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Transwiki:Positive Only Dog Training

Dog training is the process of teaching a dog to exhibit certain desired behaviours in specific circumstances. Some examples are:

 * Teaching a dog basic obedience commands (part of obedience training)
 * Teaching a dog to perform tricks casually or for circus acts
 * Teaching a guide dog to lead a blind person
 * Teaching a rescue dog to find victims of a disaster
 * Helping a hunting dog learn to perform its instinctive behaviours at appropriate times

The specific behaviours taught in each case are different, but the underlying principles are similar.

In the wild as pack animals, canines have natural instincts that favour training. These instincts are manifested when the dog lives with humans as a desire to please a handler, as a dog would please senior members in a pack in the wild. The handler is simply whoever is working with a dog at the time.

Basic training
Most dogs, no matter their eventual advanced training or intended purpose, live with people and therefore must behave in a way that makes them pleasant to have around and for their own safety and that of other people and pets. Dogs do not figure out basic obedience on their own; it must be trained.

The hardest part of this process is communicating with your dog clearly, in a way that he understands. Communication is possible by praising positive behavior while ignoring or correcting negative behavior.

"Correction" should never include harmful physical force or violence (i.e., no rolled up newspaper) because even if it makes the dog stop the behavior in the short term, it will make your dog fear you rather than want to make you happy by doing what you ask.

Puppies and Learning
The prenatal period is a recent addition to the developmental periods of puppies. It is thought that “long-term effects on behavioral development may also be produced in some mammals by events occurring in utero.” (Serpell, 1995, p. 80)  Previous studies tended to overlook the existence of this period, since the puppy’s behavior could not be observed. With the development of the ultrasound machine, a puppy could be observed within the mother as early as the fourth week of gestation.

It was found that puppies would react to touch and/or pressure from the outside of the mother’s abdomen. In addition, it is theorized that since puppies have such a well-developed sense of touch at birth, the sense of touch would also be well-developed before birth. Puppies may be sensitive to touch received by the mother while still unborn. Studies have found that “when a pregnant animal is petted her litter is more docile (Denenberg and Whimbey 1963, in Fox 1978).” According to Fox (1975, in Fox 1978) this facilitates relaxation, emotional attachment, and socialization as well. Other studies have indicated that puppies that receive outside contact (petting of the mother) while in utero have a higher tolerance for touching than puppies who receive no contact at all. One could deduce that gentle petting of the mother’s abdomen could help to facilitate positive, beneficial puppy socialization with people.

During the first two weeks of a puppy's life, also known as the neonate period, puppies can learn simple associations. (Serpell, 1995) However, early experience events are unlikely to carry over into later periods. Studies indicate that puppies in the neonate period do not seem to learn by experience. (Scott and Fuller, 1965) It is theorized that this is due to the fact that the puppy’s brain, sense, and motor organs are still undeveloped. Based on its limited capacity to sense and learn it would be difficult to affect the puppy psychologically, either in a positive or negative sense. (Scott and Fuller, 1965)

The next period of development is known as the socialization period. This is arguably the most important developmental period, beginning around 3 weeks (21 days) old, and ending around 12 weeks old. (Beaver, 1999) The biggest aspect of this period is social play. Social investigation (curiosity), playful fighting and playful sexual behavior (body contact) is very important to developing social relationships during its life. (Scott and Fuller, 1965) New behavior patterns are directly influenced by the puppy’s interaction with its mother and other puppies in the litter.

This is a time for developing social relationships, both among other puppies as well as with people. These behaviors are relatively easy for any individual who stays with the puppies during this period. However, there is a point where the puppies can develop a fear of strangers. At 3-5 weeks of age, puppies will actively approach strangers. Shortly thereafter stranger avoidance begins and slowly escalates until it peaks around 12-14 weeks of age. (Beaver, 1999) While this natural fear of strangers could serve as a way to keep a curious puppy away from predators, it can also hinder normal relationships with people.

During this period, startle reactions to sudden movement and sounds is now present. This serves to help the puppy learn to differentiate between which events are dangerous, and which events are safe or insignificant. (Scott and Fuller, 1965) During the socialization period, the development of attachment to certain locations occurs. This is displayed by an extreme disturbance in the puppy whenever a change in location occurs. This is known as “localization”. (Serpell, 1995)  “Localization” often peaks in puppies between 6-7 weeks old (Scott and Fuller, 1965), and then tapers off after that time to the point where a change in location is no longer distressing to the puppy.

Dogs that are handled and petted by humans regularly during the first eight weeks of life are generally much more amenable to being trained and living in human households. Ideally, puppies should be placed in their permanent homes between about 8 and 10 weeks of age. In some places it is against the law to take puppies away from their mothers before the age of 8 weeks. Before this age, puppies are still learning tremendous amounts of socialization skills from their mother. Puppies are innately more fearful of new things during the period from 10 to 12 weeks, which makes it harder for them to adapt to a new home.

Puppies can begin learning tricks and commands as early as 8 weeks of age; the only limitations are the pup's stamina, concentration, and physical coordination. It is much easier to live with young dogs that have already learned basic commands such as sit. Waiting until the puppy is older and has already learned undesirable habits makes the training much more challenging. (Beaver, 1999; Lindsay, 2000; Scott and Fuller 1965; Serpell 1995)

Basic training classes
Professional "dog trainers" usually do not train the dogs, but actually train the owners on how to train their own dogs. Although it is also possible to send a dog away to a training school, the owner still must at some point learn what the dog has learned and how to use and reinforce the techniques. Some call this a shortcut, but plenty of work is still required and training must continue over the course of the dog's life. Owners and dogs who attend class together have an opportunity to learn more about each other and how to work together under a trainer's guidance. Training is most effective if everyone who handles the dog takes part in the training to ensure consistent commands, methods, and enforcement. Classes also help socialize your dog to other people and dogs. Ask your vet or the owner of a well behaved dog for recommendations in your area.

Formal training in classes is not always available until the puppy has completed all its vaccinations at around 4 months; however, some trainers offer puppy socialization classes in which puppies can enroll immediately after being placed in their permanent homes as long as disease risk is minimal and puppies have received initial vaccinations. In most cases, basic training classes accept only puppies who are at least 3 to 6 months old.

Communicating with the dog
Fundamentally, dog training is about communication. From the human perspective the handler is communicating to the dog what behaviors are correct, desired, or preferred in what circumstances. From the canine perspective the handler must communicate what behaviors will give the dog the most satisfaction to his natural instincts and emotions. Without that inner satisfaction a dog will not work well.

A successful handler must also understand the communication that the dog sends to the handler. The dog can signal that he is unsure, confused, nervous, happy, excited, and so on. The emotional state of the dog is an important consideration in directing the training, as a dog that is stressed or distracted will not learn efficiently.

According to Learning Theory there are four important messages that the handler can send the dog:
 * Reward or release marker: Correct behavior. You have earned a reward. For example, "Free" or "Okay" followed by a reward.
 * Keep going signal: Correct behavior. Continue and you will earn a reward. For example, "Good".
 * No reward marker: Incorrect behavior. Try something else. For example, "Uh-uh" or "Try again".
 * Punishment marker: Incorrect behavior. You have earned punishment. For example, "No" or more specific commands like "off," "out," or "leave it."

Using consistent signals or words for these messages enables the dog to understand them more quickly. If the handler sometimes says "good" as a reward marker and sometimes as a keep going signal, it is difficult for the dog to know when he has earned a reward.

It is important to note that the dog's reward is not the same as the reward marker. The reward marker is a signal that tell the dog that he has earned the reward. Many novice dog owners make the mistake of using effusive verbal praise as both a reward marker and a reward, which can confuse dog and owner.

Rewards can be praise, treats, play, or anything that the dog finds rewarding. Failure to reward after the reward marker diminishes the value of the reward marker and makes training more difficult.

These four messages do not have to be communicated with words, and nonverbal signals are often used. In particular, mechanical clickers are frequently used for the reward marker. Hand signals and body language also play an important part in learning for dogs. The meanings of the four signals are taught to the dog through repetition, so that he may form an association by classical conditioning. For example, if the handler consistently gives the dog a reward marker immediately before he gives the dog a food treat, the dog soon will learn to associate the reward marker with receiving something pleasant (clicker trainers call forming this association "charging up" the clicker). Likewise, if the dog is always given a punishment marker before he is scolded or put outside for bad behaviour, he will soon learn to associate the punishment marker with the punishment itself.

Dogs usually do not generalize commands easily; that is, a dog who has learned a command in a particular location and situation may not immediately recognize the command to other situations. A dog who knows how to "down" in the living room may suffer genuine confusion if asked to "down" at the park or in the car. The command will need to be retaught in each new situation, though it may be substantially easier after being taught at home where there are fewer distractions. This is sometimes called "cross-contextualization," meaning the dog has to apply what's been learned to many different contexts.

Reward and punishment
Most training revolves around giving the dog consequences for his behaviour, in the hope of influencing the behaviour the dog will exhibit in the future. Operant conditioning defines four types of consequences:

Positive reinforcement adds something to the situation to increase the chance of the behaviour being exhibited again (for example, giving a dog a treat when he sits.)

Negative reinforcement removes something from the situation to increase the chance of the behaviour being exhibited again (for example, releasing the tension on an uncomfortable training collar when the dog stops pulling on the leash).

Positive punishment adds something to the situation to decrease the chance of the behaviour being exhibited again (for example, verbally growling at a dog to make it stop jumping up).

Negative punishment removes something from the situation to decrease the chance of the behaviour being exhibited again (for example, walking away from a dog who jumps up).

Most modern trainers say that they use "positive training methods", which is a different meaning of the word "positive" from that in operant conditioning. "Positive training methods" generally means preferring the use of reward-based training to increase good behavior over that of physical punishment to decrease bad behavior. However, a good trainer understands all four methods, whether or not they can put operant-conditioning terminology to them, and applies them as appropriate for the dog, the breed, the handler, and the situation.

Rewards
Positive reinforcers can be anything that the dog finds rewarding - special food treats, the chance to play with a tug toy, social interaction with other dogs, or the owners attention. The more rewarding a dog finds a particular reinforcer, the more work he will be prepared to do in order to obtain the reinforcer.

It is important that the dog is not "bribed" to perform. In dog training, the term "bribery" means that the dog is aware of the presence of the reward before he is asked to complete the command. The risk with bribery is that the dog will refuse to comply with commands when he cannot see the reward, since he knows from experience that he will only be rewarded when he can see the reward. Experienced trainers will hide the reward from the dog, and only produce the reward once the dog has already complied with the command. The goal is to produce a dog who will perform even on occasions that the handler has no reward to offer, since the dog's training has taught him that the handler may have a reward even if the dog cannot see it.

Some trainers go through a process of teaching a puppy to strongly desire a particular toy, in order to make the toy a more powerful positive reinforcer for good behaviour. This process is called "building prey drive", and is commonly used in the training of Narcotics Detection and Police Service dogs. The goal is to produce a dog who will work independently for long periods of time, in the hopes of earning access to its special toy reward.

Punishments
Positive punishment is probably the consequence that is least understood and commonly misused by modern dog trainers, as it must be used very carefully.

Punishments are administered only as appropriate for the dog's personality, age, and experience. A sharp No works for many dogs, but some dogs even show signs of fear or anxiety even with mild verbal corrections. Punishment must never involve hitting as this creates fear of other forms of contact. The use of "Alpha rolls" and similar techniques should never be used.

Avoiding punishment
Keeping a puppy on a leash in challenging situations or in his crate or pen when not closely supervised prevents the puppy from getting into situations that might otherwise invite an owner's harsh reaction (such as chewing up a favorite pair of shoes).

The command voice
When giving commands to a dog, a calm, firm, authoritative voice is most effective. Dogs do not respond well to hesitant, pleading voices, nor to yelling, which might sound to the dog like threatening barking or scolding. It is also important that the word used for the command and the pitch of the voice be consistent each time the command is delivered so that the dog can more easily learn what the owner means (siiiiiiiiiiiit does not sound the same as sit, for example).

Using the puppy's name before a command ensures that the dog knows that a command is coming, that it is for him (rather than for other dogs, children, or people), and that he should pay attention. This is important because dogs hear a lot of human speech that has no relevance for them at all, and it is easy for them to disregard commands amongst the babble.

To reinforce the command, the dog always gets some kind of reward or reinforcement (praise and usually a treat or toy) when it performs the action correctly. This helps the dog to understand that he has done a good thing.

Note that not all dogs are trained to voice command. Many working breeds of dog are not trained to a voice command at all; they are taught to obey a combination of whistles and hand signals. Deaf dogs are perfectly capable of learning to obey visual signals alone. Many obedience classes teach hand signals for common commands in addition to voice signals; these signals can be useful in quiet situations, at a distance, and in advanced obedience competitions.

The specific command words are not important, although common words in English include sit, down, come, and stay. Short, clear words that are easily understood by other humans are generally recommended; that way, people will understand what a handler is telling his dog to do and other handlers have a good chance of controlling someone else's dog if necessary. In fact, dogs can learn commands in any language or other communications medium, including whistles, mouth sounds, hand gestures, and so forth.

Training tricks
Many dog owners teach their dogs tricks. This serves several purposes: Develops a stronger relationship between the dog and human; provides entertainment; and engages the dog's mind, which can help to alleviate problems caused by boredom. For example, the shake hands trick involves the dog raising its paw and placing it into an outstretched hand. An example of a useful trick is teaching a dog to ring a bell to go outside. This helps prevent the stress placed on an owner when trying to recognize whether the dog needs to relieve itself. For more information, see clicker training or bridge and target training.

Many habits can come up with different dogs. Begging at dinner should not be seen. Don't pay attention to your dog at dinner time, and your dog will notice that you won't give them food.

Shock Training
One of the most controversial training methods involves using a "remote training collar", otherwise known as an "e-collar" or "shock collar".

These have been banned in a number of countries and are considered inhumane by the majority of companion animal welfare and rescue charities. Such devices are designed to cause a painful experience similar to other forms of positive punishment like hitting or slapping. There is scientific evidence that these collars may produce persistent negative associations that result in anxiety.

Teething
At anywhere from three to six months of age, a puppy begins to get its adult set of teeth. This period can be quite painful and many owners do not recognize the natural need to chew. By providing specific chew toys designed to ease the pain of teething (such as a frozen nylon bone), attention can be diverted from table legs and other furniture. Many people also use a bad-tasting, bad-smelling spray on favorite items, such as shoes, furniture, or even wallpaper, to discourage chewing. Bitter apple is a commonly used spray, but there are several commercial sprays available. Different sprays work better for different applications, owners, or puppies.

Specialized training
Dogs are also trained for specific purposes, including:
 * Detection dogs
 * Assistance dogs
 * Herding dogs, livestock guardian dogs, and sheep dogs
 * Hunting dogs
 * Police dogs
 * Rescue dogs
 * Schutzhund German training method/sport

Guard animals
Due to dogs' natural social structure, which is territorial/protective of companions, even non-trained companion animals will exhibit some form of alert behaviors toward intruders. However true guard dogs and police dogs are dedicated animals in the sense that they are not simultaneously intended to be companion animals.

Guard dogs are defined as canines who either by training, or by instinct, protect either property, persons or objects. A well-trained guard dog protects person, property or objects on command and "turns-off" on command as well. Properly trained animals will guard on command and then when commanded to "out" will approach and accept in a friendly manner those that may have attempted to gain entry, cause harm, or steal protected items.

There are several methods regarding the training of guard animals, western (e.g. Koehler Method) and eastern, and certain breeds are typically used in this capacity. The Schutzhund method also contains a portion relating to protection, and generally means the animal will bite on command, and will not release until commanded.

In some circumstances, when dogs are left alone to guard property it may be necessary to train them to not eat treats or other food items offered by unknown persons. Positive punishment can include electric shocks related to attempting to eat food other than in the designated food receptacle, or from a designated individual or individuals.

Service animals
Assistance dogs, such as guide and hearing dogs, are carefully trained to utilize both their sensory skills and the protective instincts of dogs (as pack animals) to bond with a human and help that person to offset a disability in daily life. The use of assistance dogs is an every-growing field, with wide range of special adaptations.

title: Transwiki:Positive Only Dog Training


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Transwiki talk:Positive Only Dog Training

I have retitled the article as per explanation. It took me a minute to discover how to do it. Tintina 03:04, 19 January 2007 (UTC)

I think this a great start on the topic of Dog Training, but as the topic is both broad and general, I believe the treatment of it, so far presented, is not a NPOV.

Dog Training is an umbrella, composed of many facets(some noted), including Basic Obedience training.

I suggest that the existing content be retitled as Positive Only Dog Training and presented as chapter under the general title Dog Training, or retitled as a stand alone on Positive Only Dog Training, otherwise it necessitates heavy editing. The simplest solution is to rework it into a chapter or retitle it.

All opinions on what methods are outdated, humane, etc. are opinions. The existing text implies that this is the standard in training which is simply not accurate. It is directly misleading the reader who is expecting an unbiased text.

Tintina 02:48, 19 January 2007 (UTC)

"Wikibooks has a strict neutral point of view (NPOV) policy, which basically states that its mission as a book collection is best served not by advancing or detracting particular points of view on any given subject, but by trying to present a fair, neutral description of the facts -- among which are the facts that various interpretations and points of view exist. (Of course, there are limits to what POVs are considered worth mentioning, which can be an area of conflict.)

Consequently, modules should be written from a neutral point of view, which means that modules should represent differing views on a subject fairly and within the context particular to the Wikibook's scope (in other words, if the scope of the Wikibook is the consensus view of physics, then non-mainstream views on this subject are almost always irrelevant; but competing mainstream views can and should be presented).

"Neutral point of view" should not be confused with "point of view espoused by an international body such as the United Nations"; writing in NPOV style requires recognising that even widely held or widely respected points of view are not necessarily all-encompassing." Tintina 02:48, 19 January 2007 (UTC)

....................................... I'm certainly not claiming any of this as the last word, but I thought we needed an article on dog training, so I did this brain dump. Please feel free to add or subtract as you think appropriate. The training techniques in particular are very skimpy. Ortolan88 06:37, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Not a bad start at all. This article really needed writing. I kept thinking about doing it myself, but I am no good at writing full articles. A couple of things I think need some attention:

 * the article in general has a slight POV feel to me for some reason, but I can't point to anything specific... it might just be me though...
 * breaking of the "fourth wall" isn't real good
 * Lachatdelarue [[User talk:Lachatdelarue|(talk)]] 16:08, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

The POV all comes from my dog. I'm as neutral as can be. Seriously, most of it probably comes because I was trying to avoid the term owner, which left me with only master and keeper. But I know that people are put off by the idea of being the master, and the only thing I could think of was to say it right out, fourth wall be damned:

 * Do not let the term master put you off. Dogs are not humans and having a master does not make them slaves.

Same for the command voice section. Using it scares some people. Maybe this stuff could be better handled in a section on Responsibilities of dog keepers.

I don't expect my first draft to survive intact, but I didn't feel like waiting until I had solved all the problems of writing the article before writing it. I meant it as an open-ended opportunity for all to join in, Wikipedia style.

Completely missing are:
 * Specific techniques for teaching each command
 * A section on housebreaking
 * Crate training
 * Problems -- barking, jumping up, etc.
 * Advanced and specialized training
 * Dog tricks
 * Grooming and training. The stand command, for instance, helps a lot.  Many furry dogs have to be combed every day, and often are groomed by strangers, so training to be groomed helps a lot, not to mention the effect of bonding with the dog.

Much more to be said. Woof woof, bow-wow, barky barky, and out.Ortolan88 17:50, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * That's "Woof-woof, Bow Wow, woooooooooooooooooo and a bark" to YOU. We need to make sure that this isn't a how-to article--that it describes the concepts in an encyclopedic manner but doesn't turn into a user guide.  For that, see Wikibooks Dog Care. Maybe. Elf | Talk 02:39, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

I think the trick to being encyclopedic but not a user guide would be to put enough detail in to guide a reasonable dog trainer and lead the less confident to the Wikibook. Ortolan88

Drop (it) or Down?
I learned commands the same way they are described here (mumble, mumble years ago as Elf would say). Have a comment/question, though. I'm told that what I call 'Down!' to tell the dog to lie down immediately is now called 'Drop!' to distinguish this from (get)down (off of something). However, I understand 'drop' to mean 'drop it'--leggo of whatever's in your mouth. What do the modern gurus use for 'drop it' if not 'drop'? Quill 04:03, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * The professional trainers I know (not including the one that exclusively uses correction-based training ) use "down" for lie down, "drop (it)" for such, and "off" for get off that. Lachatdelarue [[User talk:Lachatdelarue|(talk)]] 15:22, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I had drop (meaning drop the ball or the garbage) and down (mezning lie down) in the first draft, then when I came to write about the "universal-cease-and-desist" command, I wrote drop again, then changed it to stop. Actually, my dog and assistant dog don't do this one.  I saw a guy at the park one day teaching his dog to do it, and he was using the Yiddish plotz as the command.

 * The article could say something like this:

 * Commands in this article are described as to function – a list of behaviors you should be able to get your dog to perform when you want – but you may use different command words than those given here. While it may be simplestto choose short clear words that are easily understood by other humans, in fact, dogs can learn commands in any language or other communications medium, whistles, mouth sounds, hand gestures, and so forth.  Ortolan88 17:25, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree; think of all those deaf dogs out there who obey sign language just fine. There are also some fairly standard gestures for common behaviors, but that's a little challenging for this venue.  However, I also think that mentioning words most commonly used by English-speakers is useful.  FWIW, I have always preferred the most common, time-honored terms, because if someone else is in charge of my dog for some period of time, I'd like the person to be able to use commands that they're likely to think of, such as down for lie down and sit for sitting and such. Plotz I hear fairly often (but still by a small minority of trainers); I don't know what the equivalent words are for other common behaviors.  Some people deliberately use unusual words for their dogs because they don't want other people to be able to get the dog to follow orders.
 * As a somewhat related example, it's interesting to see agility handlers take over someone else's dog (usually because the regular handler/owner is injured); they are interested in two things: "how would you handle your dog (body language and positioning) in such-and-such a situation", and "what commands do you use for the various obstacles"? Everyone has his theory on why certain commands are best for certain situations.  (e.g., is the table "hop", "up", "table", "flat"?  And if your dog's name is Riot, what do you use instead of "right" in your right/left commands?) You'll see the same thing in obedience training.
 * The only challenge I've found in common commands is that most people w/out a lot of dog experience use "down" meaning "get off me/that" and "lie down" meaning, um, lie down. So I always have to explain that dogs don't understand synonyms and they need to use "off" for "get off".  (Although there's not a really good reason why "liedown" can't be taught as a different command from "down"; it just takes a little  more effort for the dog to get the distinction.) Elf | Talk 02:05, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Muzzle?
"A light muzzle also helps to train the dog"? I'm not familiar with this one. I've seen muzzles only for dogs who have a tendency to use their mouths too much, and that's a chewing or biting issue rather than the same kind of training that collars and leashes are used for. I await enlightenment-- Elf | Talk 01:02, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I was referring to the light halter or hackamore that allows simply pointing the dog's head in the direction you want to go, literally leading it by the nose. Probably should say bridle instead of muzzle.  I'll change.  Ortolan88

Training methods
I edited out a couple of things. For example, I'd never use "stay" for a crate because Stay means stay in the position I left you, and you don't want to put that kind of restriction on a dog in a crate; I changed rewarding the dog for a stay to rewarding while in the stay because that's the behavior you want to reward, not getting up and coming to you for a reward. Everything else I merely identified as "one method is--"; for example, I teach dogs down from a stand, not from a sit, because how many dogs do you see given the "down" command who dawdle into a sit and then get stuck there or dawdle their way the rest of the way to the ground? Anyway, I wouldnt' call that one wrong, just different. :-)  Elf | Talk 18:37, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I just stuck it back in, before I saw this comment. Edit it back out, if you like, but I had two thoughts in mind.
 * the crate is the "den equivalent", just like the under-table, under-bench choices, and many people use the open crate that way.
 * the article didn't mention crate training anywhere else and I thought it was better to mention it in the context of indoor behavior control rather than simply under a Related topics list.
 * I really liked your copy edit. Ortolan88 PS - crate training has never worked for me, but under the Swedish day bed works fine.

I understand about an open crate--but even so, do you really want your dog in a single position in the crate the whole time? I wouldn't--in any case, in such a general discussion I wouldn't present Stay as a common command for a dog in a crate. I was thinking to instead include a separate fairly common command such as "in" or "go to bed" for either crate or bed--means the dog has to remain in that restricted space but can stand up or lie down as desired. (I've heard lots of people say "crate training doesn't work for me" but I've never seen a correctly presented and trained crate NOT work for any dog. But that's a whole different topic.)

 * I don't really like crate training, don't like locking them up, don't mind having dogs lying all over the house, so my heart wasn't in it. Ortolan88
 * Ah, my friend, I once was like you. ;-)   See my blather at Talk:Crate training. Elf | Talk 21:47, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Also, I removed the "used in conjunction with sit" etc. from the one command because everything is used in combination with everything else; it's not particular to that one command and so seems both misleading and confusing.

I left both of these items in for the moment because I didn't want to look like I was starting an edit war :-), but I'd rather take them out again.  Elf | Talk 20:08, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * No fear, moved it to make the point in conjunction with Sit and Stay rather than with Come. Ortolan88

Collar photos
I put some photos on the collar article. Question for you--for the quick-release collar, do you prefer Image:QuickCollarNeck wb.jpg or Image:QuickCollarHead wb.jpg for use on that page (other than the fact that I discovered that they are both slightly out of focus & I'll have to redo later)? Thanks. Elf | Talk 18:37, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * The caption should say "quick release collar" rather than "slip collar" because it is more self-xplanatory. Both pictures are a little hard to "read" not only because of focus, but because of the decorations on the collar and the angle, and, in the second, that huge green thing in the dog's mouth that's in the center of the picture.  What is a quick release collar for anyway?  Ortolan88 19:54, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Captions--oops; it's OK in the article but I was in a copy-and-paste frenzy in the image pages. The quick-release collar is just a different form of buckle collar that's easier to put on and take off. The big green thing is a toy that he didn't want to put down :-) and it is very distracting, which is why it occurred to me to edit it out. So let me rephrase the question--would you prefer a close-up of the collar with tags and not showing the rest of the dog, or would you prefer a photo of the dog's head and neck with collar?  I'll try to find a plain-color collar and get the little black dog to sit still without something in his mouth. (Not my dog so I'm not taking responsibility for the training ;-) .)   Elf | Talk 20:08, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * The closeup shot you chose is fine. More at Talk:collar.  Ortolan88 20:35, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Why me? Why now?
Argggggghhhhh! I was doing so good at staying away from Wikipedia--who got me started on dog training topics?!?! I blame everyone! Elf | Talk 23:14, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Latest edits
I agree with most of the latest edits. Original material didn't mean to say that you couldn't train your pup, only that classes often weren't available for younger puppies. I have clarified that, hopefully, so it's completely clear.

I disagree with the statement that "Pinch or prong collars are not acceptable"; there are cases in which they can be used effectively when other methods don't work--in my (somewhat) limited experience, more often with dogs who haven't been properly trained at a young age, particularly the very large breeds and older rescues. I don't know of any trainer in my circle of friends who recommends using slip or prong collars any more except in certain carefully controlled situations (and most of them will say that they don't recommend them, period, but sometimes they do--).

And I think the latest edits missed the point about the command voice--sure, dogs can learn hand signals, but when commands are used, most dogs don't respond well to "come Oooonnnn, pleeeeeze siiiiiit" in a whiny, questioning, or uncertain voice. An authoritative voice absolutely does NOT mean yelling or harshness. It is the voice of command. I've attempted to rewrite that section, too. Elf | Talk 20:56, 26 May 2005 (UTC)

"Master" vs "Handler"
As I read the article, the use of the word "master" kept throwing me out. It's not a word that I am used to seeing in regard to training. I have no philosophical objection, it is just not what I consider common usage. The word I am used to seeing/hearing is "handler". Sometimes the word "trainer" is used, but the trainer is not always the hardler. A dog's handler is the person holding the leash and giving the commands. A trainer might be a second person directing the handler and perhaps performing some specialized training function. In keeping with Wikipedia philosophy, I am going to edit the article to use "handler" instead. Dsurber 22:52, 28 May 2005 (UTC)

Tricks training
Whole section was removed by anon user saying it's incorrect and out of place; I see nothing wrong with a mention of trick training in an article on dog training, since that's a large part of many experienced dog owners' training regimen. I left out the part about shaking hands becoming an annoying or dangerous dominance behavior, as I've not seen it myself among many dogs, although i don't tend to see the problem dogs or owners. :-)  Elf | Talk 23:18, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

POV
The entire article is POV and unreferenced. It misses out major parts of training and doesn't provide information about controversy over different types.-localzuk 22:10, 24 December 2005 (UTC)

Merge?
Does anyone else think that this article would be better of merged with the Obedience training article? They contain almost the same info and maintaining 2 seems a bit pointless IMO.-localzuk 09:04, 5 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Oh, well I just left a message at your talk page. Merge. Definately!-- Violin  G  irl ♪ 16:39, 5 January 2006 (UTC)
 * I don't think they should be merged but we should consider what kind of info goes into each. IMHO, dog training is for the general case--one trains dogs in many different ways for many different things & this might best address the general concepts of training dogs and point from there to more-specific articles (if there are others besides obedience training); "obedience training" is pretty specific to your standard sit-down-stay kind of stuff and leads into "obedience competitions"--which it's possible might be a separate article itself but that hasn't been clear when I've worked on that article in the past so I haven't (yet) done it; that also would require some thinking about the dividing line. Elf | Talk 19:35, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

Oh, and BTW
By the way, everyone...I put the template because I'm focusing on the article right now, renovating it as much as I can to it makes more sense. I think it needs major work. However, unlike the template says, feel free to help me edit it, because I definately cannot do it all myself. Feel free to talk to me if you have complaints or questions. This isn't really my feild, so I'll need advice!-- Violin  G  irl ♪ 16:41, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I think putting up the inuse tag is going to be counterproductive if you want people to help edit the article. It's meant to be used for a few minutes while you're doing a complicated multi-stage edit so that someone doesn't confuse matters by making their own improvements while the article is in an intermediate state. When I come across it I don't edit the article (even if I otherwise would), I sit on the page refreshing it to see what big change has been made. There might be a more appropriate tag you could use, or you could just put a little note at the top of the page if you really want people to know the article is actively being worked on. Don't forget to remove it when you're done, though. PeteVerdon 18:10, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Yup, I've been monitoring but not jumping in because of the "in use" tag, as I don't know when you're actually working on it. So do please remove the tag if you're not actively at that time working on editing the page. Elf | Talk 19:28, 5 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Ok, sorry to have been counter-productive here. I only have time to work at nights, so I will remove the inuse tag after posting this. Sorry about that! I guess mainly I put it up there because I didn't want people to be worried when I deleted and changed a lot of text! :) Violin  G  irl ♪ 01:10, 6 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Ok, I just did some major editing, and while I'm not saying I'll never work on this article again, I think it's a little better than when I first found it...-- Violin  G  irl ♪ 01:24, 6 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes, it is. Thanks. Elf | Talk 02:02, 6 January 2006 (UTC)

How-to stuff removed
I removed the following from the article & it should never have been here because it's too specifically how-to and can't be made encyclpedic; also the methods are each only one variety of many ways to teach. wikibooks has a book on dog care but not sure about dog training; haven't looked in a while. Presevering here for easier retrieval later for something outside wikipedia itself. Elf | Talk 19:31, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

Now, you are going to actually train your dog in some easy steps.

Sit Get a treat or favourite toy to tempt your dog. Then, hold the treat or toy in a closed hand. Raise the treat or toy above and back over your dog's head and say Sit. Repeat this process and then, after about twenty goes, just say Sit without the hand movement.

Leave it/Take it Every time you give your dog breakfast, lunch or dinner, tell him to sit. Then, say Leave it. Start putting your dog's meal down. He will rush to it so when he rushes at it, bring it back up, tell him to Sit (see above) and Leave it again. Keep doing it until he gets the point. Then, when he has successfully Left it, say Take it. If he doesn't, shake the bowl to tempt him. This can also be used for things your dog isn't allowed to touch.

Stay Get a treat or favourite toy to tempt your dog. Then, tell your dog to Sit (see above). Then, with your hand out flat, put your hand out in front of your dog's nose and say Stay and walk two or three steps away from your dog. Then say Take it (see above). Repeat this process several times. Each time you do it, take one or two steps further.

Drop or Down Get a treat or favourite toy to tempt your dog. Then, tell him to Sit. Then, bring the treat down just in front of his front paws on the ground and say Drop. I don't recommend pushing down on his back because most dogs will bite you. When he is lying down, say Drop or Down again. Repeat this process about twenty-five times. Then, say Drop or Down without the hand movement.

Look Get a treat or favourite toy to tempt your dog. Tell him to Sit (see above). Then, raise the treat or toy to your eye and say Look. Keep eye contact for three seconds then give him the treat. Repeat this process ten times and then five times without the hand movement.

Shake paws Get a treat to tempt your dog. Then, tell him to Sit (see above). Then, take his paw and shake it like you would shake someone you didn't know's hands and say Shake or Paw. Repeat this process ten times, then five more times without picking up his paw.

Twirl Get a treat to tempt your dog. Then, put it in front of your dog's nose and go round in a circle and say Twirl. Make sure your dog follows. Repeat this process seven times and then three more except without the hand movement.

Question Regarding External Link Removal
I added an external link to Cesar Millan's Dog Psychology Center, because I think he is the best dog trainer out there right now.I thought the link would be useful to people interested in dog training. I guess I just wanted to know why it was removed. This is my first time editing on Wikipedia. I'd appreciate any information you can give me! Thanks! Queequeg22
 * Be glad to. Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, not a collection of links. Therefore, links to external pages should provide an extension of the encyclopedic information. For example, a great link would be to a nonprofit site that has lots of info about training dogs and no ads, pop-ups, or the like.  In addition to that, attempting to maintain thousands of external links (which is what this would grow to if every trainer could have a link here) would be impossible.  I've added some additional information to your user talk page. Feel free to ask other questions on my talk page or on specific articles, like this.  Welcome to WP and sorry for the quickie revert without much explanation.  Elf | Talk 21:31, 13 January 2006 (UTC)

Untrained dogs?
This paragraph was recently added:
 * There are some professional trainers who disagree with this idea, particularly those who train working dogs, detection dogs, police dogs, etc. They feel that obedience work shouldn't start until the dog is at least a year old, or after the prey drive has fully developed. These trainers also take the position that spaying and neutering is harmful to the training process, again because of its negative impact on the dog's prey drive.

Can anyone enlighten me as to what trainers think it's a good idea to have a full-grown dog who doesn't have any idea about sit or down or not jumping up on people or walking on a leash? I can't imagine why one would think it's a good idea to let bad habit be practiced until they're well established and until the dog is well past its early rapid-learning stages and then try to train these things? Can anyone provide references for this? Elf | Talk 00:36, 22 February 2006 (UTC)

I have never read any evidence to support benefits of delay of training until the dog is a year old. In fact, the only evidence I've seen is in support of training of dogs as early as 8 weeks old.

See: Beaver, Bonnie V. (1999) Canine Behavior: A Guide for Veterinarians. W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Lindsay, Steven R. (2000). Handbook of Applied Dog Training and Behavior, vol. 1: adaptation and learning. Iowa State Press, Ames, Iowa.

Scott, John Paul and Fuller John L. (1965) Genetics and the Social Behavior of the Dog. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

Serpell, James (1995). The Domestic Dog: Its evolution, behavior, and interactions with people. Cambridge University Press, New York, New York

Gemandbear 19:53, 16 April 2006 (UTC)

References!
This article is completly unreferenced. Before any more edits are made, what is here needs referencing. It is getting to a stage that this entire page is unverifiable as it would be impossible to track from where each statement is coming. --Localzuk (talk) 17:32, 2 March 2006 (UTC)

Use of term 'reinforcer' questionable
In this article, it states: "This is seen most clearly in the fact that, according to the laws of operant conditioning, positive reinforcers lose their effectiveness if they're given every single time a dog does what is desired of him; the more predictable the reinforcer, the less reliable the behavior."

What source did you derive this from? Actually, how you've written this is inaccurate. Continual reinforcement of a behavior will maintain the behavior, although it may not strengthen it. The problem with continual reinforcement is that behaviors are subject to easy extinction; an animal trained receiving a reinforcer for every correct behavior response will stop responding quickly once that 100% reinforcement is removed. Intermittent reinforcement (for example, reinforcing every third or fifth correct response) works by making the behavior more resistant to extinction; the lack of predictibility of when the reinforcer will appear keeps the organism motivated. Think of all the people who play the slot machines in Las Vegas. That's intermittent reinforcement at work!

I believe that what you're talking about is the contrast effect of the reinforcer. Contrast effects of primary reinforcers of food can affect learning. For example, a handler is training his dog to increase the speed of the recall. The handler offers kibble as a reinforcer for a quick recall. On the fifth trial, the dog expects a piece of kibble as a reward for recall, but instead the handler gives it a piece of gorgonzola cheese. The dog has never had gorgonzola before, but it reacts by consuming the new, smelly cheese with great enthusiasm. As a result, the dog’s speed increases in the following recall trials. This is known as positive behavioral contrast. The handler offered the gorgonzola for several more trials, then ran out, and began offering the same kibble as before. The dog may not respond as quickly on the recalls anymore because the reinforcer does not hold as much value. This is known as negative behavioral contrast. It is important to note that the “contrast effect is quite transient and usually only lasts for 1-2 trials after the discrepant reward.” (Reid, 1996, p. 46)

A positive reinforcer is something that the organism seeks out and strengthens the behavior that preceeds it. If the presentation of something makes the behavior weaker, or results in a decrease of intensity, then it would be considered a punisher. (Chance, 2003; Lindsay, 2000; Burch and Bailey, 1999) If a reinforcer is highly desirable to the organism, then predictibility of the reinforcer would not result in a decrease in behavior.

The article continues: "Yet detection dogs only work well when they are always rewarded with a toy, every single time they find drugs or explosives, etc. The reason for this disparity is that when a dog is trained through the prey drive, the training activates an instinctive, automatic sequence that has to be completed in order for the dog to feel satisfied. That sequence is: search, eye-stalk, chase, grab-bite, and kill bite. So when a dog searches and finds drugs or explosives, he feels he hasn't finished his job unless he can bite something. This is the primary reason he's always given the toy. It's not really a positive reinforcer. If it were it would reduce the reliability of the behavior overall."

Again, technically, anything that results in an increase of behavior is a reinforcer. If it results in a reduction of behavior, then it would be considered a punisher. Your last two phrases contradict each other.

Not all dogs are qualified to become 'drug-sniffing' dogs. A desirable trait that this type of dog would need to have is a high grab-bite drive; this would make rewarding the dog with a toy very easy, thus easy to apply a reinforcer (toy) when necessary. It is quite possible that in the training scenario you describe above, the dog is deprived of the 'toy' reinforcer outside of the 'drug drills', which increases the value of the reinforcer. This would keep the reliability of the behavior quite high. To state that the dog would consider his "job" as incomplete unless he can bite something is questionable. It has more to do with allowing the dog to perform highly reinforcing innate drives than anything else.

This is related to the Premack Principle: "Reinforcement involves a relation, typically between two responses, one that is being reinforced, and another that is responsible for the reinforcement.  This leads to the following generalization:  Of any two responses, the more probable response will reinforce the less probable one." (Premack, 1965, p. 132) In short, the opportunity to engage in high probability behavior (playing with a toy) reinforces performance of low probability behavior (sniffing for drugs).

Consider three establishing operations when dealing with reinforcement (Burch and Bailey, 1999):

1. Motivation: if a dog is not motivated to obtain something, then it cannot act as a reinforcer. If the dog described above doesn't like hot dogs, then it will not work for them. If it likes tugging on a toy, then the toy is highly motivating.

2. Deprivation: if a dog is deprived of a reinforcer, it will increase the value of it. An example would be that the drug-sniffing dog described above is not allowed to tug on toys in everyday life. However, it is provided access to the toy and tugging contingent on finding drugs. This would make the toy highly rewarding every time, especially if the dog loves the toy.

3. Satiation: if the dog has had enough of a certain reinforcer, then it will lose some of its value. Especially when using primary reinforcers, such as food, it's important to make sure the dog has not just had a huge meal before training. The training treats will have much lower value if the dog is full versus if the dog has been fasted for 12 hours prior to the training session.

Gemandbear 19:36, 16 April 2006 (UTC)

Instincts that favor training- cite source, please
The article states:
 * In the wild as pack animals, canines have natural instincts that favor training. These instincts are manifested when the dog lives with humans as a desire to please a handler, as a dog would please senior members in a pack in the wild.

Please cite your source for this information.

Gemandbear 03:45, 18 April 2006 (UTC)

Real dog problems
I edited the main article page to add an external reference to some articles about real dog problems. After reading the guidelines it appears as if I should have added it here instead. So...I would like to suggest adding a link to some articles that address real dog problems and how to deal with them, as written by a professional dog trainer. The site is http://www.dogtrainingbasics.com/articles.htm. Thanks, Shawn 64.230.24.94 17:00, 3 August 2006 (UTC)

Learning Theory
Does anyone have a reference for this: "According to Learning Theory there are four important messages that the handler can send the dog: Reward or release marker Correct behavior. You have earned a reward. For example, "Free" or "Okay" followed by a reward. Keep going signal Correct behavior. Continue and you will earn a reward. For example, "Good". No reward marker Incorrect behavior. Try something else. For example, "Uh-uh" or "Try again". Punishment marker Incorrect behavior. You have earned punishment. For example, "No" or more specific commands like "off," "out," or "leave it."

I've never heard of these "four messages" before, and I know quite a lot about learning theory.

Controversy
Does anyone else think there should be a section on the controversy between different schools of thought in dog training? For example, some people strongly believe that positive punishment is inhumane and that all dogs can be trained using postive punshment/negative reinforcement alone (e.g Karen Pryor, Turid Rugaas), whereas others think that positive punishment is necessary to proof dogs against distractions to have a reliable dog (e.g Koehler, Ed Frawley, Monks of New Skeete). Some trainers believe that using "pack theory" is sufficient in order to have a well behaved dog (e.g Cesar Millan, Jan Fennell) whereas others think it is completely unnecessary (e.g most behaviourists, such as Karen Pryor and Jean Donaldson). Some trainers are keen on correction collars or headcollars, whereas others think that either (or both) are inhumane.

I think it's imporant to reflect these differences of opinion in the article, since they reflect fundamental differences in how trainers work with dogs, and they are a real source of argument and division between dog trainers. Thanks, Rachel 7 Oct 2006.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Horticulture/Glossary

This is a glossary of botanical and horticultural terms used in Horticulture.

Bulb
A bulb is an underground plant organ used for storing food by certain monocots. While often called a root, bulbs are actually made up of modified leaves.

Rhizome
Under ground modified stem (eg) Ginger and Turmeric

Stolon
A Stolon is a modified stem which grows either beneath the soil or along the soil surface usually to root at the nodes.

/Project

title: Horticulture/Glossary


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User talk:209.74.22.164

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 14:05, 30 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:209.74.22.164


text:
C++ Programming/Programming Languages/Paradigms

Programming paradigms
A programming paradigm is a model of programming based on distinct concepts that shapes the way programmers design, organize and write programs. A multi-paradigm programming language allows programmers to choose a specific single approach or mix parts of different programming paradigms. C++ as a multi-paradigm programming language supports single or mixed approaches using Procedural or Object-oriented programming and mixing in utilization of Generic and even Functional programming concepts.

Procedural programming
Procedural programming can be defined as a subtype of imperative programming as a programming paradigm based upon the concept of procedure calls, in which statements are structured into procedures (also known as subroutines or functions). Procedure calls are modular and are bound by scope. A procedural program is composed of one or more modules. Each module is composed of one or more subprograms. Modules may consist of procedures, functions, subroutines or methods, depending on the programming language. Procedural programs may possibly have multiple levels or scopes, with subprograms defined inside other subprograms. Each scope can contain names which cannot be seen in outer scopes.

Procedural programming offers many benefits over simple sequential programming since procedural code:
 * is easier to read and more maintainable
 * is more flexible
 * facilitates the practice of good program design
 * allows modules to be used again in the form of code libraries.

Statically typed
Typing refers to how a computer language handles its variables, how they are differentiated by type. Variables are values that the program uses during execution. These values can change; they are variable, hence their name. Static typing usually results in compiled code that executes more quickly. When the compiler knows the exact types that are in use, it can produce machine code that does the right thing easier. In C++, variables need to be defined before they are used so that compilers know what type they are, and hence is statically typed. Languages that are not statically typed are called dynamically typed.

Static typing usually finds type errors more reliably at compile time, increasing the reliability of compiled programs. Simply put, it means that "A round peg won't fit in a square hole", so the compiler will report it when a type leads to ambiguity or incompatible usage. However, programmers disagree over how common type errors are and what proportion of bugs that are written would be caught by static typing. Static typing advocates believe programs are more reliable when they have been type checked, while dynamic typing advocates point to dynamic code that has proved reliable and to small bug databases. The value of static typing, then, presumably increases as the strength of the type system is increased.

A statically typed system constrains the use of powerful language constructs more than it constrains less powerful ones. This makes powerful constructs harder to use, and thus places the burden of choosing the "right tool for the problem" on the shoulders of the programmer, who might otherwise be inclined to use the most powerful tool available. Choosing overly powerful tools may cause additional performance, reliability or correctness problems, because there are theoretical limits on the properties that can be expected from powerful language constructs. For example, indiscriminate use of recursion or global variables may cause well-documented adverse effects.

Static typing allows construction of libraries which are less likely to be accidentally misused by their users. This can be used as an additional mechanism for communicating the intentions of the library developer.

Type checking
Type checking is the process of verifying and enforcing the constraints of types, which can occur at either compile-time or run-time. Compile time checking, also called static type checking, is carried out by the compiler when a program is compiled. Run time checking, also called dynamic type checking, is carried out by the program as it is running. A programming language is said to be strongly typed if the type system ensures that conversions between types must be either valid or result in an error. A weakly typed language on the other hand makes no such guarantees and generally allows automatic conversions between types which may have no useful purpose. C++ falls somewhere in the middle, allowing a mix of automatic type conversion and programmer defined conversions, allowing for almost complete flexibility in interpreting one type as being of another type. Converting variables or expression of one type into another type is called type casting.

Object-oriented programming
Object-oriented programming can be seen as an extension of procedural programming in which programs are made up of collections of individual units called objects that have a distinct purpose and function with limited or no dependencies on implementation. For example, a car is like an object; it gets you from point A to point B with no need to know what type of engine the car uses or how the engine works. Object-oriented languages usually provide a means of documenting what an object can and cannot do, like instructions for driving a car.

Objects and Classes
An object is composed of members and methods. The members (also called data members, characteristics, attributes, or properties) describe the object. The methods generally describe the actions associated with a particular object. Think of an object as a noun, its members as adjectives describing that noun, and its methods as the verbs that can be performed by or on that noun.

For example, a sports car is an object. Some of its members might be its height, weight, acceleration, and speed. An object's members just hold data about that object. Some of the methods of the sports car could be "drive", "park", "race", etc. The methods really do not mean much unless associated with the sports car, and the same goes for the members.

The "blueprint" that lets us build our sports car object is called a class. A class does not tell us how fast our sports car goes, or what color it is, but it does tell us that our sports car will have a member representing speed and color, and that they will be say, a number and a word, respectively. The class also lays out the methods for us, telling the car how to park and drive, but these methods can not take any action with just the blueprint - they need an object to have an effect.

Class in C++ is the same as structure in C; The difference is that class users can hide data through the private option. In C++, an object is an instance of a class which is treated like a built-in variable which holds many values.

Encapsulation
Encapsulation, the principle of information hiding (from the user), is the process of hiding the data structures of the class and allowing changes in the data through a public interface where the incoming values are checked for validity, and so not only it permits the hiding of data in an object but also of behavior. This prevents clients of an interface from depending on those parts of the implementation that are likely to change in future, thereby allowing those changes to be made more easily, that is, without changes to clients. In modern programming languages, the principle of information hiding manifests itself in a number of ways, including encapsulation and polymorphism.

Generic programming
Generic programming or polymorphism is a programming style that emphasizes techniques that allow one value to take on different types as long as certain contracts such as subtypes and signature are kept. In simpler terms generic programming is based in finding the most abstract representations of efficient algorithms. Templates popularized the notion of generics. Templates allow code to be written without consideration of the type with which it will eventually be used. Templates are defined in the Standard Template Library (STL), where generic programming was introduced into C++.

Free-form
Free-form refers to how the programmer crafts the code. Basically, there are no rules on how you choose to write your program, save for the semantic rules of C++. Any C++ program should compile as long as it is legal C++.

The free-form nature of C++ is used (or abused, depending on your point of view) by some programmers in crafting obfuscated C++ (code that is purposefully written to be difficult to understand). In the right context this can also be seen as a show of craftsmanship (non functional but artful control over the language) but in general the use for obfuscation is seen only useful as a source security mechanism, ensuring that the source code is more intentionally difficult to analyze, replicate or use by third parties. With enough understanding about the compilers, source code can also be designed to preserve "water marks" in its compiled form that will permit tracing it to the original source.


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User talk:Cathytkerns

I am in the process of sending you an email now about your offer to help work on the Chinese (Mandarin) wikibook. If you have any questions, you can send me a message on my talk page. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 14:13, 30 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cathytkerns


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User talk:Niklo~enwikibooks

Beach Conflict
I just wanted to let you know that your book, Beach Conflict had been nominated for deletion, and it has been deleted. One of the biggest concerns was that you said in the text of that page that the material was under copyright, and that it could not be used without permission. All text on wikibooks must be released under the terms of the GFDL, or a compatable license. Since your text was not released under this license, it had to be deleted. There are a few options for you:

 * 1) If you would like to save a copy of the material for your own personal records, or if you would like to move the material to another website with a different copyright policy, I will undelete the page for you temporarily, and provide you with a complete copy of the page text.
 * 2) If you would like to release the material under the terms of the GFDL, I will delete the page for you, and give you time to remove any copyright notices that are in violation of the GFDL. Keep in mind that your page might be deleted again if it violates any of the other Wikibooks policies.

If you have any questions about this, please let me know. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 14:25, 30 October 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Niklo. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Niklo~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:32, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:18, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Niklo~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:82.1.183.196

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 14:26, 30 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:82.1.183.196


text:
XForms/Validate with schema types

Motivation
You would like to use a library of XML Schema simple types with restrictions to validate your form.

Notice
Most type validation with the exception of the most simple types does not currently work under the FireFox extension.

title: XForms/Validate with schema types


text:
User talk:193.60.199.36

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 14:57, 30 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:193.60.199.36


text:
Talk:Rhetoric and Composition/Rhetorical Analysis

12/17/2012: Hello, what I am planning on doing for this section of this wiki book take the information on the page and make it a bit more accessible. I will attempt to comply with the requests you, Dr. Barton, have made at the top of the page. Along with making the information more accessible, I would like to attempt to expand and add examples as I see fit throughout the section. Finally, I will work to incorporate any information I can to address the suggestions listed below. Essentially, my goal is to make this portion of the book accessible and aesthetically pleasing. -E. Kelly.

I am not sure we are really need to talk about how to write an essay (i.e. thesis statements) in how to write a rhertorical analysis. I think the bigger situation that needs to be addressed is what is seen in the numbered list. Shouldn't we expand on these a bit?

I also think somewhere someone should mention how a rhetorical analysis differs from a review. What about a section on Aristotle's rhetoric? Ethos, pathos, logos?

Today I just made the page look more aesthetically pleasing, while making some minor grammatical corrections. Later this week I'll try adding more content.

12/4 Does anyone think we should put up an exemplary rhetorical analysis? It might be a nice thing to have. I found some good ones online, and have a couple from past classes, but would need to get the appropriate people's permission.

11/12/08 I am in the process of elaborating this entire page. I have already added a fairly comprehensive list of fallacies, and am working next on the rhetorical devices beyond the Aristotelian pathos, ethos, and logos.

Logic issue...
On the section that states:

"Say that you are writing a paper on immigration and you say "55,000 illegal immigrants entered this country last year, of those, only 23,000 did it legally." There is obviously something wrong here. Although saying 55,000 immigrants were "illegal" makes for an impressive statistic, it is apparently not correct if you admit that 23,000 of these people immigrated legally. The actual number of illegal immigrants would then be only 32,000, a significantly lower number. The purpose of this example is to demonstrate how having logical progression to an argument is essential in effectively communicating your intended message."

The interpretation given fails as a proper example. An immigrant may enter legally into a country and later become rightly labeled as an illegal immigrant, so the statement "55,000 illegal immigrants entered this country last year, of those, only 23,000 did it legally." becomes correct under that light, even if a bit confusing if one does not understand the ways the status of an immigrant may change overtime. For example if a work or study visa is voided the immigrant status after some legal established timeframe changes... --Panic (discuss • contribs) 19:45, 7 August 2015 (UTC)


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User:Meatballhat

Hello there, I am Dan Buch.

title: User:Meatballhat


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Geocaching - Advanced

History
The design of GPS is based partly on the similar ground-based radio navigation systems, such as LORAN and the Decca Navigator developed in the early 1940s, and used during World War II. Additional inspiration for the GPS system came when the Soviet Union launched the first Sputnik in 1957. A team of U.S. scientists led by Dr. Richard B. Kershner were monitoring Sputnik's radio transmissions. They discovered that, because of the Doppler effect, the frequency of the signal being transmitted by Sputnik was higher as the satellite approached, and lower as it continued away from them. They realized that since they knew their exact location on the globe, they could pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit by measuring the Doppler distortion.

The first satellite navigation system, Transit, used by the United States Navy, was first successfully tested in 1960. Using a constellation of five satellites, it could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour. In 1967, the U.S. Navy developed the Timation satellite which proved the ability to place accurate clocks in space, a technology the GPS system relies upon. In the 1970s, the ground-based Omega Navigation System, based on signal phase comparison, became the first world-wide radio navigation system.

The first experimental Block-I GPS satellite was launched in February 1978. The GPS satellites were initially manufactured by Rockwell International and are now manufactured by Lockheed Martin.

Timeline

 * In 1972, the US Air Force Central Inertial Guidance Test Facility (Holloman AFB) conducted developmental fight tests of two prototype GPS receivers over White Sands Missile Range, using ground-based pseudo-satellites.
 * In 1978 the first experimental Block-I GPS satellite was launched.
 * In 1983, after Soviet interceptor aircraft shot down the civilian airliner Korean Air Flight 007 in restricted Soviet airspace, killing all 269 people on board, U.S. President Ronald Reagan announced that the GPS system would be made available for civilian uses once it was completed.
 * By 1985, ten more experimental Block-I satellites had been launched to validate the concept.
 * On February 14, 1989, the first modern Block-II satellite was launched.
 * In 1992, the 2nd Space Wing, which originally managed the system, was de-activated and replaced by the 50th Space Wing.
 * By December 1993 the GPS system achieved initial operational capability.
 * By January 17, 1994 a complete constellation of 24 satellites was in orbit.
 * Full Operational Capability was declared by NAVSTAR in April 1995.
 * In 1996, recognizing the importance of GPS to civilian users as well as military users, U.S. President Bill Clinton issued a policy directive declaring GPS to be a dual-use system and establishing an Interagency GPS Executive Board to manage it as a national asset.
 * In 1998, U.S. Vice President Al Gore announced plans to upgrade GPS with two new civilian signals for enhanced user accuracy and reliability, particularly with respect to aviation safety.
 * On May 2, 2000 "Selective Availability" was discontinued as a result of the 1996 executive order, allowing users to receive a non-degraded signal globally.
 * In 2004, the United States Government signed a historic agreement with the European Community establishing cooperation related to GPS and Europe's planned Galileo system.
 * In 2004, U.S. President George W. Bush updated the national policy, replacing the executive board with the National Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Executive Committee.
 * November 2004, QUALCOMM announced successful tests of Assisted-GPS system for mobile phones.
 * In 2005, the first modernized GPS satellite was launched and began transmitting a second civilian signal (L2C) for enhanced user performance.

3. Define latitude, longitude. What is meant by degrees, minutes, seconds?

 * Latitude: Latitude describes the north-south position on the globe and is measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds. The 0° line is a circle around the Earth's equator.  Latitude changes as one moves north to south, or south to north.  It does not change as one moves from east to west or west to east.
 * Longitude: Longitude describes the east-west position on the globe, and like latitude, is also measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds. All longitude lines begin and end at the North and South Poles.  The 0° longitude line begins at the North Pole, passes through Greenwich, England, and then continues to the South Pole.  Longitude changes as one moves east to west, or west to east.  It does not change as one moves from north to south or south to west.

 * Degrees: Most people become familiar with the angular measurement of a degree in a mathematics class when they are introduced to the protractor.  The degree used in Geocaching is this very same measurement.  Latitude measures the angle made by two lines which both originate at the very center of the Earth.  The first line extends from the center of the Earth to the equator, and the second line extends from the center of the Earth to the position being described.  Longitude is similar, measuring the angle formed by two lines - one extending from the center of the Earth to the equator directly south of Greenwich, England, and the other extending from the center of the Earth to a position on the equator directly north or south of the measured position.
 * Minutes: A degree is not a very precise measurement of an angle when considering something as large as the planet Earth.  If only degrees were used to specify a person's position, we could only get within about  of the person's position.  Therefore, a degree is divided into 60 finer measurements called minutes.  Minutes in Geocaching has little to do with time.
 * Seconds: Even with the finer angular resolution of minutes, we can still only get to within about of a person's position, so the minute is divided into seconds.  One second can get us to within about  of a position, so they are typically specified to a couple of decimal places, as in "25.65 seconds".

Latitude and longitude are specified in degrees, minutes, and seconds, as in 43°22'54.31". Here the number preceding the ° symbol (43) is the number of degrees, the number preceding the ' (22) is the number of minutes, and the number before the " (54.31) is the number of seconds. When we go down to one hundredth of a second, we can specify a location to within about.

a. Establish and maintain a new geocache in your area for at least 6-months.
Be sure to read these guidelines for hiding a geocache. In short:
 * Choose an area to hide your geocache
 * Make sure it's legal, and that you have permission.
 * Make sure that the added attention of geocachers will not damage a sensitive site (historic or natural)
 * Hide it out of sight of casual passersby.
 * Prepare your cache
 * Choose a container. Popular choices include plastic food-storing containers such as Tupperware, ammo boxes, and water-proof boxes used on boats.  The container should be waterproof and be able to withstand the rigors of the weather.
 * Add a logbook and (optionally), a pencil. Ink freezes.
 * Write a note to the geocachers who find your cache.
 * Add a small gift (optional)
 * Add a Travel Bug (optional)
 * Get the GPS coordinates
 * Make sure they are accurate.
 * Take several readings and average them
 * Follow your GPS to the site from different directions
 * Write the coordinates on the container and in the logbook.
 * Register your cache
 * Find the form at http://geocaching.com
 * Write up a good description of the area, including notes of interest (history, etc.)
 * Double-check for accuracy
 * Maintenance
 * Check that the container is still water-tight and seals properly
 * Check that the logbook is still there
 * Assess the area for damage caused by cachers and make adjustments if necessary

b. Send out and follow a TB (travel bug) for 6 months.
You can order travel bugs from geocaching.com and from other places as well. Think of some sort of goal for your TB, and plant it in a cache - maybe even one you have started yourself in requirement 6a above.

c. Find 2 travel bugs and follow for 6 months
Though travel bugs are not expensive, it's even cheaper to find them and track them than it is to buy one and send it out. Watch the geocaches in your area and look for TB's to be dropped off in them. Then pick them up and help them meet their goals.

d. Participate in a geocache meeting or event in your area (attend).
Check the geocaching calendar to find an event near you. If there is not one, you could always host one yourself. If you host it at your church you will raise your community's awareness of your church. However, do not try to make this an evangelistic meeting, as this would be frowned upon by the geocaching community and would give you and your church a bad name. It is enough that people learn where your church is.

a. State Parks National Park Service
The U.S. National Park Service prohibits geocaches on land it manages.

b. Roads and Railroad Right-of-Ways
It is a federal offense in the United States to trespass on an active railroad right-of-way. Geocaches should be located a minimum of from any active rail line.

c. Placing caches while traveling
A person who places a cache is responsible for maintaining it. This means it must be physically visited on a regular basis. Unless the cache placer is able to pay frequent visits to the cache site, the cache should not be placed.

d. Wilderness Areas in National Forest Areas
National Forests are managed by the U.S. Forest Service, which recognizes geocaching as a legitimate recreational activity. However, geocachers must be careful to observe the rules of using the National Forests. Trees, plants, and streams are not to be damaged.

Wilderness areas within National Forests are not to be used for geocaching. These areas are to remain undeveloped, and all traces of human activity are to be minimized.

e. USDA Forest Service

 * Guidelines at Wayne National Forest - http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wayne/recreation_sites/geocache.html

6. Find and record at least 18 geocaches; include: a. Traditional cache with 3-star difficulty b. One Multi-level c. One virtual d. One micro
You can record your finds on the geocaching website, so don't worry about setting up some sort of elaborate system. Getting each of these types of cache will most likely come naturally, so you don't really need to pay particular attention to that when you get started. As you near your 18th cache, check them over and see how many of these four types you already got "automatically" - then work on getting the rest. By the time you log your 18th, you will likely have found a new hobby, and more will come.


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X Window Programming/Resources

Resources

 * Xorg Foundation Official Website (http://www.x.org)
 * X Window FAQs (http://www.faqs.org/faqs/x-faq/)
 * X Window Wikipedia entry (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Window_System)

 * XLib Programming Manual, Published by O'Reilly & Associates, Inc. (http://www.sbin.org/doc/Xlib/)
 * XLib Functions Manual (http://tronche.com/gui/x/xlib/function-index.html)

 * GTK+ References (http://www.gtk.org/api/)
 * GTK+ Tutorial (http://www.gtk.org/tutorial/)

 * XCB wiki (http://xcb.freedesktop.org/)
 * XCB API reference (http://xcb.freedesktop.org/XcbApi)
 * XCB Further publications (http://xcb.freedesktop.org/Publications)

 * SDL website (http://www.libsdl.org)
 * SDL.NET homepage (http://cs-sdl.sourceforge.net)
 * The Game Programming Wiki's SDL Tutorials (http://gpwiki.org/index.php/SDL_tutorials)
 * SDL Documentation (http://www.libsdl.org/cgi/docwiki.cgi/FrontPage)
 * Site dedicated to SDL. SDL forum (http://gamescreators.sourceforge.net/)

 * Official OpenGL Website (http://www.opengl.org)
 * SGI's OpenGL website (http://www.sgi.com/products/software/opengl/)

title: X Window Programming/Resources


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User talk:82.209.218.31

This is your last warning. The next time you insert a commercial link you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks. -- Herby talk thyme 19:35, 30 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:82.209.218.31