Cyril Aubert
email: cyril.aubert@imbe.fr

Morteza Djamali

Matthew Jones

Hamid Lahijani

Nick Marriner

Abdolmajid Naderi-Beni

Arash Sharifi

Philippe Ponel

Emmanuel Gandouin

Imbe

Inioas

A Sharifi Halophytes

A major hydrobiological change in

Keywords: Younger Dryas, climate change, Karst, lake-level change, Zagros Dryas récent, changement climatique, karst, changement du niveau des lacs, Zagros

de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

The late Pleistocene to early Holocene transition marks the final part of the "Last Glacial -Interglacial Transition" or "Last Termination" [START_REF] Lowe | Reconstructing Quaternary environments[END_REF][START_REF] Hoek | INTegration of Ice-core, MArine, and TErrestrial records (INTIMATE): refining the record of the last glacialinterglacial transition[END_REF]. It is a key event in the earth's history characterized by a series of climatic changes of high magnitude that provide the possibility to investigate the mechanisms responsible for abrupt climatic changes [START_REF] Hoek | INTegration of Ice-core, MArine, and TErrestrial records (INTIMATE): refining the record of the last glacialinterglacial transition[END_REF]). In the North Atlantic region, a detailed spatiotemporal framework is now available for the patterns of hydroclimatic and biotic changes during this transition (e.g., [START_REF] Ammann | Quantification of biotic responses to rapid climatic changes around the Younger Dryasa synthesis[END_REF][START_REF] Rasmussen | A new Greenland ice core chronology for the last glacial termination[END_REF]. The biotic responses to late glacial -early Holocene climatic changes display many spatial discrepancies highlighting the important role of local ecological conditions such as lake topography and the composition of aquatic macrophyte communities [START_REF] Engels | Changes in fossil chironomid remains along a depth gradient: evidence for common faunal thresholds within lakes[END_REF]. In the low temperate to subtropical latitudes of southwestern Asia, the late glacial hydroclimatic changes are still poorly understood compared to Europe and the Mediterranean. In the Middle East, for instance, the more complex interactions between climatic systems can potentially cause more multifaceted responses of biomes to hydroclimatic variations [START_REF] Djamali | Indian Summer Monsoon variations could have affected the early-Holocene woodland expansion in the Near East[END_REF]. Furthermore, this is a key period during which nomadic hunter-gatherers sedenterized to form the first farming communities [START_REF] Blockley | A revised chronology for the adoption of agriculture in the Southern Levant and the role of Lateglacial climatic change[END_REF][START_REF] Willcox | The beginnings of cereal cultivation and domestication in Southwest Asia[END_REF]. In this regard, the Zagros-Taurus Mountains in western Iran and southeastern Turkey is a key region in understanding the Neolithisation process [START_REF] Matthews | The neolithisation of Iran[END_REF]. A recent discovery of the cultivation of wild cereals in the foothills of the Zagros Mountains in Iran [START_REF] Riehl | Emergence of agriculture in the foothills of the Zagros Mountains of Iran[END_REF], at the very onset of the Holocene, suggests that this area should also be considered as one of the earliest centers for cereal and pulse domestication in the Middle East. In addition, the study of ancient DNA of human remains dating to Early Holocene suggests that the Zagros Mountains constitute the major center of eastward expansion of early farming communities [START_REF] Broushaki | Early Neolithic genomes from the eastern Fertile Crescent[END_REF]. Unraveling the hydroclimatic changes associated with these events is thus important in understanding and in contextualizing the possible environmental changes responsible for the early Neolithisation of the region.

In the Middle East, although palaeohydrological records are available from northwestern Zagros, Eastern Anatolia, Caucasus, and the Talesh Mountains (e.g., [START_REF] Stevens | Timing of atmospheric precipitation in the Zagros Mountains inferred from a multi-proxy record from Lake Mirabad, Iran[END_REF][START_REF] Sharifi | Abrupt climate variability since the last deglaciation based on a high-resolution, multi-proxy peat record from NW Iran: the hand that rocked the cradle of civilization?[END_REF][START_REF] Aubert | Late glacial and early Holocene hydroclimate variability in northwest Iran (Talesh Mountains) inferred from chironomid and pollen analysis[END_REF], no high-resolution record is available from the central-southern Zagros for the late glacial -early Holocene transition. The present study provides a hydrological record for this transition in the southern Zagros based on lacustrine deposits of the Dasht-e Arjan wetland. Chironomid head capsules, which have been demonstrated to be good palaeotemperature and palaeosalinity indicators [START_REF] Heiri | A 274-lake calibration dataset and inference model for chironomid-based summer temperature reconstruction in Europe[END_REF][START_REF] Eggermont | Fossil Chironomidae (Insecta: Diptera) as quantitative indicators of past salinity in African lakes[END_REF][START_REF] Zhang | A chironomidbased salinity inference model from lakes on the Tibetan Plateau[END_REF], are also powerful proxies to reconstruct lake-level fluctuations [START_REF] Eggermont | Spatial variability of chironomid death assemblages in the surface sediments of a fluctuating tropical lake (Lake Naivasha, Kenya)[END_REF]. Recently, they have further been suggested as a promising proxy to reconstruct changes in precipitation seasonality in the semiarid region of the Middle East [START_REF] Aubert | Late glacial and early Holocene hydroclimate variability in northwest Iran (Talesh Mountains) inferred from chironomid and pollen analysis[END_REF]. We place the new Arjan record in a regional context. We compare and contrast it with hydroclimatic changes of central Asia and eastern Mediterranean to further our regional understanding of ecosystem responses to this key climatic transition.

Materials and methods

Study area

Very little information is available from the wetland of Dasht-e Arjan (Plain of Arjan). The wetland (29°36=38==N, 51°59=04==E, 1984 m asl) (Fig. 1) is located ca. 50 km to the west of Shiraz. It is a relatively large, moderately saline lake located near Lake Parishan with which it forms a Wetland of International Importance (Ramsar Site No. 37; https://www.ramsar.org). The climate of Shiraz (1540 m asl) is of continental Mediterranean-type [START_REF] Djamali | Application of the global bioclimatic classification to Iran: implications for understanding the modern vegetation and biogeography[END_REF] with most of the precipitation falling during the winter months (Fig. 1C). Apart from the direct precipitation in its catchment basin, a major source for the Dasht-e Arjan wetland is the Arjan spring, which has a discharge rate fluctuating between 750 and 100 L/s [START_REF] Milanovic | Hydrogeological characteristics and groundwater mismanagement of Kazerun karstic aquifer, Zagros, Iran. Hydrogeological Processes in Karst Terranes[END_REF].

Although located within the Zagros Fold Belt, the Dasht-e Arjan region is situated in a local extensional tectonic setting that has created a subsiding sedimentary basin. The subsidence is controlled by the activity of two normal faults called the West Arjan Fault (45°N, 78°SE) and the East Arjan Fault (55°N, 70°NW) that have created the 100-500 m high and ϳ10 km long southwestnortheast trended almost vertical cliffs composed mainly of Oligocene-Miocene Asmari limestone formation to the west and east of the wetland (Fig. 1B) [START_REF] Seyrafian | Facies analysis of the Asmari Formation in central and north-central Zagros basin, southwest Iran: biostratigraphy, paleoecology and diagenesis[END_REF]. Hydrogeologically, the Dasht-e Arjan wetland seems to be located in a "polje" (a flat karstic plain) whose waters are evacuated through a "ponor" (an opening in the bottom of a polje) of 10-15 m diameter into a karstic subterraneous system during highstands with possible hydrological connection to the Kazerun (Lake Parishan) basin [START_REF] Milanovic | Hydrogeological characteristics and groundwater mismanagement of Kazerun karstic aquifer, Zagros, Iran. Hydrogeological Processes in Karst Terranes[END_REF].

Coring, lithostratigraphy, and radiocarbon dating

Coring was performed using a Cobra vibracorer, allowing the gathering of 10 successive core sections of 1 m length and 5 cm width from the southeastern corner of the lake (29°35=33==N, 51°59=03==E, 1992 m asl) near the location of the "ponor" (Fig. 1B). The maximum depth attained was 960 cm. The lithostratigraphy comprises three major units: (1) a basal unit dominated by calcareous clayey mud with traces of pedogenesis, (2) a middle section dominated by bioclastic calcareous mud, and (3) the upper unit dominated by organic-rich calcareous mud (Fig. 2, upper right). Six samples composed of bulk (peat and gyttja) and plant remains (fibers) were AMS radiocarbon dated at the Poznan Radiocarbon Laboratory (Table 1). The radiocarbon ages were calibrated using an Intcal13 calibration curve [START_REF] Reimer | IntCal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0-50,000 years cal BP[END_REF] in the Clam package [START_REF] Blaauw | Methods and code for 'classical' age-modelling of radiocarbon sequences[END_REF] run in R software version 3.2.2 (R Core Team 2012). The age-depth model is based on linear interpolation taking into account the probability distribution of the calibrated ages (Fig. 2). Two radiocarbon ages were excluded from the age-depth model (sample Poz-Arj478 at 478 cm and sample Poz-Arj756 at 756 cm depth) (Table 1). These two samples are outliers. The first sample is too old, possibly because of the old carbon found in the bulk sediment composed of calcareous mud, a sediment composition that tends to yield "older" ages (Table 1). The second sample is too young, most probably because it is composed of root and rootlets penetrating into old sediment from the much younger plants. The palustrine sedimentary facies which incorporates this sample display abundant root traces, corroborating this assumption (Fig. 2). A recent publication by [START_REF] Djamali | Karstic-spring wetlands of the Persepolis Basin, SW Iran: unique sediment archives of Holocene environmental change and human impacts[END_REF] has shown that similar age inversions (too young ages) have also been reported from a palustrine carbonate facies in the western Persepolis basin. We have retained the ages provided by the samples Poz-Arj503, Poz-Arj614, and Poz-Arj671 because they are composed of in situ organic matter (gyttja to very fine grained peat) formed within the aquatic environments through biological processes. All carbonate content was removed through a chemical treatment at the radiocarbon laboratory of Poznan (T. Goslar, personal communication) diminishing the possible contamination by old carbon originating from geological formations. We consider that the age Poz-Arj614 giving a 2-range age of 11 631 -12 060 years cal BP is a very reliable age and marks the second part of the Younger Dryas (YD), just before the onset of the Holocene. This age range is also displayed in the chironomid diagram of Fig. 3 (see Discussion).

Chironomid analysis

Sixteen sediment samples weighing between 40 and 90 g were analyzed for chironomids every 5 cm along the fossiliferous interval of 630-550 cm. The laboratory methods used for extraction and identification of the chironomid subfossil head capsules are described in [START_REF] Gandouin | Chironomids (Diptera) in river floodplains: their status and potential use for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction purposes[END_REF]. To summarize, the extraction consisted of KOH deflocculation, water-washing over a 100 m sieve, and oil flotation. A minimum of 50 head capsules per sample is required to provide statistically significant estimates of ecological conditions [START_REF] Heiri | Effect of low count sums on quantitative environmental reconstructions: an example using subfossil chironomids[END_REF]. Identification criteria of head capsules are based on a Palearctic dichotomous key developed by [START_REF] Brooks | The identification and use of Palaeartic Chironomidae larvae in palaeoecology[END_REF]. The chironomid abundance diagram was created using C2 software version 1.7.2 [START_REF] Juggins | C2 Version 1.5 User guide. Software for ecological and palaeoecological data analysis and visualisation[END_REF].

Multivariate analyses of subfossil chironomid data

A constrained sum-of-squares cluster analysis (CONISS) for percentage data was performed with R version 3.2.2 and the package "rioja" (Juggins 2017) to highlight major changes in chironomid assemblage composition throughout the stratigraphy [START_REF] Grimm | CONISS: A FORTRAN 77 program for stratigraphically constrained cluster analysis by the method of incremental sum of squares[END_REF]. Principal component analysis (PCA) (Fig. 3) was performed on a data percentage matrix of nine taxa for 16 samples. The PCA was carried out with "ade4" and "vegan" packages in R software (R Core Team 2012). Beforehand, data were square-root-transformed with the aim of stabilizing the variance. Rare taxa (present in only one sample or with a relative abundance always <5%) were excluded from analyses.

Results and interpretation

For the chironomid analysis, only the section between 630 and 550 cm was used because it corresponds to the late glacial -early Holocene transition and presents almost the only interval with sufficient chironomid head capsules for statistical analyses. Interestingly, this sequence of 0.80 m corresponds to the end of the YD and the onset of the Holocene (6.30-5.50 m, 12 380 -10 103 years cal BP) (Fig. 2). Figure 3

Ach1: 630 -605 cm (12 380 -11 650 years cal BP)

This zone is dominated by Chironomus plumosus/anthracinus-type and significant presence of Psectrocladius psilopterus-type (Fig. 3). Together, these two chironomid taxa constitute up to 90% of the chironomid assemblage (Fig. 3). PCA scores for these chironomid taxa and the samples containing them are both positioned on the positive side of PCA axis 1 between 0.5 and 1 (Fig. 4).

The Ach1 upper boundary closely mirrors the ARJp1 pollen assemblage zone (Fig. 3, right panel). This pollen zone is characterized by the dominance of pollen produced by very dry steppe plants (Amaranthaceae, Artemisia), low values of grasses (Poaceae), and the total absence of trees. Only towards its end do aquatic plants (Cyperaceae) and algae increase (Botryococcus and Pediastrum).

Ach2: 605-563 cm (ϳ11,650 -10 470 years cal BP)

A remarkable faunal change occurs in this zone with a drastic reduction in Chironomus plumosus/anthracinus-type (Fig. 3) and, to a lesser extent, in Psectrocladius psilopterus-type percentages (from 80%-90% to below 10% for the latter taxa). By contrast, other taxa such as Polypedilum nubeculosum-type, Dicrotendipes nervosus-type, and Glyptotendipes pallens-type previously absent or in low abundances in the record become the dominant chironomid assemblages. Procladius spp. percentages also increase in this zone. PCA axis 1 scores follow the same trend as for Chironomus plumosus/ In this zone, a slight rise of Chironomus plumosus/anthracinus-type and Psectrocladius psilopterus-type and a decrease of Polypedilum nubeculosum-type are observed (Fig. 3). littoral taxa such as Dicrotendipes nervosus-type and Glyptotendipes pallens-type are also present. Furthermore, we note the emergence of Xenochironomus spp. from 565 cm. In the Ach3 zone, PCA axis 1 scores increase slightly but remain negative (-0.5) at the top of the sequence (Fig. 3).

The Ach3 chironomid zone correlates with the ARJp3 pollen assemblage zone in which grass pollen abundances decrease, while Pediastrum shows a peak. At the regional scale, a dry mountain steppe vegetation and nutrient-rich mesotrophic conditions are inferred (based on Pediastrum).

Statistically based ecological groups of subfossil chironomids

PCA axis 1 (56.2% of the total variance) opposes Chironomus plumosus/anthracinus-type on the positive side (Fig. 4) to Glyptotendipes pallens-type, Procladius spp., Polypedilum nubeculosum-type, Tanytarsus spp., and Dicrotendipes nervosus-type on the negative side. PCA axis 2 (17.3% of the total variance) is characterized by a segregation between Xenochironomus spp. and Psectrocladius psilopterus-type.

Discussion

Chironomids as bathymetric bioindicators

PCA axis 1 clearly shows an opposition between Chironomus plumosus/anthracinus-type mostly confined to the profundal zone of lakes [START_REF] Brooks | The identification and use of Palaeartic Chironomidae larvae in palaeoecology[END_REF]) against the inhabitants of the littoral zone and shallower water environments such as Glyptotendipes pallens-type and Polypedilum nubeculosum-type. Glyptotendipes pallens-type is most often associated with aquatic macrophytes [START_REF] Brooks | The identification and use of Palaeartic Chironomidae larvae in palaeoecology[END_REF][START_REF] Langdon | Ecological influences on larval chironomid communities in shallow lakes: implications for palaeolimnological interpretations[END_REF]). In fact, Polypedilum nubeculosumtype indicates relatively clear waters with variable macrophyte density and (or) high plant species richness [START_REF] Langdon | Ecological influences on larval chironomid communities in shallow lakes: implications for palaeolimnological interpretations[END_REF]. Chironomus plumosus/anthracinus-type is often associated with loose and fine-grained sediments such as mud and silt [START_REF] Henrikson | The impact of acidification on Chironomidae (Diptera) as indicated by subfossil stratification[END_REF][START_REF] Brodin | The postglacial history of Lake Flarken, southern Sweden, interpreted from subfossil insect remains[END_REF]). Among the Chironomus genera, many species are also adapted to live and survive in deep waters and possibly hypoxic or anoxic conditions by producing a large amount of hemoglobin [START_REF] Brooks | The identification and use of Palaeartic Chironomidae larvae in palaeoecology[END_REF]. It is well established elsewhere that chironomids are influenced by lake bathymetry (Verneaux and Aleya 1998) and several transfer functions have been successfully developed to reconstruct Holocene lake-level changes in Scandinavia [START_REF] Luoto | Synchronized proxy-based temperature reconstructions reveal mid-to late Holocene climate oscillations in High Arctic Svalbard[END_REF], in Canada [START_REF] Barley | A northwest North American training set: distribution of freshwater midges in relation to air temperature and lake depth[END_REF], and in China [START_REF] Chang | Summer temperature variability inferred from subfossil chironomid assemblages from the southeast margin of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau for the last 5000 years[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | A chironomid-based record of temperature variability during the past 4000 years in northern China and its possible societal implications[END_REF].

Hence, PCA axis 1 (Fig. 4) may represent a bathymetric gradient with more positive scores indicating higher lake levels, whereas more negative scores indicate a shallower lake and marshy environments. Alternatively, the same trend may also indicate a transition from deepwater conditions to marsh environments that is not necessarily related to lake-level fluctuations but to the development of aquatic vegetation from the littoral zone into the central lake basin. Either way, we consider PCA axis 1 scores as an indicator for lake-level changes for the Arjan wetland (Fig. 3). In this way, we find a similar chironomid inferred hydrological dynamic already observed in Lake Neor (Fig. 5) located in northwestern Iran [START_REF] Aubert | Late glacial and early Holocene hydroclimate variability in northwest Iran (Talesh Mountains) inferred from chironomid and pollen analysis[END_REF]. At this latter site, high wetland moisture indicating more permanent aquatic conditions is observed between 12 000 and 11 500 years cal BP. The wetland moisture became low between 11 500 and 10 300 years cal BP (Aubert The early Holocene section of our chironomid record shows a drastic fall in lake levels. This suggests a major environmental change in less than 100 years (Figs. 3 and5); indeed, the Arjan wetland, which was a deep lake during the YD, suddenly transformed into a shallow lake/marsh environment with a welldeveloped aquatic vegetation at the onset of the Holocene from ca. 11 600 years (see aquatic pollen increase in Fig. 3). An increase of Procladius spp. is compatible with lower lake levels, since the members of this genus are carnivorous species [START_REF] Brooks | The identification and use of Palaeartic Chironomidae larvae in palaeoecology[END_REF]). In fact, in the shrinking lake water the higher prey concentration may favor the predation regime. Later, a decrease of Polypedilum nubeculosum-type and slight rise of Chironomus plumosus/ anthracinus-type at the very end of our chironomid record suggest a slight increase in lake levels between 10 350-10 100 years cal BP. The persistence of other lacustrine littoral taxa, e.g., Psectrocladius psilopterus-type, Dicrotendipes nervosus-type, and Glyptotendipes pallens-type, confirms the presence of a well-established aquatic vegetation, suggesting a relatively shallow lake/marsh environment. This notion is supported by higher total organic content (TOC), higher carbon accumulation rates, and lower ␦ 13 C TOC at Lake Neor, northwestern Iran [START_REF] Sharifi | Abrupt climate variability since the last deglaciation based on a high-resolution, multi-proxy peat record from NW Iran: the hand that rocked the cradle of civilization?[END_REF]. The appearance of Xenochironomus spp. (Fig. 3) is imperatively associated with freshwater sponge [START_REF] Pinder | The larvae of Chironominae (Diptera: Chironomidae) of the Holartic region. Keys and diagnoses[END_REF], also supporting the hypothesis of a lake level increase during this period. Higher annual temperatures could explain the higher organic productivity in the Arjan wetland due to development of aquatic vegetation and its associated fauna (e.g., Dicrotendipes nervosus-type and Glyptotendipes pallens-type) at the very beginning of the Holocene.

Palaeoclimatic implications

In summary, the dominance of Chironomus plumosus/anthracinustype indicates the presence of a deep and most probably stratified lake during the YD in Dasht-e Arjan. Several hypotheses could explain such a highstand in Arjan during the YD:

(1) The intensity of the Siberian High during the YD was higher compared to the early Holocene [START_REF] Mayewski | Major features and forcing of high-atitude northern hemisphere atmospheric circulation using a 110,000-year-long glaciochemical series[END_REF][START_REF] Sharifi | Abrupt climate variability since the last deglaciation based on a high-resolution, multi-proxy peat record from NW Iran: the hand that rocked the cradle of civilization?[END_REF]. This would have pushed the westerlies to the south providing precipitation over the central and southern Zagros [START_REF] Sharifi | Early-Holocene greening of the Afro-Asian dust belt changed sources of mineral dust in West Asia[END_REF]). However, YD pollen assemblages in Arjan are dominated by Amaranthaceae (Chenopodiaceae) with very low relative abundances of Poaceae (Fig. 3), indicating the presence of a typical dry steppe developed under a dry continental climate, excludling this first hypothesis.

(2) Cooler summers during the YD in the Northern Hemisphere could also explain the higher moisture levels in both Arjan and Neor wetlands. Low YD temperatures would have decreased annual lake water evaporation. Evapotranspiration was definitely lower under the generally colder temperatures of the YD in southern Iran. Figure 5 compares the chironomid-based lake-level variations of the Arjan wetland (right) with the NGRIP temperature record [START_REF] Andersen | High-resolution record of Northern Hemisphere climate extending into the last interglacial period[END_REF]) and the Ti intensity curve, dust flux concentration curve, and the chironomid-based lake-level variations in Lake Neor in northwestern Iran. It is interesting to note that the lake-level records in both Lake Neor and Arjan follow the same trend, which inversely correlates with the NGRIP temperature record, suggesting the significance of low temperatures in maintaining high lake levels during the YD.

(3) Changes in the seasonality of precipitation, with increased rainfall during the spring/summer months, could also lead to more permanent lake conditions during the summer months [START_REF] Aubert | Late glacial and early Holocene hydroclimate variability in northwest Iran (Talesh Mountains) inferred from chironomid and pollen analysis[END_REF]. Indeed, late-spring precipitation will permit maintaining higher lake levels during summer and greater humidity on lake margins. Nowadays, in the Arjan region, spring precipitation is lower than in northwestern Iran [START_REF] Djamali | Ecological implications of Cousinia Cass. (Asteraceae) persistence through the last two glacial-interglacial cycles in the continental Middle East for the Irano-Turanian flora[END_REF]) and regional palaeoclimatic records do not suggest increased spring/summer precipitation brought on by stronger monsoon conditions. They show that increased summer precipitation only began around 11 000 years cal BP peaking at 10 000 -6500 years cal BP and thus postdating the YD [START_REF] Fleitmann | Holocene ITCZ and Indian monsoon dynamics recorded in stalagmites from Oman and Yemen (Socotra)[END_REF]. The hypothesis of a different precipitation seasonality is not satisfactory in explaining the high lake levels at Arjan during the YD.

(4) A further hypothesis is the presence of small glaciers in the catchment area of Arjan due to significant snowfall during the YD. Meltwaters would have maintained high lake levels during the summers. Although no study has so far reported the glacier extensions in the area, the available studies on the last glacial maximum glaciers in central Zagros suggest that the maximum descent of glaciers has been at around 2400 m elevation during the last glacial maximum [START_REF] Ebrahimi | Equilibrium-line altitudes of Late Quaternary glaciers in the Zardkuh Mountain[END_REF]. The presence of high mountains exceeding 2600 m elevation in the lake catchment basin reinforces this hypothesis. Indeed, glaciers at higher elevations could lead to year-round inflow or at least summer inflow as they melt. This would be a distinct difference from Holocene conditions and would not necessitate a change in rainfall seasonality but would change inflow seasonality. It may also explain why the lake levels fall after the transition to the Holocene, when all glaciers had already melted. A glaciogeomorphological survey to attest the evidence of glacier extension in the Arjan area would be helpful to investigate this. We therefore propose that a combination of lower evaporation due to lower annual temperatures, still significant precipitation due to the occasional penetration of southward-pushed westerlies into the southern Zagros (see [START_REF] Sharifi | Early-Holocene greening of the Afro-Asian dust belt changed sources of mineral dust in West Asia[END_REF], and continuous glacier melting in the vicinity of the wetland could explain the high lake levels of Arjan during the YD.

(5) Finally, the hydroclimatic processes may not have been the only factor controlling the lake-level changes in Dasht-e Arjan. The complex karstic network of sinkholes in the southern part of the wetland basin could also have played a role in water-level fluctuations. Today, during the highstands, lake water is discharged through these karstic underground galleries preventing the lake level from exceeding a certain altitude corresponding to the sinkhole system in the southeast corner of the basin. The development of this karstic system and its connectivity to adjacent basins (e.g., Lake Parishan basin) possibly accelerated at the beginning of the Holocene. If such a hypothesis is correct, it can be proposed that the early Holocene lake levels would have been much higher if this karstic system had not developed. Highresolution lake-level fluctuations at Lake Parishan during the YD -early Holocene may help to test this hypothesis, e.g., by the detection of a synchronicity between the lake-level fall in Arjan and a lake-level rise in Parishan.

Whatever the case, the YD lake highstand in Arjan adds to the complex hydrological history of the Middle East at the late glacial -early Holocene transition. The hydrological history of each lake basin should be studied by taking into consideration a number of different factors of which climatic change constitutes just one component. For instance, comparing the hydrological evolution of two lake systems in central Anatolia, both located in the same climatic context and most probably experiencing the same hydroclimatic history, shows contrasting trends suggesting that climate was not the only factor controlling lake-level changes. Site-specific factors should also be taken into account when interpreting multiproxy lake-level reconstructions [START_REF] Roberts | A tale of two lakes: a multi-proxy comparison of Lateglacial and Holocene environmental change in Cappadocia, Turkey[END_REF].

The Dasht-e Arjan wetland is located in a different climatic context compared to Anatolia and Europe from which numerous lake-level reconstructions are available. Moreover, it would have possibly experienced a different climatic history due to its proximity to the monsoonal zone of southern Asia. It is not thus surprising that it presents a different late glacial -Holocene hydrological evolution when compared to the eastern Mediterranean and Central Asia. Furthermore, as suggested by [START_REF] Roberts | A tale of two lakes: a multi-proxy comparison of Lateglacial and Holocene environmental change in Cappadocia, Turkey[END_REF], more than one lake record is required to disentangle the changes related to climate change from those related to lake ontogeny. Before a general conclusion on lake hydrological changes in southern Zagros can be drawn, other lake records should thus be established and compared and contrasted with that of Arjan.

Southwest Asia shows a more complex hydroclimatic history compared to Europe, best exemplified by the "early Holocene precipitation paradox". Indeed, the geochemical and pollen proxies suggest that different hydrological regimes dominated during the early Holocene. While geochemical data suggest generally higher effective moisture, the pollen records indicate a limited expansion of deciduous forest and thus generally drier conditions. A number of hypotheses have been evoked by different scholars to explain this "paradox" including a different precipitation seasonality in the early compared to the late Holocene, a strong early human impact on forest and steppe forest ecosystems, or a mixture of both (e.g., [START_REF] Stevens | Proposed changes in seasonality of climate during the Lateglacial and Holocene at Lake Zeribar, Iran[END_REF][START_REF] Roberts | Did prehistoric landscape management retard the post-glacial spread of woodland in Southwest Asia?[END_REF][START_REF] Jones | Interpreting lake isotope records of Holocene environmental change in the Eastern Mediterranean[END_REF][START_REF] Djamali | Indian Summer Monsoon variations could have affected the early-Holocene woodland expansion in the Near East[END_REF]. Part of such conflicting interpretations stems from the fact that the current interpretations are mainly based only on pollen and isotopic proxies. The new palaeohydrological indicators (fossil chironomid assemblages) presented in this study furnish additional data on lakelevel changes and can help in explaining the hydrological paradoxes outlined above. The sensitivity of proxy records to local versus regional climate variabilities also needs to be investigated to supplement the high potential of chironomids, which may reflect changes in climate and hydrology at the local scale. The capacity of chironomid-based lake-level reconstructions to detect high-frequency events during the Holocene should therefore be evaluated in future palaeolimnological investigations.

Conclusions

The palaeoecological analysis of subfossil chironomid head capsules revealed a major change in the hydrology of the Dasht-e Arjan wetland at the transition of the YD to the onset of the Holocene. In the absence of geochemical proxies from the studied sediment core, the chironomid data helped to reconcile the palaeohydrology of this low-latitude wetland situated in the southern Zagros Mountains. In the Zagros and adjacent highlands, although annual precipitation decreased in a similar manner as the rest of the Northern Hemisphere, the hydrological consequences of lower annual temperatures appear to have maintained higher amounts of water in the wetlands. During the YD, the possible contribution of meltwater from local glaciers to Arjan wetland hydrology shows the necessity to probe the late Quaternary history of glaciers in the Zagros Mountains. At present, it is unclear if such glaciers provided significant water resources during the late glacial period. More late glacial records are still required to understand the spatial patterns of hydrological change in the late Pleistocene -Holocene transition before a regional picture of the hydroclimatic mechanisms driving these changes can be drawn. Although the possible impacts of high effective moisture (high lake levels and aquifers) in the Iranian highlands on the early Neolithic communities was not discussed in the present paper, the data provided in this study and in similar investigations in the Fertile Crescent will help to better understand the possible roles and explanatory mechanisms in the processes of Neolithisation. In particular, providing a palaeoenvironmental/palaeoclimate context for the beginning of plant/animal domestication and the establishment of the first Neolithic sedentary populations is extremely important.

The chironomid-based hydrological reconstruction from Lake Arjan is encouraging. In the future, more quantified data are required for comparisons with regional palaeoclimatic records, e.g., the sea surface temperatures of the Arabian Sea or the speleothem records from southern Asia, northern Iran, Arabia, and Turkey.

  presents a simplified diagram of chironomid relative abundances. CONISS analysis revealed three faunal assemblage zones that we designate as Ach1: 630-605 cm (12 380 -11 650 years cal BP), Ach2: 605-563 cm (ϳ11 650 -10 470 years cal BP), and Ach3: 563-555 cm (10 470 -10 100 years cal BP). To the right of the chironomid diagram, percentage variations of a selection of pollen taxa have also been presented based on a recently published pollen diagram from the same study core (Hosseini et al. 2017).

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. (A) Location of the Dasht-e Arjan wetland and Lake Neor in the Iranian plateau. (B) The fault system controlling the subsidence of the Arjan basin with the position of the coring site. (C) Climate diagram of Shiraz. (D) Dasht-e Arjan during a lowstand with the position of coring site (Source: Google Earth; Landsat/Copernicus (B dating to December 1987) and CNES/Airbus (C dating to December 2016)). [Color online.]

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Lithostratigraphic log and age-depth model for the whole core (upper right) with a detailed focus on the studied section from the Dasht-e Arjan wetland. The chironomid record presented here corresponds to the depths of 630-550 cm (12 000 -11 200 years cal BP). [Color online.]

Fig. 3 .Fig. 4 .

 34 Fig. 3. Synthetic subfossil chironomid diagram from the Lake Arjan record (left) compared to pollen records for the same section of the same core (see Hosseini et al. 2017 for a detailed pollen diagram). The zonation pollen diagram was made visually. Profundal taxa inhabit profundal zones of the lake. Littoral taxa inhabit littorals margins of the lake. Other taxa are indifferent to depth or there are no documented ecological affinities. [Color online.]

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5.Comparison of the abundance of the sum of the deepwater chironomid taxa between Lake Arjan and Lake Neor[START_REF] Aubert | Late glacial and early Holocene hydroclimate variability in northwest Iran (Talesh Mountains) inferred from chironomid and pollen analysis[END_REF]) compared to temperature variations in Greenland (NGRIP record: North Greenland Ice Core Project members (2004) and aeolian activity in Lake Neor[START_REF] Sharifi | Abrupt climate variability since the last deglaciation based on a high-resolution, multi-proxy peat record from NW Iran: the hand that rocked the cradle of civilization?[END_REF]).[Color online.]

Table 1 .

 1 14 C ages obtained and the type corresponding material (Lake Arjan).

	Laboratory	Depth		Age	Age (years cal BP
	code	(cm)	Material	(years BP ( 14 C))	(2-interval)
	Poz-Arj148	148	Organic mud	6430±50	7356 (7274-7429)
	Poz-Arj478	478	Calcareous mud (bulk)	9280±50	10455 (10287-10612)
	Poz-Arj503 503	Gyttja (bulk)	7940±50	10715 (10573-10844)
	Poz-Arj614	614	Gyttja (bulk)	10180±50	11869 (11631-12060)
	Poz-Arj671	671	Gyttja (bulk)	11880±60	12408 (12255-12536)
	Poz-Arj756	756	Plant remains	11370±60	13212 (13099-13332)

Note: Calibrated ages are reported with 2-ranges. Excluded ages are marked in italics.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank the Agence Nationale de Recherche (ANR) as well as the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) for their financial support of this study under the Franco-German ANR/DFG project "PALEOPERSEPOLIS== (ANR-14-CE35-0026-01) and the Franco-Iranian International Associated Laboratory project called "HAOMA". We also thank Marine Leteurtrois and Gwenaël Magne for their assistance in data acquisition. We wish to thank Professors Neil Roberts (Plymouth University) and Lora Stevens (California State University at Long Beach) for their helpful comments on the interpretation of our data. Finally, we extend our gratitude to two anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful and constructive comments on an earlier version of this paper.


The Historic and Linguistic Context

It is quite wellknown: Hebrew poetry in Spain constitutes a perfect example of cultural cohabitation between Arabic and Hebrew. It was established in Andalusia at Cordoba in the tenth century under the reign of the Calif 'Abd al-Rahmân III. It was the product of two extremely powerful cultural sources: classical Arabic poetry on one hand and the language of the Bible on the other. Biblical Hebrew was the primary material used by Jewish poets in Andalusia who search, quite consciously, the linguistic tools for their poems. At the same time, from its first appearance, Hebrew Andalusian poetry used the full variety of thematic frameworks and prosodic structures from Arabic poetry. This poetry is therefore already situated in a well-established normative framework, such as that which concerns prosody (rhythm and rhyme), as well as the distribution of thematic styles and ornamentation of the language (al-badi), a framework borrowed directly from the art of contemporary Arabic poetry. The Hebrew poet in Muslim Spain worked within the prosodic forms and the thematic domains as well as the give rhetorical structures, consciously adopting Arabic poetry, in which he played on the talents and secrets of the biblical language. Under the influence of the surrounding cultural context, the poetic text is conceived as a work of art given that beauty resides in the language. Every verse is judged separately, and literary criticism is focused on formal perfection.

For both profane medieval Hebrew poetry -that is, that of the court -and for sacred medieval Hebrew poetry -that is the poetry that accompanies the prayers of the synagogue -the Bible was the only linguistic source, considered at the time as comparable in beauty and grandeur to the Koran. It is in this new innovative perspective that the Bible also becomes, just like poetic verse, an aesthetic object: the verse is equivalent to a line of poetry, and it is from this very modern concept that Hebrew poets engaged in a kind of competition with their contemporary Arab colleagues. Taking advantage of the antiquity of the Bible compared to the Koran, they wanted to show that the beauty of Arabic rhetoric was already present in it. Moshe Ibn Ezra, who was born in Granada in approximately 1055 and who died in northern Spain after 1135, was a poet and philosopher as well as a great admirer of Arabic poetry, devoted an important chapter of his textbook on poetic art written in Arabic, Kitab al-muhâdara wa-lmudhâkara "Treaty of studies and debates", to the demonstration of Hebrew rhetoric taken from the Bible compared to that of Arabic poetry, drawn from the Koran. In this chapter, he recognizes Arabic as the language which gave rise to poetic genius, and talks of Arabic as being "among the languages like spring among the seasons."

Ever since it first appeared, Andalusian Hebrew poetry has used the full range of thematic and prosodic frameworks of Arabic poetry, first that of the pre Islamic period, then that of the Abbasid period and finally, that characteristic of Al Andalus. To illustrate this poetic opening, we have chosen to present here the two basic structures typical of this flowering cultural universe: the qasîda on the one hand and the muwashshah on the other.

The qasîda, a long mono-rhymed and mono-rhythmic poem, is the form known as the most absolute and most perfect of Arabic poetry. Its origin seems to begin with the beautiful collection of pre-Islamic poetry, the Mu'allaqât, a collection of three wellknown Arab poets: al-Asha, 'Amr ibn Kulthum and Imru al-Qays (deceased approx. 530AD). This flagship genre of Arabic poetry finds its place with Andalusian Hebrew poets. Thus, one can find long poems in biblical Hebrew which strictly respect the uniqueness of meter and rhyme as was the case in classical Arabic poetry, containing erotic introductions in the spirit of Nasîb Bédouin where the story is about the search for a loved one. When the poet is sure to have gained attention and the audience is listening to him, he continues with a short poetic transition of one or two verses leading to the main part of the poem that, in most cases, is a eulogy (madîh) to the sheikh, king or patron.

For example, Samuel ha-Nagid ibn Naghrîla (993-1056), the Grand Vizier and army chief of Granada, was the subject of such praise by Joseph Ibn Hasdai in one of the first Hebrew qasîdas, entitled Shira Yetomah ("a single poem"); Solomon Ibn Gabirol (1020-1057) in another qasîda, also dedicated to Ibn Naghrîla, wrote a loving introduction in the style of the Song of Songs. A "Mistress of all charm" is at the heart of a panegyric by Yehuda Halevi (1075? to 1141), dedicated to Solomon Ibn Proutziel, his friend and patron, while Mosh Ibn Ezra describes in detail the desert landscape and the remains (al-wuqûf 'alâ l-atlâl) as the introductory background to his personal poems of wandering in northern Spain.

Hebrew qasîda does not have the mimetic character of the old Arabic poem that allows us to go retrace time. The desert nights, the missing beloved, the ruins, while being present in Andalusian Hebrew texts, are no longer part of everyday life and obviously belong to a tradition of poetic fiction that is to be respected. This raises several questions that still require further research: how is it that these long poems by desert nomads from the pre-islamic epoch, with on the one hand a single rhyme and meter and on the other with images and stories taken from this distant landscape, emerge even in the courts of the Jewish aristocracy of the Andalusian Taifas during the eleventh and twelfth centuries in biblical Hebrew?

The muwashshah, Shir Ezor in Hebrew, known in the West under the name of "strophic poetry," is an original part of medieval western Muslim literary production. Appearing in tenth century Muslim Spain, it brought about a rupture with the past in terms of both meter and language. Long ignored by scholars of Arabic poetry, muwashshah was rediscovered by Orientalists thanks to the final verses called kharja, generally borrowed from the spoken language, which constitute the oldest written record of the spoken medieval Iberian language. Moreover, as it was orally transmitted by generations of musicians and singers in North Africa and the Middle East, Andalusian strophic poetry was saved from oblivion despite the anonymity of a large part of its creators.

In principle, such a poem consists of four to seven stanzas, each divided into two parts: the first is loner and has a rhyme which changes from one verse to another, and the second is very short (one or two verses) whose rhyme and meter don't change throughout the poem. This structure allows for a much richer musical variety than does classical qasîda. In medieval Andalusian poetry, both Arab and Hebrew, it is used mainly for drinking songs and love poems and was put to music at banquets given by the notables. The first Hebrew poet to compose a muwashshah was Samuel ibn Naghrîla, but it was Moshe Ibn Ezra and Yehuda Halevi who perfected this structure in its Hebrew version, further improving the system of versification.

It is interesting to note the very rapid development of muwashshah in the field of synagogue poetry. He became one of the most widespread forms of Spanish liturgical poetry. Its strophic structure and musical character led to their proliferation by enabling the division of roles between the both the celebrant and the congregation on the one hand, and the inclusion of Biblical verses and putting the poem to music with a chorus on the other. With this particular feature of piyyutim (sacred poems), the Spanish Jews demonstrates a unique juncture between Arabic and Hebrew on the one hand, and between the profane and the sacred, on the other. These two major examples clearly demonstrate the importance of the Arab cultural contribution, which played a vital role in the affirmation of Jewish culture in medieval Spain. It is obvious that the themes also reflect the subjects and characteristic images of the Arab world. In love poetry for example, we find the nostalgia for a beloved woman who wanders, the man who sighs, a prisoner of his love, the cruel beloved that coats lips with the blood of her lovers, and whose eyes launch arrows that pierce the heart of those who desire her, the disease of love, the fire of love, the beauty of the young girl who outshines the sun and the moon, and many others. The poems of Hebrew love, the Shirei Hesheq, a term that automatically recalls the Arabic 'ishq, are so closely related to Arabic poetry that we can even find some that evoke love between men, for example in the works of Samuel Ha Naggid Ibn Nagrila or Moses Ibn Ezra. Another poetic genre which had a special place in medieval Andalusia is without doubt the poetry of the garden and of flowers. It is related to the evocation of spring rains in late winter and especially notable feasts surrounded by scents and colors of their gardens.

In this sense, this poetry is an important chapter of courtly poetry through which the poet -as part of a contractual dependence -praised his patron throughout the perfect image of his palace. The poetic text expresses what the plastic arts could not do because of the religious prohibition: it illustrates a reality captured with the senses, like a painting constructed with words. This verbal drawing where the sensual occupies a primordial place, follows a very specific style of Arabic poetic art, Al-Wassf -description -and borrows heavily its metaphorical fabric from it. Perfection is not only the result of the resumption of the same themes, but rather of the ability of the Hebrew poets to take the treasures of Arabic poetry in their original form and use them differently from their original point of view. This cross-cultural encounter is probably unique in its kind. An interesting result, although different in it's nature, is emerging in the Arab and Hebrew poetry of the nowadays. [START_REF]English Edition: A History of Jewish-Muslim Relations: From the Origins to the Present Day[END_REF] .

A quick review of several 20th century socio-political landmarks seems inescapable in order to address the theme evoked in the title. In continuity with centuries of coexistence between Jews and Muslims in Arabo-Islamic countries, at the beginning of the 20th century multiple Jewish minorities of varying sizes lived in complete harmony with fellow Muslim and Christian citizens. A portion of the population of the Arab countries was thus made up of a Jewish community, whose members were naturally referred to as "Arab Jews" or "Eastern Jews," 2 as opposed to "Ashkenazi Jews." Although it is sometimes contested, this appellation reveals a great deal about the relations between the different communities. Multiple Jewish scholars-Ella Shohat, 3 David Shasha, 4 Amiel Alcalay 5 and many others-perfectly master the Arabic language (teaching in it), and affirm a dual identity, at once Jewish and Arab. [START_REF]In the contemporary Israeli discourse the appellation "Arab Jew" replaces the appellation "Oriental Jew" or Jew originating in an Arab Country. Ella Shohat and Yehuda Schenhav are originators of this appellation, conceived of in contradistinction to[END_REF] The tumultuous history of the 20th century in the first half, the creation of the state of Israel in 1948, the successive wars between Israel and the neighbouring Arab countriestotally modified the demographic landscape of the region. Indeed, the Jewish communities, though not themselves taking direct part in the events that lead to their displacement, were expulsed, forced to leave their countries, either to Israel or to the West. The Jewish community of Iraq, one of the oldest and most significant, most active and productive, which numbered a little over 200,000 at the beginning of the 20th century, did not exceed 100 in 2008. 7 Currently, it numbers between 7 and 30. [START_REF]The Farhoud (riots of 1941) and the expulsions of 1951 were decisive moments for the Jews of Iraq. 9 Maktabat kul shayʾ[END_REF] This distressing situation, rather than marking a final rupture, on the contrary revealed the depth of the relations connecting the various communities. The distancing caused by politics did not affect the personal side. In his work The Jews and Arabs in Israel, published in German in 2009, Omar Kamel stresses the particularity of these Jews and their constant struggle to confirm their status, at once as Jews and Arabs. The interviews and writings of one member of the community, Shmuel Moreh (born in Baghdad in 1932), formerly named Sami al-Muʿallem, convey this kind of remarkable cultural and sentimental relationship with the Arab world and Islam in particular. In his book Baghdad my Love. The Jews of Irak: Memories and Sorrows, 9 he recounts (p. 346) a vision in which he sees the Prophet of Islam, at the head of a great army on white horses, coming toward him and asking to meet him. The Prophet dismounts from his horse and shakes his hand, the sign of reconciliation and a rediscovered peace. [START_REF]The author reveals his convictions in an interview with Iman Bustani given on 08/09[END_REF] Baghdad serves as a backdrop for several Hebrew novels, such as Victoria (1993) and Aida (2008), by the famous Israeli writer Sami Mikhael, also born there, in 1926. "I consider Iraq," he says, "to be my first home, a society that is different from Israel, a vital source of inspiration in my career as a writer". 11 Even for Ronny Someck, a younger poet, who was born in Baghdad in 1951 and grew up in Israel from the age of 2, the city plays an important role, is a key element of his identity. In 1991 he published a poem entitled Baghdad, February 1991:

In these bombed-out streets they pushed my stroller The daughters of Babel pinched my cheeks and shook palm boughs Above my blonde velvet. What is left from then has become much blacker Like Baghdad And like the stroller that we took out of the shelter While waiting for another war. O Tigris, O Euphrates, snakes of pleasure on my life's first map, How you have become vipers. [START_REF] Itzhaki | A bilingual Nepali/English edition proposes a translation of this poem by D. Yuyutsu: Baghdad, February 1991 & Other Poems[END_REF] So it is clear that any approach to the conception of the Other in the Arab/Jewish relationship must of necessity evoke language, or rather languages, as an important cultural factor of rapprochement. The Jewish community that lived for centuries in the Arab countries maintained, upon moving to Israel in the middle of the 20th century, the whole of its linguistic heritage. The Jewish community of Iraq clearly distinguished itself in this context with its dynamism and major contribution to Arab studies and Arabic literature. With their mastery of Arabic, Hebrew, and other languages, several names have become inescapable in university and scholarly circles. Shmuel Moret, Professor at the Hebrew University, has published several English-language studies of Arabic theatre and modern Arabic poetry, including Modern Arabic Poetry (1800-1970). This important work has been translated into Arabic. However he composes his literary works in Arabic, stating that the Hebrew language has not succeeded in taking hold of his heart and his feelings in a manner that would replace Arabic, his mother tongue. It is for this reason that he publishes his scholarly works in Hebrew and English, reserving Arabic for his literary writings. "I write with the blood of my heart when I write in Arabic," he says.

Sasson Somekh (born in Baghdad in 1933), currently Professor Emeritus at the University of Tel Aviv and a specialist of Arabic literature, has translated into Hebrew a broad anthology of Arabic poetry as well as the trilogy of Naguib Mahfouz (Nobel Prize for Literature 1988), with whom he shared a very close friendship. His studies on the Arabic language short stories, and in particular those by Egyptian author Yussuf Idris, remain crucial references for researchers. In 2007 he was among the founders of the Academy of the Arabic Language in Israel (in Haifa).

Samir Naccache (Baghdad 1938-Tel Aviv 2004) wrote a dozen works ranging from short story collections to plays and novels. He made the Arabic language his first home. Loyal to his language and heritage, he affirmed being profoundly Iraqi. Despite leaving his birth country in 1951 at the age of 13, his only culture, he said, was Iraqi culture. Several months before his death, while in Great Britain, he declared that "I arrived in Israel at age 13, an Iraqi foreigner, and I left fifty years later, as my father left, a true Arab. Though I will be obliged to return there, I will always be an Iraqi Arab, loyal to his language and heritage." [START_REF][END_REF] Shimon Ballas, born in Baghdad in 1930, like the majority of coreligionists, emigrated to Israel in 1951. He taught Arabic literature at the universities of Tel Aviv and Haifa, and published roughly fifteen works of fiction in Hebrew, several important studies on contemporary Arabic literature, and numerous translations from Arabic.

The list of these intellectuals and literary figures is very long. They embody, through their writings and translations, a rapprochement between two cultures and two languages, and above all an openness to knowledge of the Other.

For Jewish writers and poets of European origin, on the other hand, the question of the other, as we saw yesterday, has been more complex, not only when the other is Arab, but also when the other is an "Arab" Jew, that is, an Eastern Jew. Only at the end of the eighties did the relationships between literature/memory/history/society become of greater interest in cultural studies. Nowadays in Israeli society, identity is no longer a wishful ideology that avoids the past as the elementary basis of collective memory. It is, rather, a multicultural matter, dealing with ethnic authenticity, fighting the slogans of Eastern European Zionism, and proposing an alternative to mainstream Israeli culture: the acceptance of the Other and his (hi)story as an essential composite of a multicultural post-modernist society in the process of self-making. But, in the first half of the 20th century, before Israel's independence, the figure of the Arab played a stereotypical role of noble savage, being used as a model for imitation, an antithesis to the ghetto-like diaspora Jew. After 1948 he became a kind of victim-enemy: victim because of being a minority in a Jewish state, nevertheless enemy because of the political situation-and in both cases, always a stereotype, never an individual.

As a result of the current multicultural tendency, he (or she) is turning, as mentioned yesterday, at the beginning of the 21st century, into a real character, an individual, in Israeli Jewish literature. Two major examples of this are to be mentioned again: The Liberating Bride, by A. B. Yehoshua, published in 2001, and even more so The House of Rajani, 2008. This fictional novel by Alon Hilu takes place in Jaffa at the end of the 19th century and records the diaries of Salah Rajani, a 12-year old Muslim child cursed with prophetic powers who foresees the rise of the Jewish State, and of a 27 yearold Jewish pioneer and agronomist who is new to the city of Jaffa and wishes to turn the ruins of Rajani's manor into a flourishing paradise.

In the field of poetry, one key figure is Avot Yeshurun (Yehiel Perlemuter, 1903-1992). Immediately upon his arrival to Palestine in 1925 he described the Bedouin in an idyllic and romantic manner, as a subject for imitation. [START_REF]On the wisdom of roads[END_REF] As early as 1948 his view shifted to one of empathy and culpability. Like his prose homologue S. Yizhar (1916-2006) who, in 1949(!), published his story Khirbet Khizeh depicting the expulsion of a fictional village's population, representing virtually all Arab villages in 1948, [START_REF]The story was later made into a TV drama on Israeli Channel[END_REF] Yeshurun too was affected by the destruction of Arab villages during Israel's War of Independence and even more so by the Palestinians' suffering subsequently. As an expression of multi-culturality, a key concept in his vision of the region, [START_REF]A work on the subject: H. Rogani, Facing the ruined village: Hebrew poetry and Jewish Arab conflict 1929-1967[END_REF] he created his own language, a mixture of modern Hebrew, Biblical Hebrew, Yiddish and Arabic.

In an opposite manner, bilingualism has also affected the Christian and Muslim Palestinian Arabs living in Israel. Atallah Mansour (born in Al-Jish in 1934) published a novel in Hebrew in 1966 entitled A New Light. In his novel Arabesques, written in Hebrew, the Palestinian poet and novelist Anton Shammas (born in Fassuta in 1950), author of several collections of poetry published in Hebrew and translated into Arabic, defends the idea that harmonious cohabitation is possible in a land where so many ancestors of differing origins have lived. His choice of language reflects a desire for sharedness: "Yes, it is difficult to compose in a language in which orders have been given to expel Palestinians," he says, but he insists that "language is empty of good or bad intentions." To these two must obviously be added the famous author Sayed Kashua, a Hebrew-language journalist [START_REF]Among his works (all in Hebrew): Dancing Arabs[END_REF] and scenarist of Arabo-Islamic origins, born in Tira in 1975; Eyman Siksek, born into a Muslim family in Jaffa in 1984, whose first novel Toward Jaffa was published in Hebrew in 2010; and Naim ʿAraydi, a Druze poet born in 1950 who writes in both Arabic and Hebrew and who is currently Israel's Ambassador to Norway. 18 A portion of Nidaa Khoury's poetry can be situated in this same frame. A Palestinian born in Fassuta in 1959 and a lecturer at Ben Gurion University in the Negev, she publishes poems in Hebrew. Her most recent collection, Book of Sins, was published in 2011 as a bilingual Arabic-Hebrew edition. "To those who accuse her of betrayal for having adopted the language of the 'enemy', she responds that language transcends political conflicts; as much as it is a threat, it is also path to knowledge of the other." [START_REF] Ghosn | Nidaa Khoury, une voix contre les loups[END_REF] Writing in the language of the Other, she says, "allows for establishing a form of communication in which military supremacy effaces itself in favour of cultural exchange." "Language" is in fact the title of one of the poems of the collection Book of Defect (Haifa, 2011). It is "our high house, our indestructible house," she says, a "fortified" house that protects against "racism and all extremist religious movements" (p.11).

Based on the idea that language is an important factor for the establishment or resumption of harmonious relations, "initiatives have recently been set in place to create bilingual schools (three so far, in Jerusalem, Kfar Qara, and Séguev) where Arabs and Jews can study together. Classes are to be given simultaneously in Hebrew and Arabic". [START_REF] Charbit | Les Associations judéo-arabes en Israël[END_REF] To similar ends, a number of associations have been attempting to introduce Arabic classes into Jewish schools.

II.

Literature and the Arab-Israeli Relationship

For several decades, the field of literature has brought together Arab Palestinian authors-Muslims, Christians-and Hebrew-language Jewish authors around a single object. The "Union of Jewish and Arab Writers" was created in the 1950s. A bilingual review with an evocative title, liqaa'-mifgash (Encounter), was the fruit of this Union. Under the editorship of Mordekhai Tabib, a Yemeni Jewish writer, it was published between 1964 and 1970, then from 1984 Mahmud ʿAbassi, an author and translator born in Haifa in 1935, took over.

Another, more significant, collaboration emerged in the 1990s through the creation of the "General Union of Writers in Israel." Against the old "Hebrew Writers Association in Israel" established by Bialik in Tel Aviv in 1926 to encourage writing in Hebrew, at the time a minority language in a Palestine under British Mandate, the new Union gathers together all writers living in Israel, whose language may of course be Hebrew, but also Arabic, Russian, Yiddish, etc. Its noteworthy members are among Israel's most famous Hebrew-language writers, such as Nathan Zach, A. B. Yehoshua and Amos Oz, and some of its founders worthy of mention are Dalia Rabikovitz (1936-2005), Haim Nagid and David Grossman. At least 20% of its members are Arab (such as Faruq Muwassi, Siham Daoud and Nidaa Khoury). Currently lead by a Jewish president, Gad Keinar, and an Arab vice-president, Faruq Muwassi, it undertakes, in addition to the publication of the journal Gag (roof), a number of initiatives promoting cultural exchange between the two communities. For instance issue number 11 of Gag is entirely devoted to contemporary Palestinian literature, translated into Hebrew. Indeed, translations of literary works from one language into the other have become very common. The meeting held in Nazareth in 2011 to pay homage to the Muslim poet Taha Mohammed Ali (1931-2011), for example, in which a number of writers of all faiths participated, evinces the Union's sincerity and solidity. The various literary prizes in Israel have been distributed since 1987 to Jewish and Arab Palestinian writers without distinction. [START_REF] Habibi | received the Israel Prize for literature in[END_REF]

III. The Other in Palestinian Poetry: Nidaa Khoury and Mahmoud Darwish

In the context of Palestinian-Israeli relations in literature, this section discusses the conception of the Other in two Palestinian poets, each of whom followed a different path and was subject to a different context: Nidaa Khoury, a female Christian poet who lives, works and publishes in Israel, and Mahmoud Darwish (1941-2008), a Muslim male poet, who wrote four collections of poems inside the state of Israel then continued his career in exile after 1970.

III.1 Nidaa Khoury: Love as Feature of Union between the "Self" and the "Other"

The Other is present in all of Nidaa Khoury's work. The vast majority of her poems are addressed to a recipient, such that her "self" only reveals itself through her interlocutor. How does this Other, particularly when Jewish, appear in her poems?

In responding to the question "as a Palestinian woman of Israeli nationality living in Israel, how do you experience your relationship to the Other" Nidaa Khoury emphasizes that the problem cannot be limited to the duality "me"/"him" et "us"/"them". She does not see in the Other the enemy but the human being, only the human being. The boundaries between the hero (strong) and the victim (weak) are illusory. He who uses force is also victim since he is then obliged to use force and weapons for everything in his life. 22 Much of Khoury's poetry revolves around this conception of her rapport with the Other.

Heavily inspired by the dogmas, rituals and lexicon of Christianity, N. Khoury makes love and sacrifice, in their spiritual dimension, the foundation of any relationship with the Other. Her body is at once the altar, the place of sacrifice, and the sacrifice itself. She sacrifices herself for justice on earth, she says in her collection Zunnār ar-rīḥ (The Belt of Wind) (Acre, 1992):

The odour of my flesh blended with that of incense An altar on which I present a piece of the sky An offering for justice on earth (p. 28) Love was her credo from the time she opened her eyes on the world, which is why she does not hide her surprise when she says in the collection Book of Sins (2011): [START_REF] Kitāb Al-Khaṭāyā | Book of Sins House of[END_REF] Addressing love since my birth Don't know how the land breaks free (p. 19/245) Redemption, in large part inspired by Christian religion, constitutes the essence of practically all the poems in the collection Jiddilat ar-ra'd (Braid of Thunder) (1989). [START_REF] Dār Al-Mashriq | Braid of Thunder[END_REF] Focused on her "me", the poet addresses a male interlocutor whose identity remains imprecise. This interlocutor, designated in the second person singular, seems to have several referents in the texts. However the "You" in the poem "Braid of Thunder" without a doubt refers to the Israeli. In this confrontation between the "you" and the "I", N. Khoury denounces, with a subtlety that is omnipresent in her poetry, an exitless cycle of violence. She reproaches the Israeli-who more than anyone knows the meaning of death and fear-for passing fear on, in turn, to the poet herself, to this "Me/I" that he feigns to ignore and whose presence he does not recognize. Unfortunately, this union in fear engenders only "the rifle," "death," people "crazy for revolution," and "all the fear of history," she says. The poet longs deeply for a union, one without arms or violence. In the final part of the poem, she hails the Other, the Jewish victim, to unambiguously express her compassion. When she was little, she was told the story of the "madmen" and cried at length over this fate: You for whom one day I cried I was small I heard the story about ovens I hated bread 25 She hated bread because the oven was associated in her mind and imaginary with the Holocaust. The "You" is replaced with "Man," with "Human Being" at the end of the poem. Nidaa Khoury expresses her love and passion for this human being, this victim like her, purified of all violence. She holds him in her arms. She even desires a blending together with him to overcome fear and death and to bring about only life and freedom. Love, transcending differences and diversity, triumphing over arms and violence, is clearly the ideal frame in which the encounter with the Other has to take place.

III.2 The Conception of the Other in Mahmoud Darwish: The Human, Source of Hope

While the image of the Other, particularly the Israeli, often remains hazy in the poetry of N. Khoury, it is, on the other hand, clear and repeated in the poetry of M. Darwish. In response to the question "what about the image of the Other, the Israeli? Of 'the enemy'," he says in Palestine as a Metaphor: "it was, from the beginning, human. Multiple and varied. There exists for me no single and definitive vision of the Other. The one who educated me was Jewish, the one who persecuted me was also. The woman who loved me was Jewish. The one who hated me was too." [START_REF][END_REF] Precisely because of this multiplicity, it would be fastidious to trace the image of the Israeli Other in all of the 27 collections and works written by Darwish and published over a period of forty two years. We will limit ourselves to the poems that are most significant and most capable of showing the principal characteristics of that image. It is not without good reason that Darwish, in answering the above question, began with the term "human." Convinced that "poetry is the voice that brings human beings together," 27 he attempted, despite the bloody conflict opposing Israelis and Palestinians, to keep the human in view in all of his poetry. Cain kills Abel, it is true, but they remain brothers despite it all, and are both victims. The poem "The Raven's Ink," from the collection Why Did You Leave the Horse Alone? (1995), 28 despite being a fratricidal drama of Biblical and Qur'anic inspiration, ends on an optimistic note, assured of the brothers' resurrection: I am Abel. Earth brings me back as a carob tree, for you to sit upon, oh raven I am you in words. A single book joins us. I carry the ashes you carry. In the shade we were two witnesses, two victims two short poems about nature waiting for destruction to finish its feast [...] Search for our resurrection, and hover, oh raven! (p. 56-58) Evoking a relationship between "me" and "the Other," Darwish says in Palestine as a Metaphor that "I need for the human in me to be recognized, in exchange for my recognition of the human in the Other. Then might we, he and I, truly be reconciled" (p. 32). This is indeed the vision that dominates the collection State of Siege, for example, published in 2002 following the siege of Ramallah. 29 Through violence, war and conflict, the poet searches for the human. Although the Other, the Israeli soldier carrying out the siege is hailed by a variety of terms of address with negative connotations and which arouse animosity-"assassin," "guard"-the poem closes on a note of reconciliation. He says, for example, in this collection which is but one poem: Hey, you, on the doorstep-come in, and drink Arab coffee with us, then maybe you'll feel you are human, like us. You on the doorstepplease get out of our mornings, then maybe we'll feel we are human, like you. (p. 18) If war begins with "It's either me or him," we read at another point in the poem, "it ends with the painful recognition / of him and me, together." (p. 64) In a style not lacking in irony, Darwish reminds the Israeli that the political instrumentalized differences that supposedly exist between the two of them in fact go no deeper than appearances. Everything brings them together. He calls out in these terms to one of the siege's guards:

If we swapped names you'd discover a certain resemblance between usyou may have a "mom," but I have a mother, we're soaked by identical rain, we dream of only one moon, and we're only a short distance away from the same table. (p. 70)

In the Arabic text "mother" is designated by two different terms, two synonyms, in order to underscore that the difference is in form, not in substance: "You may have an Umm / but I have a wālida."

In another of the poem's passages, speaking to a "pseudo-Orientalist," the poet strips away false appearances until only the human bedrock is left visible. This human sentiment is sufficient to ensure a rapprochement between Palestinian and Israeli. The poet employs intertextuality, invoking Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice:

Let's just assume you are right: Let's assume I'm a dim, moronic, half-wit, [...] If I were someone else, if you were someone else, we could have been friends, both of us admitting how silly we are. Don't the stupid, like Shylock, have hearts, need sustenance, have eyes filled with tears? (p. 73) Darwish invokes the Jewish moneylender in Shakespeare's play whose portrait has given rise to conflicting interpretations: on the one hand greedy, on the other, victim and scapegoat. Darwish transcends these interpretations, liberating the centuries-old image of the "Jewish moneylender" by seeing in him but the human being. A human being with a heart and two eyes that cry, both elements that unite him with the Palestinian "Me."

When the Other is a Jewish Soldier

The poet, who is the victim in State of Siege, reminds the Other, the Israeli Jewish soldier, that he is also a victim: "If you had looked your victim in the eye, / perhaps you'd have remembered your mother in the gas chamber" (p. 29). This is reason enough for the latter to set himself free of "the rifle," symbol of violence. In the poem "Nothing makes me happy" from the collection Don't apologize for what you did, 30 the soldier is himself besieged. The Palestinian is so physically, the other morally. It reads: "The soldier says, me too. Nothing makes me happy. / I attack a ghost who attacks me" (p. 86). 31 The resemblance between the Palestinian "Me" and the Israeli Other emphasized by Darwish is present in several domains. They live through the same situation. The fear of the Other that they both feel makes them at once assassins and victims. The poem "He is calm, me too" from the collection Don't apologize for what you did begins with an ironic parallel between the two, evoking banal and insignificant differences:

He is calm, me too He drinks tea with orange, I drink coffee That is what distinguishes the two of us (p. 87)

The poem continues to unfold according to the same parallelism, without concealing its ironic tone: "I move my left foot / he moves his right foot," and ends with an observation supporting the commonality of their situation: I think: is he the mirror in which I see myself? [...] I think: perhaps he is an assassin, or perhaps He is a passenger who thought I was an assassin He is afraid and I am too (p. 88) While it is true that the victim/enemy opposition is recurrent in his poetry, the enemy, the Israeli soldier, is often described as someone who has been forced, in spite of himself, to play his role. The animosity or violence he produces is anathema to his humanism. The "rifle," tool and symbol of war that imposes a separation between the "me" and the "other," is always treated, from the poem "Rita and the Rifle" in the collection The End of Night (1967)-to which we return below-onward, as an introduced element, which deforms the two protagonists' normal reality. In the last poem of the collection Why Did You Leave the Horse Alone?, entitled "As He Draws Away," he describes with great subtlety and finesse this triangular relationship between the Israeli enemy and soldier, the Israeli victim, and the Palestinian victim. Darwish describes the complexity of the situation in which this Other lives:

In our shack the enemy takes a rest from his gun, leaving it on my grandfather's chair. He eats our bread like a guest, dozes on the wicker chair, caresses our cat's fur. He always says to us: Don't blame the victim! Who is the victim? We ask him He answers: Blood that the night will never dry... (p. 192) 32 Inside the "shack" the Other expresses his humanity, whereas outside he puts back on his mask as an enemy and warrior, represented in the poem by the uniform and shiny buttons: "The buttons on his uniform sparkle as he draws away." The shack is therefore a place of understanding between the two victims, the place where all the points of resemblance between the two emerge, a place of union and peace, far from the tool of violence: So why does he visit the victim every evening? And memorize our proverbs, like us? And repeat our songs of our own appointments in the holy place? Were it not for the gun the flute would pass into the flute... (p.194) 33 The first collections published by Darwish during the period when he was living in Israel contained several poems expressing intense anger. The term itself is repeated dozens of times. While it is true that the Israeli is considered an enemy, an occupier, a murderer, a jailer, a torturer, he is "never reified into a diabolized entity." At no time does he dehumanize the adversary in order to activate a desire to kill him. At no time does the poet call for the physical elimination of the adversary. This contrast between murderous violence and human tenderness comes through clearly in his poem "A Soldier Dreams of White Lilies," first published in the collection The End of the Night (1967). The soldier/torturer, at the poet's request, describes with impressive sang-froid the cadaver of a Palestinian he has killed: "He shifted in his seat, fiddled with the folded newspaper, / then said, as if breaking into song." This same soldier removes his mask of war and shows his true face in the final part of the poem: "He told me about his first love, and later, about distant streets," the poet says, of his need for "a child to cherish a day of laughter, not a weapon of war." [START_REF] Works | [END_REF] When the Other is the Beloved It seems judicious, before concluding this section, to evoke the concept of the Other as the beloved in Darwish's poetry. This Other is of course incarnated in the character of Rita, the Jewish Israeli woman with whom the Palestinian poet is madly in love. While the poem mentioned above seals their parting in its final paragraph-"And the city swept away Rita / And all the poets / Between Rita and my eyes / A rifle"-this does not mark the end of hope. Indeed, in the collection Birds are Dying in Galilee (1970), published three years after the war of 1967, the poet explicitly dedicates two poems to Rita. The first, in lending the volume its title, acquires special importance. Rita surges forth powerfully laden with memory in this poem. She bears the weight of the new social and political situation. Despite the separation, love fans the flame of hope, that they might be reunited. Another encounter is inevitable:

We shall meet in a while In a year, or two And a generation.

Death has come between the poet and the beloved, but this death is nothing but the poet's second face. He dies as an offering so that the other might live; death is a source of life: Why do you now flee What makes the wheat the earth's eyelashes What makes the volcano the Jasmine's other face. 35 The second poem, entitled "Rita... Love me", appears to be the continuation of the first. The two lovers are in a new space: Athens, where "love is prohibited" and the police officer, al-shurtī, symbol of political and military authority, wants to enforce this prohibition. Despite the presence of death, hope and the forceful resolve to unite with the Other, the beloved, surge forth from sadness's depths: Your body full of summer and death so beautiful, No matter how much you fill up the impossible space I will wait for you at the end of the world. (p. 276)

The image of Rita returns in 1992, twenty five years later, in the collection Eleven planets in which a long poem, "Rita's Winter", [START_REF]77 of the original[END_REF] is devoted to Rita, who has now become, we guess, the symbol of the Other, the Jewish woman. The poem opens with the encounter between the two lovers-Rita and the poet-at a specified time, "night," and in a space belonging to the two of them, "our room." The intimate setting of this encounter does not protect the lovers from the world around them, however. The "...two dreams on the pillow, they intersect and escape so one draws out a dagger and another entrusts the commandments to the flute" (p. 89). In this poem, made up of numerous dialogues between Rita and the poet, the ties between the two partners seem indissoluble. The two assure each other that they are made for one another. "Are you mine," Rita asks, to which the poet replies immediately: "I am yours, I say, if you leave the door open to my past, mine / is a past I see born out of your absence" (p. 91). Three times in the poem Rita says "I was born to love you." Both celebrate a fusitive relationship in which each becomes the other. However, this fusion does not put an end to distressing questions about the path to be taken and the future of two beings who are foreign to one another yet united. Here too the role of the victim is shared: "a small joy / they haven't killed us yet, not yet, O Rita... Rita, this winter is heavy and cold" (p. 93). Like in the beautiful and impossible stories dreamed of in the Ancient tragedies, the "me" and the "other" appear cursed and condemned:

There is no land for two bodies in one, no exile for exile We sing between two chasms in vain . . . we should depart and clarify the path. (p. 93) However, the response of the two partners to this seemingly inescapable destiny defies violence and resignation, and obstructs departure: yet I can't and you can't . . . she used to say and not say. (p. 93) Emanating naturally from two lovers this answer confirms that they are condemned to live together, despite all the obstacles that lay before them.

IV. The Image of the other in Israeli poetry: Dalia Rabikovitz and Nathan Zach

Beginning in the 1960s, Yehuda Amihai (1924-2000), an Israeli poet known the world over, modified the trend in contemporary Hebrew poetry, until then dedicated to the causes of the nation and the public. He is perhaps the first to have consciously chosen to underscore individual daily life, the intimate, and love. In his collection, published in 1958, [START_REF]Be-merhaq shtei tikvot [Between Two Hopes[END_REF] ten years after Israel's war of Independence, he included a poem "I Want to Die In My Bed." This wish, which constitutes the poem's refrain, is repeatedly opposed to war. The idealization of "natural" death, "in my bed," marked a turning point in Israeli poetry, which until then had extolled heroism. Nathan Zach, who was familiar with existentialism, also opposed any form of lyric expression devoid of the concrete and the immediate. His texts go beyond theoretical discourse. His second poetic collection, Shirim shonim (Other Poems), published in 1960, constitutes a different sort of poetry, of an individual, rationalist, pessimistic and ironic kind, reflecting the progressive decline of the human state. On the formal level, he succeeds in creating a magnificent musicality through the play of internal rhymes and repetitions. This new tendency in his work had a decisive influence on his contemporaries. It appears that following the new approach of these two key figures of the Israeli literary universe, the weight of the "us" as a people, as an identity, began to give way, in a post-modern spirit of liberation, to personal, to more intimate expression. Over time, especially after the 1973 war, the amalgamation of the "me" and the "we", the individual and the public, re-emerged. This time in a different context, that of the Near East and the Israeli-Arab conflict. It was precisely those poets who emphasized the personal and the concrete in the fifties and sixties, with Nathan Zach playing a leading role, who began generating a poetry of protest, defending peace. This poetry developed in the wake of two major events: after the first war in Lebanon in the 1980s, then after the year 2000, in protest against Israeli politics during the Intifada. Poets of all generations (such as T. Rivner, M. Wieseltier, D. Rabikovitch as well as younger ones, such as Ronny Someck, Rami Diztani, Yitzhak Laor, etc.) expressed a sympathetic view toward the Palestinians, sharing in their human suffering. The Bible serves as a source of inspiration in this context as well, but this time to defend the Palestinian cause. [START_REF]Three anthologies in Hebrew are worth mentioning: Ve-ein tikhla la-keravot ou-la-hereg [There is No End to the Battles and Slaughter[END_REF] Dalia Rabikovitz (1936-2006) is without a doubt the most salient female Israeli poet of the second half of the 20th century. From her first collection, The Love of an Orange (1959), she revealed a universe shaken from the inside, doing so in a style with immediate emotional impact. Although her intimate and lyrical poetry is not religious as such, it draws on the Bible and prayers for its images and symbols. After the war in The second theme is that of love of the country. There is no doubt that it is a sincere love, but it does not hide an ironic view of its countryside: peaceful and magnificent for some, threatening for others: Nathan Zach (born in Berlin in 1930, has lived in Israel since 1935) is considered, with Yehuda Amichai and David Avidan, to be one of the pillars of contemporary Hebrew poetry. An individualist and an existentialist, Zach has lead a movement of poetic revolution against the "founding fathers" of modern Hebrew poetry, such as Altermann and Schlonsky. At the beginning of the 1980s, during the first war in Lebanon, he became a spokesperson for the movement of poetic protest, saying that: It is not by chance that more and more political voices are being heard on the literary scene today. It is the product of an urgent reality that even the most immured and the most dignified can no longer ignore [...]. This may be the sign of our literature's maturity, which is, so it seems, quite capable of transgressing the lines so recently defined by grave reality. [...] We can write about other things, and differently. 44 Later, in response to a call for him to leave politics to journalists and poetics to poets, [START_REF] Perri | [END_REF] he added in no uncertain terms that for him politics is an experience of a simultaneously moral and personal kind. An experience that enriches poetic creation, and leads above all to a kind writing that does not need to be justified. 46 A close friend of Emil Habibi, the novelist and Palestinian Knesset member, as well as of the Syrian poet Adonis, he took part in several peace marches, and on several occasions was a member of literary delegations aimed at advancing the peace process.

In 1996 he published a collection entitled Because I'm Around in which he openly criticizes politicians for their opportunism and their obsession with power. He goes so far as to ironize about the city of Jerusalem, which he evokes in a poem entitled "A Song for Sion," an allusion to the famous poem "Sion" by the Medieval poet Yehuda Halevi. He says:

There, where the hill of screams is, There is no poetry, only blows Falling from the sky here and there, To remind us that no one has yet transformed his sword into a spade And that neither the Synagogues nor the Mosques or Churches can help The poor people who look for war. [START_REF]Extract from Keivan she-ani ba-sviva ("Since I am not far[END_REF] Without losing any of its finesse and subtlety, the irony of the young poet he was in the sixties takes on a hard and denunciatory tone in the socio-political context of the 1990s. The poem "A Little Poem of Dead Soldiers" provides a good example: Oh, it's great to get rid of you, Of your complaints Of your howling demands, Of your incessant harassment, You, the virtuous one, Who know only yourself, Who always thinks she's right, Who justifies herself Always And then, once again, Even in the years to come, when I won't be here, Even in the years to come, when I will not longer be alive, When there won't be anyone anymore That I knew Nor a woman Whose body knew mine.

You, in your throat the glory of the future, You ask and you answer at the same time, The anxieties of the past at your feet, Upward look your eyes, Demanding consolation, For helping crying, Crushing with a steel foot Everything that is on the road, Everything that crosses the path, Everything that is her child, Oh, it's wonderful to get rid of you, homeland. 48

Conclusion

Dealing with the "Other" through narrative writing seems to be an easy and readily admitted endeavour, but still few studies of that kind have been made of the poetic field. Approaching the topic through poetry runs the risk of engaging only with the politically "activist" dimension, to the detriment of the lyrical and aesthetic.

The choices in this article were made with care. It is examines texts of great poetic value, authored by recognized poets. It is helpful in this regard to recall the words of Nathan Zach when interviewed by Israeli journalists in 2001. 49 He insisted in a clear manner on the depth and authenticity of his so-called "political" poetry, considering that it is as personal and lyrical as his poetry in the 1960s. "If we were to transform all poetry into journalism," he said, "that would help no one. [...] poetry is not for transmitting current events, it is the work of imagination," adding that "a good poet remains a good poet, the journalist has his own field to work in." 50 We have also tried to throw new light on a reality that is not well known and which is often neglected by the media. Constructive links and bold initiatives exist between members of the different communities. This study has also shown the evolution and plurality of views taken of the other. The Other, while remaining a political rival in a very complicated context, is above all else a human being. The human sentiment underscored in the poetry of these four poets is a means for accepting the Other and uniting oneself with him.

Be that as it may, one must also avoid the pitfall of naive optimism. This opening toward the Other, and this willingness to knit promising relationships cannot hide another reality, one of conflict, which is unfortunately still dominant. Without touching on the domain of politics directly, all of these initiatives for cultural and intellectual rapprochement have been and continue to be fought and boycotted by a certain number of intellectuals and writers on both sides. However, the fact that this flame has persisted and is developing is an encouraging sign for the future.

  The concept of the Other in Contemporary Palestinian and Israeli Poetry: Nidāʾ Khoury and Mahmoud Darwish, Dalia Rabikovitz and Nathan Zach To be published in: The Routledge Handbook of Muslim-Jewish Relations Cambridge Masha Itzhaki & Sobhi Boustani / INALCO I.

  country's beautiful landscape Vineyards hung on the mountain, The shadow of clouds on the plain, The light And a fenced parcel; And also, three lines of olive trees Uprooted, a punishment. And three old women, without teeth, Because of their age, of course. [...]

Lebanon in 1982, she adopted a new political and moral vision denouncing all human suffering. Her position manifested itself on the practical level through her support for the "Peace Now" movement and the creation of the General Union of Writers in Israel, and on the literary level through singular and particularly strong writing. Thus, she was the first to apply the Biblical myth of the sacrifice of Abraham not only to the Israelis killed in the wars, but also to suffering Palestinians. This idea appears in a poem entitled "The Tale of the Arab Who Died by Fire," from the collection Mother and Child (1992), where she makes precise use of the terms "bound and fettered" (qashour ve-'aqoud), making clear the intertextual reference.

These poems propose two main themes: the first, inspired by her personal situation as a mother of an only son, evokes the suffering of mothers, all mothers. She is convinced that the recognition of mutual suffering and universal human nature might contribute to taking a few steps on the road to peace. She evokes this theme in a direct and fearless manner in the following lines:

A mother walks around with a child dead in her belly. This child hasn't been born yet. When his time is up the dead child will be born head first, then trunk and buttocks and he won't wave his arms about or cry his first cry [...] He will not resemble a living child. His mother will not be calm and proud after giving birth and she won't be troubled about his future, won't worry how in the world to support him and does she have enough milk and does she have enough clothing and how will she ever fit one more cradle into the room. The child is a perfect azazel [START_REF]A term from the Hebrew Bible generally understood as meaning a scapegoat; also sometimes a fallen angel or demon[END_REF] already, unmade ere he was ever made.

[...]

These are the chronicles of the child who was killed in his mother's belly in the month of January, in the year 1988, "under circumstances relating to state security." [START_REF] Bloch | Hovering at a low altitude: the collected poetry of Dalia Rabikovitz[END_REF] Ruth Karton-Bloom 41 speaks of "mothers' poetry" as a sub-genre of women's poetry. She observes that for women writers the Biblical myth of Abraham's sacrifice is nothing but a betrayal, by the family, by the father, and that the key dimension of feminine protest is anchored in the maternal ethic, the maternal worry common to all mothers. The Ravikovitch poems cited above come from a collection that appeared in 1992 under the simple title Mother and Child. In her poem entitled "Stones," she expresses her love for children, and her compassion for the stolen childhood of the Palestinians: stones, stones, stones, stones children, children, children, children. Go home, children How will you live without rest? [START_REF] Neisser | The Dialogue of Poetry: Palestinian mid Israeli Poets Writing Through Conflict and Peace[END_REF]