Laurence Tissot

Victor Bret

Hervé Capra

Philippe Baran

Véronique Gouraud
email: veronique.gouraud@edf.fr

Main potential drivers of trout population dynamics in bypassed stream sections

Keywords: Trout, population dynamics, structuring drivers, bypassed section

The key role of hydrological variability in structuring brown trout populations is wellestablished. However, the influence of additional drivers is more difficult to identify. The implementation of long-term monitoring and the development of reliable tools can help reveal fine local drivers structuring fish populations in contrasted flow regimes. The present study used data series for nine reaches monitored for nine to nineteen years in four French salmonid streams. Study reaches were within five bypassed sections influenced by instream flow. A deterministic trout population dynamics model was applied on each reach, with calibration and validation procedures. Results revealed that biological drivers structured all reaches similarly. In addition, seven other drivers were identified. Among these additional drivers, hydrology mainly explained temporal fluctuations in trout density, regardless of reach. Three drivers independent of hydrology were also revealed: poor water quality, limited spawning area, and the effect of power plant operations. All drivers influenced the whole bypassed section and were never limited to the scale of the reach (sampling area). Further analyses of each driver are now needed, to regionalize and quantify their respective impact precisely.

Research perspectives include developing a tool that can be used at any location, integrating temporal variability and most of the controlling drivers for each population type. Thus, assessment of trout population status would be simplified, enabling implementation of efficient management rules.

INTRODUCTION

Freshwater ecosystems provide vital natural resources (e.g., clean water and food) and services (e.g., energy, irrigation, waste assimilation, recreation) that contribute to human wellbeing [START_REF] Vörösmarty | Global threats to human water security and river biodiversity[END_REF]. However, such human use of freshwater ecosystems has resulted in declining biodiversity worldwide [START_REF] Dudgeon | Freshwater biodiversity: importance, threats, status and conservation challenges[END_REF]. Balmfort et al. (2002) estimated that freshwater vertebrates declined at an annual rate of 2.4% over the period 1970-1999. In the last few decades, 20% of described freshwater fish species worldwide have been listed as threatened, endangered or extinct [START_REF] Magurran | Long-term datasets in biodiversity research and monitoring: assessing change in ecological communities through time[END_REF]). Among fish species, brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) is subject to specific human impact because of its economic and cultural importance. In France, in addition to these pressures, a large majority of hydroelectric schemes (80%) are located on salmonid streams, where brown trout is the dominant fish species. Moreover, studies of reference streams revealed a significant decrease in brown trout distribution area and abundance in recent years [START_REF] Poulet | Time trends in fish populations in metropolitan France: insights from national monitoring data[END_REF]. Multiple causes were mentioned: habitat degradation, proliferative kidney disease, angling catch, and water temperature. Predicted trends for salmonid distribution area under global warming suggest that trout range will decrease in the future [START_REF] Comte | Climate-induced changes in the distribution of freshwater fish: observed and predicted trends[END_REF].

In this context, scientists need to develop knowledge and tools to facilitate operational decisions for ecological and sustainable water management. Above all, precise knowledge of the driving factors influencing fish population dynamics is required. It is clear that multiple drivers operating on different space and time scales structure fish population dynamics [START_REF] Durance | Recognizing the importance of scale in the ecology and management of riverine fish[END_REF][START_REF] Jackson | What controls who is where in freshwater fish communities -the roles of biotic, abiotic, and spatial factors[END_REF][START_REF] Vincenzi | Spatial and temporal scale of densitydependent body growth and its implications for recruitment, population dynamics and management of stream-dwelling salmonid populations[END_REF]. Trout biology and ecology have been studied for many years and are now relatively well-documented compared to other fish species [START_REF] Baglinière | La truite -Biologie et écologie[END_REF][START_REF] Elliott | Quantitative ecology and the brown trout[END_REF][START_REF] Jonsson | Life-history traits of Brown Trout vary with the size of small streams[END_REF][START_REF] Klemetsen | Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L., brown trout Salmo trutta L. and Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus (L.): a review of aspects of their life histories[END_REF]. However, few studies have qualified the effects of the various drivers involved in trout population dynamics. It is well-established that hydrological events during fry, intra-gravel and post-emergence periods are major drivers of trout recruitment [START_REF] Cattanéo | The influence of hydrological and biotic processes on brown trout (Salmo trutta) population dynamics[END_REF][START_REF] Gouraud | Long-term simulations of the dynamics of trout populations on river reaches bypassed by hydroelectric installations -Analysis of the impact of different hydrological scenarios[END_REF][START_REF] Jensen | The functional relationship between peak spring floods and survival and growth of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and brown trout (Salmo trutta)[END_REF][START_REF] Lobón-Cerviá | Discharge-dependent covariation patterns in the population dynamics of brown trout (Salmo trutta) within a Cantabrian river drainage[END_REF]. In addition, recruitment has often been shown to be the main driver of population size [START_REF] Lobón-Cerviá | Recruitment as a driver of production dynamics in stream-resident brown trout (Salmo trutta)[END_REF][START_REF] Milner | The natural control of salmon and trout populations in streams[END_REF]. Thus, by limiting recruitment, discharge is often one of the main drivers of trout population dynamics in mountain streams. Beyond hydrology, however, multiple drivers, abiotic or biotic, can structure trout populations [START_REF] Milner | The natural control of salmon and trout populations in streams[END_REF]. The most commonly cited abiotic factors are temperature [START_REF] Armstrong | Thermal heterogeneity mediates the effects of pulsed subsidies across a landscape[END_REF][START_REF] Armstrong | Diel horizontal migration in streams: Juvenile fish exploit spatial heterogeneity in thermal and trophic resources[END_REF][START_REF] Warren | Elevated summer temperatures delay spawning and reduce redd construction for resident brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)[END_REF]) and water chemistry [START_REF] Eklöv | Influence of water quality, habitat and species richness on brown trout populations[END_REF], while competition for resources seems to be the major biotic determinant of trout population. Competition is linked to several biotic (such as food availability, [START_REF] Grant | Implications of territory size for the measurement and prediction of salmonid abundance in streams[END_REF] or abiotic drivers (such as carrying capacity, Lobón-Cerviá 2008) and can induce density-dependent effects on growth or survival [START_REF] Elliott | Quantitative ecology and the brown trout[END_REF].

The various drivers structuring trout populations operate on different space and time scales.

Small-scale studies have highlighted the effects of precise biotic drivers [START_REF] Einum | The spatial scale of density-dependent growth and implications for dispersal from nests in juvenile Atlantic salmon[END_REF][START_REF] Jenkins | Effects of population density on individual growth of brown trout in streams[END_REF][START_REF] Lobón-Cerviá | Habitat quality enhances spatial variation in self-thinning patterns of stream-resident brown trout (Salmo trutta)[END_REF], and abiotic factors such as flow regime [START_REF] Lobón-Cerviá | Discharge-dependent covariation patterns in the population dynamics of brown trout (Salmo trutta) within a Cantabrian river drainage[END_REF][START_REF] Vøllestad | Non-additive effects of density-dependent and densityindependent factors on brown trout vital rates[END_REF] and temperature [START_REF] Borgstrøm | Accumulated snow and summer temperature -critical factors for recruitment to high mountain populations of brown trout (Salmo trutta L.)[END_REF].

However, most studies focused on the details of a single site, making large-scale extrapolation hazardous [START_REF] Jackson | What controls who is where in freshwater fish communities -the roles of biotic, abiotic, and spatial factors[END_REF]. The present study therefore adopted a local scale analysis of trout population dynamics in nine different reaches, and summarized the spatial and temporal incidence of drivers identified at local level so as to assess the generalizability of the local results.

The study focused on nine reaches, located in five bypassed sections of hydroelectric dams in four geographically remote trout-bearing mountain streams. All the bypassed sections were under minimum flow, and had been previously studied to assess minimum flow value effects on trout population dynamics compared with reference sites [START_REF] Gouraud | Factors regulating brown trout populations in two french rivers: Application of a dynamic population model[END_REF][START_REF] Gouraud | Long-term simulations of the dynamics of trout populations on river reaches bypassed by hydroelectric installations -Analysis of the impact of different hydrological scenarios[END_REF]. Local trout population dynamics models, calibrated on five of the nine reaches (in the Beyrède, Pont-Haut and Rory bypassed sections), were previously published [START_REF] Gouraud | Factors regulating brown trout populations in two french rivers: Application of a dynamic population model[END_REF][START_REF] Gouraud | Long-term simulations of the dynamics of trout populations on river reaches bypassed by hydroelectric installations -Analysis of the impact of different hydrological scenarios[END_REF]). Long-term monitoring (between nine and nineteen years) then allowed accurate analysis of the temporal dynamics of the nine trout populations [START_REF] Waters | Long term trout production dynamics in valley creek, Minnesota[END_REF]). The study objective was to provide an update on these trout population dynamics analyses so as to identify the spatial and temporal incidence of each population driver. A deterministic population dynamics model was then calibrated for each reach, with local trout population features. Certain trout population dynamics drivers were implemented in the initial model and subsequently calibrated for each population (biological characteristics, carrying capacity, food availability, etc.). In addition, long term monitoring identified further abiotic drivers which only occasionally influenced trout population, which were then added to the initial model.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Trout population dynamics model

General model

The study used the MODYPOP deterministic trout population dynamics model described by [START_REF] Gouraud | Factors regulating brown trout populations in two french rivers: Application of a dynamic population model[END_REF]. This model, based on the Leslie matrix, simulates change in a trout population (i.e., density and biomass of different development stages: 0+, 1+ and >1+) over time by 1-month time steps. Two mechanisms of population regulation as a function of habitat are integrated: (1) density-dependent mortality, which tends to push the population toward a size compatible with local carrying capacity, and (2) adjustment of adult biomass to local carrying capacity.

Trout population dynamics drivers

Several inputs were required for MODYPOP calibration: (1) biological parameters (survival, fecundity, growth rates, female fertility, sex ratio, number of development stages and initial density and biomass for each stage) and (2) environmental drivers (carrying capacity, food availability, and time series of daily discharge and daily temperature). Environmental drivers contribute to model growth rate and density-dependent effects. These required MODYPOP inputs were calibrated for each reach, either by monitoring or by knowledge taken from the literature (detailed in [START_REF] Gouraud | Factors regulating brown trout populations in two french rivers: Application of a dynamic population model[END_REF].

Four non-required drivers (abiotic drivers which may occasionally influence trout population and which were tested in the study) were added to the MODYPOP model as reach-specific drivers. The four reach-specific drivers were: flooding [START_REF] Cattanéo | Does hydrology constrain the structure of fish assemblages in French streams? Regional scale analysis[END_REF], limited available spawning area, power plant operations [START_REF] Gouraud | Long-term simulations of the dynamics of trout populations on river reaches bypassed by hydroelectric installations -Analysis of the impact of different hydrological scenarios[END_REF], and water quality. These drivers were calibrated using the same approach.

Model calibration for reach-specific drivers

MODYPOP was calibrated for each reach and each development stage, adding reach-specific drivers one by one, using the same iterative qualitative approach:

(1) Identification of one reach-specific driver: model simulations were compared with observations to identify whether a reach-specific driver could explain the residual error for a development stage. We focused at first on the development stage associated with the highest residual error, then chose an initial reach-specific driver that best explained deviations in terms of magnitude, direction and frequency.

(2) Calibration: the effect of identified reach-specific drivers was calibrated by tuning mortality rates (testing several rates, by 5% steps, consistent with the accuracy of our data and deterministic approach), while other parameters of the population dynamics model remained constant. For hydrological drivers, minimum duration and flood threshold were also tuned: the population was influenced when daily flow exceeded threshold for a sufficient number of days. Values associated with the minimum deviation between observation and simulation for the reach (all development stages and all years) were retained for analysis.

(3) Returning to step 1, another driver was identified, with the same approach. The process stopped when remaining drivers no longer explained any residual deviation.

Model validation

MODYPOP validation was based on tests of the significance of each reach model, for each development stage. The Monte-Carlo randomization test was used with 10,000 permutations of observed density [START_REF] Crowley | Resampling Methods for Computation-Intensive Data Analysis in Ecology and Evolution[END_REF]. The aim was to test whether random assignment of data would be as closely associated with the model's predictions as the original data. The ability of the model to capture temporal variations was validated for a given reach if less than 5% of random permutations were associated with (1) a lower sum of squared deviations and (2) a better prediction of the direction of density fluctuations from one year to another.

Data set

Bypassed sections and reaches

The study focused on five bypassed sections where brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) was the dominant fish species. They were located in four mountain watersheds, geographically remote from one another except for Fontan and Breil which were at about 10 kilometers' distance (respectively, upstream and downstream bypassed section) in the same Mediterranean stream (Fig. 1). The physical characteristics of the bypassed sections differed greatly, with annual mean flow ranging between 2.7 and 20 m 3 .s -1 , altitude between 280 and 740 m and slope between 0.7% and 3.7% (Table 129287). All constituted little reservoirs upstream of a dam without retention capacity, with high natural flow rates occurring by overtopping.

One to three reaches were selected within each bypassed section as being representative of the mesohabitat assemblage of the whole section (Table 2). When more than one reach was chosen in a given bypassed section, these reaches showed significantly different mesohabitat assemblage. We chose to study the population dynamics at reach scale so as to be able to detect whether driver effects depended on the mesohabitat assemblage.

Conducting local modeling in nine reaches, some of which being located within the same bypassed section, provided an opportunity to investigate the generalizability of the local approaches: local results were summarized by characterizing the spatial and temporal incidence of the identified drivers.

Monitoring and estimation of model drivers

The study period was from 1990 to 2013. During this period, each reach was monitored in terms of trout population, habitat, water quality and inter-annual variables (discharge, temperature and streambed substrate favorable to spawning).

Each reach was sampled annually by wading, using two-pass removal electrofishing sampling, following the recommendations of the European Committee for Standardization (CEN 2003). Sampling was performed without blocking nets, in summer or early autumn. All fish caught were identified, measured (total length) and weighed. Histogram analysis determined size according to development stage (0+, 1+, >1+). Trout abundance for each stage and for each sample were estimated with the [START_REF] Carle | A new method for estimating population size from removal data[END_REF] method. Densities (estimated abundance per sampled reach length) and biomasses (total weight per sampled reach length) were obtained for each development stage and each sample. Mean density and standard deviation were calculated for each development stage and each reach, based on all samples taken during the study period.

Habitat simulations were obtained for each reach in accordance with the PHABSIM protocol adapted to French streams [START_REF] Ginot | Logiciel EVHA 2.0. Evaluation de l'habitat physique des poissons en rivière[END_REF][START_REF] Sabaton | La méthode des microhabitats[END_REF]. Weighted usable area (WUA, in m²) was used to represent habitat availability for the three development stages [START_REF] Souchon | Les modèles numériques des microhabitats des poissons : application et nouveaux développements[END_REF]). The ratio between the maximum adult biomass sampled during the study period and the WUA for adults at instream flow value (minimum available habitat) was used to represent the local carrying capacity of the reach. In addition, spawning habitat availability was calculated almost every year for reaches located in the Fontan, Breil and Rory bypassed sections; this corresponds to the ratio between the area of streambed displaying grain sizes between 0.2 and 5 cm in diameter, considered to be favorable to trout spawning [START_REF] Baglinière | La truite -Biologie et écologie[END_REF][START_REF] Kondolf | The sizes of salmonid spawning gravels[END_REF], and the entire wetted area of the reach.

Daily discharge and temperature time series were determined from recorders deployed within each monitored bypassed section. When discharge was temporarily unavailable, it was extrapolated using natural daily discharge time series and/or operative data provided by power plants. Missing water temperature values were estimated using extrapolation models from air temperature (Bret et al.).

Habitat simulations associated to daily discharge time series determined daily WUA time series for the three development stages for each reach. This dynamic approach is considered the most appropriate for studying habitat limitation in population dynamics [START_REF] Capra | A new tool to interpret magnitude and duration of fish habitat variations[END_REF]. It was used in MODYPOP to evaluate local carrying capacity by monthly steps for each development stage.

The date and magnitude of each power plant operation event (overtopping, flushing or plant shutdown) that occurred during the study period were determined. Water quality was measured on each reach at the beginning of the study, and then regularly recorded only in reaches at risk of poor water quality according to the first analysis.

RESULTS

Population structure and carrying capacity

Strong temporal fluctuations in trout density were observed in all study reaches (Table 16320). Mean densities and standard deviations were higher for 0+ than for 1+ or >1+. Mean coefficients of variation for reach development-stage densities were 0.98 for 0+, 0.78 for 1+ and 0.58 for >1+.

The population structures were quite similar to each other, except for the Breil reaches.

Comparison of the two trout populations in the Roya River (separated by ~10 km) revealed differences in biological characteristics. Growth was higher downstream in Breil (26-32 mm in the third year) than upstream in Fontan (21-24 mm at the third year); trout survived longer downstream (5 years) than upstream (4 years); and age at first maturity in females was greater downstream (3 years old) than upstream (2 years old).

The carrying capacity of each development stage fluctuated between reaches within a given bypassed section and between years in a given reach, depending on discharge. Limitation due to carrying capacity was never observed in any reaches at any time during the study period.

Additional reach-specific drivers

The seven additional drivers identified are presented in Bold italic: non-significant test Table 4. For the three bypassed sections represented by two or three reaches, the same drivers were involved for all reaches, and tuned parameters (mortality rates, and flood thresholds and durations) showed the same values.

Four drivers concerned hydrology. Two types of hydrological event induced mortality: (1) floods during spawning (for the Beyrède bypassed section, represented by three reaches) or in Spring (for all reaches) induced mortality in 0+ trout, and (2) exceptional floods induced mortality in all development stages (for two bypassed sections represented by five reaches:

Beyrède and Fontan). Flood thresholds and minimum durations inducing 0+ mortality are presented in Table 5. Mortality rates could differ greatly depending on the intensity of the event (between 20% and 90%).

In contrast, two hydrological events induced positive effects on mortality: (1) overtopping was associated with better 1+ survival (when flooding exceeded 10 m 3 .s -1 during Spring) and >1+ survival (whatever the flood value or time of year) in the LIG2 reach, and (2) no floods during Spring was associated with better 1+ survival in the ROIP2 reach. These survival rates depended of the number of individuals in the lower development stage the year before.

In addition to hydrology, three other abiotic drivers were identified. Limited available spawning area induced mortality during intra-gravel life in the LIG2 reach. This occurred almost every year, except in 2000 and 2001 when high floods increased spawning ground. In the two reaches of the Breil bypassed section, three short-term poor water-quality events were observed during warm Summers, due to under-sizing of the upstream wastewater treatment plant, and induced mortality in 0+ trout. Finally, power plant operations induced 0+ and 1+ mortality in the three reaches of the Beyrède bypassed section (three times during the twenty years of monitoring). The intensities of these drivers differed: power plant operation seemed to induce less mortality (50% to 75%) in the Beryède reaches than poor water-quality in the Breil reaches (75%) or limited spawning area in the Rory reach (80%).

Final complete models

Model calibration results for each reach underscored the influence of local phenomena on trout population structure. Observed and simulated density fluctuations for all development stages in the BEY2 reach are presented Fig. 2 to illustrate these results. Results for all reaches are proposed as supplementary materials. A synthesis of the temporal and spatial incidence of each identified driver is shown in Fig. 3. For the three bypassed sections represented by more than one reach, all identified drivers operated at all reaches of the section. Most of the drivers were observed in any given bypassed section. Temporal occurrence was somewhat dependent on study period duration, and was more variable than spatial occurrence: between 0.08 times.year -1 for exceptional flooding and every year for overtopping in the Rory bypassed section, and for biotic processes (those included in the initial model: survival, fecundity and growth rate, potential carrying capacity and food availability).

Model validation

Validation test results are presented in Table 16320.

First, validation tests were performed on reach models with only biotic drivers (without the seven additional abiotic ones). Results revealed that only 15% of reach models were validated for the direction of the density fluctuations between years and for the density value.

Second, validation tests were performed on final models, integrating all drivers (biotic and additional abiotic ones). Additional drivers greatly improved the number of validated reach models: 63% for density fluctuation direction and 70% for density value. All models for the BREIL1 reach showed poor results. Models for 0+ were validated for all other reaches, except for direction in the ROIP2 reach (p-value=0.06). Predictions for this development stage were then successful in seven of the nine reaches. Predictions for other development stages were less satisfactory (5/9 for 1+ and 6/9 for >1+). The first development stage was better simulated than the older ones.

DISCUSSION

The present study revealed that biotic drivers structured all reaches. In addition, seven other drivers were identified, four of which concerned hydrology. All drivers operated at bypassed section rather than reach scale.

Biotic processes

The biotic processes originally included in the model (survival, fecundity and growth rates, carrying capacity and food availability) structured all reaches. They were necessary but not sufficient to validate reach models in most cases. [START_REF] Gouraud | Etude de la dynamique de populations de truites communes (Salmo trutta L.) à l'aide d'un modèle déterministe[END_REF] demonstrated their importance in population dynamics modeling (for example, a density-dependent effect on 0+ could decrease mortality rate 4-fold in this development stage). Carrying capacity [START_REF] Ayllón | Modelling carrying capacity dynamics for the conservation and management of territorial salmonids[END_REF]) and density-dependent mortality [START_REF] Nicola | Recruitment variability of resident brown trout in peripheral populations from southern Europe[END_REF][START_REF] Ojanguren | Thermal sensitivity of growth, food intake and activity of juvenile brown trout[END_REF] are two drivers widely documented as structuring trout populations. In the present study, these processes contributed to achieving validated models, thus confirming that they need to be integrated in population dynamics models. However, no limitation was seen reacted to carrying capacity for adults, in terms of habitat availability as measured by WUA, during the study period. Other habitat components, such as shelter availability, may, however, influence trout dynamics [START_REF] Dieterman | Demography of Juvenile and Adult Brown Trout in Streams of Southeastern Minnesota[END_REF].

Additional drivers

Among additional drivers, hydrology mainly explained temporal fluctuations in trout density, regardless of reach. It operated throughout the trout life-cycle, depending on flood intensity.

An effect of flooding during Spring (for all reaches) or spawning (for Beyrède reaches only) on recruitment was observed regularly during the study period (0.48 times.year -1 on average).

Hydrological events during spawning show positive or no effect [START_REF] Hayes | Spatial and temporal variation in the relative density and size of juvenile brown trout in the Kakanui River, North Otago, New Zealand[END_REF][START_REF] Lobón-Cerviá | Response of a Stream Fish Assemblage to a Severe Spate in Northern Spain[END_REF][START_REF] Unfer | The influence of hydrology on the recruitment of brown trout in an Alpine river, the Ybbs River, Austria[END_REF]) more often than negative impact [START_REF] Nelson | Effect of Flow Fluctuations on Brown Trout in the Beaverhead River, Montana[END_REF]) on trout density. These differences may be explained by the timing between the hydrological event and trout spawning in the study river: a reasonable flood event just before spawning may improve the potential spawning ground [START_REF] Poff | The natural flow regime : a paradigm for river conservation and restoration[END_REF][START_REF] Unfer | The influence of hydrology on the recruitment of brown trout in an Alpine river, the Ybbs River, Austria[END_REF], while high flooding after eggs have been laid could induce redd scouring and egg mortality [START_REF] Montgomery | Stream-bed scour, egg burial depths, and the influence of salmonid spawning on bed surface mobility and embryo survival[END_REF]. In contrast, the negative effect of high flow during intra-gravel and post-emergence life on recruitment has been widely reported in mountain streams [START_REF] Cattanéo | The influence of hydrological and biotic processes on brown trout (Salmo trutta) population dynamics[END_REF][START_REF] Jensen | The functional relationship between peak spring floods and survival and growth of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and brown trout (Salmo trutta)[END_REF][START_REF] Lobón-Cerviá | Discharge-dependent covariation patterns in the population dynamics of brown trout (Salmo trutta) within a Cantabrian river drainage[END_REF]. However, comparison of four different geographical contexts revealed that the threshold value as of which mortality occurred in the first development stage differed between bypassed sections. The Breil population in the Roya River seemed to have the highest threshold compared to its low flow magnitude (threshold=4.9*Q90). This river is subject to a strong hydrological regime, with regular occurrence of intense floods. The Breil trout population, which had faster growth, may be less sensitive to floods than the Fontan population in the same river or other studied populations [START_REF] Klemetsen | Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L., brown trout Salmo trutta L. and Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus (L.): a review of aspects of their life histories[END_REF].

Furthermore, the present large dataset (in terms of study period and number of monitored reaches) allowed observation of mortality induced by exceptional floods on two bypassed sections (Fontan and Beyrède) whenever the event occurred. This driver was also observed in some other studies [START_REF] Jowett | Effects of a severe flood on instream habitat and trout populations in seven New Zealand rivers[END_REF][START_REF] Young | Movement and Mortality of Adult Brown Trout in the Motupiko River, New Zealand: Effects of Water Temperature, Flow, and Flooding[END_REF].

Usually, hydrology induced negative effects on mortality, but in the present study it was also associated with a positive impact in the Rory and Pont-Haut reaches, playing a determining role in maintaining population viability. For the Rory reach, better 1+ and >1+ survival was likely induced by downstream migration when overtopping occurred [START_REF] Gouraud | Long-term simulations of the dynamics of trout populations on river reaches bypassed by hydroelectric installations -Analysis of the impact of different hydrological scenarios[END_REF]).

Adult densities were not correctly simulated for this reach (non-significant validation tests: 57% of simulated densities higher than observed values). This driver may be less structuring for adults than for 1+ trout, and dedicated monitoring will be required to study adult migration on this reach. Juvenile and adult migration were previously observed in other streams, occurring regularly over the years, depending on different drivers [START_REF] Cucherousset | Linking juvenile growth and migration behaviour of brown trout (Salmo trutta) using individual PIT-tagging[END_REF][START_REF] Frank | Assessing brown trout (Salmo trutta) spawning movements with multistate capture-recapture models: a case study in a fully controlled Belgian brook[END_REF][START_REF] Vøllestad | Small-scale dispersal and population structure in stream-living brown trout (Salmo trutta) inferred by mark-recapture, pedigree reconstruction, and population genetics[END_REF]. In contrast, populations with little mobility were also reported [START_REF] Dieterman | Demography of Juvenile and Adult Brown Trout in Streams of Southeastern Minnesota[END_REF]. The present study revealed an influence of migration on population dynamics only in the Rory reach. This process need greater attention and specific monitoring to be precisely modeled. For the Pont-Haut reach, better 1+ survival was regularly observed (every 0.57 years), due to absence of flooding during Spring. Some authors reported different effects of hydrology on 0+ trout depending on the timing of the event [START_REF] Hayes | The influence of natural variation in discharge on juvenile brown trout population dynamics in a nursery tributary of the Motueka River, New Zealand[END_REF][START_REF] Unfer | The influence of hydrology on the recruitment of brown trout in an Alpine river, the Ybbs River, Austria[END_REF]. However, the influence of this driver on 1+ is not clearly known. Drivers structuring older development stages than 0+ are more difficult to detect [START_REF] Cattanéo | The influence of hydrological and biotic processes on brown trout (Salmo trutta) population dynamics[END_REF].

Furthermore, three other local drivers, independent of hydrology, were revealed: (1) poor water quality in the two Breil reaches during warm Summers, (2) limited spawning area in the Rory reach due to reduced sediment transport, and (3) an impact of power plant operations in the three Beyrède reaches. These drivers all acted at least on recruitment, with different levels of influence and frequencies. Limited spawning area by reduced sediment transport in the Rory reach appeared to be a major structuring driver, occurring every 0.89 years. In contrast, poor water quality in the Breil reaches and power plant operations in the Beyrède reaches were rarer, and will require long-term local monitoring. Drivers limiting trout biology (water quality or spawning area availability) were only observed in one specific bypassed section, but it could reasonably be supposed that the effect might occur in any bypassed section affected by the same limitation.

Finally, when two or three reaches of the same bypassed section were modeled, no drivers were identified for only one of them: i.e., all drivers acted at bypassed section scale. This result is consistent with the spatial scale of influence of the identified drivers [START_REF] Jackson | What controls who is where in freshwater fish communities -the roles of biotic, abiotic, and spatial factors[END_REF].

Synthesis

We propose to synthesize these results by characterizing the drivers identified in the study:

(1) general drivers, observed on more than two bypassed sections: biotic processes (survival, fecundity and growth rates, potential carrying capacity, food availability), flooding during Spring or spawning and exceptional floods;

(2) specific drivers: downstream migration allowed by overtopping, limited spawning area, no flooding during Spring, poor water quality, and power plant operation.

Complete models were validated: they accurately simulated density and temporal fluctuations of each development stage in most reaches. The MODYPOP model thus appeared well suited to simulate trout populations in different geographical contexts. However, 0+ simulations showed better significance than older stages. Recruitment density was much more variable than 1+ or >1+ density. This low range of variation explained the lower results of the Monte-Carlo validation tests for older stages. It was difficult to identify specific drivers structuring 1+ or >1+ trout in these conditions. Most drivers affected recruitment. Monitoring will need to be maintained to detect drivers for older stages, as the chances of detecting environmental influences on the population increase with the length of the time series [START_REF] Vörösmarty | Global threats to human water security and river biodiversity[END_REF], even if older stages were rarely reported to be structured by abiotic drivers [START_REF] Cattanéo | The influence of hydrological and biotic processes on brown trout (Salmo trutta) population dynamics[END_REF]. Moreover, the studied trout populations were located in bypassed sections. We also monitored reference reaches and applied this approach to several of them [START_REF] Gouraud | Role of habitat variability in trout population dynamics: Application of a dynamic population model to three French rivers[END_REF]). Results on these reaches were consistent with the drivers presented in this paper, but it was decided not to include them because they were few in comparison with reaches located in bypassed sections. Further studies need to be conducted on streams with unregulated flow, to confirm main the drivers of trout population in various hydrological contexts.

Conclusion

The present study used long-term extensive biological and physical monitoring to build population dynamics models with reach-specific calibration and validation procedures. This required long and heavy investment, preventing wider analysis. Thus, this reach-based approach is probably not suited to drawing general conclusions [START_REF] Armstrong | Modelling approaches for relating effects of change in river flow to populations of Atlantic salmon and brown trout[END_REF].

Our comparative approach revealed drivers operating at different temporal and spatial levels.

Additional analyses need to be conducted for each driver on larger data-sets, to regionalize and quantify their effects exactly. For example, the influence of hydrological events during Spring on recruitment may be related to hydraulic conditions (e.g., flow velocity) rather than of the mean daily flow value. This approach might reveal a global influence of hydraulic conditions, rather than a site-specific influence of hydrology. Fitting the model through a statistical method would remove the time-consuming calibration procedures and also allow the combined influence of drivers to be investigated. However, this would need more data, or else fewer parameters.

Research perspectives comprise developing a more global tool that can integrate temporal variability and controlling drivers for each population. Such a tool is essential to implement efficient large-scale management measures [START_REF] Collares-Pereira | The role of catchment scale environmental management in freshwater fish conservation[END_REF][START_REF] Jackson | What controls who is where in freshwater fish communities -the roles of biotic, abiotic, and spatial factors[END_REF]. Thus, although long-term monitoring and local analyses will remain crucial, assessment of trout population status would be simplified.

TABLES

Table 1. Physical characteristics of the five bypassed sections. The annual mean flows (AMF) are those of the natural part of the river upstream of the dam in the bypassed section. Low flow magnitude (Q90) was defined as daily discharge exceeded 90% of the time during the study period.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Observed (white squares) and simulated (blue circles) density fluctuations for (a) 0+, (b) 1+ and (c) >1+ trout in the BEY2 reach. Results for all reaches are proposed as supplementary materials.

Table 2 .

 2 Physical characteristics of monitored reaches and bypassed sections. 571

			BEY1, BEY2,	20.0	10.5	1.50	688	0.7
			BEY3
	Fontan	Roya	FON2, FON3	6.2	5.2	0.62	522	3.6
	Breil	Roya	BREIL1,	11.4	12.2	1.20	280	1.4
			BREIL2
	Pont-Haut Roizonne	ROIP2	2.7	2.5	0.28	740	3.7
	Rory	Lignon du	LIG2	2.9	2.2	0.35	560	2.4
		Forez

Table 5 .

 5 Flood-threshold and number of days for which flow had to exceed threshold to 584 induce mortality in 0+ trout for each bypassed section. 585

	Bypassed	Period	Q threshold	Q Threshold /Q90	Nb days	Mortality
	section		(m 3 .s -1 )			rate
	Beyrède	March-June	35	3.3		75%
		March-June	35	3.3	to 8	20%
		Nov-Dec	60	5.7		75%
		Whenever	94	8.9		75%
	Fontan	March-June	8	1.6		75%
		Whenever	71	13.6		90%
	Breil	March-June	60	4.9		75%
	Pont-Haut March-June	9	3.5		75%
	Rory	March-June	5.5	2.5		75%

FIGURES Fig. 1. Location of the five bypassed sections.


Fair Trade International Symposim (FTIS 2018) Portsmouth 26-28 June 2018.

Paper Session

Fair trade twin towns Pondicherry and Auroville: a fresh look at activism

Aurélie Carimentrand CIRAD Montpellier (France) aureliecarimentrand@yahoo.fr +33676065462

Jérôme Ballet GRETHA UMR CNRS 5113 University of Bordeaux (France) jballetfr@yahoo.fr +33556848671

First conceived has a relationship between consumers in the North and producers in the South, the Fair trade movement has known significant changes since the early 2000s. The first has been the redefinition of fair trade to North / North or South / South relationships. Short circuits of production-consumption in the North are now assimilated to fair trade (Le [START_REF] Velly | Si loin, si proches: la difficile association entre circuits courts et commerce équitable[END_REF]. Researches in the South are almost non-existent, although many approaches for defining national labels or national brands have been undertaken. For example, the Fair Trade India brand for shops was launched in 2010 with the explicit aim of targeting local consumption. The second was the extension of the approach to collective consumption entities. From this point of view, the international campaign "Fair Trade Towns" was launched in 2000. Initiated by Oxfam in the rural commune of Garstang, UK, and supported by the Fairtrade Foundation in UK, it consists of developing fair products purchases in the structures and institutions of cities, whether public (School canteens ...) or private (cafés, restaurants ...). It is then a way to accredit places where local consumption of fair products and awareness-raising activities are undertaken with the aim to endorse local authorities (Malpass et al., 2007). It participates to a broader movement where places, not only towns but also schools, universities, counties, nations, provide to consumers more organized means for fair trade participation (Smith, 2015). This is then a new step in the Fair trade market development (Alexander and Nicholls, 2006) built upon an innovative marketing network [START_REF] Nicholls | Fair trade markets driven ethical consumption[END_REF] mainly based on a grassroots campaign (Lyon et al., 2014) and allowing participants to move away from the neo-liberal model of individual action [START_REF] Low | To boldly go…explaining ethical spaces to re-politicize ethical consumption and fair trade[END_REF]. It is currently being implemented in 30 countries where cities are taking specific steps. Five criteria must be met in order to obtain the fair trade town certificate: i) the local council passes a resolution supporting Fair trade and should buy fair trade products for its meetings, offices, canteens, etc.; ii) Fair trade products must be available in town's shops, served in local cafés, restaurants, and catering establishments, according to a volume in relation to the population; iii) Fair trade products are used by a number of local work places and community organizations (faith groups, schools etc).; iv) The campaign must attract media coverage and popular support, communication and awareness-raising actions on Fair trade must be developed; v) a local steering group must be created to ensure the continued commitment its Fair trade status. These five criteria are adaptable in particular for developing and emerging countries [START_REF] Makulski | Fair Trade Towns beyond the North: expanding into the global South, Powerpoint presentation at the[END_REF].

Researches on northern towns are embryonic (Peattie and Samuel, 2016;Rolland, 2015). In the South, they are non-existent. Our paper precisely explores the case of a Fair trade town in the South. As Peattie and Samuel (2016) underline, the lack of deep empirical contextual understanding is an essential challenge to overcome for a better understanding of the phenomenon. From this point of view, our paper presents several original features. First, it is, as far as we know, the first paper on a Fair trade town in the South. Second, we have chosen to study the towns of Pondicherry and Auroville in India, and it is the first towns engaged in the certification process in India. Third, Pondicherry and Auroville decided to join their efforts to be Fair trade twin towns, going beyond the usual contours of certified towns. As Arond (2006) emphasizes, several Fair trade twin towns experiments have already been done. They usually concern a Fair trade town in the North, already certified, that help a town in the South that wants to be certified. In the Pondicherry and Auroville case, they are two towns in the south engaged simultaneously in the certification process. A new kind of dynamics can then be analyzed. Fourth, and we discuss this point in length, the Fair trade twin towns initiative Pondicherry and Auroville takes a fresh look at activism. As underlined by [START_REF] Hira | Fair trade: Three key challenges for reaching the mainstream[END_REF], the Fair trade markets are largely driven by activism. O'Shaughnessy and Kennedy (2010) distinguish between traditional activism linked to consumers and citizen protests and public action campaigns on one hand, and relational activism rooted in like-minded people network concerned by an issue, especially in digital interconnected world, on the other hand. Our case study shows that beyond consumers, citizen, and NGOs, companies may be an important part of a new form of activism.

Methodology and data collection

One of the main stakes in Fair trade town analysis is to collect empirical material through a contextual understanding. Following [START_REF] Glaser | The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research[END_REF], Samuel and Peattie (2015), and Peattie and Samuel (2016) have shown that grounded theory constitutes an appealing methodology for collecting data on Fair trade. Grounded theory highlights that stakeholders' viewpoint on the social world, and in our case on Fair trade initiatives, allows us a comprehensive analysis of the construction and dynamics of social movements, the Fair trade towns initiatives in our case. Grounded theory is then mainly based on a research design in which qualitative data should be capture through views, motives, and everyday actions of insiders [START_REF] Blaikie | Designing social research[END_REF]. Following this methodology, we have done semi-structured interviews with the stakeholders of the Fair trade town initiative. During each interview we tried to capture the viewpoint on the Fair trade town initiative of the person interviewed, its role within this initiative, and the levers and brakes that s/he feels could block or enhance the initiative. We ranked the interviewed in four categories: member of the national steering committee, member of the local steering committee, Fair trade members of the initiative as identified by the main stakeholders of the initiative themselves, and others. All interviews were recorded.

Beyond interviews, we have interacted during six months with the main stakeholders (February-July 2017), observing their actions and positioning within the initiative. But furthermore, we asked the main stakeholders to help us in contacting other stakeholders, favoring interactions and the understanding of the viewpoint of the most active of them. We also regularly share our findings with some stakeholders during the research, allowing us to enter in an interpretive interactionism [START_REF] Denzin | Interpretive interactionism[END_REF]. To favor interactions we participate also in events such as the fair trade walk in Pondicherry, April 29th, and we have organized few events on fair trade such as a "fair trade tea" at the cafeteria of the French Institute of Pondicherry and a conference on fair trade at the Alliance Française in Pondicherry.

Discussion of findings

In this paper we present three types of findings around this initiative. Findings concern first the originality of the kind of activism involved in this initiative. An original feature of this case is that it is led by business organizations and not consumers or more traditional activists. It then shed light on a new kind of activism, corporate activism; a kind of activism that could be essential for Fair trade movements in the South. Second, we deal with social capital and the issues surrounding social capital due to the form of activism. Social capital and social networks are important assets for the promotion of Fair Trade. Fair trade initiatives are usually built around an activists network [START_REF] Davies | Alliances and networks: Creating success in the UK fair trade market[END_REF][START_REF] Davies | The role of social capital in the success of fair trade[END_REF]. Due to the feature we just discussed, the initiative was built around business leaders network. This is reflected in the local steering committee, but also in the national steering committee and the dynamics of the initiative. The main stakeholders of the initiative have some difficulties to reach local consumers, apart tourists. For instance the very concept of Fair trade is not understood by most of Tamil people. They assimilate Fair trade to other initiatives but do not understand the Fair trade concept. The translation of the concept in Tamil is of course an issue here, but beyond the very meaning of the concept constitutes a major stake. As a matter of fact, local consumers are not aware about Fair trade. Most of them know products from Auroville or from the Ashram in Pondicherry but cannot identify Fair trade products. To sum up, whereas the feature of the initiative, led by business activists, favors the starting of the initiative, the social capital of the founders also weakens its dynamics. Third, we enlarge our analysis, tackling the issue of the territorial dynamics of the initiative linked to the specificities of both towns. The idea of twin towns is considered 'natural' for several stakeholders, due to their spiritual imprint. The links between Auroville and Pondicherry are obvious from an historical perspective, even if the creation of Auroville was the subject of open conflicts between the Auroville pioneers and the Ashram of Pondicherry, which led to legal proceedings (Hemsell, 1977, Thomas andThomas, 2013). Furthermore Auroville was mainly developed thanks to local people workforce coming from nearby villages belonging to the Pondicherry and Tamil Nadu territories and they continue to be a main workforce for Auroville production units (Thomas and Thomas, 2013). On the other direction Auroville's products are largely present in Pondicherry shops and several Auroville units have got their own shops in Pondicherry.

Nevertheless, the dynamics is marked by several original features. In our case study, Pondicherry and Auroville are territories with a fragmented geography and could be considered as Fair trade tourism towns, linking the Fair trade town movement to the Fair trade tourism movement (see [START_REF] Cleverdon | Fair trade in tourism[END_REF], on Fair trade tourism).

  It is true that cities in the South are much less likely to have initiated this approach. Of the 1,878 certified cities, only 8 are in the South: the towns of Rio de Janeiro

(certified in 2016) and Poços de caldas (certified in 2012) in Brazil; Riobamaba (2016) and Quito (2016) in Equador; Pérez Zeledón (2009) in Costa Rica; Ebolowa (2015) in Cameroon; New Kofondua (2011) and Bolgatanga (2016) in Ghana.


Projet de construction d'un outil d'analyse des transformations textuelles dans le contexte intralingual

Typologie des transformations textuelles -Micro-stratégies et caractéristiques stylistiques Indications techniques pour l'élaboration de l'outil numérique Conclusion

[ 3 ]

FRANÇAIS

Résumé

Ce document de travail (juillet-août 2018) présente le projet en cours d 'élaboration d'un outil d'humanités numériques nommé IntraTexTT (pour « Intralingual Textual Transformation Tool »). Cet outil est destiné à l'analyse des transformations textuelles entre textes sources et textes cibles dans le contexte de la production de récits littéraires en Chine prémoderne (ca. XIII eme -XVIII eme s.). Cette production recourait de façon régulière à des processus complexe d'intertextualité, avec recours à des opérations de réécriture et de traduction intralinguale, motivées en particulier en raison du contexte de diglossie de la langue et de l'écriture chinoises, entre langue classique et langue vernaculaire. L'outil IntraTexTT sera destiné à l'analyse, au relevé statistique, à la mise en ligne et au partage des données relatives à ces opérations de production textuelle par transformation intertextuelle. Le présent document de travail expose les motivations et le contexte du besoin d'élaboration d'un tel outil. Il en donne les principes généraux, et en expose de façon détaillée les typologies ; il décrit les stratégies et microstratégies textuelles, avec leurs dénominations précises, à prendre en compte pour la réalisation d'un outil numérique pertinent et performant. Il indique que cet outil est actuellement développé dans le cadre du CRCAO, UMR 8155, entre l'auteur et un ingénieur d'études CNRS chargé de l'édition de corpus numériques, rattaché au laboratoire CRCAO. Le résultat devrait être opérationnel au cours de l'année 2019.

Principes généraux

Mes recherches et mon enseignement sur la littérature prémoderne en Chine (époques Yuan à première moitié des Qing, XIII eme -XVIII eme siècles) m'amènent régulièrement à décrire et à analyser des cas de réécriture et de traduction intralinguale. Dans la littérature de récit de cette époque, sous toutes ses formes, la stratégie de création littéraire des auteurs recourt massivement à des emprunts, reprises et retraitements de thèmes antérieurs qu'ils recyclent, réécrivent, amplifient, et très souvent réorientent idéologiquement en fonction de leurs objectifs.

Je traite principalement ici de la littérature de récit en langue vernaculaire. Dans ce vaste domaine, qui recouvre principalement les formes du conte, du roman et du théâtre, mais aussi des formes de poésies narratives ou chantées, les auteurs de la période considérée ont constamment tenu compte des caractéristiques du paysage linguistique au sein duquel ils évoluaient : à savoir un environnement marqué par la diglossie, ou plus généralement par des formes de « schizoglossie 1 » entre langue(s) classique(s) (wenyan 文 言 ) et langue(s) vernaculaire(s) (tongsu 通俗) -cette dernière catégorie pouvant comprendre aussi bien des aspects standards que des aspects dialectaux. On assiste alors à des phénomènes massifs de réécriture intralinguale, voire de traduction intralinguale2 , qui vont presque toujours dans le même sens, soit de la langue littéraire classique vers la langue vernaculaire. Les auteurs qui pratiquent ce genre de réécriture ou traduction intralinguales montrent toujours une claire conscience de la situation schizoglossique de la langue chinoise de leur époque dans ses formes écrites. Ils ne cessent, comme cela a été souvent décrit dans la littérature savante dès les premières décennies du siècles dernier (Lu Xun 魯迅, Sun Kaidi 孫楷第, Tan Zhengbi 譚正 璧…) de faire référence à l'art des conteurs, qu'ils imitent sciemment dans leurs oeuvres, où ils font intervenir de façon habituelle des éléments d'oralité lorsqu'ils expliquent, paraphrasent et re-racontent des récits antérieure sous une forme nouvelle. Le fait de rendre un thème accessible au plus grand nombre constitue un argument constant cité comme justifiant leur action de réécriture/ traduction intralinguale. Les auteurs s'expliquent souvent de façon explicite à ce sujet. Les textes critiques, dès l'époque des Song, et jusqu'aux Ming-Qing, en particulier les préfaces et avant-propos des oeuvres, font fréquemment référence à la situation schizoglossique de leur époque. En particulier ils reviennent régulièrement sur la difficulté de la langue classique et sur les avantages prêtés à la réécriture en langue vulgaire : cette dernière est vue comme possédant une plus grande capacité de pénétration vis-à-vis du grand public, et donc des effets en termes d'éducation ou de transmission des connaissances et des valeurs (en particulier morales)3 .

Ces phénomènes font aujourd'hui l'objet d'un intérêt renouvelé, notamment en lien avec une volonté d'approfondir notre compréhension de l'émergence des expressions vernaculaires, non seulement dans la Chine prémoderne, mais dans l'ensemble de l'Asie orientale de l'époque prémoderne/moderne (XIII eme -XIX eme siècles). C'est dans ce cadre que je conduis aujourd'hui un projet intitulé « Intralingual Translation, Language Shifting, and the Rise of Vernaculars in East Asian Classical and Premodern Cultures », avec Barbara Bisetto, maître de conférences à l'Universita Degli Studi di Verona4 , avec qui je dirige un programme « Diglossie, traduction intralinguale, interprétation » dans le cadre du CRCAO (Centre de recherches sur les civilisations de l'Asie orientale, UMR 8155, CNRS), pour le contrat pluriannuel 2019-2023 de l'UMR.

Dans ce cadre, nous prévoyons des collaborations avec des spécialistes des textes chinois considérés du point de vue de leurs rapports aux vernaculaires, qu'il s'agisse des vernaculaires de Chine ou des pays environnants. Pour ma part, et cela vaut pour tout ce qui est traité ciaprès, je m'intéresse exclusivement aux phénomènes intralinguaux, c'est-à-dire à ceux qui ont Les phénomènes de réécriture/traduction intralinguale jouent donc un rôle majeur dans les mécanismes de production des textes littéraires, dans le contexte historique et culturel esquissé ci-dessus. Ils ont été depuis longtemps décrits dans la littérature sinologique. On a établi, pour un très grand nombre de cas, comment tels textes ont été à l'origine de tels autres textes, qui ont été, en totalité ou partiellement, le produit de réécritures, de traductions ou d'amplifications. Cela s'applique en particulier dans le domaine des contes en langue vernaculaire couramment appelés huaben 話本, dans la lignée des oeuvres éditées ou créées, à la fin des Ming, par Feng Menglong 馮夢龍(1574-1646) et Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 (1580-1644), dont les collections totalisant approximativement 200 contes ont inspiré nombre d'autres auteurs et nombre d'autres collections. Ces relations intertextuelles ont été massivement identifiées, et ont fait l'objet d'études et d'inventaires plus ou moins complets, depuis les travaux pionniers de Hanan, de Lévy & al., de Tan Zhengbi, etc 6 .

Cependant le comment de ces processus de réécriture, le détail des mécanismes de transfert intertextuel, les stratégies et micro-stratégies développées par les auteurs lorsqu'ils élaboraient un texte sur la base d'un autre texte plus ancien, tous ces phénomènes ont été rarement décrits ou analysés de façon détaillée. Tout un travail de philologie, au plus près des textes et des versions, paragraphe par paragraphe, souvent phrase par phrase, et quelquefois mot à mot, reste à faire. Cette entreprise paraît intéressante, voire fondamentale, car lorsqu'elle est menée, elle est susceptible de révéler un nombre considérable d'informations sur la manière dont les textes ont été produits, et donc sur la manière dont les auteurs conduisaient leur travail d'écriture, utilisaient leurs références dans l'environnement hautement intertextuel qui était le leur, et donnaient sens à leur démarche.

En Occident, Vibeke Børdahl a mené un travail pionnier sur les différents types de réécriture du thème de « Wu Song combattant le tigre » 武松打虎, constituant l'un des cycles du grand roman du XV eme siècle Au Bord de l'eau (Shuihu zhuan 水滸傳) 7 lorsqu'elle en a livré, de façon extensive, des exemples comparaisons textuelles, en citant verbatim des extraits, avec marquages des différentiations entre versions par des moyens typographiques. Alors que la plupart des travaux antérieurs susmentionnés se limitaient à des évocations généralistes des transferts intertextuels, se bornant à des constats souvent impressionnistes exprimés en 5 Il m'est difficile, à cet égard, de souscrire à l'habitude qui s'est répandue récemment dans la littérature anglophone, de parler du chinois classique en termes de « literary Sinitic [ou : Chinese] » plutôt que « classical Chinese » ; la langue vernaculaire n'est en effet pas moins « littéraire » que la langue classique, et il serait trompeur de considérer l'expression vernaculaire comme l'équivalent d'une expression « populaire ». L'expression « chinois classique » / « classical Chinese » est sans aucun doute critiquable, mais employée faute d'un meilleur substitut. 6 Etudes fondamentales : [START_REF] Hanan | The Chinese Short Story. Studies in Dating, Authorship, and Composition[END_REF], Hanan 1981, Lévy 1981. Travail d'identification et d'inventaire des sources des huaben, recueils de contes en langue vernaculaire du XVII eme siècle : Tan 1980, Lévy et al. (eds.) 1978-2006. 7 Børdahl 2013. termes de rapports de « sources » et d'« influences » des textes les uns sur les autres, elle a pu démontrer comment une description non généraliste, faisant état du détail, au plus près du texte, des processus de transformation à l'oeuvre pouvaient être riches d'enseignements. Elle l'a fait en accordant en particulier une grande attention aux choix lexicaux ou stylistiques opérés entre une version et une autre. Cette méthodologie lui a permis de révéler des pans entiers de la réalité des réseaux sémiotiques tissés entre ces textes par différents auteurs / traducteurs intralinguaux, avec ce que cela comportait de stratégies de sens, d'intentions, de recontextualisation et de généalogies textuelles.

Typologie des transformations textuelles -Micro-stratégies et caractéristiques stylistiques

Au cours de mon enseignement à l'Ecole pratique des hautes études, notamment autour du thème des récits de suicide et de leurs réécritures8 , j'ai pu analyser les différents types de micro-stratégies développées par les auteurs de la période considérée dans leurs opérations de réécriture/traduction intralinguale de textes sources dans leurs objectifs de production de nouveaux textes. Je l'ai fait principalement autour de la production des contes en vernaculaire, de type huaben 話本, susmentionnés, mais aussi en examinant la production de textes théâtraux.

[ 7 ]

Le résultat de cette analyse m'a amené à définir les opérations de transformation textuelle à l'oeuvre entre texte source (TS) et texte cible (TC) comme comportant obligatoirement la combinaison concomitante de deux catégories :

Catégorie I : Micro-stratégies textuelles (i.e., types de procédés de réécriture / traduction intralinguale)

Catégorie II : Caractéristiques stylistiques / linguistiques (i.e., qualités de la langue et du point de vue narratif utilisés)

La catégorie I relève de l'énoncé, de ce que le texte dit, autrement dit du niveau dénotatif. La catégorie II relève de l'énonciation, des caractéristiques de la langue utilisée, autrement dit du niveau indexical.

En accord avec ces deux axes, nous définissions les typologies des opérations de transformation textuelles comme suit9 :

Catégorie I (Micro-stratégies textuelles [types de procédés de traduction / réécriture])

Citation verbatim

Un segment de TS est repris sans changement dans TC. Dans la grande majorité des cas, le segment en question est en langue classique, puisque c'est la langue dans laquelle sont écrits la plupart des TS.

Quasi citation

Un segment de TS est repris presque à l'identique dans TC. Des modifications diverses peuvent être introduites : ordre des mots, remplacement d'un syntagme de la langue classique par son équivalent vernaculaire, passage à une langue mixte… Le but est souvent de fluidifier l'insertion de la citation au sein de son environnement dans TC. Parfois le quasi citation est l'effet d'une volonté de citation verbatim, mais entachée d'erreurs (de mémoire, de copie…).

Traduction / remplacement par (quasi) synonyme

Il s'agit de la traduction intralinguale à proprement parler. Il n'y a pas d'ajout sémantique exogène. Un énoncé en langue classique donne lieu à une translation vers un énoncé équivalent en langue vulgaire ou mixte (mais parfois aussi en restant dans la langue classique). Il y a recherche de synonymes ou quasi synonymes. Cette recherche peut s'accompagner de distorsions sémantiques limitées (si elles sont importantes, on tombe dans le cas de la traduction amplifiée, ou explicitante).

Amplification

Il s'agit d'un procédé de réécriture, classiquement de la langue classique vers la langue vernaculaire, avec ajout libre de détails ou adjuvants, adjonction d'éléments narratifs ad libitum, mais liés au contexte et non séparés du noyau narratif de TS. C'est un procédé très commun, souvent très imaginatif, et l'une des principales ressources pour donner plus d'épaisseur narrative et de qualités littéraires à TC, en conférant de l'ampleur à l'énoncé de TS. La différence spatiale (nombre de caractères, quantité de texte) entre TS et TC peut être importante, voire très importante. Après amplification, TC peut représenter plusieurs fois la longueur de TS.

Traduction amplifiée

La traduction intralinguale ne s'en tient pas à une fidélité ou à une recherche de synonymies entre TS et TC, mais s'accompagne de l'addition d'éléments sémantiques non présents dans le champ sémantique de TS. Cette adjonction reste limitée, sans quoi on tombe, soit dans le cas de l'amplification, soit dans le cas de la traduction explicitante / reformulation.

Conclusion

Le projet en cours de création consiste donc à créer un outil d'humanités numériques susceptible d'effectuer des relevés de tous les aspects textuels susmentionnés à la fois, de les mettre en évidence de façon visible, de les rendre exploitable et interprétables, notamment par la production de statistiques.

NB : dans un nombre significatif de cas, le TC est le fruit de la réécriture / traduction intralinguale non pas d'un TS unique mais de plusieurs TS combinés. L'outil doit pouvoir rendre compte sans difficulté de cette multiplicité de sources, quel que soit le nombre de ces sources.

Grâce à la mise en ligne, les résultats des opérations de comparaison textuelle pourront être stockés et leurs résultats partagés.

L'outil numérique élaboré sera lui-même destiné à être mis gratuitement au service de la communauté des chercheurs. L'outil lui-même sera adaptable dans toute langue, mais restera exclusivement pensé pour et destiné à des comparaisons textuelles entre des textes chinois.

IntraTexTT doit être finalisé au cours de l'année 2019.

ENGLISH

General Outline

My research and teaching on pre-modern literature in China (Yuan to mid-Qing, 13th-18th centuries) lead me to describe and analyze cases of rewriting and intralingual translation on a regular basis. In the narrative literature of the period, whatever the genres, the strategy of literary creation massively draws on borrowing and reprocessing of previous themes. These themes are recycled, rewritten, amplified and quite often reoriented ideologically according to the authors' objectives.

In the undergoing project, I deal mainly with vernacular narrative literature. In this vast field, which encompasses different genres-short stories, novels, theater plays, but also forms of narrative or sung poetry-, the authors always take careful account of the linguistic environment of their time, i.e., an environment characterized by diglossia, or more generally by forms of "schizoglossia" 13 between classical language(s) (wenyan 文言) and vernacular 13 To use a name suggested by King 2015, 13, n. 23 language(s) (tongsu 通俗). 14 In this context we witness massive phenomena of intralingual rewriting, even intralingual translation, 15 typically from the classical literary language to the vernacular language. Authors who practice this kind of intralingual rewriting or translation always show a keen awareness of the schizoglossic situation of the Chinese language of their time in its written forms. As has often been described in the scholarly literature since the first decades of the last century (Lu Xun 魯 迅 , Sun Kaidi 孫 楷 第 , Tan Zhengbi 譚 正 璧 ...), premodern authors of fiction constantly hint at the art of storytellers, whom they pretend to imitate in their works. They did so when they used elements of orality in explaining, paraphrasing, and re-telling previous stories under a new form. Making a theme accessible to as many people as possible, bridging the gap from expert to lay, are constant arguments when it comes to justifying their intralingual rewriting/translation endeavor. They often explain themselves explicitly on this subject. The literati of the time, from the Song up to the Ming-Qing, refer massively to the prevailing schizoglossic situation, in particular in the prefaces and forewords that they add to the published novels or short story collections. In those prefaces, they typically refer to the intrinsic difficulty of the classical language and to the advantages of rewriting in a language "accessible to the vulgar" (tongsu 通俗). They consider the latter having a greater capacity for communicating (tong 通) with the general public, and being more influent in terms of education, of capacity to transmit knowledge and (especially moral) values. 16 These phenomena are currently the subject of an expanding interest, particularly in connection with a renewed attention regarding the understanding and evaluation of the emergence of vernaculars in pre-modern/modern China and East Asia (13th-19th centuries).

In this context I am currently conducting a project entitled "Intralingual Translation, Language Shifting, and the Rise of Vernaculars in East Asian Classical and Premodern Cultures", codirected by Barbara Bisetto, lecturer at the Universita Degli Studi di Verona. 17 Bisetto and I are co-organizers of a research program entitled "Diglossia, intralingual translation, interpretation" that is part of the pluriannual research scheme of the CRCAO (Centre de recherches sur les civilisations de l'Asie orientale, UMR 8155, CNRS, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France), for the 2019-2023 period (CNRS UMR's [Unité mixte de recherche] five-year contract).

In this framework, we intend to collaborate with specialists studying Chinese texts in relation with vernaculars, either in China or in surrounding countries. For my part, and this applies to everything that is discussed below, I am interested in intralingual phenomena exclusively, i.e., taking place within the sole perimeter of Chinese language and writing. In these I include their various, "classical" or "vernacular" forms. 18

14 The tongsu category can include both standard and dialectal aspects. 15 In the sense given to the phenomenon, for example, by [START_REF] Korning Zethsen | Intralingual Translation and Its Place within Translation Studies -A Theoretical Discussion[END_REF], Zethsen 2009[START_REF] Zethsen | Beyond Translation Proper-Extending the Field of Translation Studies[END_REF], and numerous authors working in the field of Translation Studies. 16 See for example: Dalian tushuguan cankaobu 1983, Zeng & a. 1982, Dars & a. 2001, Rolston & Lin 1990. 17 Barbara Bisetto is currently exploring a form of commentary with a translatory dimension, the yanyi 演義 ("elaboration of the meaning"). See Bisetto 2018. 18 In this respect, it can hardly subscribe to the habit which has recently become widespread in Anglophone literature, to refer to classical Chinese in terms of "literary Sinitic [or: Chinese]". The vernacular language is indeed no less "literary" than its classical counterpart, and furthermore it would be misleading to consider vernacular expression as the equivalent of a "popular" expression. The expression "classical Chinese" /"chinois classique" is undoubtedly open to criticism, but I still use it for lack of a more convincing substitute.

The Current Project: Building a Digital Tool for the Analysis of Intralingual Textual Transformation

The case of intralingual rewriting/translation thus plays a major role in the mechanisms of literary text production, in the historical and cultural background outlined above. Such textual production has long been described in the sinological literature. How some texts originate in some other, earlier texts, and are, in whole or in part, the product of rewritings, translations or amplifications, is a well-established fact. This applies in particular to vernacular tales commonly called huaben 話 本 , in the tradition made popular in the late Ming by authors/editors like Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 (1574-1646) and Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 (1580-1644), whose short story collections, totalizing approximately 200 tales, inspired many imitators, who, like them, composed their narratives largely through rewriting. These intertextual relations have been identified in good part, and have been the subject of more or less complete studies and inventories since the pioneering work of Tan Zhengbi, Hanan, Lévy & al., etc. 19 .

However, how exactly did the authors of the time carry out these rewriting processes, what were the particulars of the intertextual transfer mechanisms that they implemented, what kind of strategies and micro-strategies did they develop when putting together a text on the basis of another (other), older text(s)? These processes per se have rarely been described or investigated in full detail. A careful philological endeavor thus remains to be carried out, that would explore these textual transformations between versions as closely as possible; this should be done paragraph by paragraph, often sentence by sentence, sometimes word by word. This exploration appears as fundamental, as it is likely to reveal a considerable amount of information on the way in which the texts were produced. This could help us put into light how authors conducted their (re)writing task, how they managed their references in the highly intertextual network which was their intellectual environment, and to better understand what they intended by working the way they did.

In the West, Vibeke Børdahl has done a pioneering work on the different kinds of rewriting of the theme "Wu Song Fights the Tiger" 武松打虎, that constitute one of the cycles of the great 15th century novel Water Margin (Shuihu zhuan 水滸傳) 20 . She gave extensive examples of textual comparisons on the theme, citing verbatim excerpts, publishing her results in publications that would show differentiations between versions by means of typographical devices. While most of the previous works mentioned above were limited to generalist evocations of intertextual transfers, confining themselves to sometimes impressionistic observations expressed in rather vague terms of "source" and "influence" of such text on such other text, she was able to demonstrate to what extent a non-generalist description could be informative, when the textual comparison was conducted at a very detailed level. In paying particular attention to the lexical or stylistic choices made between one version and another, her efforts proved fruitful. This methodology allowed her to disclose whole sections of the semiotic networks woven between different texts by different authors / intralingual 19 Basic references : [START_REF] Hanan | The Chinese Short Story. Studies in Dating, Authorship, and Composition[END_REF], Hanan 1981[START_REF] Lévy | Le Conte en langue vulgaire du XVIIe siècle[END_REF]. Identification and inventory of huaben sources, collection of stories in vernacular language of the 17th century: [START_REF] Tan | Sanyan Liangpai ziliao 三言兩拍資料[END_REF], Lévy & a. 1978-2006. 20 Børdahl 2013.

translators, with what it entailed in terms of writers' intents, semiotic strategies, recontextualization and textual genealogies.

However, although she has convincingly shown how to situate the evolution of the theme between the different types of texts to which this theme lent itself (novels, plays, storytellers' texts or sung arts), Børdahl did not go as far as describing and analyzing down to the minutest details all the textual micro-strategies involved in the production of rewritten versions. Besides, her endeavor was limited to "analogical" means, i.e., devices typographically visible on the page, without any digitized spin-off capable of producing tools for evaluation, description of typologies, analysis of verbatim, and statistics of the transformations at work.

It is therefore necessary to go further, in particular to be able to provide qualitative improvements in order to meet the objectives of an exhaustive analysis of the observed intertextual transformations. For that, we need:

1. to define a precise typology of the textual strategies and micro-strategies used by authors in their textual production;

2. to benefit from a digital tool capable of constituting the results obtained into a systematized, interpretable and exploitable database.

It is with this objective in mind that a tool of digital humanities is currently (2018) being developed by myself in collaboration with Philippe Pons, CNRS design engineer in charge of the edition of digital corpus, as part of the CRCAO laboratory, UMR 8155, CNRS Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France. This tool is named IntraTexTT (for "Intralingual Textual Transformation Tool").

Typology of textual transformations -Micro-strategies and stylistic characteristics

While teaching at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, in particular when exploring transformative textual operations focused on the theme of suicide stories,21 I have had the opportunity to analyze the different types of micro-strategies developed by the authors of the period in question in their operations of intralingual translation and rewriting from source texts to new, target texts. I did this in large part by investigating the production of the abovementioned huaben 話本 stories in the vernacular, but also the production of theatrical texts.

The result of this survey has led me to define the textual transformation operations at work between source text (ST) and target text (TT) as necessarily involving the concomitant combination of two categories : Category II is a matter of enunciation, of the characteristics of the language used; in other words that concerns the indexical level.

In accordance with these two directions, we defined the typologies of textual transformation operations as follows 22 :

Category I (Textual micro-strategies [types of translating / rewriting procedures])

Verbatim citation

An ST segment is included in TT unchanged. In most cases, the segment is in classical Chinese, since this is the language in which most ST are written.

Quasi-citation

An ST segment is almost identical in TT. Various modifications can be introduced: word order, replacement of a syntagm in the classical language by its vernacular equivalent, switching to mixed language... The aim is often to fluidify the insertion of the quotation within its environment in TT. Sometimes the quasi-quotation is motivated by an intent at verbatim quotation, but with some errors (in copying, or memorizing…).

Translation / replacement by (quasi-)synonym

This is intralingual translation strictly speaking. There is no exogenous semantic addition.

A statement in classical is simply translated in its equivalent in vernacular (standard or dialectal) or mixed language (though it sometimes remains in classical Chinese). The textual transformation is aimed at finding synonyms or quasi-synonyms. This research can be accompanied by limited semantic distortions (if the distortions are important, the transformation pertains to amplified, or explanatory translation).

Amplification

This is a rewriting process, typically from classical to vernacular language, with free addition of details or adjuvants, addition of narrative elements ad libitum, but which are linked to the context and not separated from the narrative core of ST. This is a very common process, often very imaginative, and one of the main resources to give more narrative depth and literary qualities to TT, giving extra amplitude to the ST statements.

The spatial difference (number of characters, quantity of text) between ST and TT can be large or very large. TT's length can end up amounting to several times the length of ST.

Amplified translation

Intralingual translation does not limit itself to be close to ST or to be searching for synonymies between ST and TT, but is accompanied by the addition of semantic elements which are not present in the semantic field of ST. This addition remains limited, 22 See at the end of the document the summary table of the categories and subcategories.

though, otherwise the transformations pertains to the cases of either in the amplification, or explanatory translation / reformulation.

Explanatory translation / reformulating

The intralingual translation between ST and TT is accompanied by a clear explicative, explanatory intent. It is basically a paraphrase. There are no additional narrative or discursive elements added during the transfer from one text to another, as in the case of amplified translation. The rewriting concerns primarily the linguistic field, but affects the semantic field. If the modified or added elements are not directly present in ST, they remain however in its semantic field. The process is typically used in the case of a narrative involving an expert-to-lay relationship, where the meaning of ST needs to be explained, with added statements and pedagogical intent, and a desire to clarify or add some kind of comment on the ST.

Addition

Addition of narrative elements ad libitum and not specifically related to context. Typically, elements of a biography or story are invented from scratch and inserted into the TT continuum. This process is different from amplification, because in the case of addition, the additional elements are not linked to a narrative nucleus of ST, but are added as something entirely interpolated, not present even as a hint in any part of ST.

Omission

Narrative elements of ST are deleted when transferring to TT.

We must remember that a given segment of a TT can only be the effect of one and only one of the textual micro-strategies described above. Two micro-strategies cannot be concomitant.

NB: There is no a priori definition of what constitutes a "segment". A segment may consist of one or more paragraphs, a sentence, a part of a sentence or even a single word. If several text micro-strategies are found in the same sentence, it must be divided into as many segments as there are micro-strategies. The notion of segment is fundamental for the construction of the digital tool; it will make it possible to compare systematically the elements resulting from ST with their transformation in TT, because it is important to be able at any time to identify which part of ST is transformed into which corresponding part of TT.

Textual displacement

In addition to the two subcategories above, there is an optional third category: the possibility of indicating the segments which, in the order of narration, may have been moved, either by anteposition or by postposition, in the TT, with respect to their original position in ST.

As we can see, textual micro-strategies are therefore inseparable from both their linguistic and stylistic characteristics. For example, in ST, a heterodiegetic narrative passage or segment, in the third person and in the classical language, can result, when transposed into TT, in an amplified translation, or an amplification, written in standard, intradiegetic, vernacular language, expressed at the first person; for reasons of narrative strategy, elements of the original text can also be displaced within the textual continuum, for example in postposition in order to maintain the suspense or the interest of the reader.

Experience shows that TT authors generally use, in successive segments, more or less the full range of options presented above every time they produce a new text on the basis of a previous text.

Technical information for the development of the digital tool

Regarding the technical approach used to develop the digital tool currently under construction, Philippe Pons (CNRS design engineer in charge of the edition of digital corpus, member of the CRCAO, UMR 8155), in charge of the project, indicates:

"The Chinese texts in the corpus are first transcribed and styled within MSWord word processor. Then, an XQuery script automatically encodes them in XML-TEI (Text Encoding Initiative).23

[ 18 ]

This textual database is then registered in an XML database software, BaseX,24 which ensures via scripts in XQuery (XML Query) the putting on line of the corpus.

Finally, text display and alignment is ensured by the software Versioning Machine, 25 fully translated into XQuery for the needs of this project, and by additional code in Javascript."

All types of transformation and stylistic/linguistic characteristics, falling under categories I and II, indicated above, have a full name and an abbreviated name, both in French and in English.

The abbreviated names are intended to facilitate their use in the construction of the numerical tool, in particular at the level of styled text processing in MSWord. See the summary table at the end of the present document.

Conclusion

The design of the project currently being developed is therefore to create a tool in digital humanities capable of recording all the textual aspects mentioned above, highlighting them in a visible way, making them exploitable and interpretable, in particular through the output of statistical data.

NB: In many cases, TT is the result of rewriting / intralingual translation not of a single ST but of several combined STs. The tool must be able to account for this multiplicity of sources without difficulty, whatever the number of these sources.

The results of the textual comparison operations can be stored and their results shared online.

The digital tool developed will itself be intended to be made available free of charge to the community or scholars and researchers. The tool itself will be adaptable in any language, but will remain exclusively designed and intended for textual comparisons between Chinese texts.

IntraTexTT will be completed in the course of 2019.

Tableau des catégories et sous-catégories

Chart of Categories and Subcategories

(

  organisé par Andréas Stauder et moi-même) EPHE Section des Sciences historiques et philologiques & SCRIPTA-PSL History and Practices of Writing : Diglossie, traduction intralinguale, réécriture, commentaire -Diglossia, intralingual translation, rewriting, and commentary. La notion de « diglossie », telle que définie d'abord par Ferguson 1959, est aujourd'hui contestée parmi les spécialistes de l'Asie orientale, qui jugent sa distribution des rôles entre langues « hautes » et « basses » (H/L) peu pertinente, voire très problématique, dans le cas des langues et pratiques d'écriture de la région. lieu à l'intérieur du périmètre des seules langue et écriture chinoises, sous les formes diverses qu'elles comportent, formes dites « classiques » et formes dites « vernaculaires » 5 . Projet de construction d'un outil d'analyse des transformations textuelles dans le contexte intralingual

  the statement, what the text says, in other words it concerns the denotative level.

  Category II : Stylistic / linguistic characteristics In this category, two subcategories must be combined at the same time: A. Linguistic characteristics B. Narrative point of view An optional category is added: the textual displacement [ 17 ] Linguistic characteristics are: a. classical (literary) Chinese b. vernacular Chinese: "standard" (guanhua) c. vernacular Chinese: dialectal d. mixed language (combination of classical and vernacular Chinese) The narrative point of view concerns: a. the 3rd person narration b. the 1st person narration c. dialogue

  Abbreviated form

  , car il est important d'être capable à tout moment d'identifier quelle partie de TS est transformée en quelle autre partie de TC. Par exemple, dans TS, un passage ou segment narratif hétérodiégétique, à la troisième personne et en langue classique, peut faire l'objet, dans TC, d'une traduction amplifiée ou d'une amplification en langue vulgaire standard, intradiégétique, avec passage à la première personne ; pour des raisons de stratégie narrative, des éléments du texte peuvent de plus être déplacés, par exemple en postposition afin de maintenir le suspens ou l'intérêt du lecteur.L'expérience montre que les auteurs de TC utilisent généralement, par segments, la gamme plus ou moins complète des options présentées ci-dessus à chaque fois qu'ils produisent un texte narratif par recyclage / réécriture d'un texte (de textes) antérieur(s). techniques pour l'élaboration de l'outil numérique Concernant l'approche technique employée pour l'élaboration de l'outil numérique visé, Philippe Pons, ingénieur d'études CNRS chargé de l'édition de corpus numériques, dans le cadre du laboratoire CRCAO, UMR 8155, chargé du projet, indique : « Les textes chinois du corpus sont d'abord transcrits et stylés dans le traitement de texte Microsoft Word. Ensuite, un script XQuery permet de les encoder automatiquement en XML-TEI (Text Encoding Initiative)10 . Cette base de données textuelles est alors enregistrée dans un logiciel de base de données XML, BaseX 11 , qui assure via des scripts en XQuery (XML Query) la mise en ligne du corpus. Enfin, l'affichage des textes et leur alignement est assurée par le logiciel Versioning Machine 12 ,entièrement traduit en XQuery pour les besoins de ce projet, et par du code complémentaire en Javascript. » Tous les types de transformation et de caractéristiques stylistiques / linguistiques, relevant des catégories I et II, indiqués ci-dessus, possèdent une dénomination complète et une dénomination abrégée, en français et en anglais. La dénomination abrégée est destinée à faciliter leur usage dans la construction de l'outil numérique, notamment au niveau du traitement stylé du texte sous Word. Voir à ce propos le tableau synthétique en fin de document.

	Indications
	Catégorie II : Caractéristiques stylistiques / linguistiques
	Dans cette catégorie, deux sous catégories sont obligatoirement combinées de manière
	concomitante :
	A. Caractéristiques linguistiques
	B. Point de vue narratif
	S'ajoute une catégorie optionnelle : le déplacement textuel
	Les caractéristiques linguistiques sont :
	a. langue classique
	b. langue vulgaire standard (≈ guanhua)
	c. langue vulgaire dialectale
	Omission
	Des éléments narratifs de TS sont supprimés lors du passage à TC.
	Rappelons qu'un segment donné d'un TC ne peut être le fruit que d'une et une seule des
	micro-stratégies textuelles désignées ci-dessus. Celles-ci sont exclusives les unes des autres.
	Il ne peut y avoir deux micro-stratégies concomitantes.

Traduction explicitante / reformulation

La traduction intralinguale entre TS et TC s'accompagne d'une volonté explicative. Il s'agit fondamentalement d'une paraphrase. Il n'y a pas d'ajout d'éléments narratifs ou discursifs supplémentaires lors du passage d'un texte à l'autre, comme dans le cas de la traduction amplifiée. La réécriture concerne prioritairement le champ linguistique, mais affecte le champ sémantique. Si les éléments modifiés ou ajoutés ne sont pas directement présents dans TS, ils restent cependant dans son champ sémantique. Le procédé est classiquement utilisé dans le cas d'une narration supposant une relation d'expert à profane, où le sens de TS a besoin d'être expliqué, avec ajouts de détails et visée pédagogique, volonté de clarifier le TS ou d'y apporter une forme de commentaire.

Ajout

Ajout d'éléments narratifs ad libitum et non spécifiquement liés au contexte. Typiquement, des éléments d'une biographie ou d'un récit sont inventés de toute pièce et insérés au sein du continuum de TC. Ce procédé se distingue de l'amplification, car dans le cas de l'ajout, les éléments additionnels ne sont pas liés à un noyau narratif de TS, mais viennent s'adjoindre de façon interpolée.

NB : Il n'y a pas de définition a priori de ce qui constitue un « segment ». Un segment peut consister en un ou plusieurs paragraphes, en une phrase, en une partie de phrase, voire en un seul mot. Si plusieurs micro-stratégies textuelles sont constatées dans une même phrase, celle-ci doit être divisée en autant de segments qu'il y a de micro-stratégies. La notion de segment est fondamentale pour la construction de l'outil numérique ; elle permettra de mettre en regard de façon systématique les éléments issus de TS vis-à-vis de leur transformation dans TCd. langue mixte (combinaison d'éléments de la langue classique et de la langue vernaculaire)

Le point de vue narratif concerne :

a. la narration à la 3° personne b. la narration à la 1° personne c. l'énoncé dialogique

Déplacement textuel

Aux deux sous-catégories ci-dessus s'en ajoute une troisième, optionnelle : la possibilité d'indiquer les segments qui, dans l'ordre de la narration, auraient été déplacés, soit par antéposition, soit par postposition, dans le TC, par rapport à leur position d'origine dans TS.

Comme on le voit, les micro-stratégies textuelles sont donc inséparables de leurs caractéristiques linguistiques et stylistiques.

  This tool is intended for the analysis of textual transformations between source texts and target texts in the production of literary narratives in pre-modern. As is well known, this production involved complex intertextuality processes, entailing rewriting and intralingual translation, particularly in the context of the diglossic situation of Chinese between classical and vernacular languages. The IntraTexTT tool will be used for the analysis, statistical reporting, online publishing and sharing of data related to said situations, in which textual production was operated via intertextual transformations. This working paper sets out the rationale and context for the need to develop such a tool. It gives the general principles, details the typologies, and describes the textual strategies and micro-strategies, with their precise names, to be considered for the realization of a relevant and efficient digital tool. It states that this tool is currently being developed with the help of theCRCAO, UMR 8155, between the

	Abstract
	This working paper (July-August 2018) introduces the current project to develop a digital
	humanities tool called IntraTexTT (for "Intralingual Textual Transformation Tool").

author and a CNRS research engineer in charge of digital corpus editing, member of the CRCAO laboratory. The result should be operative during the year 2019.

  , speaking of "schizoglossographia". See also Ross King in his lecture of 14 May 2018, "Ditching'Diglossia': Describing Ecologies of the Spoken and Inscribed in Pre-modern

Korea", at the monthly seminar (organized by Andréas Stauder and myself) EPHE Section des Sciences historiques et philologiques & SCRIPTA-PSL History and Practices of Writing : Diglossie, traduction intralinguale, reécriture, commentaire -Diglossia, intralingual translation, rewriting, and commentary. The notion of "diglossia", as first defined by

[START_REF] Ferguson | Diglossia[END_REF]

, is contested today among East Asian scholars, who find its distinction of so-called "high" and "low" (H/L) languages levels quite problematic and irrelevant in the case of languages and writing practices in the area.

Au sens donné au phénomène, par exemple, par Korning Zethsen et Hill-Madsen 2016, Zethsen 2009, Zethsen 2007, et nombre d'auteurs du domaine des Translation Studies.

Voir par exemple passim dans : Dalian tushuguan cankaobu (ed.) 1983,Zeng et al. (eds.) 1982[START_REF] Dars | Comment lire un roman chinois : anthologie de préfaces et commentaires aux anciennes oeuvres de fiction[END_REF], Rolston et Lin (eds.) 1990.

Barbara Bisetto conduit actuellement des recherches sur une forme de commentaire à dimension traductive, le yanyi 演義 (« élaboration du sens »). Voir Bisetto 2018.

https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01518163 ; https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01654675.

Voir en fin de document le tableau synthétique des catégories et sous-catégories.

http://www.tei-c.org.

http://basex.org.

http://v-machine.org.

https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01518163 ; https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01654675.

http://www.tei-c.org.

http://basex.org.