text:
Cookbook talk:Oyster

This module was origionally taken from parts of the Wikipedia article Oyster, and used under the GFDL. The page history at the time the content was taken is copied below:

* (cur) (last). . 11:30, 24 Feb 2004. . Davodd (*WikiBooks: How to cook oysters) * (cur) (last). . M 02:29, 24 Feb 2004. . Olivier * (cur) (last). . 15:24, 12 Feb 2004. . 171.64.130.140   * (cur) (last). . 15:24, 12 Feb 2004. . 171.64.130.140   * (cur) (last). . 15:22, 12 Feb 2004. . 171.64.130.140   * (cur) (last). . 15:20, 12 Feb 2004. . 171.64.130.140   * (cur) (last). . 19:09, 14 Jan 2004. . Seglea (link to Thorny Oysters) * (cur) (last). . 21:05, 12 Jan 2004. . Seglea (not only oysters secrete pearls) * (cur) (last). . 21:04, 12 Jan 2004. . Seglea (pluralise pearl oysters) * (cur) (last). . 14:42, 12 Jan 2004. . Seglea (moving some material to true oyster page; restructuring) * (cur) (last). . 15:38, 8 Jan 2004. . Anthere * (cur) (last). . M 17:58, 5 Jan 2004. . Lupinoid (fix ja:) * (cur) (last). . 06:36, 13 Nov 2003. . 218.41.203.52 (+ja) * (cur) (last). . 13:19, 25 Jun 2003. . Rick.G (edit paragraph) * (cur) (last). . 08:40, 6 Mar 2003. . 128.193.88.52 (raw - pathogen) * (cur) (last). . M 18:01, 5 Mar 2003. . Frecklefoot * (cur) (last). . 17:25, 5 Mar 2003. . 128.193.88.78 (self-shucking oyster) * (cur) (last). . M 00:24, 19 Dec 2002. . 208.187.8.220   * (cur) (last). . M 15:56, 18 Nov 2002. . Zoe * (cur) (last). . 23:15, 16 Nov 2002. . Merphant (linked orphan) * (cur) (last). . 23:03, 16 Nov 2002. . Zoe * (cur) (last). . M 02:19, 7 Nov 2002. . Malcolm Farmer (adopt orphan how to cook...) * (cur) (last). . 19:13, 4 Nov 2002. . Karen Johnson * (cur) (last). . 20:40, 24 Oct 2002. . Merphant (oysters are not clams) * (cur) (last). . 19:44, 24 Oct 2002. . W (Not quite sure, but think these are the same. If not, add stub explaining diff.)

title: Cookbook talk:Oyster


text:
Cookbook:Oyster

| Seafood

The name Oyster is used for a number of different groups of molluscs which grow for the most part in marine or brackish water.

The "true oysters" are the members of the family Ostreidae, and this includes the edible oysters, which mainly belong to the genera Ostrea, Crassostrea, Ostreola or Saccostrea. Examples are the Edible Oyster, Ostrea edulis, the Olympia Oyster Ostreola conchaphila, and the Eastern Oyster Crassostrea virginica.

Oysters can be canned, eaten raw or cooked. When caught, like all shellfish they have an extremely short shelf-life. They should be fresh when consumed or serious illness can result. Additionally, oysters can host various illness-causing pathogens. Therefore, consumption of raw oysters should be done with caution. Researchers in Oregon have invented a self-shucking oyster.

Farm raised oysters are listed as a "Best Choice" by the Monterey Bay Aquarium's Seafood Watch Program (non farm raised wild oysters are only list as a "Good Alternative").

Oyster recipes
Recipes using oysters can be found in the oyster recipe index

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cookbook:Oyster


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Cookbook talk:How to Cook Oysters

Over the next several days I'm going to split these out into their own recipes, and link them from Cookbook:Oyster. I don't know what to do about their page histories, ect. from en: however. Any assistance would be appriciated.

Ah, I wanted to know how to cook my SIX oysters. If I had fifty I would have a chef to cook them for me. Sorry for the sarcasm - got into the alchohol 207.6.81.139 02:28, 6 March 2007 (UTC)sds

I think the only time I see 100 oysters is either a dinner party or one of those Asian buffets that have all those seafood out on ice.

title: Cookbook talk:How to Cook Oysters


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User talk:Nohat

Welcome Nohat! Let me know if you need anything around the site. --Karl Wick

title: User talk:Nohat


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Cookbook:Simple Roasted Oysters

| Seafood | Oyster

Ingredients

 * 25 small live oysters
 * Salt to taste
 * Pepper to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Rinse the oysters in a colander and drain well.
 * 2) Put the live oysters in the shell in a large sauté pan on medium-high heat and leave them till their shells open a little.
 * 3) Take them off the heat, open them on a plate, and season with salt and pepper.

title: Cookbook:Simple Roasted Oysters


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Cookbook:Roasted Oysters with Madeira

| Seafood | Oyster

Ingredients

 * 50 live small oysters
 * ¼ stick (4 tbsp / 2 oz) butter
 * ½ cup madeira
 * salt and cayenne pepper to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Rinse the oysters in a colander and drain well.
 * 2) Roast the oysters in their shells in a large pot over medium high heat until they are done and dry, but not scorched.
 * 3) Remove the oysters from the shell onto a plate, without any of their liquor. Discard any oysters that failed to open.
 * 4) Add the butter. When the butter has melted, add to another pan and place on low heat.
 * 5) Add the Madeira, a little salt and cayenne. Serve when the Madeira is heated.

title: Cookbook:Roasted Oysters with Madeira


text:
Cookbook talk:Roasted Oysters with Madeira

This recipe was adapted from the 1881 Household Cyclopedia.


text:
Cookbook talk:Simple Roasted Oysters

The recipe adapted from the 1881 Household Cyclopedia

title: Cookbook talk:Simple Roasted Oysters


text:
Talk:Russian/Contents

Untitled
I'll use Russian:Various stuff to practice my own Russian. Probably it will contain stuff that can be used later at other places. Guaka 00:36, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

I vote for using Unicode stress marks to indicate stress (as in Russian:Possessive pronouns) and reserving boldface for emphasis (e.g. to highlight changing word endings). This would be more consistent with traditional textbooks. For new content, you can copy and paste the stress character if you don't have another way of inputing them. Any thoughts? Fleminra 20:21, 14 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Would it make more sense to put the stress marks over the vowel of the syllables?

I agree about the stress marks- the way it looks right now is very confusing. Paul_Lynch DettoAltrimenti 02:06, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

Verbal Aspect
I've added as section on verbal aspect to the grammar section of the page. I am not a native speaker of Russian, but rather an American who has studied Russian. If I've made mistakes, particularly in examples, please feel free to correct them. In any case, I believe the addition of the verbal aspect page was needed, and what I've put up is a start. (No user account - 8 April 2005)

==

I guess that `Самый лучший урок русского языка интернета только на земле!' is a joke, since the sentence is translated as `The best lesson of Russian language of Internet only on earth.' Please, state its status to avoid confusion among non-speakers.

==

I am a russian. And I hope I can help you. Do not hesitate, ask me your questions. User:Nemoj 07:50, 29 October 2005 (UTC)

==

Can accent marks be added to indicate the stressed syllables?

Who is writing this book?
I'm new here, and can see some obvious things that should be changed, and other things that should be added... should I go ahead and change them, or is there someone I should check with for? (don't hate me for being new) Paul_Lynch DettoAltrimenti 02:09, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

Planning
After 6 months of being away (studying in Moscow) and no one doing anything to this wikibook, I'd like to start the page Russian/Planning. This page will state what this book needs (and it needs a lot) and how it should be organized. If anyone at all still looks at this wikibook, please leave me a message on my user page. I plan on going onto the russian wikibooks site in the next few days, to look for native speakers to help with audio files, dialogues, and exercises. I would really like this wikibook start to resemble something close to the French or Spanish wikibook, or something even better than those. Any help would be appreciated! DettoAltrimenti 14:19, 18 April 2006 (UTC)

Why is some of the language links go to the French Wikibooks?--68.170.86.111 22:29, 23 April 2006 (UTC)

Never mind. I figured it out. For some reason the Russian Language template interwiki linked to the French Language wikibooks in several languages. I removed that.--68.170.86.111 22:33, 23 April 2006 (UTC)

Download
It says download or print version, how do I download the wikibook

Construction
Planning seems to fall through after a couple of efforts, so I propose we structure it here and play it by ear. Mostly, editors come on spurts and then get bored and leave. I for one hope I can stay to improve this lacking Wikibook, and it won't work if we're all afraid to go against a plan. I'm going in. ALTON .ıl  05:12, 22 March 2007 (UTC)

Note: NEVER hesitate to change something! If you disagree with it, change it. Wikibooks is not that large enough of a project to get picky over things like proper references and things. I'm trying to start a general restructure, so try to follow that, but if you hate the seal on the front page, go change it (I think it's nice-looking though). ALTON .ıl  05:12, 22 March 2007 (UTC)

Note: Be harsh on the Stage templates, please. A cursory glance through most articles gave me the impression none of it is more than 25% done. Even though Lesson 1 has much of the basic text, I rate it 25% because it is hardly structured and formatted as a lesson. It has a while to go before it is of much use. ALTON .ıl  05:24, 22 March 2007 (UTC)

Note: I like the cheat sheet in the Esperanto book. ALTON .ıl  09:12, 12 April 2007 (UTC)

Thus begins another attempt at working on this book. ALTON .ıl  09:03, 11 February 2008 (UTC)

Removed intro: may use later, but seems to be most effective when getting right to material:
 * Welcome to the Russian Wikibook. Russian is an East Slavic language, and is grouped with Ukrainian and Belarusian. Russian is written with the Cyrillic alphabet. Russian was the defacto universal and official language of the Soviet Union, and remains the official language of Russia and the CIS. Russian is also an official language in Belarus and Kazakhstan, and it is an official language of the United Nations. Outside the former USSR, there are large communities of Russian-speakers in every part of the world. Even astronauts, who work with the International Space Station, are trained to speak Russian to some form of fluency as there are Russian cosmonauts who operate the ISS.

 * Knowledge of the Russian language will increase appreciation of a rich and diverse body of literature, and assist in learning other languages of the Slavic family (like Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Bulgarian). It is not an easy language to take on, as an entirely new alphabet and grammatical structure slow down beginners. With practice and immerssion, Russian will become a passion, and soon after, an acquired language.

 * The Russian Wikibook is structured in a way to present the most integrated material in short, easy to digest lessons. To begin, read the Introduction and learn how best to learn with this book.

ALTON .ıl  01:44, 4 August 2008 (UTC)

Any new lessons coming soon?
Could someone Russian talking create some easy texts with translations because it would be alot easier to learn Russian with examples and by seeing the language in use? --Mikaell (talk) 14:20, 17 April 2008 (UTC) I am a native speaker. Often too busy but willing to help bit by bit. Throw some ideas about what you learners want to see here and I will see what I can do. You can also help by structuring the lessons, so a native speaker could only fill the gaps - Russian text, pronunciation etc. If interested post to my talk page. --Atitarev (talk) 12:13, 14 August 2008 (UTC)

Textbook-style?
I admit that I am no native speaker and can only contribute with a limited level of Russian, but I'm currently learning this language with an 1982-issue (sorry, there isn't a newer one here) of a Russian textbook meant for Chinese learners with a 15-lesson Pronunciation Course(correct me if I'm wrong about this translation of Вводно-фонетический Курс) and a 40-lesson Basics Course (Основной Курс), as well as about 1200 words, concentrating on a few aspects and bringing in the language cases according to their frequency of use (Basically Nominative-Accusative-Prepositional-Genitive-Dative-Instrumental). Should the Wikibook about Russian be structured like this or should it be made like something else? Varxo (discuss • contribs) 12:19, 15 December 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Russian/Contents


text:
Russian/Various Stuff

Warning: this stuff probably contains errors.

Expressions
every day - каждый день, ежедневно every week - каждую неделю, еженедельно every month - каждый месяц, ежемесячно every year - каждый год, ежегодно

compass points N S E W

 * Yugoslavia - Югославия
 * Vladivostok - Владивосток

Various words

 * big - большой
 * good - хороший
 * bad - плохой

 * new - новый
 * old - старый
 * old man - старик

 * cold - холодный (прилагательное), холодно (наречие)
 * refrigerator - холодильник
 * kitchen - кухня

 * television - телевизор

 * table - стол
 * chair - стул

 * furniture - ме'бель (only singular)

 * to be engaged in - заниматься
 * to know - знать

 * circle - круг (фигура), кружок (клуб)
 * course - курс

 * letter - письмо
 * night - ночь

 * to work - работать

 * participant - участник

 * bread - хлеб

Address notation
The lines are marked with abbreviations: г. (город - city), ул. (улица - street), д. (дом - building) or бл. (блок - blok), кв. (квартира - apartment) or ап. (апартамент - apartment):

Борису Иванову 115114 г. Москва ул. Петрова, д. 14, кв. 15

Note the name is in the dative case (because the letter is being sent to this person).

Also note that an индекс (6 digits), which is something like an American zip code, should probably be included as well, but I've been told by Russians that the индекс is not vital to the arrival of your parcel. But correct индекс makes arrival more predictible in measure of time.

Finally: If sending mail internationally between Russian post and non-Russian post, I recommend including the name of the addressee country in the language of the postal service of origin, as this part of the shipment must of course be handled by domestic post. The rest of the address should be written in the language (and script) of the destination. For example, if sending a letter to the address listed above from the United States, append the line "RUSSIA" to the beginning. Likewise if sending mail home to the U.S. from Russia, append "США" to the head of the address.

title: Russian/Various Stuff


text:
Cookbook:Salsa (recipe)

| Mexican cuisine | Tex-Mex cuisine

Ingredients

 * 1 can (14–16 oz) of peeled, diced tomatoes
 * 1 bunch of fresh cilantro (aka coriander leaf, Mexican parsley)
 * 3–6 fresh serrano chili peppers (the more the spicier; start with 3)
 * ½ fresh finely chopped onion
 * 1 tsp salt
 * 1 pinch of pepper and/or garlic to taste (optional)

Equipment

 * Blender or food processor

Procedure

 * 1) Add onion to blender.
 * 2) Wash and chop the cilantro, removing only the very bottom of the stem. Add to blender.
 * 3) Wash and chop the chile peppers, then add to blender.
 * 4) Open the canned tomatoes, add to blender.
 * 5) Add the salt.
 * 6) Blend slowly, to thoroughly mix ingredients; do not completely blend.
 * 7) Serve chilled, with a meal, as a dip for corn tortilla chips, as a garnish, etc.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Can be easily stored in a closed container in refrigerator for a week or ten days.
 * Be very careful not to touch your eyes, nose, or mouth after chopping or handling the chili peppers, the pain can be intense. Wash your hands thoroughly after handling.

title: Cookbook:Salsa (recipe)


text:
Russian/Loanwords

Warning: This might still contain errors.

The Base Of The Russian Language
The Russian language is one that developed with the influx of various European and Middle Eastern languages. This is largely due to the geographical location of Russia, historical trade with other countries, and cultural Renaissance started by Russian royalty and other Bourgeoisie. Because of this, the Russian language is one that can be compared to languages such as Greek, Dutch, Italian, French, Arabic, Yiddish, and others that helped to mold it into the language known today. Though the base of the language is Slavic, many alphabetical, grammatical, and vocabulary forms are distinctly foreign.

=Dutch=

=English=

Words that entered English
=German=

Words that entered German
=French=

 * abat-jour - абажу́р (lampshade)
 * avant-garde - аванга́рд (avant-garde)
 * avant-scène - авансце́на (proscenium)
 * bagage - бага́ж (baggage)
 * beige - беж (beige)
 * béton - бетон (concrete)
 * bigoudis - бигуди (hair curler)
 * bijouterie - бижутерия (jewelry/jewellery)
 * billet - билет
 * bouquiniste - букинист
 * boutique - бутик
 * café - каф́е (a café, not coffee; read: каф́э)
 * caisse - касса (till)
 * cascadeur - каскадёр (stuntman)
 * catastrophe - катастрофа (catastrophe)
 * cauchemar - кошма́р (nightmare)
 * chaise longue - шезлонг
 * chance - шанс
 * champagne - шампа́нское (champagne - sparkling white wine)
 * chanson - шансон (org. song, a music style, see: Russian chanson)
 * chantage - шантаж (blackmail)
 * concours - конкурс (competition)
 * costume - костюм (costume, suit)
 * couchette - куше́тка (couch)
 * coupé - купе́ (compartment)
 * crevette - креветка (am.e. shrimp, br.e. prawn)
 * dame - да́ма (lady)
 * déjà vu - дежавю́ or дежа вю́
 * débile - дебил
 * douche - душ (shower)
 * ensemble - анса́мбль (meaning "a band", not "together")
 * équipage - экипаж (crew)
 * écran - экран (screen)
 * étage - этаж (floor on a building)
 * fabrique - фабрика (factory)
 * garage - гара́ж
 * gazon
 * jalousie - жалюзи (jalousie, window blinds)
 * journal - журнал (journal, magazine, newspaper)
 * lustre - люстра (chandelier)
 * magasin- магазин (store, shop)
 * maquillage - макияж (makeup/cosmetics)
 * massage - масса́ж
 * métro(politain)- метро (subway/underground)
 * meuble - ме́бель (furniture)
 * mirage - мира́ж (mirage)
 * mode - мода (fashion)
 * musée - музей (museum)
 * nature morte - натюрморт (literally "dead nature", still life)
 * ostéochondrose - остеохондроз (osteochondrosis)
 * parachute - парашют
 * plage - пляж (beach)
 * putain - путана (whore)
 * régime - режи́м (regime/routine)
 * reportage - репортаж
 * restaurant - рестора́н
 * sabotage - саботаж
 * sapeur - сапёр
 * sac voyage - саквояж (valise/ travel bag)
 * soldat - солдат (soldier)
 * souteneur - сутенёр (pimp)
 * théâtre - театр (theatre)
 * toilettes - туалет (toilets)
 * trottoir - тротуар (sidewalk)
 * ventouse - вантуз (plunger)
 * virage - вира́ж (road turn)
 * vitrage
 * vitrine - витрина (shop window/ showcase)
 * voyage - вояж (tour, journey)

=Italian=

=Polish=

 * kasztan - каштан - chestnut
 * kościół - костёл - church
 * królik - кролик - rabbit
 * ksiądz - ксёндз - priest
 * rysować - рисовать - to draw
 * powidła - повидло - plum jam
 * tuz - туз - ace
 * Węgry - Венгрия - Hungary

Words that entered Polish

 * czajnik - чайник
 * czech - чех
 * mamut - мамонт
 * rodny - родной
 * szaszłyk - шашлык

=Greek=

 * βιβλιοθήκη - библиотека - (Library)
 * εβραίος - еврей - (Jew)
 * είκών- икона - (Image)
 * κάκτος - кактус - (Cactus)
 * χορός - хор - (chorus)

As well as words from Greek, many letters of the Russian alphabet come from Greek.

=Yiddish=

 * גוי - гой - Gentile
 * יאַרמלקע - ермолка - Yarmulke
 * כתיבה - ксива - ID (slang)
 * פּוץ - поц - Putz (slang)
 * שמאָק - чмо - Schmuck (slang)

Furthermore, the Russian letters Ш (Sh) and Щ (Sch) are believed to come from the Yiddish/Hebrew letter ש (Sh).

=Arabic=

 * بَدَوِيُّون - бедуин - Bedouin (A nomadic North African tribe)
 * وَقْف - вакф - An act of charity
 * كَبَاب - кебаб - Kebab
 * بازار - базар - Bazaar/Market (which originally comes from Persian : بازار)
 * صندوق - cундук - Chest/box
 * نفط - нефть - Oil ( Crude Oil)

=Miscellaneous=

Words that are very similar in Russian and other Indoeuropean languages

 * mother - moeder (Dutch) - mutter (German) - mater (Latin) - мать
 * daughter - dochter (Dutch) - дочь
 * son - сын
 * brother - брат
 * sister - сестр́а
 * cat - кот
 * chair/stool - stoel (Dutch) - Stuhl (German) - Stalas (Lithuanian) - стул
 * cold - хо́лодно
 * day - день (non is the etymologic cognate)
 * door - deur (Dutch) - дверь
 * go, walk - ire (Latin) - идти́
 * honey, mead - мёд
 * house - domus (Latin) - дом
 * I - ich (German) - Yo (Spanish), Io (Italian) - я
 * Our - Nuestro (Spanish), Nostro (Italian) - наш
 * key - clavis (Latin) - ключ
 * love - любо́вь (noun), люби́ть (verb)
 * may (verb)/might - мочь (verb and noun)
 * milk - молоко́
 * moon - luna (Latin) -луна́
 * mouse - mus (Latin) - мышь
 * my/mine - мой/моя́/моё/мои́
 * night - ночь
 * nose - нос
 * sit - sedere (Latin) - сидеть
 * stand - stare - стоять
 * snow - снег
 * sun - со́лнце (read: со́нцэ)
 * that - тот
 * thou - du (German), tú (Spanish), tu (Latin, French, Italian) - ты
 * water - вода́
 * wolf - волк
 * And - Y (Latin form) - и
 * buy - kopen (Dutch) - kaufen (German) - купить

To be classified

 * Saturday - שבת (Hebrew) - shabbath - суббо́та
 * pity/blessed/pathetic - zielig (Dutch) selig (German) - жалкий
 * confection/candy - конфеты
 * precārī(Latin) to beg, pray(English) - просить, спрашивать

title: Russian/Loanwords


text:
Russian/Alphabet

The Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters, each having upper- and lower-case forms. There are 20 consonants, 10 vowels, 1 so-called semivowel (Й/й), and 2 letters (Ъ/ъ and Ь/ь) that are not themselves pronounced but indicate how other letters should be pronounced.

The Russian alphabet descended from the Greek alphabet, so while some of the letters may look like English, their pronunciation might be very different. The pronunciations in the table below are just the most common ones; others are possible, as discussed below.

Key:

 * Similar to English : easiest to grasp for English speakers, as their sound resembles the English sound
 * Similar to Greek : easy for those who know some Greek — e.g., Л is pronounced like Lambda
 * Hard and soft signs : see Signs
 * Other letters

Note:

While Ц and ц are most often pronounced like the ts in tsunami or the zz in pizza, it can also represent the English soft c sound in words borrowed from Latin, such as in центр (center). See the Wikipedia article for the letter for more information.

Basic pronunciation rules
Notes on the Alphabet and Pronunciation of Russian
 * 1) While Russian has a mostly phonetic orthography, there are a few exceptions:
 * 2) * Voiced consonants with voiceless counterparts lose their voicing at the end of a word, e.g. строганов (stroganoff) is pronounced /stroganof/.
 * 3) * Voiced consonants with voiceless counterparts become unvoiced before voiceless consonants, e.g. водка (vodka) is pronounced /ˈvotkə/.
 * 4) *Similarly, voiceless consonants with voiced counterparts become voiced before voiced consonants, e.g. футбол (soccer/football) is pronounced /fʊdˈbol/.
 * 5) The hard sign (Ъ/ъ) indicates that the preceding consonant is not palatalized. However, it has been very rarely used since the spelling reform of 1918. Its use now is to indicate that the following vowel like е or я is to be pronounced iotated (that is, as if it was the first letter in the syllable).
 * 6) The soft sign (Ь/ь) indicates that the preceding consonant is palatalized. In the middle of a word, it also has the same effect "ъ" does.
 * 7) The vowels Е/е, Ё/ё, И/и, Ю/ю, Я/я make the consonants before them palatal consonant. This means that one pronounces the consonant with the middle of the tongue raised, pressing against the hard palate.

Vowel reduction
The following vowel reductions occur in unstressed syllables in Standard Russian. Note that these mergers are not present in all dialects:
 * 1) /o/ merges with /a/. This is called аканье (akanye), and its absence is called оканье (okanye).
 * 2) /e/ merges with /i/. This is called иканье (ikanye), and its absence is called еканье (yekanye).
 * 3) /a/, /e/ and /o/ all merge with /i/ after a soft consonant or /j/.

Pronunciation mnemonics

 * 1) Letters similar to Latin equivalents: к о м е т а (which form the Russian word for comet)
 * 2) Letters similar to Greek equivalents: г л ф (compare to Gamma, Lambda, Phi) — the Russian word флаг (flag) is useful here
 * 3) да (da, yes) нет (nyet, no): two easy Russian words that illustrate how д, н and е are pronounced
 * 4) суши-бар (sushi-bar): popular in St. Petersburg, this word is a very useful way of remembering how с, у, ш, и, б and р are pronounced
 * 5) хип-хоп (hip-hop): this can help with х and п, although note that the х is a much harsher sound than the English h, more like the ch in Scottish loch
 * 6) союз (Soyuz): useful for remembering the sounds of ю and the з (the latter of which you can think of as a cursive Latin z)
 * 7) я (ya, I) and вы (vy, you): pronouns you'll be using most often when talking with strangers — as in, "I do not speak Russian; do you speak English?" — but unlike in English, pronouns can be omitted due to context in the present and future tenses
 * 8) царь (tsar) and чай (chai, tea): for keeping your ц and ч straight

title: Russian/Alphabet


text:
Cookbook:Nori

Nori (海苔), also called gim (김), is a type of processed dried seaweed sheet commonly used in Japanese and Korean cuisines.

Nori is sometimes translated as 'laver' in English—however, this English term is generic to many varieties of seaweed, and nori is more commonly used when referring to this specific variety.

Composition
Nori is typically made from various red algal seaweeds, most commonly from the genera Pyropia and Porphyra.

Production
Finished products are made by a shredding and rack-drying process that resembles papermaking.

Use
Nori is often used in Japanese and Korean cuisines to make rice rolls, such as makizushi, onigiri, and kimbap. It may also be used as a garnish or eaten, toasted and seasoned, as a snack.

title: Cookbook:Nori


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Cookbook talk:Nori

This page was origionally published at Wikipedia in the article Nori. The page history at the time of copying is included below:

 * (cur) (last) . . M 19:40, 28 Nov 2003 . . Yas (+ja:)
 * (cur) (last) . . 14:13, 24 Nov 2003 . . 68.165.192.6
 * (cur) (last) . . 07:45, 17 Nov 2003 . . Ed Poor (moving dwarf to separate article)
 * (cur) (last) . . M 14:18, 9 Nov 2003 . . General Wesc (Fixing J. R. R. Tolkien link to avoid redir.)
 * (cur) (last) . . M 23:11, 21 Oct 2003 . . Glenn
 * (cur) (last) . . M 23:10, 21 Oct 2003 . . Glenn
 * (cur) (last) . . 22:12, 14 Oct 2003 . . Josh Grosse
 * (cur) (last) . . 14:02, 24 Aug 2003 . . Mdchachi (blue-green algae is also mentioned in the Japanese dictionary (goo.ne.jp); added mention of wakame & konbu)
 * (cur) (last) . . 12:34, 4 Apr 2003 . . Josh Grosse (Link back to red algae)
 * (cur) (last) . . M 10:57, 25 Feb 2003 . . General Wesc (that=who)
 * (cur) (last) . . 13:36, 24 Feb 2003 . . Jketola (Added info about Nori from The Hobbit just like Balin)
 * (cur) (last) . . M 05:06, 8 Feb 2003 . . Sannse (Disambiguating English)
 * (cur) (last) . . 15:42, 7 Feb 2003 . . Synthetik (+usage, (still need more) )
 * (cur) (last) . . M 15:25, 7 Feb 2003 . . Arthur3030 (added english term, laver)
 * (cur) (last) . . M 01:22, 5 Feb 2003 . . Synthetik (linkage galore)
 * (cur) (last) . . M 07:43, 25 Feb 2002 . . Conversion script (Automated conversion)
 * (cur) (last) . . M 07:05, 2 Jan 2002 . . Paul Drye (Bold and italics where appropriate)
 * (cur) (last) . . 06:55, 2 Jan 2002 . . Poslfit (Rewrite)
 * (cur) (last) . . 00:17, 2 Jan 2002 . . Jayed

title: Cookbook talk:Nori


text:
User talk:Bioessay

hi Hi yerself! Thinking of joining in?

title: User talk:Bioessay


text:
Template:ModernPhysicsTOC

 This book is part of a series on Modern Physics: Waves General Mechanics Special Relativity Quantum Mechanics Electrodynamics Nuclear Physics This template marks books that are related under the banner of Modern Physics. Such books form a series, and represent a course of study in undergraduate physics. This template should appear on the front page of books related to this topic. Each sub-book will then use it's own organizational structure and navigation templates. Chapters that remain in the Modern Physics book (because they are not big enough to stand alone) can use the Template:ModernPhysicsNav template for page navigation.

title: Template:ModernPhysicsTOC


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Template:Waves/1DWavesTOC

Waves : 1 Dimensional Waves 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 - 8 - 9 - 10 - 11 - 12 - 13

Examples - Problems - Solutions - Terminology

 * This template is for use in the Waves book. It serves as a partial TOC for the pages in the section "Waves In 1 Dimension", and should be included at the top and bottom of every page in that section.

title: Template:Waves/1DWavesTOC


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Talk:Scouting/BSA

Attempt at Meta Tag
How do I fix the meta tag that goes to Wikipedia?
 * You use InterWiki links.

InterWiki

 * People sometimes use InterWiki . However, |]] hides the w: part and makes the WikiText cleaner. Midnightcomm 17:34, 7 March 2006 (UTC)

Merit Badge List
Should we have a template where we provide:
 * The name of the merit badge
 * The id number used by meritbadge.com

The name of the merit badge should be able to use for boyscouttrail.com as they use (mostly) proper names with the spaces squashed out. I'm not quite sure how to do this. Looking at Template:Gutenberg for starters.

Why link to secondary web site meritbadge.org instead of the BSA web site?
Why not use links to the pages under http://www.scouting.org/scoutsource/BoyScouts/AdvancementandAwards/MeritBadges.aspx instead of the ones to meritbadge.org used at present? Recent Runes (discuss • contribs) 09:24, 17 July 2011 (UTC)

Among scouts, meritbadge.org is the favourite source of merit badge information, as it is easier to navigate and ti generally more helpful. DamaniRD (discuss • contribs) 21:58, 15 August 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Scouting/BSA


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Scouting/BSA/First Aid Merit Badge

Note: a Wikipedia book on First Aid is under development.

Requirement 1
Satisfy your counselor that you have current knowledge of all first-aid requirements for Tenderfoot, Second Class, and First Class ranks.

Requirement 2

 * Explain how you would obtain emergency medical assistance from your house, on a wilderness camping trip, and during an activity on open water.

At home: Keep emergency numbers posted at the phone along with your address. 911 service is available in most areas. If phones are not working, go to a neighbor that has emergency training. Know where the fire extinguishers are along with the first aid kit.

Wilderness: Cell phone, radio, messenger, or evacuate. Signal fires and sounds are a last resort if you cannot evacuate. Be sure to leave a map and schedule at home to trigger an automatic rescue response.

Open Water: Powered craft should be equipped with a marine band radio tuned to the emergency channel (#16). Flares and smoke bombs can be carried on any boat but must be used with caution. A distress flag (orange with a black dot and a black square) or signal mirror may be useful over short distances.

Requirement 3

 * Explain the term triage.

Triage: the process of sorting victims, as of a battle or disaster, to determine medical priority in order to increase the number of survivors; the determination of priorities for action in an emergency.

During this requirement you also have to do 3b ( which is, "Explain the steps necessary to assess and handle a medical emergency until help arrives.")

Requirement 4

 * Explain the standard precautions as applied to the transmission of infections.

Treat all blood as if it were contaminated with blood borne pathogens. Thoroughly wash your hands with soap and water before and after treating a sick or injured person. Never use your bare hands to stop bleeding. Use a protective barrier, preferably nonlatex disposable gloves (a new, unused plastic food storage bag will work in a pinch). Safely discard all soiled bandages, dressings, and other used first aid items by putting them in a double bag until they can be disposed of properly in a receptacle for bio-hazards. Always wash your hands and other exposed skin with soap and warm water or an alcohol-based hand sanitizer immediately after treating a victim, even if protective equipment was used.

Requirement 5

 * Prepare a first aid kit for your home. Display and discuss its contents with your counselor.

Requirement 6

 * Explain what action you should take for someone who shows signs of a heart attack, shock, and stroke.

Lay the victim down and elevate legs. Call 911. Keep warm, calm and comfortable. Monitor breathing as CPR may be required before help arrives. Transport only if no EMS is available. Under no circumstances should the patient attempt to drive to the hospital.
 * Identify the conditions that must exist before performing CPR on a person.

Rescue breathing is used if the victim does not begin breathing when the airway is opened. It also helps warm a severely hypothermic person who is breathing very slowly. Chest compressions should only be used when there are no signs of circulation: coughing, moving, pulse, skin color takes more than 2 seconds to return after finger pressure is removed.

Requirement 7

 * Demonstrate proper technique in performing CPR using a training device approved by your counselor.

See First Aid/CPR summary

Requirement 8

 *  Show the steps that need to be taken for someone suffering from a severe cut on the leg and on the wrist. Tell the dangers in the use of a tourniquet and the conditions under which its use is justified.

The four steps of severe bleeding are:
 * Direct pressure -- place a hand with a cloth firmly over the wound and press hard
 * Elevation -- if on an extremity, lift the limb over the person's heart
 * Pressure point -- place directed pressure at one of the "pressure points". On the arm, this is between the bicep and tricep on the upper arm (a pulse is normally palpable) and on the leg midway down the thigh and between the two-leg muscles.
 * Tourniquet -- (FOR USE IN EMERGENCIES ONLY) tie a cravat, rope or belt above the wound as tight as possible, in order to completely cut off circulation to the injured area. The most typical method of tying it is a simple overhand knot, held tight while a pencil or stick is placed on top of the middle of the knot.  Another overhand knot is tied, and the pencil or stick can be twisted to tighten the knot.  Cutting off circulation for extended periods can lead to the amputation of the limb, so this must not be used unless all other methods have been tried and there is no hope for help in the near future.  The time should be noted when the tourniquet is applied, as this will be helpful for the doctors.

Requirement 9

 *  Explain when a bee sting could be life-threatening and what action should be taken for prevention and first aid.

Bee stings can cause a fatal reaction called anaphylaxis in people who have a severe allergy to bee venom. It is possible to have the same reaction to foods and medicines (peanuts and shellfish are also common causes of anaphylactic reactions). The effects are nearly immediate -- swelling of the neck and face, sweating, difficulty breathing and hives are among the most common signs. Many people with severe allergies, especially bee stings, carry a device called an Epi-Pen. An Epi-Pen is a dosage of a powerful hormone, epinephrine, which counteracts an anaphylactic reaction. To use it, remove the safety cap and simply press the needle end firmly against the victim's thigh, about midway between the knee and hip. The spring-loaded needle will automatically extend, delivering the epinephrine into the muscle where it will be rapidly transferred into the bloodstream. The effect of the epi-pen is temporary, however, and the person must still get medical attention quickly.
 *  Explain the symptoms of heatstroke and what action needs to be taken for first aid and prevention.

Heatstroke occurs when the core body temperature rises too far for the body's natural defense mechanisms to function. Ordinarily, if the body temperature goes up, sweat is released; the sweat evaporates from the surface of the skin, thus removing heat from the body. In an absence of water or salt, sweating can not occur and heatstroke begins. It is a serious, life-threatening problem that can cause death in minutes. A victim should be cooled down, by removing clothing, placing in the shade or other methods, and should be given water to drink in small sips. Do not give large gulps. This will make it worse. If convulsions occur, do not attempt to restrain the victim. Do not move the victim!

Requirement 10

 *  Describe the signals of a broken bone. Show first-aid procedures for handling fractures, including open (compound) fractures of the forearm, wrist, upper leg, and lower leg using improvised materials.

Definition: If more pressure is put on a bone than it can stand, it will split or break. A break of any size is called a fracture. If the broken bone punctures the skin, it is called an open fracture (compound fracture). A stress fracture is a hairline crack in the bone that develops because of repeated or prolonged forces against the bone.
 * There are several types of bone fracture, including:
 * •	Oblique - a fracture (also called a simple fracture) which goes at an angle to the axis
 * •	Comminuted - a fracture of many relatively small fragments
 * •	Spiral - a fracture which runs around the axis of the bone
 * •	Compound - a fracture (also called open) which breaks the skin
 * Broken Bone Dont's:
 * •	DO NOT move the person unless the broken bone is firmly secured with a splint or sling.
 * •	DO NOT move a person with an injured hip, pelvis, or upper leg unless it is necessary. If you must move the person, pull the person to safety by his clothes (such as by the shoulders of a shirt, a belt, or pant-legs).
 * •	DO NOT move a person who has a possible spine injury.
 * •	DO NOT attempt to straighten a bone or change its position unless blood circulation appears hampered.
 * •	DO NOT try to reposition a suspected spine injury.
 * •	DO NOT test a bone's ability to move.
 * •	DO NOT give the person anything by mouth.

Requirement 11

 * Describe the symptoms and possible complications and demonstrate proper procedures for treating suspected injuries to the head, neck, and back. Explain what measures can be taken to reduce the possibility of further complicating these injuries.

Anybody that has fallen more than standing height, been in a car crash, or hit their head should be suspected of having a back or neck injury. Symptoms may include the person is complaining of any pain in their head, neck, or back, or they have numbness in any of their extremities. However, the person may not be complaining of any pain at all and still have an injury. The problem with these injuries is that any damage to the back and especially the neck can lead to paralysis or even death. A head injury can lead to brain damage, blood loss, or death. The most important thing to remember about spinal injuries is not to move the person unless absolutely necessary. Moving the person can make a bad injury worse. The only times when you should move such a person is if:
 * •	You must move them to get to a more seriously injured person.
 * •	The person is in a dangerous position and you are able to move them to a safer place
 * •	You need to perform CPR and need to place the person on a hard surface

The best thing that you can do is to tell the person not to move. If needed, hold their head in place. Medical professionals call this "holding C-Spine, " or the inline neutral position. Make sure that the person can breathe and they have a pulse, then wait for help to arrive. If the person is bleeding from the head, try to stop the bleeding. Direct pressure is important here, but do not press too hard as you might further injure the skull. This is the one case where you do not treat for shock! If you notice a clear fluid coming from the ears, nose or mouth, do not stop it.

Requirement 12
Describe the symptoms, proper first-aid procedures, and possible prevention measures for the following conditions
 * Hypothermia

Hypothermia occurs when the core body temperature becomes too cold. Ordinarily, the body begins shivering to regain lost heat. When there is no longer enough energy for this to occur, hypothermia begins and the victim will stop shivering and become confused or unconscious. Warming the victim's body may require extra clothing (or the replacement of wet clothing) or using a fire or body heat. Re-warming should occur over time (rather than suddenly) unless the victim's body temperature also dropped suddenly (i.e. fell into an icy lake). Rapid re-warming of a chronic hypothermia patient can lead to re-warming shock
 * Convulsions/Seizures

Convulsions are involuntary muscle spasms that can be caused by a variety of diseases and injuries. There is no emergency treatment, but it is important to not hold the victim down or otherwise restrain him, and to give nothing by mouth (contrary to widely-held opinion, the victim will not "choke on his tongue"). These seizures are not uncommon in people afflicted with epilepsy, and these convulsions are generally not dangerous (though a doctor should still be consulted if the seizure lasts longer than 5 minutes). You should also remove all loose furniture that the victim could injure themselves by flailing a body part into it. If the person does not regularly have seizures, medical help should be called for. Try to reassure the person and be sure that they can breathe. Medical professionals will want to know how long the seizure lasted and if the person injured themselves in any way, especially their head, neck, or back.
 * Frostbite

Frostbite occurs when an extremity, often fingers or toes, freezes completely. The skin will first turn blue, then white, and finally black. Get the person to a warm area. Then warm the hand or foot slowly in water, beginning with a room temperature and gradually adding warmer and warmer water. Don't wrap the affected area in anything, this could cause the affected tissue to be killed off.
 * Dehydration

Dehydration occurs when there is insufficient amount of water for the normal functioning of the body. It is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition that can result in lowered blood pressure, dizziness, and fainting, among other things. Treatment is usually by replenishing the body with necessary water and electrolytes. It is most important to give the person water. Beverages like soda are not good but are better than nothing. Eating solid food without water content does not help the condition.
 * Bruises, strains, sprains

Black and blue marks are common bruises. Apply ice onto the bruise to prevent blood flow around the area. Next day apply a warm wet cloth. A Strain is an injury to a muscle or tendon. Apply ice pack to reduce swelling and pain. Wrap firmly with an elastic bandage to limit the swelling and to protect the injury. Stay off the injury. Good physical conditioning and proper warmup before exercise help to prevent strained muscles and tendons. A sprain is caused by twisting, wrenching, or lifting movements that tear or stretch tissues around a joint. Raise the injured part, apply cold compresses, and treat as a fracture or broken bone.
 * Burns

Mild burns cause a painful reddening of the skin. A typical first-degree burn is a sunburn. A second-degree burn is a burn that raises blisters. Severe or third-degree burns char layers of skin and flesh. Do not treat burns with jellies, creams, greases, or sprays. First aid for mild burns, apply ice packs or damp, cold cloths, do not break blisters, let dry and cover it with a loose bandage. For serious burns, protect the burn by draping it with a clean, damp cloth. Do not apply ice, because it could cause shock. Treat for shock. If victim is able to drink, give lots of milk or water or other fluids. Seek medical attention, quickly.
 * Abdominal pain

A stomachache is nothing more than a pain caused by overeating, eating too fast, or eating an odd mixture of strange or unusual foods. Have person lie down. Give an antiacid to help relieve the pain. Don’t give the person anything solid to eat.
 * Broken, chipped, or loosened tooth

Gently clean. Place cold compress on face, to minimize swelling. Go to the dentist immediately.
 * Knocked-out tooth

Pick up tooth carefully by the crown, not by the roots. If dirty gently rinse with water or victims saliva .    place in container of milk or sterilized water and go immediately to the dentist. The dentist will prescribe antibiotics for infection.
 * Muscle cramps

Muscle cramps are usually caused by lack of water and or electrolytes. Muscle cramps can be minor or painful. The pain might go away in a few minutes. If not, gently massage the cramped muscle you may also try applying ice. Drink plenty of water/fluids/ gatorade to help prevent future cramps.

Requirement 13
Do the following:
 * a. Describe the conditions under which an injured person should be moved.

With helpers under your supervision, improvise a stretcher and move a presumably unconscious person.

'With your counselor's approval, arrange a visit with your patrol or troop to an emergency medical facility or through an American Red Cross Chapter for a demonstration of how an AED is used.''

 * b. If a sick or injured person must be moved, tell how you would determine the best method.

Requirement 14

 * Teach another Scout a first-aid skill selected by your counselor. Use the EDGE system if needed.

title: Scouting/BSA/First Aid Merit Badge


text:
Scouting/BSA/Medicine Merit Badge

Key Historical Figures in Medicine
Discuss with your counselor the influence that EIGHT of the following people had on the history of medicine:

of Cos (c. 460 BC - 377 BC) was an Ancient Greek physician, is commonly regarded as one of the most outstanding figures in medicine of all time and has been called the father of medicine.

(April 1, 1578 - June 3, 1657) was a doctor who first correctly described in exact detail the circulatory system of blood being pumped around the body by the heart.

(October 24, 1632 - August 26, 1723) was a tradesman and scientist from Delft, in the Netherlands. He is best known for his contribution to improvement of the microscope and his contributions towards the establishment of cell biology. Using his handcrafted microscope he was the first to observe and describe muscles fibres, bacteria, spermatozoa and blood flow in capillaries (small blood vessels).

(May 17, 1749 - January 26, 1823) was an English country doctor practicing in Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England, made famous by his invention of the vaccine.

(May 12, 1820 - August 13, 1910) - The Lady With The Lamp - was the pioneer of modern nursing.

(December 27, 1822 - September 28, 1895) was a French scientist who was a pioneer in microbiology.

was born on July 22, 1822, in Heinzendorf, Austria (now Hyncice, Czech Republic). He studied the inheritance of traits in pea plants, discovering the basic laws of inheritance. He is often called the father of genetics.

, 1st Baron Lister (April 5, 1827-February 10, 1912) was a famous British surgeon who promoted the idea of sterile surgery while working at the Glasgow Infirmary. He came from a rich Quaker home in Yorkshire.

(December 11, 1843 - May 27, 1910) was a German physician. He became famous for the discovery of the tubercle bacillus (1882) and the cholera bacillus (1883) and for his development of Koch's postulates. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905. He is considered one of the founders of bacteriology.

(March 27, 1845 - February 10, 1923) was a German physicist, of the University of Würzburg, who, on November 8, 1895, produced wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation that are now known as x-rays. The machine which Röntgen built to emit these rays, was the x-ray machine.

(November 7, 1867 – July 4, 1934) and (May 15, 1859 – died April 19, 1906) were pioneers in the early field of radiation. Both were Nobel Laureates in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena.

(September 13, 1851 - November 23, 1902) was an American Army surgeon who led a team which discovered that yellow fever is transmitted by mosquitos rather than direct contact. This insight opened entire new fields of epidemiology and biomedicine and most immediately allowed the resumption and completion of work on the Panama Canal (1904-14) by the United States.

(June 14, 1868 - June 26, 1943), was an Austrian biologist. In 1909 he developed the modern system of classification of blood groups and later identified agglutins and Rhesus factor for which he won the 1930 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.

(August 6, 1881 - March 11, 1955) a Scottish biologist and pharmacologist. Fleming published many articles on bacteriology, immunology, and chemotherapy. His best-known achievements are the discovery of the enzyme lysozyme in 1922 and isolation of the antibiotic substance penicillin from the fungus Penicillium notatum in 1928, for which he shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945

(October 28, 1914 - June 23, 1995) is the discoverer/inventor of the vaccine for Polio which proved to be the first successful vaccine against a virus. The vaccine provides the recipient with immunity against Polio, and was seminal in the near eradication of a once widely-feared disease.

and are American molecular biologist who are best known as the co-discoverers of the structure of DNA. This earned them the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine and a correct understanding of how "the molecular structure of nucleic acids transfer information in living material".[1]

Hippocratic Oath
'Explain the Hippocratic Oath to your counselor, and compare the original version to a more modern one. Discuss to whom those subscribing to the original version of the oath owe the greatest allegiance.'

 * Original text of the :

I swear by Apollo, Asclepius, Hygieia, and Panacea, and I take to witness all the gods, all the goddesses, to keep according to my ability and my judgment, the following Oath. To consider dear to me as my parents him who taught me this art; to live in common with him and if necessary to share my goods with him; To look upon his children as my own brothers, to teach them this art I will prescribe regimens for the good of my patients according to my ability and my judgment and never do harm to anyone. To please no one will I prescribe a deadly drug nor give advice which may cause his death. Nor will I give a woman a pessary to procure abortion. But I will preserve the purity of my life and my arts. I will not cut for stone, even for patients in whom the disease is manifest; I will leave this operation to be performed by practitioners, specialists in this art. In every house where I come I will enter only for the good of my patients, keeping myself far from all intentional ill-doing and all seduction and especially from the pleasures of love with women or with men, be they free or slaves. All that may come to my knowledge in the exercise of my profession or in daily commerce with men, which ought not to be spread abroad, I will keep secret and will never reveal. If I keep this oath faithfully, may I enjoy my life and practice my art, respected by all men and in all times; but if I swerve from it or violate it, may the reverse be my lot.

 * Modern text (from the ):
 * AT THE TIME OF BEING ADMITTED AS A MEMBER OF THE MEDICAL PROFESSION:
 * I SOLEMNLY PLEDGE myself to consecrate my life to the service of humanity;
 * I WILL GIVE to my teachers the respect and gratitude which is their due;
 * I WILL PRACTICE my profession with conscience and dignity;
 * THE HEALTH OF MY PATIENT will be my first consideration;
 * I WILL RESPECT the secrets which are confided in me, even after the patient has died;
 * I WILL MAINTAIN by all the means in my power, the honor and the noble traditions of the medical profession;
 * MY COLLEAGUES will be my sisters and brothers;
 * I WILL NOT PERMIT considerations of age, disease or disability, creed, ethnic origin, gender, nationality, political affiliation, race, sexual orientation, or social standing to intervene between my duty and my patient;
 * I WILL MAINTAIN the utmost respect for human life from its beginning even under threat and I will not use my medical knowledge contrary to the laws of humanity;
 * I MAKE THESE PROMISES solemnly, freely and upon my honor."

Patient-Physician Relationship
'Discuss the health care "provider-patient" relationship with your counselor, and the importance of such a relationship in the delivery of quality care to the patient. Describe the role of confidentiality in this relationship.'
 * The essential nature of the Provider-Patient Relationship to the practice of medicine from the American Medical Association
 * Informed Consent
 * Ending the Patient-Physician Relationship
 * Patient Confidentiality
 * Patient Safety

Describe the roles the following people play in the delivery of health care in your state.

 * Physician - a person who practices some type of human biological medicine
 * Chiropractor - A system of therapy in which disease is considered the result of abnormal function of the skeletal system
 * Optometrist - studies the eyes and disorders of the eye
 * Podiatrist - studies the feet and disorders of the foot
 * Pharmacist - specialist in the use, function, and side effects of medication
 * Psychologist - studies the mind and disorders of the mind
 * Physician's assistant - are persons trained, certified, and licensed to take medical histories, conduct physical examinations, and diagnose and treat medical problems under the supervision of physicians.
 * Nurse practitioner - a registered nurse who, through advanced training, is qualified to assume some of the duties and responsibilities formerly assumed only by a physician.
 * Nurse-midwife - a registered nurse who has received additional training as a midwife, delivers infants, and provides antepartum and postpartum care
 * Registered nurse - a graduate nurse who has passed a state board examination and been registered and licensed to practice nursing.
 * Licensed vocational/practical nurse - a person who has not graduated from an accredited school of nursing but whose vocation is caring for the sick.
 * Medical assistant - a person trained to assist medical professionals
 * Emergency medical technician - stabilizes and cares for patients en route to advanced treatment
 * Medical laboratory technologist - a health-care professional who performs laboratory testing and analysis.
 * Radiologic technologist - a physician specializing in the use of radiant energy for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
 * Physical therapist - therapist who treats injury or dysfunction with exercises and other physical treatments of the disorder.
 * Occupational therapist - therapist who performs treatment or rehabilitation of physically or emotionally disabled people.
 * Respiratory therapist - therapist who performs treatment or management of acute and chronic breathing disorders, as through the administration of medication in the aerosol form and the use of ventilators and other life support systems.

Primary Care
'Tell what is meant by the term "primary care" within medicine. Briefly describe the types of work done by the physicians in the following "core" areas. Describe the educational requirements for these areas of medicine'
 * Primary Care definitions:
 * "Provision of health care that has the following six essential qualities -- accessible, acceptable, accountable, comprehensive, coordinated and continuing."
 * "Provision of integrated, accessible health care services by clinicians who are accountable for addressing a large majority of personal health care needs, developing a sustained partnership with patients, and practicing in the context of family and community."
 * "Provision of services that include health promotion, identification of individuals at special risk, early detection of serious disease, management of acute emergencies, rendering continuous care to chronically ill patients, and referring the enrollee to another provider when necessary."
 * Primary Care Physician - training is accredited by the American College of Graduate Medical Education
 * Internal medicine - 3 year accredited residency program which meets the clinical, academic, and related Internal Medicine objectives of the ACGME
 * Family practice - 3 year accredited residency program which meets the clinical, academic, and related Family Medicine objectives of the ACGME
 * Obstetrics/gynecology - 4 year accredited residency program which meets the clinical, academic, and related Obstetrics and Gynecology objectives of the ACGME
 * Pediatrics - 3 year accredited residency program which meets the clinical, academic, and related Pediatrics objectives of the ACGME
 * Psychiatry - 4 year accredited residency program which meets the clinical, academic, and related Psychiatry objectives of the ACGME
 * Surgery - 5 year accredited residency program which meets the clinical, academic, and related Surgery objectives of the ACGME

Specialty Care
'Tell what is meant by the term "specialty care" within medicine. Briefly describe the types of work done by the FIVE of the specialty areas of medicine shown below. Describe the additional educational requirements for these specialty areas of medicine.'

 * Specialty Care definitions:
 * Description of
 * Typical a physician who has received additional education, experience, and expertise beyond a general residency in a accredited medical specialty program. The additional training is often called a fellowship, wherein they receive concentrated and specialized training. In the medical profession, specialists often serve as consultants, being called into difficult or challenging cases that are beyond the skill or training of a general physician.

 * Specialty Care Physicians - training is also accredited by the American College of Graduate Medical Education
 * Anesthesiology - 4 year accredited residency program which meets the clinical, academic, and related Anesthesia objectives of the ACGM
 * Emergency Medicine - 3 year accredited residency program which meets the clinical, academic, and related Emergency Medicine objectives of the ACGM
 * Infectious Disease - is a 1-3 year fellowship completed after a 3 year internal medicine residency program.
 * Orthopedic Surgery - 5 year accredited residency program which meets the clinical, academic, and related Anesthesia objectives of the ACGM
 * Vascular Surgery - is a minimum 2 year fellowship completed after a 5 year surgical residency program.

 * Other Specialty Care Physicians
 * Allergy/Immunology - specialization of disorders of the immune allergic/immune system.
 * CardioThoracic Surgery - specialization in the surgical repair of cardiovascular system (congential abnormalities, heart transplant, coronary artery disease surgeries, etc) related disorders
 * Colon and rectal surgery - specialization in the surgical repair of disorders of the lower gastrointestinal tract including the colon and rectum.
 * Dermatology - specialization in the management of skin related disorders.
 * Endocrinology - specialization in the management of the endocrine system, including the effect of hormones on metabolism, physiologic function, and overall health.
 * Gastroenterology - specialization in the management of the gastrointestinal system (mouth to anus)
 * Geriatric Medicine - specialization in the management of health, disease, and related ailments of aging.
 * Hematology/Oncology - specialization in the management of cancer and blood related diseases.
 * Nephrology - specialization in the management of kidney related disease.
 * Neuro Surgery - specialization in the surgical management of nervous system disorders.
 * Neurology - specialization in the medical management of nervous system disorders
 * Nuclear medicine - specialization in the use of radioactivity in medicine (both imaging and treatment).
 * Ophthalmologist - specialization in the management of the eye
 * Otolaryngology - specialization in the management of the Ear, Nose, and Throat
 * Pathology - specialization in the understanding of identification and cellular processes of disease.
 * Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation - specialization in the management of patients requiring extensive rehabilitation.
 * Plastic Surgery - specialization in the surgical management of traumatic and cosmetic repair of the body
 * Preventive Medicine - specialization in public health and population based medicine
 * Radiology - specialization in various technologies for imaging the human body as part of the diagnostic and treatment process.
 * Rheumatology - specialization in the management of the joints and allied conditions of the connective tissues.
 * Urology - specialization in the medical and surgical issues related to the kidneys, bladder, and reproductive systems.

Office Visit
Visit a physician's office, preferably one who delivers "primary care" (This may be that of your counselor) and do the following:
 * Discuss components of a medical history and physical examination (an official BSA health form may be used to guide this discussion), and become familiar with the instruments used.
 * If this cannot be arranged, demonstrate to your counselor that you understand the components of a medical history and physical, and discuss the instruments involved.

Diagnostic Testing
'Describe the characteristics of a good diagnostic test to screen for disease (e.g. routine blood pressure measurement). Explain briefly why diagnostic tests are not perfect.'

Each diagnostic tests has different properties or abilities to accurately determine results. A good diagnostic test would be one in which the test is highly reliable for accurately diagnosing the condition of interest, would be inexpensive to administer, and would provide results quickly. In addition to how the test itself performs, one must ask if the result from test can be used to guide subsequent decisions on starting, stopping, or modifying treatment. Consequently, the practical value of a diagnostic test can only be assessed by taking into account subsequent health outcomes. In determining the value of various diagnostic tests, it is important to distinguish between these two features of the test (accuracy of the test itself) and (ability of the test to guide therapeutic decision making in altering health outcomes).

In terms of accuracy, diagnostic tests are judged by several characteristics, including:

Example, using pregnancy test results:

Taking a Blood Pressure Reading
Show how to take a blood pressure reading and a pulse reading.
 * Taking a Blood Pressure
 * Anatomy of Blood Pressure:

Health Care System

 * Discuss the roles medical societies, the insurance industry, and the government play in influencing the practice of medicine in the United States.
 * Medical Societies. These groups, made up of physician members of a designated specialty or common interest, can have a significant influence over the way their specialty is practiced. The traditional role of these societies has been to certify or license or practice in the designated field. Medical societies can be very effective in protecting the interests of the society through political action groups, accelerate the sharing of best practices across the field, and as an organizing influence for ongoing education, specialization, and training.
 * Insurance Industry - this industry has a major impact on medicine as it has developed into the primary means (~55%) whereby health care services are paid for. The essential idea behind insurance is to protect against risk - meaning that people are willing to pay insurance companies a known quantity of money (in the form of a monthly/annual "premium") to protect them against unknown medical expenses. Insurers often set the prices, determine if a medical expense meets their criteria for payment, and can significantly influence practice patterns by how they reimburse, or pay, for various healthcare services. Given the way the current insurance industry has been organized, they are often in an adversarial relationship with medical providers and the patients they serve.
 * Government. In the United States, the government pays for ~45% of all health care expenses. As a result, they have significant ability to influence the way medicine is practiced, the way that it is paid for, and how the delivery of health care is legislated. Government needs to be careful of this influence, and the traditional accepted role of government is not to intervene with the free market, but rather create an environment of standards, interoperability, and similar policies that enable

 * Briefly tell how your state monitors the quality of health care within its borders, and how it provides care to those who do not have health insurance.
 * Monitoring Quality - There are multiple quality organizations in the state of California. Medical Societies police themselves through a combination of licensure, certification, and ongoing education. Medical Boards are created as to ensure that standards of care are set and maintained by those who practice within that specialty. In addition, there are multiple public-private initiatives within the state to measure, monitor, and report the quality of care within the State.
 * Caring for those with no health insurance - This is an extremely challenging problem as there are more than 45 million people in the United States who do not have health insurance. In California, approximately 7 million people are uninsured. Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger has proposed for sweeping changes in California's health care system to ensure that all Californians can obtain health care insurance. He presented the outline of his proposal in February 2007, and later called a special session of the state legislature in the fall of 2007, to debate the proposal. The essential concept is that we must provide insurance to all through a "shared responsibility" which includes taxes to businesses, hospitals, and physicians; some combination of touch credits/vouchers for the uninsured, and an increased public health awareness on prevention and healthy choices.

Global Health Care Delivery
Compare and discuss with your counselor the health care delivery systems in the United States, Sweden, and China.
 * United States
 * US Health Care Preview
 * Sweden
 * In Sweden, the publicly funded medical system is comprehensive and compulsory. Physician and hospital services take a small patient fee, but their services are funded through the taxation scheme of the County Councils of Sweden. There is a small private insurance industry in Sweden.
 * WHO Statistics on Sweden
 * Some of this form of healthcare
 * China
 * Who Statistics on China also at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8985446

Health Care Volunteer
Serve as a volunteer at a health-related event or facility in your community (e.g. blood drive, "health fair", blood pressure screening, etc.) approved by your counselor.

title: Scouting/BSA/Medicine Merit Badge


text:
Scouting/BSA/Citizenship in the World Merit Badge

Requirement 1

 * " in a particular country. The revised 2006 merit badge booklet requires input from the individual scout as this is a subjective question.  An example for the answer is, "I believe a citizen in the world is one who contributes to society in one way or another."

 * ...and what you think it takes to be a good world citizen.

This is also a subjective question that requires the individual scout put in his opinions. An example for this part is, "I believe a good world citizen is one who contributes effort to strive for the good of his/her fellow citizens."

Requirement 2

 * 2A) Explain how one becomes a citizen in the United States...

One can become an American citizen in various ways. The 2005 BSA "Citizenship in the World" handbook points these out: 1) "By blood if born to parents who are already citizens of [The United States]" "By soil if born within the legal borders of a nation" -"Through naturalization" (in which the person must meet certain requirements which can be found here) -"Through naturalization of parents"

 * 2B) ...and explain the rights, duties, and obligations of U.S. citizenship.

American citizens have a number of rights, such as freedom of speech, the right to bear arms, due process, religion, against quartering soldiers, and against double jeopardy (most of these rights also apply to non-citizens) and are also taxed in order to provide money for essential services. Other duties of American citizens might include obeying laws and voting. Obligations are those elements of citizenship which are required under the law, for example, the obligation to obey the law.

 * 2C) Discuss the SIMILARITIES and DIFFERENCES between the rights, duties, and obligations of U.S. citizens and of two other countries.

A U.S. citizens' rights, duties, and obligations are briefly explained in subsection 2B. Here are examples of how they are similar from those of Chinese and Irish citizens' rights, duties, and obligations in the following manner: -Both Chinese citizens and U.S. citizens have the obligation to receive education. -Both Chinese citizens and U.S. citizens have the duty to get a Visa to travel to other countries. -Both Irish citizens and U.S. citizens have the right to vote. -Both Irish citizens and U.S. citizens have the duty to serve on a jury when called upon.

Requirement 3
Do the following:

 *  A) pick a current world event. In relation to this current event, discuss with your counselor how a country's national interest and its relationship with other countries might affect areas such as its security, its economy, its values, and the health of its citizens.

 * B) Select a foreign country and discuss with your counselor how its geography, natural resources, and climate influence its economy and its global partnerships with other countries.

After World War 1, Germany's economy was hard struck by the effects of the Treaty of Versailles, leading to a national sense of bitterness towards countries like France and the United Kingdom, which help set the stage for World War 2, when Germany invaded many of its neighbors. After World War 2, Japan adopted a constitution that does not allow the creation of a military force, hampering the country's ability to help in military operations with the United Nations and allies like the United States. In the run-up to the 2003 occupation of Iraq, many American commentators expressed bitterness over France's refusal to support the invasion. Many perceived a lack of gratitude for American aid during World War 2, while France's defenders pointed out that country's aid during the American War for Independence. Culture includes a society's language, religion, lifestyle, clothing, decor and many other aspects. Cultural splits within countries sometimes lead to strife because different parts of the country have different interests. The American Civil War is an example of a country torn apart by the opposing interests of culturally distinct regions.

More recently, religious animosity has led to violence and chaos in many Middle-Eastern countries, especially Israel. The creation of Israel was prompted by fears of anti-Semitism leading to a repeat of the attempted genocide of the Jews during the Holocaust, and Israel's foreign relations have long been affected by fears of anti-Semitism harming Jews abroad. Conflicts over religion, geography, ethnicity and other issues have spread in different countries has caused strife and war. For example, the Kurds live in several countries, including Iraq and Turkey, the latter a key US ally in the region. With Kurdish leaders calling for an independent Kurdistan, the US was torn between supporting its Kurdish allies and the Turkish government, which believed that any independence for Iraqi Kurds could spur a revival of similar hopes among Turkish Kurds. Nationalism plays an important role in this phenomenon, which has also included calls for a Greater Somalia, a view that has twice led to war with Ethiopia over the Somali Ogaden region, and Greater Serbia|, a motivation for the Kosovo War. Demographics are the make-up of a country. Some countries have a very young population, such as Zambia, while others have a large elderly population, such as Sweden. Some countries are made up nearly entirely of one ethnic group speaking a single language, such as Iceland, while others are a melting pot of dozens or hundreds of ethnic groups, such as many of the equatorial African countries like the Republic of the Congo.

Demographic conflict has long been a source of strife on the diverse continent of Africa. In South Africa, for example, a white minority long controlled a huge black majority (Apartheid), eventually straining relations with countries like the United States, which imposed an embargo as a result. Ethnically diverse states such as most of the Sub-Saharan African countries were created from European colonies in the region, which had no basis in rational geographic or cultural boundaries. As a result, many of the earliest leaders in these countries pursued as a high priority the formation of a national identity; this occurred in nations across Africa, including Zambia and Sudan. In the rush to create a distinctive culture, minorities and dissenters were often marginalized or oppressed, leading to revolutions and civil strife. Politics can occur within a single country or among countries. Activities involving the internal political landscape of a country can have an affect on national interests and foreign relations through the election or installment of leaders who enact foreign policy, while laws passed by a particular country may have an affect on the economy of a different country.

Internal conflicts between political blocs of capitalists and socialists led to a polarization of international relations. Countries like the United States, France and Italy jockeyed for power with the Soviet Union and satellites in newly-independent countries across Africa, South America and Asia (see The Cold War). Following the internationally divisive US-led occupation of Iraq in 2003, foreign countries around the world were forced to pay close attention to the American political landscape. Some, like Israel, were supportive of the conservative right, while others, like France, supported the liberal left.

The national interests of a country are often very complex, and hinge on multiple factors involving geography, natural resources and climate, as well as social values, security issues and concerns regarding foreign countries.

Geography can affect a country's national resources through several ways. A country's shape can dictate its national interest.

Nearly all countries have some kind of natural resources. It is always in the best interest of the producers of a product (for example oil) to keep prices and demand high.

Because all countries need food and water, climate is extremely important. Without adequate rain, for example, agriculture can not occur and food will have to be imported and this can make a country's economy fall. Weather can also have debilitating effects on trade, both within and outside the boundaries of country.

Below are two links to additional information. They will provide informative graphs that had answered the previous question 4, which is worded exactly as the current question 3b.

Graphed Countries 1: Saudi Arabia

Graphed Countries 2: United States, Tuvalu, Botswana, and Bolivia

Requirement 4
Do TWO of the following:
 * A)Explain international law and how it differs from national law. Explain the role of international law and how international law can be used as a tool for conflict resolution

A state is ordinarily said to be sovereign - i.e. capable of enforcing its own laws on its own territory, and only on its own territory (for example, American laws do not apply in France, even if the people involved are all American). International law is a relatively recent invention, and concerns agreements between countries in pacts called treaties. International law can enforce standards (such as standardized weights and measures for the purposes of trade) and proscribe conduct according to treaties concerning human rights. With international organizations enforcing these treaties, often ineffectively, but also often with great success, countries whose governments ignore human rights treaties can be dealt with by multi-national alliances, which are perceived as having more legitimacy if a broken human rights treaty can be blamed.

 * B) Using resources such as major daily newspapers, the Internet (with your parent's permission), and news magazines, observe a current issue that involves international trade, foreign exchange, balance of payments, tariffs, and free trade. Explain what you have learned.  Include in your discussion an explanation of why countries must cooperate in order for world trade and global competition to thrive.This option requires the scout to do independent research.

 * C) Select TWO of the following organizations and describe their role in the world.

shaping the research agenda and stimulating the generation, translation and dissemination of valuable knowledge; setting norms and standards and promoting and monitoring their implementation; articulating ethical and evidence-based policy options; providing technical support, catalysing change, and building sustainable institutional capacity; and monitoring the health situation and assessing health trends.
 * The United Nations- is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace.
 * The World Court- is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands. Its main functions are to settle legal disputes submitted to it by states and to provide advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by duly authorized international organs, agencies, and the UN General Assembly.
 * World Organization of the Scout Movement-The mission of WOSM is to contribute to the education of young people, through a value system based on the Scout Promise and Scout Law, to help build a better world where people are self-fulfilled as individuals and play a constructive role in society. World Organization of the Scout Movement is organized into regions and operates with a conference, committee and bureau.
 * The World Health Organization-providing leadership on matters critical to health and engaging in partnerships where joint action is needed;
 * Amnesty International- is a non-governmental organisation focused on human rights with over 3 million members and supporters around the world. The objective of the organisation is "to conduct research and generate action to prevent and end grave abuses of human rights, and to demand justice for those whose rights have been violated."
 * The International Red Cross- is an international humanitarian movement with approximately 97 million volunteers, members and staff worldwide which was founded to protect human life and health, to ensure respect for all human beings, and to prevent and alleviate human suffering, without any discrimination based on nationality, race, sex, religious beliefs, class or political opinions.
 * CARE-It helps with health with almost all of the countries.

Requirement 5
Do the following:
 * A) Discuss the differences between constitutional and nonconstitutional governments.

Constitutional governments have a written document stating their laws, rights and responsibilities. It must also be limited in power, follow a higher law, and have constitutional stability. Nonconstitutional governments are dictatorships and absolute monarchies. These are hard on the citizens because they don't have many rights. Totalitarian and authoritarian are the two types of nonconstitutional governments. In an authoritarian government, the power to make decisions is in the hands of one person or a small group. Totalitarian government is another form of authoritarian in which the government controls every aspect of society.
 * B) Name at least five different types of governments currently in power in the world.

United States- Federal republic, Representative democracy(democratic republic), Canada- Federal parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy, Spain- Parliamentary monarchy, Poland- Republic, Libya- People's Congress, North Korea- Single-party state, Brazil- Democratic federal republic, Niger- Parliamentary democracy.
 * C) Show on a world map countries that use each of these five different forms of government.

Requirement 6
Do the Following:

 * A) Explain how a government is represented abroad and how the United States government is accredited to international organizations.

A government is represented abroad by an ambassador or a consul. The United States government is accredited to international organizations based on the requirements of each individual organization. For example, here are the requirements for the United Nations

 * B) Describe the roles of the following in the conduct of foreign relations:

Ambassador: a diplomatic official of the highest rank, sent by one sovereign or state to another as its resident representative (ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary), usually for a specific length of time. He or she is a diplomatic official heading his or her country's permanent mission to certain international organizations; such as the United Nations; and is an authorized representative of a nation to deliver their nation's messages and protect the national interest of the nation they represent through diplomatic means.

Consul: an official appointed by the government of one country to look after its commercial interests and the welfare of its citizens in another country, as well as providing assistance to Americans traveling abroad.

Bureau of International Information Programs: The Bureau of International Information Programs (IIP) is the principal international strategic communications service for the foreign affairs community. IIP designs, develops, and implements a variety of information initiatives and strategic communications programs, including Internet and print publications, traveling and electronically transmitted speaker programs, and information resource services. These reach--and are created strictly for--key international audiences, such as the media, government officials, opinion leaders, and the general public in more than 140 countries around the world.

U.S Agency for International Development: The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is the United States federal government agency primarily responsible for administering civilian foreign aid. President John F. Kennedy created USAID in 1961 by executive order to implement development assistance programs in the areas authorized by the Congress in the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961. An independent federal agency, USAID receives overall foreign policy guidance from the United States Secretary of State and seeks to "extend a helping hand to those people overseas struggling to make a better life, recover from a disaster or striving to live in a free and democratic country.

United States and Foreign Commercial Service: The U.S. Commercial Service (CS), the trade promotion arm of the U.S. Department of Commerce's International Trade Administration, helps U.S. companies succeed in markets around the world. Led by Assistant Secretary of Commerce and Director General Suresh Kumar and located across the United States and in U.S. Embassies and Consulates in nearly 80 countries, the CS global network of trade professionals helps thousands of U.S. companies to export goods and services worth billions of dollars every year.

 * C) Explain the purpose of a passport and visa for international travel.

A passport is an official document issued to a citizen by a government affirming the individual’s nationality. The passport permits the citizen to travel or live abroad and entitles the citizen to privileges guaranteed by international custom and treaties: safe passage, lawful aid, and protection while under the foreign government’s jurisdiction. A visa is a permit to enter another country and must be issued by the country one wishes to enter. It is a special seal stamped on a valid passport that indicates an official of that country has approved the visit. Prior to leaving, the traveler should apply for a visa-if required by that particular country-at the appropriate foreign embassy or nearest consulate. A foreign national wishing to enter the United States must apply for a visa outside the United States at embassies and consulates worldwide. An immigrant visa permits a person to stay in the United States permanently. A non-immigrant visa allows a foreign national to enter the country for a temporary stay. Tourists, temporary workers, missionaries, business professionals, artists, and athletes travel on temporary visas.

Requirement 7
Do two of the following (with your parent's permission) and share with your counselor what you have learned:

 * A) Visit the Web site of the U.S. State Department. Learn more about an issue you find interesting that is discussed on this Web site.

Web Site: http://www.state.gov/

Issues Vary.

 * B) Visit the Web site of an international news organization or foreign government...

Example Websites (news organizations): Al Jazeera

 * ...OR examine a foreign newspaper available at your local library, bookstore, or newsstand. Find a news story about a human right realized in the United States that is not recognized in another country.

 * C) Visit with a student or Scout from another country and discuss the typical values, holidays, ethnic foods, and traditions practiced or enjoyed there.

 * D) Attend a world Scout jamboree.

 * E) Participate in or attend an international event in your area, such as an ethnic festival, concert, or play.

Author's Note
Writing this article has been a pleasurable learning experience for me and I am happy to have been able to give back to the scouting community.

I hope that my efforts serve as a reminder to the reader that it is important to both give and take information in order to be a good world citizen.


text:
User talk:Lexor

Thanks for the edits on the Biology homeostasis page, it needs it ! --Karl Wick

title: User talk:Lexor


text:
Cookbook:Salt

| Basic foodstuffs | Spices and herbs

Salt, or sodium chloride, is a mineral, one of the few that people eat. Saltiness is one of the basic flavors perceived by our taste buds, along with sweet, sour, bitter, and umami. Salt is required for life, but overconsumption can increase the risk of health problems, including high blood pressure. Salt can be reduced by 20% to 45% without compromising taste if a small amount of MSG is added to the food. Salt is also used to preserve food.

History
Salt has a long, varied, and sometimes violent history. It has been a highly valued trade item throughout history. Wars have been fought over it, states formed and destroyed because of it. During the late Roman Empire era and throughout the Middle Ages, salt was a precious commodity carried along the "Salt Roads" into the heartland of the Germanic tribes. Cites, states and dukedoms along the salt roads exacted heavy duties and taxes for the salt passing through their territories. This practice has caused wars, and it even started the formation of cities, such as the city of Munich in 1158 when the then-duke of Bavaria, Henry II, decided that the bishops of Freising no longer needed their salt revenue.

Types of salt
For the most part, the various grades of salt are all the same; chemically most are greater than 99% sodium chloride, but the structure varies widely.

 * Simple table salt consists of small, compact cubic grains, usually with iodine added.

 * Kosher salt has a much more irregular structure, no iodine, and a larger surface area. Chefs prefer it for some dishes because of its texture and a seemingly "cleaner" taste from being without iodine.. The name comes its role in "koshering" meat: preparing it in accordance with Jewish dietary law (kosher).

 * Popcorn salt/Canning and pickling is ground salt that dissolves very quickly and able to dissolve in cold fluid.

 * Rock salt is large chunks of sodium chloride.

These differences in structure can cause a significant change in the perceived flavor of the salt and its usefulness for particular recipes. The speed with which it dissolves is also very important, with finer salts such as pickling salt even dissolving readily in cold liquid.

Table salt also contains anti-caking agents to allow it to flow freely, and sometimes contains very small amounts of iodine.

Sea salt, which is made from evaporating seawater, also varies considerably. Because there are impurities in the water, each sea salt has a unique taste and is prized in different cuisines or for different applications. Sea salts often tend to cost considerably more than other kinds of salt; however, in areas with large seawater evaporation industries (such as California) the "table salt" in local stores may actually be sea salt.

Black salt (also kala namak, sanchal) is an unrefined mineral salt used in Indian cuisine. It has a sulphuric flavour, and is actually a pinkish gray, not black.

Production
Salt comes from two sources, mining natural halite deposits and evaporation of seawater.

Uses
Salt has many uses in cooking beyond simple flavoring. Its chief utility lies in its osmotic properties. Salting the surface of food draws out water and anything dissolved in it. When meat is koshered, it is heavily salted to draw out any remaining blood. Kosher salt, because of its structure, is perfectly suited to this task. This technique is also applied to eggplant to remove bitter flavors and alter the texture of the plant, and also when sweating aromatic ingredients such as onion or garlic over low heat to draw out their moistures and soften them.

Salt is frequently used in fermented foods, both for drawing the liquids out of vegetables and to inhibit the activity of undesirable bacteria. It is generally recommended that non-iodised salt be used for fermenting, because iodine is an effective antibacterial substance and can thus inhibit the fermentation a little. Iodised salt will work in a ferment, but it is better to use a non-iodised salt like pickling salt or kosher salt.

Salt also tends to enhance our perception of other flavors, particularly that of sweetness. This explains its use in ice cream, for example, or kettle corn. Most candy recipes have a small amount of salt which cannot be directly detected, but has a noticeable effect on the final result. This is because salt lands on the taste buds and sort of opens them up for other flavors

Salt's thermal properties are useful in a few applications, notably in home-made ice cream. The action of rock salt dissolving in ice water makes a solution colder than ice itself.. Ice cream makers, then, sit the salt-and-ice mixture in an insulated container, and inside that is placed a highly conductive container of the cream mixture, which freezes rapidly.

Salt can be used to "fry" food as well. Large amounts of rock salt are heated in an oven to temperature (varies, generally about 400°F or 200°C). After the salt gets hot, the food is placed in the salt and an additional layer of pre-heated salt is poured on top. This method is an extremely fast way to get heat into food, second only to deep frying, consequently, cooking times will be very short.

When salt is added to boiling water for pasta or potatoes, the temperature of the water can rise by a very slight amount (less than a degree). The main effect is flavoring. However, you are salting the water, not directly salting the food. Thus the amount of salt should vary according to the amount of water; quite a bit is usually required.

Lastly, salt is of course used as a direct flavoring. Ordinary table salt is most often used for this purpose; it brings out the taste of the other ingredients and has added iodine which prevents goiter. Many gourmets, however, prefer uniodized coarse salt because they have a sort of "cleaner" taste. Sea salt also has a potential to have health benefits that other salts lack because of the minerals and whatnot in the ocean.

Livre_de_cuisine/Ingrédients/Sel Kookboek/Zout

title: Cookbook:Salt


text:
Russian/Numbers

206202211633901

Cardinal numbers

 * Examples
 * 21 два́дцать оди́н
 * 101 сто оди́н
 * 215 две́сти пятна́дцать
 * 333 три́ста три́дцать три
 * 1,984 ты́сяча девятьсо́т во́семьдесят четы́ре
 * 2,000/3,000/4,000 две/три/четы́ре ты́сячи (use genitive singular, see below)
 * 5,000 ~ 9,000 пять ~ де́вять ты́сяч (use genitive plural, see below)
 * 2,000,000 два миллиона
 * 5,000,000 пять миллионов
 * 2,000,000,000 два миллиа́рда

Use of numerals in context
In English (and in many other Indo-European languages) the items being counted by a numeral are found following the numeral, and in the plural form. In Russian, the syntax is somewhat more complex. The case of the item must first be considered. If the item needs to be in the nominative or inanimate accusative case, use the following rule.

The numeral один (1) should be used in the proper form to indicate gender (and, number, believe it or not). For example: один мальчик (one boy), одна девушка (one girl), одно животное (one animal), одни джинсы (one [pair of] jeans). The plural form of the numeral (1) is a bit of an oddity, but its use will become clear with time. Following a form of один should come the item at hand in the nominative or inanimate accusative case, as appropriate.

The numerals два (or две), три, and четыре all require the following item to be presented in the genitive singular form. The numeral два has two forms: два for masculine and neuter items and две for feminine items. After the numeral два, each numeral has only a single form. See for example: две девушки (two girls), три кошки (three cats), четыре мальчика (four boys).

The numerals пять (5) through двадцать (20) require their attached items in the genitive plural forms, as in these examples: пять девушек (five girls), десять копеек (ten kopeks), шестнадцать рублей (sixteen rubles).

Numerals larger than twenty follow the above rules using the last digit. Think of numerals ending in zero as ending in ten. For example: тридцать три рюмки (thirty-three shot glasses), сорок один год (forty-one years), шестьдесят девять слов (sixty-nine words).

Numerals larger than 99 follow the above rules using the last two digits. For example: двести три собаки (two hundred and three dogs), двести тринадцать собак (two hundred and thirteen dogs).

When the items at hand belong not in the nominative or inanimate accusative case, the numerals themselves must be declined in addition to the declension of the items following them. This topic shall be discussed here later. For now, be glad that these forms are relatively uncommon. Examples follow: Я видел двух друзей (I saw two friends), Ты не съела ни одной штуки (You didn't eat a single piece).

In short, for nominative (and inanimate accusative) items, use the following rule to select the proper form of the item:

1 -> nominative

2, 3, 4 -> genitive singular

5 and more -> genitive plural

A few more examples

 * один час
 * два часа
 * пять часов
 * двадцать один час
 * двадцать два часа
 * двадцать три часа
 * двадцать четыре часа

 * один год
 * два года
 * три года
 * четыре года
 * пять лет
 * пятьдесят один год
 * пятьдесят два года
 * пятьдесят пять лет
 * одна минута
 * две минуты
 * три минуты
 * четыре минуты
 * пять минут
 * шесть минут
 * двадцать одна минута
 * тридцать две минуты
 * тридцать три минуты
 * сорок пять минут

Ordinal numbers
Ordinal numerals in Russian are relatively easy to deal with. They all decline like adjectives. For example: Только что фотографировала восемнадцатую девушку (She just photographed the eighteenth girl).

30th тридцатый 40th сороковой 100th сотый 1000th тысячный 10000th десятитысячный 1000000th миллионный
 * 1) первый, первая, первое
 * 2) второй, вторая, второе
 * 3) третий, третья, третье
 * 4) четвёртый
 * 5) пятый
 * 6) шестой
 * 7) седьмой
 * 8) восьмой
 * 9) девятый
 * 10) десятый
 * 11) одиннадцатый
 * 12) двенадцатый
 * 13) тринадцатый
 * 14) четырнадцатый
 * 15) пятнадцатый
 * 16) шестнадцатый
 * 17) семнадцатый
 * 18) восемнадцатый
 * 19) девятнадцатый
 * 20) двадцатый
 * 21) двадцать первый
 * 22) двадцать второй

title: Russian/Numbers


text:
Cookbook:Side Dishes

The category of side dishes is a somewhat general super-category in any cookbook.

One might best define a side dish in terms of the way it is served for a particular meal, as being:

 * “A medium-size portion of any primarily vegetable dish (including, for certainty, all grains and starches), which is served on the same plate with, or in a dish alongside, the main dish, that is not intended to be the main dish or a co-equal of the main dish, and, if in a separate dish, is not intended to be some other course, such as an appetizer or a dessert. The serving size of a side dish is larger than that of a mere accent item or condiment.”

In other words, the definition of a side dish is primarily based on what the item is intended to be, and is served as, taken in context.

For a complete, automatically generated, alphabetical list of pages which have been categorized, on their individual pages, as being a side dish see: Side dish recipes.

title: Cookbook:Side Dishes