=0.17). There were also no differences in the percentage of usable 36-month ASQs according to the result of the 12-month ASQ (86% vs. 90%, p=0.56).

DISCUSSION

Based on our results, using the ASQ as a means of assessing child development in an epidemiological cohort research study appears feasible. Response rates by parents at both ASQ intervals were high: 79% of parents answered the postal questionnaire. For both intervals, more than 96% of parents agreed to be contacted for a future step, and 98% wished to receive the overall results of the study. Parents' participation was high and parents were enthusiastic about participating in the study: half of them wrote comments on the questionnaires, most of them positive. These results are in agreement with two Canadian studies in which 88 to 100% of parents found that ASQ questionnaires were easy to complete [START_REF] Elbers | The Ages and Stages Questionnaires: feasibility of use as a screening tool for children in Canada[END_REF][START_REF] Rydz | Screening for developmental delay in the setting of a community pediatric clinic: a prospective assessment of parent-report questionnaires[END_REF]. We found that over 85% of the questionnaires returned were usable. This result is close to that of a Canadian study in which 22% of the 18-month ASQs were returned late ( 16) and had to be excluded. This rate could probably be improved by emphasizing in the covering letter the need to answer quickly.

The high response rate for both phases of the study may be linked to the study population characteristics. Our population had an educational level higher than the general population, as 82% of mothers had an educational level equal to or higher than the high school diploma, whereas in France, in the general population, 43% of pregnant women have reached this level [START_REF] Blondel | Enquête périnatale 2003: situation en 2003 et évolution depuis[END_REF]. Moreover, a large proportion of couples reported a good financial situation and thus may have fewer financial worries than the general population. The response rate could be lower in a less educated population. However, our study population did not appear to suffer from selection bias, as the proportion of respondents did not significantly differ according to maternal educational level.

We explored associations between ASQ results and the child's health characteristics at birth and found confirmatory results. The known association between premature birth and child development was confirmed by our findings [START_REF] Marks | Lowering developmental screening thresholds and raising quality improvement for preterm children[END_REF][START_REF] Kerstjens | Support for the global feasibility of the Ages and Stages Questionnaire as developmental screener[END_REF][START_REF] Klamer | Ages and Stages Questionnaire used to measure cognitive deficit in children born extremely preterm[END_REF][START_REF] Plomgaard | Measuring developmental deficit in children born at gestational age less than 26 weeks using a parent-completed developmental questionnaire[END_REF][START_REF] Richter | A validation study of the Norwegian version of the Ages and Stages Questionnaires[END_REF]. Maternal educational level was also associated with child developmental outcome as has been shown in the literature [START_REF] Kerstjens | Support for the global feasibility of the Ages and Stages Questionnaire as developmental screener[END_REF][START_REF] Tong | Socioeconomic position, maternal IQ, home environment, and cognitive development[END_REF]. In our study, the effect of the child's health at birth on ASQ results seemed to decrease at the 36-month assessment, and the mother's educational level was associated with ASQ results only for the 36-month assessment. Our observations suggest that the effect of the child's health characteristics at birth decrease as his or her age increases, whereas the effect of environmental factors increases. These conclusions are in agreement with the literature [START_REF] Hillemeier | Disparities in the prevalence of cognitive delay: how early do they appear?[END_REF][START_REF] Ment | Change in cognitive function over time in very low-birth-weight infants[END_REF].

The 2-month age administration window on the 2 nd edition of the ASQ appears quite large, as 11 and 13-month-old children may have quite different levels of development. We thus checked our results by restricting our analysis to questionnaires completed for infants aged 12 months or older, and for children of 36 months or older. Among the restricted sample of 116 children aged 12 to 13 months, 14% did not pass the ASQ (data not shown) which was exactly the same proportion as in the entire sample including 229 children aged 11 to 13 months. Among the restricted sample of 60 children aged 36 to 37 months, 8% did not pass the ASQ (data not shown) which was very close to the 7% observed in the entire sample including 179 children aged 35 to 37 months. Moreover, for the 12-month ASQ, among the restricted sample of 116 children aged 12 to 13 months, 26% of children did not pass the gross motor area and 18% did not pass the communication area. These proportions were nearly identical to those observed in the entire sample of 229 children aged 11 to 13 (27% and 18%, respectively). The results obtained in older children were thus similar to those of the whole sample. This is a reassuring observation concerning the validity of the ASQ age windows.

Concerning ASQ results at 36 months, we found that mean scores were significantly lower than reference mean scores for three areas (fine motor, problem solving and personal-social), whereas studies in other countries did not find these differences [START_REF] Squires | The ASQ user's guide for the Ages and Stages Questionnaires: a parent-completed child monitoring system[END_REF][START_REF] Heo | Cross-cultural adaptation of a pre-school screening instrument: comparison of Korean and US populations[END_REF][START_REF] Janson | Parent-completed developmental screening in a Norwegian population sample: a comparison with US normative data[END_REF]. However, except for the fine motor area, the proportion of children that failed each area remained lower than 8%. At 12 months, all observed mean scores in our study were significantly lower than reference mean scores. Moreover, we observed a greater variability, with higher SDs for almost all areas, in particular for the area that showed the most failures: gross motor (21.3 vs. [START_REF] Easterlin | Explaining happiness[END_REF].3) [START_REF] Squires | The ASQ user's guide for the Ages and Stages Questionnaires: a parent-completed child monitoring system[END_REF]. This result differs from other studies, since a Korean study found no differences and a Norwegian study found only two mean scores higher than reference scores, both of them with similar SDs [START_REF] Heo | Cross-cultural adaptation of a pre-school screening instrument: comparison of Korean and US populations[END_REF][START_REF] Janson | Parent-completed developmental screening in a Norwegian population sample: a comparison with US normative data[END_REF]. The proportion of children (14%) who did not pass at least two ASQ areas at 12 months in our sample is too high to be clinically realistic and should not be interpreted as a category of children with developmental problems. In addition, the children of our sample no longer showed such low developmental results at 36 months (the proportion decreased from 14% to 7%). These results suggest there is a need for additional reliability measures of the 12-month cut-off points in the French population. There could be several explanations for this high proportion of failure at 12 months, which we discuss in the following paragraphs.

The second most failed area at 12 months in our study was communication, with 18% of infants failing this area. In the 3 rd edition of the ASQ, the hardest item of the communication area at 12 months has been replaced by an expressive item that is supposed to be achieved earlier [START_REF] Squires | ASQ-3™ User's Guide[END_REF]. When we recalculated our data and considered this item as missing, the proportion of infants who failed the communication area was 15% and when it was considered as a pass, this proportion fell to 6%. In this case, the communication mean score was 40.9 (SD 14.7) and did not significantly differ from the reference mean score of the second edition (p=0.23).

In our French population, we observed a high level of failure for the gross motor area at 12 months. However, at 36 months, the proportion of failure for the gross motor area decreased sharply from 26.6% to 4.5%, suggesting that the 12-month results did not reflect a true gross motor problem. The 12-month gross motor result could be linked to cultural differences in motor milestone achievement, especially the age of walking [START_REF] Hindley | Differences in age of walking in five European longitudinal samples[END_REF][START_REF]WHO Motor Development Study: windows of achievement for six gross motor development milestones[END_REF][START_REF] Kelly | Ethnic differences in achievement of developmental milestones by 9 months of age: The Millennium Cohort Study[END_REF]. Neither biological nor socioeconomic factors entirely explain these differences, and parental expectations and child rearing practices (effect of first birth order, for instance) probably also play a part in these variations [START_REF] Lansdown | Culturally appropriate measures for monitoring child development at family and community level: a WHO collaborative study[END_REF][START_REF] Wu | Brief report: Taiwanese infants' mental and motor development--6-24 months[END_REF]. The high level of failure for the 12-month gross motor area could also be related to a "seasonal birth period effect". All children of the sample were in fact born in winter. In these children, motor development at 12 months might be slightly delayed because of movement being hampered by winter clothing and less opportunity to go outside during the winter season. Such a "seasonal birth period effect" would concord with the fact that gross motor development no longer appeared delayed at 36 months. Various effects have already been reported in the literature [START_REF] Heo | Cross-cultural adaptation of a pre-school screening instrument: comparison of Korean and US populations[END_REF][START_REF] Wu | Brief report: Taiwanese infants' mental and motor development--6-24 months[END_REF] that could explain delay in milestone achievement linked to cultural rearing practices. The "seasonal birth period effect" may also need to be taken into account and would require further investigation. In particular, other studies among French children born at various periods of the year would be required in order to compare their gross motor development.

Differences between area mean scores and reference scores may reflect, to some extent, the way that parents answered the questions rather than an actual high proportion of infants with potential developmental delays, since questionnaires were presented to parents as epidemiological research on children's activities and not as a screening tool (with no planned medical follow-up). This approach may lead parents to give more rigorous answers to questionnaires on child development. Moreover, we could not exclude that French parents may have greater expectations for their children, leading to more rigorous answers. In epidemiological studies, ASQ results might be used as a quantitative evaluation, for instance, in considering area mean scores or the number of failed areas. Such use of the ASQ should be explored in future research.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, use of the ASQ for research purposes in a large child cohort study appeared a promising perspective, with very good parent involvement. The ASQ is probably a valid tool with which to explore factors associated with child development, as it exhibited known links between child development and both birth and social characteristics. However, further French studies of a larger number of children are needed to understand differences observed in 12-month ASQ gross motor scores compared with US norms. Moreover, for purposes, it would be very interesting to explore the possibility of analyzing the ASQ in new ways, especially using quantitative approaches in order to have richer descriptions of a study population and not merely the two categories used for screening (pass/no pass).

Figure 1. Study flowchart

Contacted families n=339

Respondents to the 1st birthday questionnaire n=268

Usable 1st birthday questionnaires n=229

Non-respondents to the 1st birthday questionnaire n=71

Unusable 1st birthday questionnaires* n=39

Lost to follow-up n=34

Lost to follow-up n=38

Lost to follow-up n=7

Contactable families at 3 years n=260

Respondents to the 3rd birthday questionnaire n=205 * ASQ was considered as failed if scores of at least two areas were below the reference cut-off.

(including 160 respondents to both 1st and 3rd questionnaires) Usable 3rd birthday questionnaires n=179 (including 143 usable 1st and 3rd birthday questionnaires)

	Non-respondents to the 3rd
	birthday questionnaire
	n=55
	Unusable 3rd
	birthday questionnaires*
	n=26
	* Unusable questionnaires were due principally to delay in response leading to the child falling outside the "age
	window" for valid scoring (74%) or to missing data on the child's exact age (14%)

Table 1 . Study population characteristics (n=265)

 1

	n	%	Median [Q1-Q3]

Table 2 . Results of the 12 and 36-month ASQs Reference values * Results of the present study

 2 2nd ed. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.; 1999. † An area was considered as failed when the score was below the reference cut-off. ‡ reference mean scorestudy mean score § p Student's t test for mean scores comparison < 0.01

	Difference of
	mean

* Squires J, Potter L, Bricker D. The ASQ User's Guide for the Ages and Stages Questionnaires: A Parent-Completed, Child-Monitoring System.

Table 3 . Factors associated with 12-month and 36-month ASQ results (univariate analysis)

 3

			12-month ASQ			36-month ASQ
		Passed	Failed *		Passed	Failed *
		(n=197)	(n=32)		(n=167)	(n=12)
		n (%)	n (%)	univariate	n (%)	n (%)	univariate
				OR [95%CI]			OR [95%CI]
	Children's characteristics
	Sex
	Boy	106 (53.8)	21 (65.6)	1.6 [0.8-3.6]	88 (52.7)	7 (58.3)	1.3 [0.4-4.1]
	Birth weight
	< 2500 g	13 (6.6)	5 (15.6)	2.6 [0.9-7.9]	15 (9.0)	1 (8.3)	0.9 [0.1-7.6]
	Gestational age
	< 37 WA	15 (7.6)	8 (25.0)	4.0 [1.6-10.5]	15 (9.0)	2 (16.7)	2.0 [0.4-10.1]
	Newborn transferred to neonatology unit
	Yes	21 (10.7)	9 (28.1)	3.3 [1.3-8.0]	16 (9.6)	3 (25.5)	3.1 [0.8-12.8]
	Parents' characteristics
	Maternal age at birth
	≥ 35 years	50 (25.4)	8 (25.0)	1.0 [0.4-2.3]	47 (28.1)	2 (16.7)	0.5 [0.1-2.4]
	Paternal age at birth
	≥ 35 years	63 (32.8)	12 (37.5)	1.2 [0.6-2.7]	62 (37.6)	5 (41.7)	1.2 [0.4-3.9]
	Parents' nationality
	Other than French	10 (5.1)	4 (12.5)	2.7 [0.8-9.1]	6 (3.6)	1 (8.3)	2.4 [0.3-22.0]
	Mother's educational level
	> 2 years after high school diploma	116 (59.5)	16 (50.0)	0.7 [0.3-1.4]	106 (63.9)	4 (33.3)	0.3 [0.1-1.0]
	Father's educational level
	> 2 years after high school diploma	100 (51.3)	50 (50.0)	0.9 [0.4-2.0]	91 (55.1)	4 (33.3)	0.4 [0.1-1.4]
	Mother smoked during pregnancy
	Yes	19 (14.7)	3 (9.4)	0.6 [0.2-2.1]	15 (9.0)	5 (25.0)	3.4 [0.8-13.8]

Mother working at the child's 1 st or 3 rd birthday

	No	60 (30.6)	11 (34.4)	1.2 [0.5-2.6]	36 (21.7)	4 (36.4)	2.1 [0.6-7.4]
	Parents separated
	Yes	9 (4.6)	3 (9.4)	2.2 [0.6-8.5]	7 (4.2)	2 (16.7)	4.6 [0.8-24.9]


The Instrumentation of « Schéma Directeurs des énergies » of Lyon Metropolis Drawing the city Smart Grid tools amidst the energy data-digitalization

Keywords: New Governance, Lyon Living Lab, Big Data, Smart Grid economic model

process, case of Lyon Living Lab Smart Grid Strategy.

Introduction

As the fancy and hype notion of big data continues to take global attention, [START_REF] Desouza | Big Data in the Public Sector: Lessons for Practitioners and Scholars[END_REF] suggests a large portion of big data literature has emerged to promote the use of big data as tools in decision-making. Unquestionably, the compliment to big data are coming mainly from the success of GAFA (Google, Amazon, Facebook, Apple) through its cloud computing systems, personified marketing approach based on the personal internet activity history, the proliferation of the web, social media, mobile devices, and sensor networks, and the artificial intelligence in their operational processing [START_REF] Chen | Business Intelligence and Analytics: From Big Data To Big Impact[END_REF][START_REF] Müller | Utilizing Big Data Analytics for Information Systems Research: Challenges, Promises and Guidelines[END_REF]. Within the current trends, mostly in smart cities' action, big data are more and more pushed to tap into the field of public services [START_REF] Nuaimi | Applications of Big Data to Smart Cities[END_REF]. In the contemporary political rationalities and administrative innovations, the likes of big data appeared to be characteristically connected to the advance in knowledge information and the forces of new expertise as suggested by [START_REF] Rose | Political Power beyond the State: Problematics of Government[END_REF]. At this stage, we underlined in certain discussion, the introduction of big data within the public institution does not only challenge the hegemony of statistic as common government's quantitative tools, big data have come to urge various transformations on its governance [START_REF] Cai | The Challenges of Data Quality and Data Quality Assessment in the Big Data Era[END_REF]. Based on this perspective, we would like to delve into the theoretical framework of big data and its empirical practices linked to the public policy.

Robert Kitchin proposed a conceptual understanding of big data as "data revolution", where it signifies all new dimension of data aggregation methods, data sourcing, data production and data visualization, subject of digital omnipresence (Kitchin 2014). As a new quantitative source, we comprehend the dynamics of accounting tools construction in public policy do not often outflow the layer of social and political debates. As suggested by Foucault in his analysis of "Instrumentation", the rational choice and effects of the instrument of public policy technics do not only reflect the proper utility of the tools, but also show the political relations they induce. To make an echo with the existing works, we propose to revisit the article of Johan Hotchl et al. (2016), "Big data in the policy cycle: Policy decision making in the digital era". The author generalized big data into a rational choice within the governance cycle. Thus, the contingent of big data were subjected to the rational policy agendasetting [START_REF] Hassenteufel | Les Processus de Mise Sur Agenda : Sélection et Construction Des Problèmes Publics[END_REF]. According to Hotchl, et al., big data will be considered as a set of tools if it were to satisfy the political advantage of public agents. This argument aligns itself to the theory of public policy instrument (for example in Lascoumes and Le Gales, 2004Gales, & 2011) ) as the umbrella of critical perspective that restores the functionalism aspect of the instrument upon the socio-cultural and political dimension. This article juggles on the vicinity of the actual hypothesis and argument by bringing forth the empirical cases in a more specific sector of smart energy.

In order to frame big data in relation between technics and socio-cultural and political context, we overlay the approach of "commensuration" analysis proposed by [START_REF] Espeland | Commensuration as a Social Process[END_REF]. Commensuration was introduced as cultural technic that anticipates the transformation of different qualities into a common metric. In one part, commensuration identifies the ensemble of elements associated to the dynamism of power, value and interest, sometimes cognitive, or even political symbols that prefigure the tools and quantifying processes toward its objects. In other parts, it reveals a critic of the possible unproportioned weight or even a misleading social assessment in an object. Quantifying societal aspect is always intrigued by the inherent invisible qualities that cannot be reduced to the logic of metrics. Thus, commensuration ploys to carefully interrogate the whole composition involved in quantifying process-both the political dimension of the tools employed and the inherent values of the object. Commensuration appeared as a debate of a set of different qualities embedded into the metric of measurement. The author also explains that somehow commensuration is relative and abstract, and it varies depending on the agents. It provides a practical rationality that is able to translate thought into the domain of reality, and to establish in the world of persons and things, spaces, and devices for acting upon those entities of which they vision and scheme.

The perspective of commensuration in this paper could provide critical thinking towards our discussion on big data. In this case, the coat of commensuration would investigate the very substance of social political dimension that mobilize big data. For instance the hypothetical claim of big data tends to neglect the use of the theory but to universalize the worlds with the N=all formula, that is to say : "unlike the theory that needs hypothesis, the great quantity of would speak by themselves to explain the correlation of phenomena" [START_REF] Cukier | Rise of Big Data: How It's Changing the Way We Think about the World, The[END_REF].

Beyond its merely quantitative discussions, big data have been expanded into several categories that linked itself in certain themes, one of them, big data are allied in pair with the emergence of the notion of smart cities [START_REF] Kitchin | Small Data in the Era of Big Data[END_REF][START_REF] Picon | L'avènement de La Ville Intelligente[END_REF][START_REF] Townsend | SMART CITIES Big Data, Civic Hackers, and the Quest for a New Utopia[END_REF]. Some authors are even convinced to define big data as the essential element that mark the advent of smart cities [START_REF] Picon | L'avènement de La Ville Intelligente[END_REF]. Smart Cities' movement are the application of big data in a specific configuration of urban innovation cases.

In the other hand, smart cities have a polarized typology, extending from the early form and the model proposed by big enterprises such as IBM, Microsoft and Cisco (Boullier, 2016) to a more democratic model across local society movement armed with the available technologies to deal with daily problems [START_REF] Townsend | SMART CITIES Big Data, Civic Hackers, and the Quest for a New Utopia[END_REF]. Different perspectives were also found within the researchers across the disciplines. For some geographers, Smart City is determined by the geo-localization of "smart city innovation" promoted by different actors [START_REF] Florida | The City as Innovation Machine[END_REF], Shearmur, 2016). Richard Florida perceived the Smart Cities as the cluster of creative classes in given spaces [START_REF] Florida | Cities and the Creative Class[END_REF]. For political scientists, some part of Smart Cities programs are classified into the analysis of government tools of sectoral issues, regional competitiveness, international ranking, and benchmarking [START_REF] Giffinger | Smart Cities Ranking: An Effective Instrument for the Positioning of the Cities?[END_REF]. Smart City is far from being one fits for all because of the fragmentation and temporality of actors, different socio-cultural and political settings that gave a distinct output which must be portrayed as a discontinuity and fragmentation over Smart City application across the cities and metropolis [START_REF] Graham | Splintering Urbanisme : Prologue and Introduction[END_REF]. At the same time, in certain circumstances, such dynamics that frame Smart Cities are also applied on the big data as a column that contribute to Smart City architecture.

Many critics in the scientific journal of public policy state that there are insufficient numbers of articles apropos of big data that could provide the precise example of its application on public policy process or public policy output. The problem was, do big data can ever be pillar to public government instrument? or can we basically argue that big data are a new kind of quantitative rational to the contemporary world? The series of question are exercising two principle issues: (1) How big data could be perfectly fit into the politico-administrative of public institutions? and ( 2) what is the real impact of big data within the process of policy making? The two are incontestably relevant with respect to the fancy of big data coeval and the driving force of bedazzled theoretical expectations suggesting the outstanding success of such company employing big data (see GAFA). As suggested by Anthony Townsend, extracted from his interview with Collin Harisson, the Chief collaborator of "IBM Smarter Planet program", the Smart Cities campaign was coming from the idea to import the success of private company technologies into the urban life. Principally Smart Cities would like to enhance such idea of imbedding the RFID tag technology that was used to track goods to be applied on the city's activities, to retrace the flow of people within the city systems and to automatically collect and to analyses the real time data in a single integrated platform. These new technologies are supposed to be the breakthrough for public government in order to effectively manage the cities [START_REF] Townsend | SMART CITIES Big Data, Civic Hackers, and the Quest for a New Utopia[END_REF]. Therefore, we argue the idea of Smart City was fundamentally a big data process through datafication, to create as highest quantity and resolution as possible of city' data at the disposal of the city government. The term of datafication is also parts of discussion on big data phenomena [START_REF] Cukier | Rise of Big Data: How It's Changing the Way We Think about the World, The[END_REF][START_REF] Van Dijck | Datafication, Dataism and Dataveillance: Big Data between Scientific Paradigm and Ideology[END_REF][START_REF] Lycett | Datafication': Making Sense of (Big) Data in a Complex World[END_REF].

After all, to carefully situate big data in its empirical condition, this paper looks at the case of Smart Grid and Smart Meter programs in Lyon Metropolis, particularly the Smart Electric Lyon (SEL) piloted by EDF and the Lyon Living Lab (LLL) experiment piloted by Bouyges Immobilier and numbers of consortium. The two projects respectively claim to mobilize big data as the core element of experiment. In this case, the Smart Grid project, fueled by big data are becoming a discourse, a symbol of solution to renewable energy, energetic transition toward a sustainable energy 1 , the faith on the information technology as sustainable development solutions (Flippo, et.al., 2016). Our interests in SEL and LLL are also down to the fact there was an agreement, Memorandum of understanding between the promotor and the local representatives to integrate the project into Greater Lyon energy tools 2 . On one hand, Lyon would manage to benefit the result from the external actor, while on the other hand, Bouyges has its right granted by the legitimate political actor to deploy the territory [START_REF] Cadiou | Gouverner sous pression ? La participation des groupes d'intérêt aux affaires territoriales, Paris, LGDJ, Lextenso éditions[END_REF]. It was declared that the main outputs of the SEL project are the fine-grained data of electricity household consumptions, generated by a Smart Meter device named Linky. This device was also classified and validated by the French Ministry of the Environment, Energy and the Sea in 2017 as sustainable tools, which gave a strong political bargaining of Linky. As for the LLL project, the interplay of big data are in the heart of blockchain energy method. Thus, the benefit for Lyon Metropolis was to experience the new set of tools in Smart energy developed in its territory at its disposal of energy policy related to smart grid. While at the same time, Lyon Metropolis henceforth is very active to grasp with the agenda of big data and smart city. Specifically, in energy sector, Lyon Metropolis has been attributed the legal politico-administrative to develop its own energy tools and policy, named the Schema Directeur des Energies (SDE) in which Smart Grid is one of the priorities scenarios 3 .

From this perspective we reinforced our hypothesis in which the SDE were expecting the contribution of Smart Grid or "Reseaux Intelligents" in Fench term were coming from the private "demonstrators" that underway within Lyon's territory as they stated on the annual report of SDE and territorial climate-energy plan 2018 (see the image).

As the political and technical administration is established into the governance of the SDE, inevitably, Lyon Metropolis possesses a concrete tool that becomes the interlocutor of external energy actors willing to demonstrate their Smart grid projects in the territory. In our analysis, we expect to constitute the SDE as the prism to understand how big data are well perceived as the additional element in Greater Lyon energy policy design and strategy. Especially, the initiative and scenario to integrate Smart Grid into the current instrument is registered on the agenda of SDE (scenario 3 on the image). Big data of energy is also identified as fundamental element to give a new element of analysis to reinforce and to develop another possibility scenario of the energy policy Through these empirical phenomena, our principle objective remains emphasized on interrogating the following: to what extent such complex dynamics of big data could be concretized as tools for energy policy design to Greater Lyon?

Big Data within the Social Science regards

To provide a conceptual reply to our problematics, in this article we would like to bring forth the actual debates surrounding big data. The growing concern of Social Scientist toward big data emerged in 2009, mostly stimulated by the success of Google Flu Trends as the headline in the article written by Chris Anderson, the chief editor of Wired Magazine. The article was published in 2008 "The End of Theory: The Data Deluge Makes the Scientific Method Obsolete" [START_REF] Anderson | The End of Theory: The Data Deluge Makes the Scientific Method Obsolete[END_REF]. The idea of the article was to promote the agility of big data generated by Google for having contributed to provide real time information to United States government about the rapid spread of flu epidemic that struck United States during 2009-2010. Anderson intended to compare the slow response of government tools "The Centre for Disease Control". At that time, big data seems to gain a maximum momentum by comparing itself to traditional instrument of government relying on traditional method, expert's resources, generating theory and hypothesis, and costly data. Meanwhile, Google can rapidly predict the spread of disease in the country based on the data correlation of search keyword and geolocalization.

Since then, the debate is growing rapidly among the social scientist to counter Anderson's article. The tagline "the numbers speak for themselves" is globally employed by the advocates of big data, which means that big data are committed to statistical analysis of pure correlation that is devoid of theory. It argues with enough data, the traditional, hypothetical scientific model will no longer be needed to understand a phenomenon [START_REF] Cukier | Rise of Big Data: How It's Changing the Way We Think about the World, The[END_REF]. Big data require a shift of mindset to understand the world. A more comprehensive perspective, a kind of N = all is a new formula, seeing phenomena through its own data reflex. As a result, the look at big data have led to the emergence of a new hypothesis, the competition of the usual conception based on the "hypothesis" and the "random sampling". In the era of big data, the need for sampling is an artefact of a period of information scarcity (Ibid, 2013).

Later, the "N=All" hypothesis has attracted a lot of critics. The first element concerns the proclamation of the objectivity proposed by big data, while on the contrary, big data were conceived in an interpreted technology which determines what will be measured, which can lead to new concentrations of power, and they are never methodologically excluded from human design (Crawford 2013, Kitchin 2014). Be that as it may, data, or even big data, is always "raw", it must be defined as cultural resource, the result of an interpretation instead of a natural resource. The configuration of data production is always percussed by conflicts, norms, and interests, all of which are reduced to the process of materializing data [START_REF] Bowker | Raw Data" Is an Oxymoron[END_REF]. This observation refers to the traditional data analysis. The passage of big data will raise some adjustments in the look of socio-political and economic as the permanent framing of the company and the use of quantitative tools as explained by Desrosiers (2008). In his analogy of statistical tool as proof of action, he has never escaped the framing of subjective reflection or the political use that employs it, despite the scientific neutrality that he could embody.

Another more classical view, the etymology of data was derived from the Latin word "dare" which means "to give", so data means raw elements of overall universe or phenomenon that can be extracted, measured and recorded in various ways [START_REF] Borgman | The Digital Future Is Now: A Call to Action for the Humanities[END_REF]. However, in the current language, the word data is accidentally used in the way the data is captured elements (capta in Latin), the units of data that were selected and harvested from the sum of all potential data (Kitchin, 2014). This reinforces the fact that data are always elements of secondary products of thought, reflections and interpretations according to the tool and the instrument of harvesting and use employed. Data are not simply natural and essential elements as such, which are extracted from the world in a neutral and objective way and can be accepted at face value; the data is created within a complex assembly that actively shapes its constitution.

Delving amidst these debates, Dominque Boullier (2014), provided a fundamental insight to bridge the gap of big data on the sociological investigation. He extended the phenomena of big data to the works of sociology and quantification such as Emil Durkheim, "Suicide (1976)", in which the constitution of society from the optic of government is reflected by the statistic numbers produced by State administration. At the epoch, the scope of society "to govern" and "being governed" are those captured by the radar of statistical number. From this statement, Boullier argues the impending of big data should give another challenge to reconsider the sociology toward the conception of society. In other words, if at the given time sociology was struggling with the scarcity of data and could only passively generated such data from State statistical bureau, in the contemporary era, digital instrument had helped to automatically produced many data of almost all human activities in the daily basis. As such, the actual hypothesis is to rethink about the new epistemology of sociology, new model, and new concepts of how the society should be regarded.

Table : The social concept of quantification and its transformations (Boullier, 2014) Almost in the same register, Robert Kitchin (2014) proposes to draw the line toward the paradigm of scientific revolution of Thomas Kuhn. For Kitchin, Thomas Kuhn has provided a crucial path of paradigm to understand the common consensus way to interrogate the world and synthesizing knowledge according to a substantial proportion of researchers in a discipline at any one moment in time". In a contemporary context of big data, the nature of data collection, visualization, method, and treatment has been deeply transformed, which means there must be a transformative challenge for social scientist [START_REF] Hey | The Fourth Paradigm[END_REF]. Due to this point, Jim Gray, a Researcher of Microsoft proposes a hypothesis of The Fourth Paradigm: Data-Intensive Scientific Discovery. According to him, the science is entering the fourth paradigm based on the growing availability of data and new analytics. That is, data-driven scientific discovery by scientists who collect a tremendous amount of data with modern scientific instruments. Jim Gray believes that the fourth paradigm of science requires a lot of data and a radically new extension of the established scientific method. He suggests that Big Data ushered in a new era of empiricism, where the voluminous data reveal the finest granularity information of a single phenomenon. In terms of sociology quantification, we would like also to make an echo with the hypothesis the emergence of the finest accounting tools and methods in the era of big data as the anti-thesis of probabilistic science in the general concept of traditional statistics tools (Bardet, 2014).

In a broader context, the manifestation of big data have gone beyond the simple definition of massive quantity of data. Big data are no longer scaled by the simple characteristics of the triple "V" (Kitchin, 2014b). There are series of fundamental transformation proposed by numbers of authors. In the first place, big data are highly associated with the democratization of personal devices such as smartphone and geo-location, real-time sensors, RFID, surveillance camera, internet of things, and reinforced by the power of platforms such as GAFA [START_REF] Boullier | Les Sciences Sociales Face Aux Traces Du Big Data ? Société, Opinion et Répliques[END_REF][START_REF] Kitchin | What Makes Big Data, Big Data? Exploring the Ontological Characteristics of 26 Datasets[END_REF][START_REF] Picon | L'avènement de La Ville Intelligente[END_REF][START_REF] Townsend | SMART CITIES Big Data, Civic Hackers, and the Quest for a New Utopia[END_REF]. In addition, subscription of transport and mobility card as well as loyalty purchasing card has been identified to contribute to big data (Batty, 2013).

The critical approach on Big data were also brought into the social transformations, cultural shift, and political frames [START_REF] Boyd | Critical Questions for Big Data: Provocations for a Cultural, Technological, and Scholarly Phenomenon[END_REF]. Certain important issues are ascending. In big data era, data and information production are becoming more and more decentralized. The hybrid of individual dimension and internet of things are also a means of data production [START_REF] Brown | Are You Ready for the Era of 'Big Data'?[END_REF] as well as private companies hold huge resources of data [START_REF] Einav | The Data Revolution and Economic Analysis 1[END_REF]. This phenomenon opposed the traditional method in data production in which a centralized State administration such as census bureau registry, survey and, inquiry were the main legitimate resources of data (Desrosiers, 2008). Every aspects of life and daily activities are now being numbered significantly, which gave rise to the term of statistical individual [START_REF] Bouk | How Our Days Became Numbered[END_REF]. The "self-quantified" method also took place as part of discussion, promoting an important place of data as becoming the daily individual commodity consumption. Self-quantified explain how people and their personal gadgets control, measure, and probably govern their daily life as the result of statistic individual [START_REF] Lupton | Quantifying the Body: Monitoring and Measuring Health in the Age of MHealth Technologies[END_REF]. Some thoughts have seen big data as the sign of massive behavior shift. The relation between individual and the city are transformed through the idea of big data, as the use of data sets at a granular, temporal, and spatial levels of the city to improve the services of city activities [START_REF] Glaeser | BIG DATA AND BIG CITIES: THE PROMISES AND LIMITATIONS OF IMPROVED MEASURES OF URBAN LIFE[END_REF][START_REF] Koonin | The Value of Big Data for Urban Science[END_REF]. As an example, Smartphone is an interface for individual that connects the whole city function, such as location, transport system, and networks, as mentioned by Townsend (2013)-this device is a Swiss army knife to survive in the city. Big data also comprise the rise of new actors claiming to be the legitimate professionals to handle the great quantity of data such as data scientist [START_REF] Chatfield | Data Scientists as Game Changers in Big Data Environments[END_REF][START_REF] Provost | Data Science and Its Relationship to Big Data and Data-Driven Decision Making[END_REF]. In a broader context, IBM and Microsoft have emerged as the plumber of city's data networks, obviously under the label of Smart Cities. We also identify that big data terms have been the propeller of massive open data platform programs of public institutions, notably city municipal [START_REF] Gurin | Big Data and Open Data: What's What and Why Does It Matter?[END_REF].

The Big data perceived in Smart Grid programs: the case of SEL and LLL

Before we put together the promises, the debates, the controversies of big data among social scientists well as the layer of commensuration, it is worth to investigate in the first place how big data are currently engaged within the public authority. Certainly, there is a great enthusiasm shown by many actors especially public government to big data debates. We identified empirically that big data and Smart City is still in an obscure definition within the Lyon Metropolis actors. For instance, the "Open Data" program of Greater Lyon is defined both as the real engagement of the city to big data agenda as well as part of their Smart City strategy4 . This temporary comprehension is gradually evolving along with the growth dynamics of external parties bringing in various projects entitled big data or smart city experiments. One of them is through the program "smart energy", later known as Smart Grid and Smart meter. Since 2007, Lyon is the first metropolis in France to experience the Smart meter application Linky Smart Meters developed by Edf and Enedis. In the first phase of project, 200 000 units of Linky Smart Meter has been installed in Lyon. Technically, Linky is a new digital electric meter embedded with connected features, more communicative interface, and capable of displaying and alerting real time electricity consumption, even via applications on Smart phone. The sophisticated ability of Linky lies in its capacity to produce and generate a fine-grained data of the consumers. In this case, we identify the fact while Lyon's territory is being reconfigured to be embedded with Linky, at the same time it is the ground-breaking processing 5 that actually engineering the urban spaces as the "niche". For some actors, the niche is a set of process to make the city more compatible according to the needs of their operations [START_REF] Bulkeley | Low-Carbon Transitions and the Reconfiguration of Urban Infrastructure[END_REF] [START_REF] Bulkeley | Low-Carbon Transitions and the Reconfiguration of Urban Infrastructure[END_REF].

Smart Electric Lyon (SEL)

In 2012, EDF launched SEL experiment project focusing on a profound research and development of data cascade stream from Linky. The project itself is the largest in France in terms of budgeting, 69 M€ is granted, scoping of 270 000 units of Linky installed in the city of Lyon as experiment materials. SEL and its Linky are also recognized as a national strategy of energetic transition. The key of Linky is aimed to raise awareness of customer behavior towards their energy consumption since the data provided by the Linky device will have no meaning without the attention of the citizens. Despite of highly sophisticated technology embedded, and it is believed Smart Grid could allow a constant integration of renewable energy production to the grid, at this level, we perceive the project could not dismantle a strong demand of social transformation supports, such as tailoring the rhythm of behavior change.

The SEL project is formalized by the creation a consortium. Around twenty members of different actors from energy sector, home appliance producer, and home smart connected devices are invited to perform each of their related products based on Linky. Our in-depth interview shows most of the consortium were interested in materializing the individual behavior of experimental through the finegrained data generated by Linky into the industrial valuable products6 . For example, a smart box was tested to integrate with Linky, allowing for a single interface control of energy consumption of every home appliances product. The box does not automatically contribute to energy reduction, but stimulate individual comportment transformation by providing showing the numbers to govern their own habits [START_REF] Bouk | How Our Days Became Numbered[END_REF][START_REF] Lupton | Quantifying the Body: Monitoring and Measuring Health in the Age of MHealth Technologies[END_REF]. This phenomenon has been part of a vocal critics from many associations and scientific, stating the new type of neoliberalism through smart electricity that have entered the household levels [START_REF] Levenda | The Neoliberal Politics of 'Smart': Electricity Consumption, Household Monitoring, and the Enterprise Form[END_REF], while in fact demanding more and more the works of consummator [START_REF] Teboul | Le Travail , Les Emplois de La Seconde Vague Du Numérique[END_REF]. This method is subject of many critics as becoming more and more depending to social change (Lecler and d'Arcier 2015). This sort of citizen's empowerment through devices and data awareness corresponds to what Foucault defined as "the conduct of conduct" of Foucault (Lemke, 2000).

Figure: Linky's illustration functioning systems (Presse released Enedis, 2016)

Lyon Living Lab project: the idea of positive energy buildings

It appears that after the big success of Linky and Smart Electric Lyon7 in reshaping the image of Lyon metropolis as the front runner of smart program and smart innovation, numbers of other experiment projects were installed. One of them is Lyon Living Lab (LLL). It plays a similar role to SEL, constituting the city as a living platform of innovation. It is "Quartier de confluence" in the peninsula of Rhone and Saone, one of the important sections of the city in the heart of Lyon. LLL intends to develop a positive energy neighborhood with the support of photovoltaic production and a new mechanism to integrate to the block energy network system locally. The project has been granted a direct supervision of CRE (Commission of energy regulation). Blockchain of energy will allow the photovoltaic energy produced by each building to be self-consumed within the same neighborhood.

Located at Confluence Neighborhood, an attractive mix area of 31,500 square meters in the Saone and Rhone river quay, Confluence is home to business & commercials buildings and residential. The choice of the Confluence Block as a test bed naturally has plenty of positive reasons. The Confluence has been renowned as the sustainable district by WWF 8 , which make it a valuable asset for the city of Lyon. The block was dedicated for the home of the future energy-friendly area. Many projects entitled smart-sustainable has taken place, such as Toshiba Hikari positive energy building project, Smart Community. The word "sustainable" is the respected keyword indicator for all innovation demonstrators. This project is realized by a consortium piloted by Bouyges Immobiliers and supported by other 70 partners in the consortium, such as SPL Lyon Confluence, Lyon Métropole (energy mission) and GE/Alstom. The agreement conducted by the Ministry of Urban and Territorial Management and the ex-President of Lyon Metropolis, 12,9 M€, was fortunately injected to support the project under the title of "Numeric Project", which is coherent with the national strategy of numeric transition. Of the total amount, 5.57 M€ will be directed to the smart city project of Metropolis, aiming at supporting the establishment and monitoring of experimentation on smart electricity distribution networks, then 3.19 M€ will be allocated for the energy transition and the rehabilitation of more than 600 social housing to meet the eco-building standard. Lastly, 4.14 M€ are allocated to promote Lyon in international city cluster.

Lyon Living Lab demonstrator project sees the emergence of such constructor actor like Bouyges Immobilier starting to step-in into the affair of Smart City particularly on smart energy building or "the building of positive energy" to reintegrate its French terms. The experiment on a living platform of the city is a means to achieve more concrete panorama of the purported smart grid. The Lyon Living Lab project eventually shows greater interest of many actors from the different nature of activity, not only in the energy sector, but the sub-category of activities related to energy consumption of the building and construction sectors. Possessing the new challenge in the energy sector and to insist and avow its competency in smart energy system, in the early 2018, Bouyges acquired Suisse Alpiq Engineeringan important start-up based in Swiss operated in building energy infrastructure and transport and mobility. This step proved the dynamism of the current economy, that is being disrupted by the power of algorithm [START_REF] Manyika | Disruptive Technologies: Advances That Will Transform Life, Business, and the Global Economy[END_REF] In this project, the consortium introduced the idea of "Blockchain" method as the core of the project. It is supposed to disintegrate the block of Confluence from major electricity distributor, while testing a new "micro grid" that will promote local energy system. The blockchain is allowed by the promulgation of the July 2016 ordinance of CRE on the self-consumption and pooling of energy. It is claimed to facilitate the renewable sources, in this case the photovoltaic energy produced by each building equipped with solar panel to be locally consumed within the neighborhood. Its aims at answering the biggest challenge of Smart Grid, in which the intermittent of renewable sources are always reluctant to the main grid [START_REF] Bal | Les Caractéristiques Des Énergies Intermittentes Électriques Sont-Elles Problématiques ? Les Particularités Techniques Du Solaire et de l'éolien[END_REF].

It seems the key element of the project is the ability of the building to positively fabric its own energy resources. This method is more and more intensified by the idea of closer control and monitoring through the assembly of real time local data energy supply and demand of the neighborhood. Technically, it is a completely closed system. A platform of information exchange between all the inhabitants plays a key role. The solar panel installed in all building could produce sufficient energy for local consumption. Based on the local source, the objective was to spread and open the data within the inhabitants that guaranteed securely by the crypted code that would avoid the intervention of thirdparties-known as "Smart Contracts"-as an appealing feature. The mechanism of Smart Contracts is a term applied to blockchain such as digital rights management (Alharby and Van Moorsel, 2017). This mechanism allows a more decentralized system and a new democratic consensus among members to prevent acts of monopoly. The flow of surplus energy production will be distributed to the demanding side of district via the real-time information trade-off on the platform.

Figure: Comparison of tradition chain and blockchain functioning systems

The Interplay of Commensuration

The use of big data on the two projects helps us understand the symbolic power behind the faith on the utility of big data as quantitative tools. Here we entrusted the commensuration approach to enlighten such phenomena. We recall in this part, commensuration as a concept that frames the holistic dynamism of quantitative usages. We identify the interplay of commensuration reflected on both projects at least in two important aspects. The first aspect connects directly to the intention and the definition of big data promoted by EDF in SEL and Bouygues Immobilier in the LLL as the solution toward sustainable energy consumption. As Espeland and Stevens explain, the ideology of quantitative tools usage is due to the power dynamisms of the agent. The back-and-forth of big data in this case are manifested in generating individual data consumption that is persuaded as the definition to reinforce the sustainability. Commensuration in this project is also reflected by the fact that big data are reviving the interest in accounting individual aspect, datafication and numbering the everyday lives of society which are the element in big data phenomena. It reveals the use of big data as the "performance indicator" measuring tools. One person is comparative subject to another person through ratio, scale, and benchmarking. Such idea has given birth to the new term called "smart contracts", the trade-off among individuals within the closed system of the block. This new term describes the decentralized and peer-to-peer transfer of renewable energy.

Other elements that, for the consortium, the economy of the whole set of the project lends itself to the into the stakes of market competition in the same field of business or to conquer other fields such as energy sector. The intention to uncover the potential market of individual data through R&D of industrial products, also determined our analysis of the weight of commensuration argument in the practice of Smart Grid. Accordingly, as suggested by Espeland, commensuration as technic reshapes the form of the institution. More in details from the technical view, privileging individual aspect as commensurable also reveals an indirect valuable variables (van der Vlist 2016) that could possibly being transformed into industrial marketing insight, such as quotidian personal behaviors. As it has occurred through the case of SEL, personal data will be considerably a treasury to develop other services.

We identify the second aspect of commensuration in this project is the use of big data to extend the meaning of sustainability in a broader context. This perspective wants to explain implicitly when big data as 'individual accounting tools' are applied on a given community or neighborhood would determine the sustainability label. From quantitative reductionism point of view [START_REF] Gasparatos | Embedded Value Systems in Sustainability Assessment Tools and Their Implications[END_REF][START_REF] Gasparatos | A Critical Review of Reductionist Approaches for Assessing the Progress towards Sustainability[END_REF], sustainability consists of numbers of elements and 'preferable' quantitative formula, different models and scenarios and are parts of geopolitics issues [START_REF] Dahan-Dalmedico | Les Modèles Du Futur. Changement Climatique et Scénarios Économiques : Enjeux Scientifiques et Politiques[END_REF][START_REF] Edwards | A Vast Machine': Standards as Social Technology[END_REF]). Bouyges Immobilier are reducing the term sustainable of Confluence into the Big data-blockchain method that has the symbolic advantage of sophisticated algorithms formula to promote sustainability. It reveals primarily the manifestation of big data through the blockchain method, superimposed on the iconic section of the city that has already gained its "sustainable" international label from a credible organization examining the reductionism of sustainable indicators into the big data. It seems the invasion of the quantitative instrument has played a vital role to determine the image of certain space within the city.

Meanwhile the title of sustainable neighborhood that inherently embedded as the image of Confluence has two another divergent quantitative formula assessments. The value of "sustainable image" was the fruit of quantitative product of World Wildlife Fund (WWF), benchmarking of the ratio between the numbers of residents and CO 2 forecasting for 2020 9 , the Confluence's CO2 emissions will not exceed those for the year 2000, despite the significant increase in the number of residents and employees. From the perspective of Lyon Metropolis, the sustainability context of Confluence is lied into the logic of economic formula. Confluence is a competitive pole that was built under the economic measure to foster the spatial productivity growth.

Smart Grid Innovation project as parts of Lyon Metropolis energy (SDE) tools?

As we already explained previously, integrating the Smart Gird innovation project are parts of the negotiation between the promotor and Lyon Metropolis. The LLL are supposed to support the urban energy system through the instrument of SDE. The data exchange between the demonstrator and SDE is evoked. Perhaps, the big data dimensions in this project, particularly from the perspectives of Greater Lyon would be reflected by the fracture of the silos of the ecosystems' numeric established within the territory and the sovereignty territorial regarding the data issues [START_REF] Boullier | Les Sciences Sociales Face Aux Traces Du Big Data ? Société, Opinion et Répliques[END_REF]. In this perspective, the transfer of data results at the disposal of the SDE serves as a mean to leverage and to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of Lyon energy policy design.

The current issue of the SDE was supposed to provide a quantitative tool for Lyon Metropolis to discuss the concession contract vis à vis the private actors who operate in Lyon. Despite the interest of SDE to develop Smart Grid as part of the scenarios, the SDE seems less likely to integrate SEL and LLL directly to their tools. The involve of fragmented actors, coming from different natures, thematic, and interests also posed another challenge of new mechanism of governance (Meijer and Rodríguez Bolívar 2013). Many new actors seek to employ big data on the city, sometimes in the conjunction of energy sector. The growth of numeric ecosystems within the city is inevitably leaving plenty of potentials and challenges to city municipal (Deltour and Le Gall, 2016), one of them is the growing ecosystems that being occurred within Lyon Metropolis. Thus, the governance mechanism arises upstream as important challenge to deal with.

We figured out from technical aspects, the unparalleled vision of industrial mode and the instrument of energy policy in SDE are the obstacles. The experts of SDE are reluctant to directly employ the results of SEL and LLL to the SDE, as SDE seeks different kind of business model scenarios 10 . Others, the granular type of individual data produced by the LLL are not yet to become the main concern of the SDE. Meanwhile, in terms of data ethics in big data era (Taylor 2016), General data protection regulation France has restricted regulation to limit the exploitation of personal data. These issues practically drive to create more silos between the sovereignty of Lyon Metropolis and data flow within its territory. The term of accord that such demonstrator project could provide the benefits of city energy instrument remains a hypothetical issue. It may be premature to roughly criticize that we could not yet excavate more profoundly how big data could be a transformative tool for public policy in the energy sector. As suggested by some authors of sociology of public policy instrumentation, the choice and the construction of an instrument is an innovation, not as the simple materialization of cognitive idea, but as a dynamic, is often extracted from the chaotic situation to converge information, integration of constraints, and arbitration between divergent paths of development [START_REF] Severo | Du Mode d'existence Des Objets Techniques[END_REF]. For instance, the certainty of the close relationship between Bouyges Immobilier with the local actors would symbolically validate the project as recognizable by the public actors. Meanwhile for Lyon Metropolis, the presence of such actors would leverage its position as an important territory of Smart label innovation.

Conclusion: More "Smart City" less big data

Both projects posse similar characteristic that are being industrial-driven experiment project under the label of Smart City. Both also put big data as the core of solution to meet several expectations in one go, such as the energetic transition, the renewable energy solution, and people awareness and empowerment etc. Another common element is the faith in exploring individual data consumption as parts of the action towards more sustainable energy.

We argue specifically based on this empirical project, that primarily, big data must be classified into the sectoral issues to prevent the general conception and approach of big data in different categories of public services. The rise of various external actors interested in big data linked to the public services should not be neglected as important elements to public government. The current challenges show that the principle question has evolved. Big data have been expanded into the challenge of governance of the proliferation of different actors that contiguous big data including new model of energy sector that being attacked by the irregular actors. We contested that the utmost utility of big data were screened by the importance of Smart City' notion to be the first range of objectives. Big data itself are not as popular as the term Smart City 11 . However, big data is revelator that imply the manifold of interest and power struggle of different parties (Bourdieu 1984) at the same time, in which through these actors, big data have been transformed into a complex structure of innovation project. As for Bouyges Immobilier, the omnipresence of digital technologies has allowed them to expand even more on the energy sector by differentiating itself on the hybrid of construction field and the idea of smart energy building. The interest in industrial competition and the development of value added products has been very strongly induced in this project.

In terms of Greater Lyon strategy, for now the city has played an important role as reputable living platform and as the market enabler [START_REF] Bourdieu | Les Structures Sociales de l'économie[END_REF] of the Smart City extension into the territory. Through the two Smart Grid projects, we are witnessing the typology of Smart City model constructed by the historical actor, Edf/enedis and Bouyges Immobilier, but were initially non-Smart City player that became Smart City promotors, intended to tap on the energy sector. The notion of Smart City has produced the unprecedented effects of new economic transformation from various actors in other operating domains (Boulenguer and Yannick,2017). We argue this event opposes the early model of Smart City in which the primary advocates such as IBM, Microsoft, and Cisco teamed up directly with the municipality to create the so-called Smart City, for example Songdo City and the case of Sala de Controle, Rio de Janeiro [START_REF] Townsend | SMART CITIES Big Data, Civic Hackers, and the Quest for a New Utopia[END_REF]. Under the banner of Smart City, some parts of the city, both physical aspect and social aspect are henceforth engineered to accommodate the needs of experiments. At this stage the new dialect of the city-metropolitan as a reticular political-economic space that the new governance of spaces are emerging to produce and to proactively contribute to the needs of industrial development. We noted that Lyon absorbed 350 M€ direct investments since the last five years. The experimental projects have gone beyond big data. It is a showcase of Lyon to establish itself as a Living Platform, which is the new business models to attract more and more national and international actors in any sector. From this perspective, the city is focalizing its entrepreneurialism model [START_REF] Harvey | From Managerialism to Entrepreneurialism : The Transformation in Urban Governance in Late Capitalism[END_REF]. Lyon Metropolis tends to exercise the governance model to organize multi-level actors coming from different natures of activities, at the meantime taking advantage of image-branding and international clustering of the city.

Eventually, big data have evolved into numbers of forms and thus the challenge, possess by big data for the government is multi-dimensional. From this case, it is not merely to produce or to grasp directly with the cascade of information. Big data are more than a significant data quantity; big data also come along with highly unprecedented disruptive impact. These phenomena bring us to the important question, do Smart City and big data elements have given rise to a new war field that would dispute the legitimate actor who govern the city? particularly the city municipal as the historic city manager.

Table : Jim Gray's fourth paradigm in the big data era (Kitchin, 2014)

 :

Interview with Chief Data Officer of Greater Lyon.

Interview with a consortium member

The succès claim is indicated on the last rapport of activities ofSEL, 2017.

Acknowledgement

This research was fully supported by Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP) https://www.lpdp.kemenkeu.go.id/ and Laboratory EVS-RIVES, Ecole Nationale des Travaux Publics de l'Etat.