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User:Rajiv64

Academics
Ph.D. Applied Mathematics, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India

https://www.facebook.com/Dr.Rajeev.Shrivastava

http://www.Rajeev-Shrivastava.com

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=toFF8v8m02E

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OLglpTpJpvA

3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kK5yROFc

http://www.springerlink.com/content/t82713106k4j0168/

http://www.springerlink.com/content/u422871r12162802/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mveLtbiDp5M

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OUpt38w1BpI&feature=youtu.be

http://www.Rajeev-Shrivastava.com/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OUpt38w1BpI

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P8l-mHGS080

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=toFF8v8m02E

http://www.orkut.com/Profile.aspx?uid=2058727320573141066

Publications (Conference Proceedings)
1.	"AN EXPERT SYSTEM FOR THE FAULT DIAGNOSIS OF A MONOCHROME TELEVISION RECEIVER", Proc. National Symposium on Artificial Intelligence and Simulation, Coimbatore, Feb. 1990.

2.	"CORRELATION FILTER FOR OPTICAL PATTRN RECOGNITION ", Proc. Second Annual Conference & Symposium Application of Mathematics in Modern Science & Technology. Aug 18-19,1990.

3.	"Fiber Optics & Its Application in Optical Fiber Application", Proc. National Seminar on Telematics & Optical Fiber, Institution of Engineers (India) Nov. 8 & 9, 1992.

4.	"Typical Space Craft Digital Communication System for Scientific Satellites", Proc. National Seminar on Telematics & Optical Fiber, Institution of Engineers (India), 1992.

5.	"Common Fixed Point Theorems for Three Mappings", Proc. National Research Seminar on Recent Trends in Space Physics, Feb 13 & 14, 1995.

6.	"Fixed Point Theorem for a Pair of Non- Committing Mapping in Hilbert Space" Proc. National Research Seminar in Mathematics on recent advance in Special Function, Integral Transform and Fixed Point Theory, 1995.

7.	“Fixed Point Theorem under Asymptotic Regulatory:, Proc Tenth Annual Conference of Ramanujan Mathematics Society,  Rishikesh, May 1995.

8.	“Fourier Bessel Series for I- function of two variables”, Proc. 42nd Conf. Of ISTAM, Surat, 1992.

9.	“Application of I-function of two variables in an angular displacement in a shaft”, Proc. National Seminar on impact of Computer on Mathematics, 1999.

10.	“Generating function for I-function of two variables”, Proc. Fifth National Conference of Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 1998.

Publications (In Referred Journals)
11.	“An expansion of I-function of two variables involving generalized Legendre’s associated function”, ACTA Ciencia Indica, 1997.

12.	“Application of I function of two variable in problem of vibration in string”, Journal of Indian Academic Math. Vol. 20, No2 P 163-168., 1998.

13.	“A unique method for reducing losses of bends in dielectric optical wave guide”, International Journal of Infrared and Millimeter Waves vol. No. 7, 1993 pp. 1445-1443.

14.	“Strip dielectric wave guide antenna- for the measurement of dielectric constant of the low loss materials”, International Journal of Infrared and Millimeter Waves vol.. 14, No. 7, 1993 pp. 1471-1483.

15.	“Some finite integrals involving I-functions of two variables”, Acta Ciencia Indica vol. XXIV M no. 1, p.87-92., 1998

References :

Journal	International Journal of Infrared and Millimeter Waves
ISSN	0195-9271 (Print) 1572-9559 (Online) 0195-9271 (Print) 1572-9559 (Online) Volume 14, Number 7 / July, 1993 SpringerLink Date	Monday, August 15, 2005 1445-1453 ; 1471-1489

Seminars / Workshops / Symposiums / Technical Sessions
1.	Attended and actively involved in Organizing as Hon. Secretary CSI “Destination Madhya Pradesh: Investment Opportunities in IT / BPO “, 9th August 2007 at Bhopal.

2.	Microsoft Strategic Architect Forum India – 2007 (SAF) Executive Partner Summit India 2007, 28 Feb - 2 March 2007 at Grand Hyatt Mumbai.

3.	Attended India Leadership Forum – 2007 ; NASSCOM AT MUMBAI

4.	Workshop for development of instructional material on Information and Communication Technology for General Foundation Course (GFC) Nov. 3-7 at Pandit Sunder Lal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational Education (PSSCIVE), NCERT under MHRD ; Bhopal.

5.	Workshop on development of Competency based modules on Computer and Information technology related courses – Oct 21 – 25 2002;  Pandit Sunder Lal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational Education (PSSCIVE), NCERT Bhopal.

6.	Workshop on development of instructional module  in the selected areas  of IT for visually handicapped ; Oct 9 – 11, 2002 : Pandit Sunder Lal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational Education (PSSCIVE), NCERT Bhopal.

7.	Seminar on PC and Data Security organized by Computer Society of India, Bhopal, 18.01.1992.

8.	Seminar on PC Productivity Inst. of Engineers, CSI Bhopal, 10.06.

9.	Entrepreneurship Development Program, MACT, Bhopal 27-07-1992 to 05-09-1992.

10.	Workshop – ISO – 9000, MACT Bhopal 10& 11 Nov. 1992.

11.	VIII Convention of Computer Engineers, Nov. 27 & 28 – 1992, Bhopal.

12.	Workshop on Software Development & Export Strategies, 29-30 Jan 1993, MACT Bhopal.

13.	Workshop on “New Project Opportunities- Electronics", 2 & 3  April, 1993.

14.	"Lotus Technology Presentation : SmartSuite / Improve / Notes" Sept. 1993.

15.	Seminar on "Electronic Mail – An user perspective", April 5, 1993, Bhopal.

16.	Workshop on "Turbo Analyst – A CASE Tool”, Feb 8-1994.

17.	The Technology Seminar on “Trends in Data Communication and Multi Media", 8 Feb. 1995, Bhopal.

18.	Workshop on Networking, June 16, 1994.

19.	"Workshop Data Communication" Sept 05, 1994 – Cyberexpo and PCQuest, Hotel Taj Palace, New Delhi.

20.	"Technology Seminar Network" 12.08.1995, Bhopal.

21.	"National Convention & Seminar on "Logistic Management in 2000 AD: Changes & Strategies” April 20-21, 1996.

Skills
•	 Languages : Basic, COBOL, Fortran, Pascal, C, C++,VB .Net

•	 DBMS :  FoxBASE, FoxPro,

•	 RDBMS : MS Access, Oracle, SQL Server, ,INGRES, Sybase

•	 Front End Packages : Visual Basic, VB.Net, Developer 2000

•	 Other Packages : Crystal Report,  MS Office etc

•	 Networking : LAN, WAN, Wi-Fi

•	 Operating System : Windows,, DOS,Windows 3.11, NT, 98,2000, 2003,CE,Unix, Symbian,

•	 Theoretical Computer Sciences and Applied Mathematics

Language
English

Sanskrit

Urdu

Hindi

French

Courses Taught
Fundamentals of Computing

Data Structures

Principles of Programming Languages

Programming Tools and Techniques

Systems Analysis and Design, Software Engg and Methodologies

Networking and Communications

Database Technologies

Web Technologies

Multimedia Technologies

Industrial Process and Office Automation

Numerical Analysis

Operations Research

Adv. Statistics

File System & Data Processing - COBOL

Fortran, Pascal, C, Basic, VB , Prolog, Lisp

DBMS, RDBMS - Oracle

TOC, Discrete Mathematics

Special Functions : Transforms

Presentations
1.	18 minutes ppt in the programme CM meeting with Mr. William Daley, Secy , US Deptt. Of Commerce and Mr P R Kumrmanglam, Union Minister for Power on 23 March 2000 at Taj Palace, Sardar Patel Marg, New Delhi under auspicious of Indo American Chamber of Commerce.

2.	“Business Opportunities and M.P Govt. Initiatives” to his Excellency Dr. Henrich Dietrich Dieckmann, German Ambassador to India and Mrs. E. Bierenaur, first secretary German Embassy, at New Delhi 6.4.2000.

3.	“Overview of the economic activities of the state and infrastructure facilities in M.P”. to Canadian High Commissioner Mr. Peter Walker., May 23, 2000.

4.	“Trends problems and prospects in the infrastructure sector in M.P. development forum in the presence of Hon’ble CM Hon’ble finance Minister Col. Ajay Narayan Mushran, 17 Jan, 2001, to the India Resident Mission of ADB, hon’ble Ms. Clare Short, Secy of state International Development, Govt, of U.K.

5.	Presentation in Pacific Asia Travel Association PHD chambers of C&I, 31 July 2000.

6.	“New Vistas of M P Economy” in an interface between the Chief Minister of M.P, on 12th August,2000 at federation House New Delhi, FICCI & business men of the country, representative of Central & State Govt. Banks, FIS economic journalists and academicians. (the state was ranked 17th among the 17th major states in term of infrastructure index in 1994. the business today ranking of the best states to invest the in has placed MP at 15th position. CEO’s in the business today survey have ranked MP as ninth best state to invest in largely because of the protective role of the state Govt. in the presence of Mr G P Goenka president FICCI, Mr Ranjeet Vithaldas, Mr Prafull Maheshwari, Mr PC Sen PS , C & I, GoMP, Mr Narendra Nahata Hon'ble Minister C  & I.

7.	CLSA rediscovering India conference 8th–10th November 2000. at the Grand Hayat, New Delhi to the generating of investors (Credit Lyonnais Securities India Ltd)

8.	“Meeting with economic mission from Japan at hotel Le Meridian New Delhi on 30th October, 2000. FICCI: Mr. Murosoli Maran, Hon’ble minister C&I, H.E. Hiroshi Hirabayashi, Ambassador of Japan, Mr. N. Kawamboto, Chairman, Japan-India Business co-operation committee, Mr. Vikram M. Thaper, Chairman India Japan Business Co-operation   committee etc. etc. etc.

9.	“Competitiveness of Exports from North India : Role of State Govt.” 14 July 2000.

10.	A PPT in “Tourism Awareness Program “ PHD Chamber of Commerce, C & I Deptt., Pacific Asia Travel Association, MPTD, in the presence of Ms Aruna Sharma, Atul Sinha DG, Ramesh Agrwal, D K Samanth Ray , O P Ahuja.

11.	Presentation in the interactive meeting of Hon’ble CM with Ambassador of Japan and First Secy Seiji Takagi on 17 Aug 2000 at Ambassador’s residence, Embassy of Japan, Shantipath Chankyapuri under auspicious SANMOKU-KAI members.

12.	“Changing Face of Madhya Pradesh” – Indian Merchant Chamber Bombay, Meeting with Shri Dig Vijay Singh CM of MP, 25 Aug 2000.

13.	A PPT on “ M P Development Strategy” in M P Development Forum on 17 Aug 2001, Hon;ble CM, Hon’ble Secy for International Development, Ms Clare Short, Govt. of Britain, Dr. N J Kurian, Advisor Planning Commission GoI, Ms Chirstine Wallach, Director ADB Manila, Shri Vinod Dhal Secy Finance, GoMP.

14.	“Creating an architecture for people centered developed : The Madhya Pradesh Experience”.

15.	A PPT on “ Decentralisation : New Opportunities”, a programme organized by UNDP and GoMP – Hon’ble CM, Shri Ajay Singh , Minister for Panchayat and Rural Development, Mr Shree Niwas Tiwari, Speaker Vidhan Sabha.Mr Hafiz  A Pasha , UN Asstt. Secy General, & UNDP Asstt. Commissioner; Mr M Y Ghorpade, Minister for Rural Development Karnataka, Mr Mani Shankar, Dr. Brenda McSweeney, UNDP Resident Representative & UN Resident Co-ordinator.

16.	“ Decentralisation Experience from the field : International best practices” ; in presence Mr Adarsh Kishore, Addl Secy GoI, Deptt of Economics Affairs, Mr. James Knight, Fedration of Canadian Municipalties ; Dr Tau Sun , Dean Tiajin , College of Administration China, Mr Kiran Karnik President NASSCOM.

.     ..

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User:Mokurai~enwikibooks

 * Earth Treasury Connect schools and teach children around the world how to create sustainable international businesses together. End Poverty at a Profit.
 * My One Laptop Per Child user page
 * My LinkedIn profile Contributors to ICT4D: Theory and Practice should connect with me.

title: User:Mokurai~enwikibooks


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User talk:Mokurai~enwikibooks

Welcome to Wikibooks, Mokurai!

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Hello,

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Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Mokurai. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Mokurai~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

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Renamed
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Join Us!
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General Chemistry/Properties and Theories of Acids and Bases

Acid-Base Reaction Theories
Acids and bases are everywhere. Some foods contain acid, like the citric acid in lemons and the lactic acid in dairy. Cleaning products like bleach and ammonia are bases. Chemicals that are acidic or basic are an important part of chemistry.

Several different theories explain what composes an acid and a base. The first scientific definition of an acid was proposed by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier in the eighteenth century. He proposed that acids contained oxygen, although he did not know the dual composition of acids such as hydrochloric acid (HCl). Over the years, much more accurate definitions of acids and bases have been created.

Arrhenius Theory
The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius published his theory of acids and bases in 1887. It can be simply explained by these two points:

Based on this definition, you can see that Arrhenius acids must be soluble in water. Arrhenius acid-base reactions can be summarized with three generic equations:

The Arrhenius theory is simple and useful. It explains many properties and reactions of acids and bases. For instance, mixing hydrochloric acid (HCl) with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) results in a neutral solution containing table salt (NaCl).

However, the Arrhenius theory is not without flaws. There are many well known bases, such as ammonia (NH3) that do not contain the hydroxide ion. Furthermore, acid-base reactions are observed in solutions that do not contain water. To resolve these problems, there is a more advanced acid-base theory.

Brønsted-Lowry Theory
The Brønsted-Lowry theory was proposed in 1923. It is more general than the Arrhenius theory—all Arrhenius acids/bases are also Brønsted-Lowry acids/bases (but not necessarily vice versa).

Acids that can donate only one proton are monoprotic, and acids that can donate more than one proton are polyprotic.

These reactions demonstrate the behavior of Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases:

The Brønsted-Lowry theory is by far the most useful and commonly-used definition. For the remainder of General Chemistry, you can assume that any acids/bases use the Brønsted-Lowry definition, unless stated otherwise.

Lewis Theory
The Lewis definition is the most general theory, having no requirements for solubility or protons.

Lewis acids and bases react to create an adduct, a compound in which the acid and base have bonded by sharing the electron pair. Lewis acid/base reactions are different from redox reactions because there is no change in oxidation state.

Amphoterism and Water
Substances capable of acting as either an acid or a base are amphoteric. Water is the most important amphoteric substance. It can ionize into hydroxide (OH-, a base) or hydronium (H3O+, an acid). By doing so, water is
 * 1) Increasing the H+ or OH- concentration (Arrhenius),
 * 2) Donating or accepting a proton (Brønsted-Lowry), and
 * 3) Accepting or donating an electron pair (Lewis).

Water will dissociate very slightly (which further explains its amphoteric properties).

Ammonia
Another common example of an amphoteric substance is ammonia. Ammonia is normally a base, but in some reactions it can act like an acid.

Ammonia's amphoteric properties are not often seen because ammonia typically acts like a base. Water, on the other hand, is completely neutral, so its acid and base behaviors are both observed commonly.

Conjugate Acids and Bases
In all the theories, the products of an acid-base reaction are related to the initial reactants of the reaction. For example, in the Brønsted-Lowry theory, this relationship is the difference of a proton between a reactant and product. Two substances which exhibit this relationship form a conjugate acid-base pair.

Strong and Weak Acids/Bases
A strong acid is an acid which dissociates completely in water. That is, all the acid molecules break up into ions and solvate (attach) to water molecules. Therefore, the concentration of hydronium ions in a strong acid solution is equal to the concentration of the acid.

The majority of acids exist as weak acids, an acid which dissociates only partially. On average, only about 1% of a weak acid solution dissociates in water in a 0.1 mol/L solution. Therefore, the concentration of hydronium ions in a weak acid solution is always less than the concentration of the dissolved acid.

Strong bases and weak bases do not require additional explanation; the concept is the same.

This explains why, in all of the above example reactions, the reverse chemical reaction does not occur. The stronger acid/base will prevail, and the weaker one will not contribute to the overall acidity/basicity. For example, hydrochloric acid is strong, and upon dissociation chloride ions are formed. Chloride ions are a weak base, but the solution is not basic because the acidity of HCl is overwhelmingly stronger than basicity of Cl-.

Most acids and bases are weak. You should be familiar with the most common strong acids and assume that any other acids are weak.

Within a series of oxyacids, the ions with the greatest number of oxygen molecules are the strongest. For example, nitric acid (HNO3) is strong, but nitrous acid (HNO2) is weak. Perchloric acid (HClO4) is stronger than chloric acid (HClO3), which is stronger than the weak chlorous acid (HClO2). Hypochlorous acid (HClO) is the weakest of the four.

Common strong bases are the hydroxides of Group 1 and most Group 2 metals. For example, potassium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide are some of the strongest bases. You can assume that any other bases (including ammonia and ammonium hydroxide) are weak.

Properties of Acids and Bases
Now that you are aware of the acid-base theories, you can learn about the physical and chemical properties of acids and bases. Acids and bases have very different properties, allowing them to be distinguished by observation.

Indicators
Made with special chemical compounds that react slightly with an acid or base, indicators will change color in the presence of an acid or base. A common indicator is litmus paper. Litmus paper turns red in acidic conditions and blue in basic conditions. Phenolphthalein purple is colorless in acidic and neutral solutions, but it turns purple once the solution becomes basic. It is useful when attempting to neutralize an acidic solution; once the indicator turns purple, enough base has been added.

Conductivity
A less informative method is to test for conductivity. Acids and bases in aqueous solutions will conduct electricity because they contain dissolved ions. Therefore, acids and bases are electrolytes. Strong acids and bases will be strong electrolytes. Weak acids and bases will be weak electrolytes. This affects the amount of conductivity.

However, acids will react with metal, so testing conductivity may not be plausible.

Physical properties
The physical properties of acids and bases are opposites.

These properties are very general; they may not be true for every single acid or base.

Another warning: if an acid or base is spilled, it must be cleaned up immediately and properly (according to the procedures of the lab you are working in). If, for example, sodium hydroxide is spilled, the water will begin to evaporate. Sodium hydroxide does not evaporate, so the concentration of the base steadily increases until it becomes damaging to its surrounding surfaces.

Neutralization
Acids will react with bases to form a salt and water. This is a neutralization reaction. The products of a neutralization reaction are much less acidic or basic than the reactants were. For example, sodium hydroxide (a base) is added to hydrochloric acid.

$$\hbox{NaOH}_{(aq)} + \hbox{HCl}_{(aq)} \to \hbox{NaCl}_{(aq)} + \hbox{H}_2\hbox{O}_{(l)}$$

This is a double replacement reaction.

Bases
Bases are typically less reactive and violent than acids. They do still undergo many chemical reactions, especially with organic compounds. A common reaction is saponification: the reaction of a base with fat or oil to create soap.

Practice Questions
1. Name the following compounds that will form, and identify as an acid or base:

 * a) Br + H
 * b) 2H + SO3
 * c) K + H
 * d) 2H + SO6
 * e) 3H + P2
 * f) H + BrO2
 * g) Na + Cl

2. What are the conjugate acids and bases of the following:

 * a) water
 * b) ammonia
 * c) bisulfate ion
 * d) zinc hydroxide
 * e) hydrobromic acid
 * f) nitrite ion
 * g) dihydrogen phosphate ion

3. In a conductivity test, 5 different solutions were set up with light bulbs. The following observations were recorded:

 * Solution A glowed brightly.
 * Solution B glowed dimly.
 * Solution C glowed dimly.
 * Solution D did not glow.
 * Solution E glowed brightly.

 * a) Which solution(s) could contain strong bases?
 * b) Which solution(s) could contain weak acids?
 * c) Which solution(s) could contain ions?
 * d) Which solution(s) could contain pure water?
 * e) Based solely on these observations, would it be possible to distinguish between acidic and basic solutions?

4. Identity the conjugate base and conjugate acid in these following equations:

 * a) HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl-
 * b) HClO + H2O → ClO- + H3O+
 * c) CH3CH2NH2 + H2O → CH3CH2NH3+ + OH-

5. Identify these bases as Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, or both.

 * a) strontium hydroxide
 * b) butyllithium (C4H9Li)
 * c) ammonia
 * d) potassium hydroxide
 * e) potassium iodide

6. Based on the Brønsted-Lowry Theory of Acids and Bases, would you expect pure water to have no dissolved ions whatsoever? Explain, using a balanced chemical equation.

Answers: 1.     2.     3.     4.     5.     6.

= Notes =

 * 1)  Brown, Theodore E.; Lemay, H. Eugene; Bursten, Bruce E.; Murphy, Catherine; Woodward, Patrick (2009), Chemistry: The Central Science (11th ed.), New York: Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0136006175.

Answers to Properties of Acids and Bases Practice Questions

Introdução à Química/Ácidos e bases


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General Chemistry/Properties and Theories of Acids and Bases/Answers

1.

 * a) hydrobromic acid
 * b) sulfuric acid
 * c) potassium hydroxide, base
 * d) sulfurous acid
 * e) phosphoric acid
 * f) bromous acid
 * g) sodium chloride, neutral salt

2. Substance: conjugate acid; conjugate base

 * a) water (H2O): hydronium (H3O+); hydroxide (OH-)
 * b) ammonia (NH3): ammonium (NH4+); amide (NH2-)
 * c) bisulfate ion (HSO4-): sulfuric acid (H2SO4); sulfate ion (SO42-)
 * d) zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)2): Zn(OH)+; no conjugate base
 * e) hydrobromic acid (HBr): no conjugate acid; Br-
 * f) nitrite ion (NO2-): nitrous acid (HNO2); no conjugate base
 * g) dihydrogen phosphate ion (H2PO4-): phosphoric acid (H3PO4); biphosphate ion (HPO42-)

3.

 * a) A, E
 * b) B, C
 * c) A, B, C, E
 * d) D
 * e) No. Both acids and bases will conduct electricity.

4. Conjugate acids are underlined. Conjugate bases are in bold font.

 * a) HCl + H2O → H3O + Cl-
 * b) HClO + H2O → ClO- + H3O
 * c) CH3CH2NH2 + H2O → CH3CH2NH3+ + OH-

5.

 * a) strontium hydroxide: both
 * b) butyllithium (C4H9Li): Brønsted-Lowry (reacts with protons to form C4H10 + Li)
 * c) ammonia: Brønsted-Lowry
 * d) potassium hydroxide: both
 * e) potassium iodide: neither

6. No, pure water can still have a very minute amount of dissolved ions.

 * H2O + H2O → H3O+ + OH-


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User:SPQRobin/monobook.css

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AppleScript Programming/Lists and records

For the best results, you should have Script Editor open, so you can test the code and results as you read.

Basics of Lists
Applescript has two separate classes of data structure that are used to represent a collection of items: the   class, and the   class. A list is an ordered collection of objects, which can be any value or data structure that AppleScript understands. To say that the contents of a list is ordered means that every item in the list occupies a numbered position. This number is termed the item's index, which can be used to retrieve a specific item from a list.

List creation is simple, anything that you put between a  and a   is a list.

In the example above we create two lists. The first list  contains 5 items, the number 1, a string "two", a list containing the number 7, a record containing three properties, fred, wilma, and foo with string values, and the number 5.

We can access these items in several ways. The statements

Will all return the same value,, that is, a list containing the number 7.

Looping Through a String As If It Were a List
This works a character at a time. (Strings are sequences of characters and behave accordingly.)

Basics of Records
A record is a list of properties. You can retrieve items from a record by name, but not by index. For example, to retrieve the  of the property list , I can retrieve it by name.

Which will return the string

but not by index,

Which returns an error.


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Mathematica/Uniform Spherical Distribution

In this tutorial, we will plot a set of random, uniformly distributed, points on the surface of a sphere. This seems like a trivial task, but we will see that the "obvious" solution is actually incorrect. We will start off with this incorrect method, and then improve it to be correct.

Incorrect Method
In order to plot a point on a sphere's surface, we need two numbers: the colatitude, φ and the longitude, θ. We could use the latitude, which is given by 90°−φ, but colatitude is the conventional quantity to deal with.

Now, we will make the simplistic assumption that we can use a uniform distribution for both the colatitude and longitude. We will plot 6000 points over a half sphere only, as this will allow us to see the results more clearly.

Let's define these distributions:

theta := RandomReal[ {0, Pi} ]; (* Uniform on [0,Pi], longitude, only goes halfway round*) phi  := RandomReal[ {0, Pi} ]; (* Uniform on [0,Pi], colatitude, from pole to pole *)

You can easily alter the angle covered by changing the {0, Pi} to your desired boundaries.

Notice that we have used the "set delayed" operator (:=). We need this because when we build a table of the values in the next step, we want the Random[] function to be called for each entry. If we do not do this, the values of theta and phi will be set above and never changed, resulting in 6000 identical points. We now make the table of data:

dataPoints = Table[ {phi, theta}, {6000}];

Let's have a look at the distribution of the points:

rectPlot = ListPlot[ dataPoints, AxesLabel -> {"\[Phi]", "\[Theta]"}, Ticks -> { {0, Pi/4, Pi/2, 3 Pi/4, Pi}, {0, Pi/4, Pi/2, 3 Pi/4, Pi}} ]

This produces the following output. We see that the points indeed appear to be uniformly distributed.

We will now map these spherical coordinates into the Cartesian space. This transformation is standard:

 * $$ x = r \sin\phi \cos\theta \,$$
 * $$ y = r \sin\phi \sin\theta \,$$
 * $$ z = r \cos\phi \,$$

For our purposes, we will set r=1. We make a function called sphericalToCartesian to transform each two-element coordinate {φ,θ} in the spherical system to a three-element coordinate,{x,y,z}, in the Cartesian system.

sphericalToCartesian[{phi_, theta_}] := {Sin[phi]*Cos[theta], Sin[phi]*Sin[theta], Cos[phi]};

We have a mapping, so all that remains is to apply it using the "map" operator, <tt>/@</tt>, which will perform this on each point in <tt>dataPoints</tt>:

mappedPoints = sphericalToCartesian /@ dataPoints;

Now that we have a set of points in the Cartesian system, we would like to see them. We make a set of points located at each point in <tt>mappedPoints</tt> and show it. Here, we have the default view, and orthographic views from the top and front:

points = Graphics3D[Point /@ mappedPoints];

Show[points] Show[points, ViewPoint->{0,Infinity,0}] Show[points, ViewPoint->{0,0,Infinity}]

We see that the points are certainly not distributed evenly - they are much more dense at the poles. This is because the mapping from spherical to Cartesian coordinates does not preserve area - the spherical space is pinched and compressed at the poles by the mapping. In order to fix this, we must alter our original distributions.

The Correct Method
In order to find the correct distribution for <tt>theta</tt> and <tt>phi</tt>, we must consider the Jacobian determinant of the mapping <tt>sphericalToCartesian</tt>. This will tell us how the spherical space is pinched by the transformation at each point.

We must find the Jacobian matrix first. We will leave r in for the moment, as Mathematica will be crunching the numbers. The evaluated Jacobian matrix is shown below, but we will let Mathematica work it out from the beginning.

 * $$J_F(r,\phi,\theta) =\begin{bmatrix}

\dfrac{\partial x}{\partial r} & \dfrac{\partial x}{\partial \phi} & \dfrac{\partial x}{\partial \theta} \\[3pt] \dfrac{\partial y}{\partial r} & \dfrac{\partial y}{\partial \phi} & \dfrac{\partial y}{\partial \theta} \\[3pt] \dfrac{\partial z}{\partial r} & \dfrac{\partial z}{\partial \phi} & \dfrac{\partial z}{\partial \theta} \\ \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix} \sin\phi \cos\theta & r \cos\phi \cos\theta & -r \sin\phi \sin\theta \\ \sin\phi \sin\theta & r \cos\phi \sin\theta & r \sin\phi \cos\theta \\ \cos\phi           & -r \sin\phi            &  0 \end{bmatrix}. $$

We will construct this matrix very easily using the <tt>Outer[]</tt> function, which takes every possible combinations of each element except the first, and gives them as arguments to the function in the first element. Again, we must not evaluate this yet, as if we do, Mathematica will take the inputs <tt>f_</tt> and <tt>x_</tt> as "atomic," meaning that they cannot be broken down and therefore are unsuitable for inputs to <tt>Outer[]</tt>.

jacMat[f_, x_] := Outer[D, f, x]

This statement will take a list of directions (i.e. r, φ, θ), and a list of the same length of functions, which are the mappings taking these to the target space, in this case, Cartesian. This simple statement doesn't check that you have given it lists as inputs, and doesn't ensure they are same length. However, we know the lengths are right, so we won't bother with this.

We now define the list of directions. First, we must remove our previous definitions of <tt>phi</tt> and <tt>theta</tt>, (and <tt>r</tt> for good measure) as at the moment, they will inject a single random number each into the above statement, rather than a symbolic quantity. We also define the list of functions, which can be obtained by giving our now-symbolic directions as arguments to <tt>sphericalToCartesian</tt>.

sphericalToCartesian[{r_, phi_, theta_}] := {r*Sin[phi]*Cos[theta], r*Sin[phi]*Sin[theta], r*Cos[phi]};

Remove[r, phi, theta] dirs = {r, phi, theta} map = sphericalToCartesian[{r, phi, theta}]

In order to find the Jacobian matrix and determinant, we now put:

jacMat[map, dirs] Simplify[Det[%]]

The output is:

{{Cos[theta] Sin[phi], -r Sin[phi] Sin[theta], r Cos[phi] Cos[theta]}, {Sin[phi] Sin[theta], r Cos[theta] Sin[phi],  r Cos[phi] Sin[theta]}, {Cos[phi],            0,                     -r Sin[phi]}} r^2 Sin[phi]

We see that the Jacobian matrix is rearranged, but in Jacobians, it is exactly equivalent, as it just depends on the order of specification of the directions and functions. The Jacobian determinant is independent of the longitude, <tt>theta</tt>, so our uniform distribution in spherical coordinates will be uniform in Cartesian space. However, <tt>phi</tt> will not be, as as it changes, the Jacobian also changes. <tt>r</tt> also does this, but as we can just deal with a unit sphere, we can cut it out of the equation now.

There exists a method called the "Inverse CDF Method" which allows us to generate samples of a given probability density function from a set of uniformly distributed numbers between 0 and 1 (just like Mathematica's <tt>Random[]</tt>).

To use this method, we must first find the CDF of the PDF given by the Jacobian determinant. We normalise (to give a total probability of 1) by dividing by the area under the curve. <<tt>>t</tt> is a dummy variable. area = Integrate[Sin[t], {t, 0, Pi}];(*Area under PDF*) cdf[y_] = Integrate[Sin[t]/area, {t, 0, y}](*CDF*)

We now find the inverse of the CDF:

Solve[x == cdf[y], y](*Get distribution transform*) {{y -> -2 ArcSin[Sqrt[x]]}, {y -> 2 ArcSin[Sqrt[x]]}}

We take the positive solution, and we can now set our <tt>theta</tt> and <tt>phi</tt> distributions:

theta := RandomReal[ {0, Pi} ]; (* Uniform on [0,Pi], longitude, only goes halfway round*) phi  := 2 ArcSin[Sqrt[Random[]]]; (* Colatitude, from pole to pole *)

We now plot the points exactly as before: dataPoints = Table[{phi, theta}, {6000}]; rectPlot = ListPlot[ dataPoints, AxesLabel -> {"\[Phi]", "\[Theta]"}, Ticks -> { {0, Pi/4, Pi/2, 3 Pi/4, Pi}, {0, Pi/4, Pi/2, 3 Pi/4, Pi}} ] sphericalToCartesian[{phi_, theta_}] := {Sin[phi]*Cos[theta], Sin[phi]*Sin[theta], Cos[phi]};

mappedPoints = sphericalToCartesian /@ dataPoints; points = Graphics3D[Point /@ mappedPoints]; Show[points] Show[points, ViewPoint -> {0, 0, Infinity}] Show[points, ViewPoint -> {0, Infinity, 0}]

We have reduced the distribution density around the poles.

We have now made it so that the points are evenly distributed over the spherical area.


text: User talk:71.242.196.55

title: User talk:71.242.196.55


text:
Telecommunications Theory

To differentiate the field of Communication into sub classes may include a split from Communication Theory of Telecommunications theory. Communications has excellent subclasses already (small group communication, face-to-face communication, rhetoric and others) but the predominance and pervasive reality of mass media suggests at least a new field of study.

This book will build on the Communication Theory book already being worked on. For this book, we will deal exclusively with mass media messages mediated through technological forms. This covers telegraph, telephone, radio, television and the networked computer. In this case the channel in the standard communication model (transmitter – channel – receiver) will always be technologically related.

Like the Communication Theory book, this book approaches telecommunication theory from a biographical perspective, in an attempt to show theory development within a social context. Many of these theorists would not actually consider themselves "telecommunication" researchers. Like communications, the field of telecommunication study is remarkably inclusionary, and integrates theoretical perspectives originally developed in a range of other disciplines.

Sections to include:

 * Reasons why telecommunications theory is needed
 * Perspectives on Theory

Theorists and Approaches to Telecommunications
To gain a comprehensive view of telecommunications theory, each approach theory or model will need its own page covering major points of the theory, its origin, criticisms and current state.

 * /Hypodermic Needle Theory/
 * /Modeling and Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication/
 * /Limited Capacity Model of Motivated Mediated Message Processing/ (LC4MP)
 * /Cultivation/
 * /Constructions of Social Reality/
 * /Accessibility Theory/
 * /Media Dependency/
 * /Agenda Setting Framing Priming/
 * /3rd Person Effect/
 * /Uses and Gratifications/
 * /Flow - Presence - Transportation Theory/
 * /Diffusion and Gap Theories/

title: Telecommunications Theory


text: User talk:75.162.248.77

title: User talk:75.162.248.77


text:
User talk:Typewriter~enwikibooks

=Telecommunication Theory= Currently started this and a telecommunications research methods books. I am a PhD student at IU in telecommunications and will be basing the books ont he existing communications books.

New Pages
Hi Typewriter,

It looks like you created several pages today (and yesterday) that should probably be collected under a single book (perhaps they were intended to be chapters of the Telecommunications Theory book? If so, would you please move them?  Here's a short list, but there may be more.
 * Diffusion and Gap Theories
 * Flow - Presence - Transportation Theory
 * Uses and Gratifications
 * Agenda Setting Framing Priming
 * 3rd Person Effect
 * Agenda Setting/Framing/Priming
 * Media Dependency
 * Accessibility Theory
 * Constructions of Social Reality
 * Cultivation
 * Limited Capacity Model of Motivated Mediated Message Processing
 * Modeling and Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication
 * Hypodermic Needle Theory
 * Telecommunications Research Methods

If you need any help, let me know. --Jomegat (talk) 18:43, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Thanks for getting to that so quickly. If you like, I can delete the old versions, and would be happy to do that for you.  Looks like an interesting book! --Jomegat (talk) 18:59, 7 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Just to confirm - it's OK for me to delete the 14 pages I listed above? --Jomegat (talk) 19:31, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Typewriter. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Typewriter~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

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Renamed
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title: User talk:Typewriter~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Paola RV

Welcome message
Welcome, Paola RV!

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Webaware talk 22:32, 6 April 2008 (UTC)

Cookbook:Cuisine of Costa Rica

 * To save time and effort, I just imported the Wikibooks page over the top of this page. Please edit it to suit the Cookbook, if you have the time! And welcome! Webaware talk 22:40, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Paola RV


text: User talk:69.216.110.125

title: User talk:69.216.110.125


text:
Futurebasic/Language/Reference/tan

= TAN =

Function
(+) 	Appearance 		(+) 	Standard 		(+) 	Console

Syntax
The tangent# = TAN(expr)

Description
Returns the tangent of expr, where expr is given in radians. TAN always returns a double-precision result. Note: To find the tangent of an angle degAngle which is given in degrees, use the following: theTangent# = TAN(degAngle * pi# / 180) where pi# equals 3.14159265359.

title: Futurebasic/Language/Reference/tan


text:
Futurebasic/Language/Reference/tanh

= TANH =

Function
(+) 	Appearance 		(+) 	Standard 		(+) 	Console

Syntax
result# = Tanh(expr)

Description
Returns the hyperbolic tangent of expr where expr is given in radians. Tanh always returns a double-precision result.

Note:

ex - e-x Tanh(x) is defined as: ex + e-x

title: Futurebasic/Language/Reference/tanh


text:
Futurebasic/Language/Reference/tbalias

= TBALIAS =

Statement
(+) 	Appearance 		(+) 	Standard 		(+) 	Console

Syntax
TBALIAS oldName,NewName

Description
As the Mac OS matures, terse and economical toolbox names give way to more descriptive names. In C, this spells disaster because there is no way to stay in step except to go through all of your projects and change the name of the toolbox call to match Apple's latest syntax. FB offers a more elegant solution by providing an alias. A toolbox alias is a synonym that FB uses to translate all of your old syntax into the latest PPC toolbox names. This happens more often than you might imagine. Some common aliases are shown below: TBAlias InsertMenuItem, InsMenuItem TBAlias DeleteMenuItem, DelMenuItem TBAlias GetMenuHandle, GetMHandle TBAlias CountMItems, CountMenuItems TBAlias GetControlValue, GetCtlValue Without these TBALIAS statements, your existing code would break when it used a common toolbox like GETMHANDLE. With the alias in place, FB sees "GETMHANDLE" and automatically translates it to "GETMENUHANDLE". The result is that your old code continues to work in a modernized environment.

title: Futurebasic/Language/Reference/tbalias


text:
Futurebasic/Language/Reference/tehandle

= TEHANDLE =

Function
(+) 	Appearance 		(+) 	Standard 			Console

Syntax
editFieldHandle& = TEHANDLE(fieldID) fieldInfo = TEHANDLE(-fieldID)

Description
This function returns information about an edit field or picture field in the current output window. If you use the first syntax (passing a positive value to TEHANDLE), TEHANDLE returns a handle to the TextEdit record associated with the specified field. Although a valid handle will also be returned for picture fields, this is really more useful in the case of edit fields. The following table lists some of the more useful elements that can be found in the field's TextEdit record. The syntax shown in the table assumes that the value returned by TEHANDLE has been assigned to a long integer variable teH&. IMAGE imgs/TEHANDLE_function02.gif (Note: for a description of other elements in the TextEdit record, see the "TextEdit" chapter in Inside Macintosh: Text.) If you use the second syntax (passing a negative value to TEHANDLE), TEHANDLE returns a value identifying the field's type, as follows: IMAGE imgs/TEHANDLE_function04.gif Example: This function returns the next available ID number that is not currently being used by any picture field or edit field in the current window. LOCAL FN GetUnusedFieldID DIM id  id = 0 DO INC(id) UNTIL TEHANDLE(-id) = 0 END FN = id Note: You should generally not alter the contents of a TextEdit record directly. Use TextEdit Toolbox routines, or FB statements like EDIT FIELD, to alter the characteristics of the field. If you use TEHANDLE to get a TextEdit record handle, you should not dispose of the handle. The memory associated with the edit field is automatically disposed when you close the edit field (using EDIT FIELD CLOSE) or close its window (using WINDOW CLOSE).

title: Futurebasic/Language/Reference/tehandle


text:
User talk:Gugli006

Welcome message
Welcome, Gugli006!

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Webaware talk 23:14, 6 April 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Gugli006


text: User talk:70.241.17.184

title: User talk:70.241.17.184


text: Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Dungeons & Dragons


text: User talk:203.212.197.210

title: User talk:203.212.197.210


text: User talk:80.143.251.209

title: User talk:80.143.251.209


text: User talk:71.154.235.168

title: User talk:71.154.235.168


text:
User:Emilie S Ogden

Hi my name is Emilie Ogden. I am a junior at Clarion University and an Elementary Education major with a concentration in Art. I took this class mainly because it was required but I have always had some interest in science.

title: User:Emilie S Ogden


text:
User talk:Myo~enwikibooks

Headline text
i wanna need anti virus software home edition for free.

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Myo. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Myo~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:30, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:17, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Myo~enwikibooks


text: User talk:68.36.201.193

title: User talk:68.36.201.193


text:
Writing Better University Essays

This is a fresh and approachable guide helping students to write better essays at university. It addresses students directly and is packed with practical information. Examples from real essays are included to make the text more approachable. This book is an attempt to help students write better essays, because so many deserve better than they actually do. Different academic conventions are discussed, and where applicable explained. By following the advice in this book, students should improve their essay writing skills, and be rewarded with higher marks.

The subject matter of the book makes it suitable to all levels of university students, both undergraduate and taught postgraduate students.

Table of Contents

 * /Introduction/
 * /Process words/
 * /The structure/
 * /Delimiting the question/
 * /Defining key terms/
 * /Main part/
 * /Discussion/
 * /Conclusion/
 * /Referencing/
 * /Exam essays/
 * /Using feedback/
 * /Common essay problems/
 * /Summary page/
 * /Glossary/
 * /References cited/

title: Writing Better University Essays


text:
Writing Better University Essays/Introduction

This small book aims to be a practical guide to essay writing. A generic approach to writing is introduced, enabling you to write in a clear and structured way, while at the same time allowing you to develop your own argument in a creative way. A good essay combines your own content with a clear structure.

I wrote this book because many mistakes in writing essays are unnecessarily repeated time and time again. These mistakes can easily be avoided, and will allow you to get the credit you deserve. Nothing in this document is rocket science, but most students enter university without having been taught how to write effectively. Merely by studying at a university, however, no-one will learn how to write good essays. By following just a few steps, most mediocre essays can be improved. I tried to include many examples taken from my own essays to make this guide a practical one.

A key idea that I wish to convey, is that it really matters why we write an essay. There is no universal approach to writing, and the reason of writing will be the best guide as to how to write. It’ll guide us to whom we write for, what level of details we include, what kind of language we choose, and so on.

Audience
The audience is for whom we write. In the situation of a university essay, the audience is often imaginary. That is not to say that your essay will not be read properly, but that the person for whom you write sometimes actually differs slightly from who is marking your essay.

Assuming your essay is being marked by a knowledgeable teaching assistant, why write at all? She might know everything you have to say, or even know it better; on the other hand, you might be writing an essay about an area your marker does not specialize in. Hard to tell? The solution is to pitch your essay towards a reasonably well educated person, but one who lacks the specific expertise. Imagine someone who has done an introductory course in your subject, for example.

By writing for an educated person, you no longer have to explain some of the fundamental aspects of your subject matter. However, it’ll still be necessary to explain some of the more specialized issues—maybe just to remind your reader. Practically speaking, pitching your essay this way means that a non-specialist will not be lost when reading your writing. It’s a useful skill to write difficult things in a relatively easy way. At the same time, if your essay is read by your really knowledgeable teaching assistant, she will immediately see that you have grasped the subject matter: that you know what you’re writing about.

Sometimes, the question you’re set will clearly say what kind of style and level of language is expected. A conventional essay is not the same as a report, nor the same as a press briefing, an entry in an encyclopaedia, or a memo. In each case, you’ll have to think about the particular needs: who is your (imaginary) reader, what will they know, what will they want to know?

Preparation
When chefs prepare a meal, they often put all the necessary ingredients on the table before starting (mise en place). This is a good way to make sure everything is ready. With essay writing the process is similar. We don’t jump in straight away and start writing, but instead spend a few moments thinking about what we want to achieve in our essay. What do we want to communicate? You may think of these considerations as a plan of attack.

What are the essential ingredients of an essay then? First of all, you should know what you’re going to write. Once you know that, you probably want to consider some examples to illustrate the argument. Illustrations have two functions: firstly, they show that what you write is relevant, and secondly they make your argument more approachable. Having worked out the content—what you’re going to include—you’ll also need to think a little bit about the structure: in what order you’re going to say it. The approach introduced in this book will help you with this task.

What Goes In—What Stays Out?
Planning an essay can be difficult. Sometimes there is just too much that you could write about; at other times there just does not seem to be enough. The following approach may help you to decide what you include in your essay, and equally important, what you don’t.

 * Brainstorming: Write down the key concepts of the essay in the centre of a page, and link as many ideas that come to mind. If you’re unsure what the key concepts are, look out for terms you have come across a lot when reading. In many cases, you’re looking for arguments for and against a proposition, so take care to include both sides. If there is no argument against something, make a note of it. Don’t be shy to state what you think of the different points.

 * More material: Once you’re reasonably happy with the ideas you have collected, you should go back to your course material. Sometimes the essay question will identify relevant material for you, but most of the time, it’s up to you and your notes. Obviously, if you need more material, this step is important to identify further points to include. It may not strike you as obvious, that you should never skip this extra step, even if you have collected tons of ideas in step one. Going back to your course material will not only ensure you have not missed something important, but also help you decide whether your points are balanced.

 * Grouping: By now you should have a reasonably large collection of ideas linked to your key concepts, and it’s time to think about structure. Use coloured pens, numbers, letters of the alphabet, symbols—whatever works for you—and try to group similar ideas together. You might find points for and against a proposition, different theories, or the different components of the concept you’re examining.

 * Selection: At this stage, you should be very selective. You might have tons of ideas that are linked to the question, but we are not normally interested in quantity. Go over the different points and ask yourself whether they are relevant to your answer. Does this particular point tell us anything new? Be rigorous, and kick out anything that will not help answering the question.

 * Illustrations: Having decided what stays in, try to think of useful examples. An example is useful if it’s apparent how it links with your argument. If you need an extra paragraph just to establish the link, then you might not have picked the most suitable example. It’s often possible to use the same example for different points.

 * Ordering: Now that you know what goes into your essay, think about the order. The way you grouped the ideas will determine much, and should you have time to spare, you even might want to consider alternative approaches: and then pick the best one. Realistically, we never have that much time, and you should focus on a coherent line of thought. Sometimes it’s reasonable to first look at the arguments for, then those against, and finally mitigate. At other times, it makes sense to look at what different theories say in turn, or work from one example to the other. What is important is that there is a clear line of thought, where one bit builds on the other. Make a note of this ordering, and you have just written most of your outline.

Why do we bother going through this procedure? It helps to work like chefs do: having all the necessary ingredients at hand before starting with the actual writing. Imagine a chef starting to bake a lemon tart, finding out half way though that he only has strawberries in the fridge. Surely he can cobble something together, maybe even produce very nice strawberry tartlets. This is no problem for our chef preparing a meal for the family at the weekend, but what about if he entered a competition for the best lemon tart in town?

I use a special essay organizer to make sure everything is in place before I start writing. You can use this template, or create your own. At the top I collect the course the essay is for. Normally I use the abbreviations the university uses, or make up my own where there are no such given abbreviations. I also record the number, such as 3 for the third essay in that particular course. The deadline comes in big letters at the top. The essay question is central, so I copy this onto my planner. To make sure that I have understood the question, I rephrase it. Ticking the format needed (essay, report) and word limit makes me aware of these. Similarly, I collect the process and content word separately, making sure that I really identified them. The relevant material is also collected. I usually use the name of the author, or simply chapter 3. The key concepts and theories have their separate place at the centre. Sometimes your tutor or the written instructions will tell you that a particular skill is focused on: I make a note of these, too. Under Approach I take a note of some key points or illustrations that just have to go in. I also write down any hints or considerations regarding the structure.

In the bottom half of the organizer, I work these hints into a proper outline with an introduction, definitions, a main body (with sections), and a conclusion. I usually assign a certain number of words to each section, and write them down, too. There is also space for notes and references. At the very bottom I include what essay skills I want to pay particular attention to. If my tutor mentioned that I should use more examples, that’s what comes here. This way I make sure that I at least try to improve on the previous essay. See the section on using feedback.

Using some time to prepare your essay will make sure that you answer the question, and thus you maintain your chances of winning that competition for the best lemon tart in town… None of this work preparing the essay will be wasted. On the one hand you have made sure you have everything ready to write this essay: no more running out of ideas half way through. On the other hand, your marker will appreciate an essay which is both relevant and coherent.

Getting Directions
Before you can start writing, you have to make sure you understand the question. Some questions are difficult to understand, but usually there are lots of clues as to what is expected. Look out for content and process words. Content words tell you what you’re going to write about. Process words, on the other hand, tell you how to do it.

It’s a good idea to spend a few moments identifying the content and process words. You may want to underline them in different colours. Once you really know what your task is, you’re ready to go. There is a simple way to check yourself whether you have understood the question set: rephrase it. If you’re able to write down the question again, using your own words, then you can be sure you know what the question is about. Make sure, though, that you really use your own words, and not just reshuffle the different bits in the question.

For example, take the following question: “Distinguishing between conformity, deviance and crime aids our understanding of British society. Discuss.” First of all, you want to identify the process word, which tells you what kind of answer is required. In this case, the process word is discuss. What are the content words? The question tells you to focus on British society. This does not mean that you can’t bring in an example from the US, for instance, but that you should focus on Britain. Maybe the examples in your course were from the US, and the examiners are keen to see how you apply this to the British case? The question gives you further clues: conformity, deviance, and crime are the key concepts you should use in your answer. It’s these words that I would brainstorm before writing.

To make sure you have understood the question, try to rephrase it. Use your own words, and write it down. One way to rephrase the question is: “If you want to understand British society, it helps to distinguish between conformity, deviance, and crime.” In this case I have not bothered to rephrase the key concepts. This is OK, because I will need to define the key concepts anyway. In most cases, however, try not to use any of the words from the original.

Unfortunately, identifying the content and process words is not always a straightforward task. Sometimes you have to read a bit between the lines, identifying the implicit tasks. Every essay question has some implications that are not immediately apparent. Look out for assumptions, schools of thoughts, or particular theories. Often, essay questions include a statement to be discussed. Such statements in many cases make quite strong assumptions about the world, or follow a certain school of thought. Although these links are not physically written in the question, they too are content words. If you’re trying to get very good grades, it’s important that you identify such assumptions and work with them.

Here you find a list of process words.

Why should we bother with process and content words? You might consider this all a waste of time. Unfortunately, most essays that fail or get a poor grade are essays that don’t answer the question. Sometimes, the markers get essays that are brilliantly written, but they can’t give a good mark, because the question set is just not addressed. You’re not primarily assessed in your ability to write eloquently, or for showing off how much you have read or learnt this term: what you’re assessed on is how well you answer the question.

This book introduces a simple yet powerful approach that is flexible enough to allow creativity in what you write. Bearing in mind the reason why you write, following this simple approach your essays will come with the necessary structure and be focused on the question set. You still have to write it yourself though…

Next: The structure


text:
Writing Better University Essays/The structure

There is a simple structure that you can follow for your essays. The details of this approach are discussed in detail in the subsequent sections. The key idea of this approach is writing in a structured manner, focusing on answering the question or problem presented by the assignment. Not only does this approach help you make sure your answer is relevant, but also will it guide your reader through your writing. There are specific parts to your essay that you should never leave out, such as an introduction and a conclusion. These and the remaining parts should be developed and based upon your answer to two primary questions: Who am I writing for, and what is my purpose? The answers to these two questions should determine what is included, what is important and what is unnecessary in your essay. Whilst the approach outlined here is very useful for general essays, bear in mind that at times your university work will take different forms. For example, if you must write a report or dictionary entry, these structures may need adapting. The key ideas presented here, however, can be applied to other forms of writing as well.

First of all, you delimit. By this I mean that in your introduction, you address the question and set the focus of the essay. You should not only state how you understand the question or problem, but also how you decide what ideas are not relevant. Next up, you’ll need to define key terms. The idea is the same as before: to demonstrate that you’re aware of different interpretations, but also making sure that your readers understand things in the same way.

The main part of your essay is where you do the actual writing. Here you follow the outline you devised during preparation, making sure that it all links to a coherent answer. Next, it’s important to discuss the implications of your answer. If you discuss strengths and weaknesses of an approach, this is where you want to evaluate them. Now you’re done, and you demonstrate this in your conclusion. The conclusion demonstrates that you have actually delivered what you promised in the introduction.

 * Delimiting the question
 * Defining key terms
 * Main part
 * Discussion
 * Conclusion

Next: Delimiting the question


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Writing Better University Essays/Delimiting the question

First of all, it’s necessary to state to the reader how you understand the question. Not only raises this expectations, but also can you demonstrate that you’re focused. Furthermore, you’ll avoid that your reader will misunderstand you, or think that you have left out critical aspects. For example, if your question is about crime, you may want to delimit this to contemporary white-collar crime in Britain. Your reader will not be puzzled not to read about the dungeons in medieval France, since you stated that these will not be addressed here. By explicitly delimiting your answer, you also demonstrate that you’re aware of the greater picture, or the other possible interpretations. This bit should be as short as possible, but never leave it out.

In an exam situation, it’s very important to delimit your answers. Sometimes a particular question is, to a certain extent, tied to a particular module or even a single lecture. By delimiting your answer, you demonstrate that you’re aware of this link. In other cases questions are much more open. In these cases you also need to delimit your answer. The limits of your analysis are both in terms of content (the medieval dungeons in France) and theories (such as feminist perspectives on consumption). Delimiting works in two ways: saying what is in, and stating what is out.

You may imagine that the essay question is a brief for a job. You have landed the task described, but have not the time to do it yourself. As you are in charge, you decide on a contractor. Think about which contractor is best suited to fulfil the task. In the social sciences, the contractors often are theories or schools of thought. Once you decide who is best suited for the job, you should state so, and also include a brief justification. It’s not uncommon that you’ll want to hire out different parts of the job to different contractors.

For example, take the following question: “What kind of mechanisms can explain sudden changes in collective action?” As a typical essay question, it leaves lots of scope. Practically, we can never write everything we know about the topic. Just like we can’t try out all the contractors to build a house and decide later on which one was best, we need to make decisions here, too. We want to quash diversions before they develop, and signal to the reader that we know what we are writing about. Answering this question, I might want to focus on tipping models. However, I am aware that there are alternatives, and will state that these will not be ignored completely. By stating, for example, “this essay will focus on tipping models, but alternative approaches will also be outlined briefly,” I signal that I know that tipping models are not the only way to go.

Guiding the Reader
After delimiting the answer, we will need a short outline. On the one hand this gives the reader some sort of direction. This can be really useful, if we are not so successful at linking the different sections later on. The reader will already have an idea what comes up, and not get lost, even if a paragraph diverts a little bit. An essay with an outline will almost always come across as more coherent. On the other hand, the outline will make sure that you—the writer—know where you’re going. In other words, an essay with an outline will almost always be more coherent.

Such an outline can be understood as guiding the reader. It should be short, because it does not actually answer the question. It should, however, be long enough, to include all the main sections that will be included. Because the guide will be kept general, it acts as a guide to you as the writer, too, not as a straitjacket. The following is an example of such an outline:

 * This report describes the experience of carrying out a survey in order to measure cultural capital. The actual questions used in the survey are discussed, as are the sampling process and the data collection method. This is followed by an examination of the scale building, with a focus on reliability and validity. At each step, the actual work done is critically examined with regards to how it could have been done better. A short discussion about whether anything was learned about cultural capital completes this report, but first the definition and conceptualization of cultural capital needs to be addressed.

Such an outline gives an idea of what is going to be addressed in the answer, and also roughly in what order. The length of the guide will depend on the essay. A much shorter version is just as good in a different context:

 * This paper critically reviews an article by Katz-Gerro (2002) that examines this link. In order to do so, there is a focus on research design and the persuasiveness of the results, but other aspects such as the mechanisms included will not be ignored.

There is a simple trick to make your outline a little bit more interesting: keep the first topic you’ll write about until the end of the outline. So in your outline, you state in order what you’ll do, only that the first topic is mentioned last. The longer example just above makes use of this trick. Use phrases like “firstly, however, it is necessary to”, or “but before these are discussed, it will be useful to consider first of all.” Not only does this raise expectations, but also does this give you a chance to demonstrate the relevance of the opening section after the introduction. This sense of direction is something your readers will appreciate.

When to Write the Introduction
There are different views on when it’s best to write the introduction. Many write it first, because they write the essay from beginning to end. This is not a good justification as such. It’s a good idea to write the introduction first, because the introduction will delimit the answer, and provide an outline. As such, by writing the introduction, you commit yourself to a plan. It also helps you to stay focused.

This view is countered by those who argue that you never really know where you end up when writing an essay. This is the case, because writing the essay itself is a process by which the outcome—or conclusion—is not always known. Even where you have an idea, where the essay will take you, you might not know the precise details. For these reasons, some write the introduction last: after completing the essays and writing the conclusion. The benefit is that the introduction is about the essay as it exists, not about the essay as it was initially intended. As a consequence, the introduction will never make false promises and be tightly focused.

Probably the best alternative is to combine the two, especially when using a word processor where you can change what you wrote. Start with writing the introduction. This will help you stay focused, and make sure you think about the structure and order of the answer before you start writing. This is a good way to make sure the answer is relevant. However, after completing the essay, you come back to the introduction, and modify it as necessary. Maybe the focus has changed; maybe there is now an extra section. Having a careful plan before writing will mean that such changes are often of minor nature.

Next: Defining key terms


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Writing Better University Essays/Process words

On this page you find a list of process words that are often used. This list is in part based on Jordan (1999). The process words are given in alphabetical order. Probably the most common process words are: discuss, describe, explain, compare, evaluate, and criticize.

Account for asks for an explanation. Even though it looks similar to give an account of, this process word is rather different. You should give a description with details. The description should clarify the concept, and don’t forget to give reasons.

Analyze calls for an outline of the components. Take the issue, and break it down (divide) into the parts that make up the issue. Your task is not only to describe the different parts of the issue, but also to show (examine) how they relate to each other.

Argue is about making a case. You’re often asked to argue for or against something. In order to make a good case, your answer will need to include convincing evidence. Your argument will be more convincing if it’s logically structured. Even though the question often asks for a one-sided case, don’t forget the arguments against: even if it’s to dismiss them. If you don’t agree with the proposition, this is fine: what counts is the case you present.

Assess asks you to make a judgement of the value or importance of something. Your answer should focus on both sides of the coin, weighing up the positive and negative aspects. It’s often necessary to spend much time on the areas that are disputed. In order to provide a credible answer, back up your answer with references and good examples. Even though you may have a good example from your own experience, it’s usually better to choose a more authoritative source.

Calculate asks you to estimate the extent of something. You should take great care to define the key dimensions and determine how they are measured. Weigh up different reasons carefully. In the social sciences, the estimate itself is often secondary to how you evaluate the key dimensions.

Characterize is mostly another word for describe. You’re looking for the key dimensions (characteristics) of a concept. Often it’s necessary to compare to other concepts to make clear the limit.

Classify is very similar to analyze. The key difference is possibly that this process word explicitly asks you to come up with some sort of classification: a way to divide. You probably want to spend a bit more time on the boundaries, on how the identified dimensions are different.

Comment is similar to the content words analyze and assess. It’s indeed often considered a combination of the two. Be careful not merely to summarize the issue, but include some form of evaluation. This process word asks you to explain the importance of something. Your ability to describe an issue is usually only appreciated in conjunction with a critical argument.

Compare always involves two or more issues. Focus on what characterizes the issues, and your answer will include both the similarities and differences. This content word often occurs in conjunction with contrast. Technically, compare is about similarities, but for a balanced answer you’ll need to include the differences, too. Your conclusion may include a statement of which of the issues or options discussed you consider preferable.

Consider asks you to think carefully about something. This process word is sometimes followed by an example or case study, but also a theoretical perspective. Take great care to include these aspects, because you’ll be (partly) marked on how well you apply whatever the question is to this particular example or theory.

Contrast is like a twin to compare. Two or more issues or options are involved, and your answer should focus on the differences. Technically, contrast does not ask you to include similarities, but a balanced answer will include these, too. Your conclusion may include a statement of which of the issues or options discussed you consider preferable.

Criticize asks for a careful judgement of a statement or point of view. You’re often asked to make statements about the value or truth of a statement. Make sure you point out faults. It’s important to state by which criteria of evaluation your answer is guided. Your illustrations should not be of general nature, but specific. If the illustrative examples are not general in nature, too, then say so. Your answer will judge the merit of the views included in the statement. Often you can—and should—link to underlying theories and approaches. These should be included in the evaluation, too. Your answer also needs to discuss the nature and quality of evidence you cited for and against the different views. Always back up your argument with evidence and reasoning.

Deduce asks you to reach a conclusion based on something. Make clear how you reach this conclusion.

Define may look innocent, but the devil is often in the detail. Similar to analyze, you’re after the components of an issue of concept. You don’t want just any definition, but one that discusses the different meanings of a concept, the different ways it can be interpreted. Often, you can link the answer to how different schools of thought use a term. In this case your task is to tease out the different understandings and state the different meanings. Your answer necessarily includes an appreciation of the different components, but you should also pay attention to the differences to other concepts: how is it distinct from something else. Precision is important in your answer, and your answer should always go beyond common-sense interpretations. Sometimes you’re asked to write for a specific audience, such as a student encyclopaedia, and you should bear this in mind.

Demonstrate asks you to show something as clearly as you can. You’ll need to use an example (illustration) to this extent. Make sure the illustration is relevant and state clearly how it is relevant.

Describe is one of the most straight-forward tasks. You’re asked to outline the main aspects of an issue or point of view. Say what something is like. Sometimes the order of events is important. Your answer should always include illustrative examples to bring the argument alive. The structure of the answer is important: don’t jump around, picking up bits and pieces on the way. Instead, plan a logical and coherent way in order to cover all the main aspects. This process word often occurs together with others, such as in describe and criticize.

Determine asks you to find out something, maybe to calculate or estimate something. You should always describe how you arrive at the answer, including an appreciation of how not to proceed. Be open about the shortcomings or potential dangers of your approach.

Differentiate between something and something else is a combination of describe and define. You’re asked to focus on the differences. Often it’ll be necessary to discuss the similarities, too.

Discuss. It’s very common to be given a quote or provocative statement, followed by just this word: discuss. Your answer should include an outline of the problems and then evaluate the different arguments or points of view. Weigh up the points for and against. It’s important to illustrate your argument, and refer to established work. Very often your own opinion is asked, usually in form of an evaluation of the different points of view. Look out for key debates that are involved. The statements that come with this process word are often deliberately provocative.

Distinguish between is just another process word for differentiate between.

Elaborate asks for a discussion in great detail. Always give reasons and include illustrations. Think carefully about which aspects of a theory or concept are worth exploring in great detail. In this sense, this question often asks you to—implicitly—determine the key components of something. Avoid repetitions of the same point.

Elucidate is very similar to explain. You’re asked to make clear something. This often involves a clear line of argument, and usually a number of illustrations to bring the argument alive.

Enumerate in principle asks you to put a number to something. In practice you’re normally asked to name and list different aspects, giving an explanation. You should always try to estimate the extent of something, having outlined how you reach this estimate.

Estimate is a close relative to calculate, but you’re also asked to judge and predict. State clearly how you reached your conclusion or estimate.

Evaluate is similar to discuss, but it asks you to focus more on the value or importance of a certain argument or point of view. You should weigh up the different aspects, illustrate the argument, and refer to established works. You’ll usually be able to make a statement of the worth of something. Also see the box on persuasiveness on page 22.

Examine is a process word that asks you to have a close look at something. Consider the different components and parts. Often you can examine an issue using different theoretical perspectives. Always make explicit which perspectives you use.

Explain asks you to focus on how things work. Rather than focusing on things as they are, this process word asks you to focus on how things got there. So you’ll always need to give reasons. The answer will include some describing and analyzing. It’s important to make explicit the workings and mechanisms.

Express is just another word to say describe.

To what extent is similar to assess or criticize. You’re asked to explore a statement or view. Look out for theoretical and practical limits to the statement, but also include evidence in favour. The typical conclusion highlights the limits of the proposition, but will neither be total acceptance nor total dismissal. Watch out for changes over time and across space: Is the proposition also applicable in other cultures? Was the proposition also applicable in the past?

Identify is a process word that allows you a great deal of liberty. You’re expected to choose the examples, features, or arguments for a proposition that you regard the most important ones. It’s usually a good idea to point out and list the features first. The choice of these key aspects, however, is often secondary to your answer. Instead, you should focus your attention to the criteria of evaluation: why a feature is central. You should defend and justify your choice of picks.

Illustrate is similar to explain, but the person writing the question appears to be very keen on illustrative examples. Make sure you have a relevant example, and include enough details to make clear the relevance. Sometimes, you may illustrate the argument with statistics. What is important is that the examples support the argument, and you therefore demonstrate how exactly the examples are relevant. Sometimes a question will ask you explicitly about a figure or diagram to explain or clarify. Take care to follow such instructions carefully. Where nothing is stated, assume that you should include concrete examples.

Indicate asks you to show and explain. Usually you’re expected to use a good illustration. Make sure you demonstrate how the example is relevant to the question.

Infer is a process word that asks you to conclude based on facts or a clear line of reasoning. It’s important that you state clearly how you reached the conclusion, not just what your conclusion is.

Interpret asks for a clarification and explanation. Rather than just describing, you should also give your judgement. An interpretation often highlights how an issue or point of view relates to others, or outlines the different meanings and interpretations there are to it. Usually you’re expected to give your own judgement as part of an evaluation of the different aspects.

Justify on the surface asks for a defence of a particular statement, theory, or point of view. You should cite evidence and give examples that support the case. However, for a balanced answer, it’ll be necessary to look at the arguments against. The justification thus is a form of evaluation. Your conclusion may be that the statement can’t be justified (in the light of certain evidence), or outline limits.

List probably looks as innocent as describe, and is in fact closely related. You’re asked to classify or catalogue something. Make sure you include how you decided to classify, what criteria you used to put the list in sequence. This process word may mean that you have to list the key components of a concept.

Mention asks you to describe something briefly. This process word usually is used together with others, but do make sure you don’t skip this part of the question.

Name is another word for identify.

Outline asks you to indicate what the main characteristics or features of a topic or point of view are. Sometimes you’ll need to indicate the key events in a sequence. It’s very important to follow a clear and logically coherent structure. Your answer may focus on how the different features relate to each other, rather than just describing them.

Prove is a rare process word in the social sciences. You should try to demonstrate that something is true and certain. On the one hand you should provide convincing examples and evidence that something is the case. On the other hand, you should also demonstrate that the opposite is not the case either. Your conclusion may well be that it’s impossible to prove something, but make sure your answer is relevant to the question, not just a philosophical treatment of whether we can prove things.

Quantify is another word for enumerate.

Relate is similar to giving an account of. You’re usually particularly asked to relate one thing to another, demonstrating how they link.

Review is very similar to assess. The key difference is that you’re asked to write about a topic or area rather than a specific case or statement. The answer will thus include a selection of everything about a topic. Usually it’s a bad idea trying to include all the different angles and all the different authors. Instead, you should try to organize your answer, such as into schools of thought, or key proponents. Leaving out less relevant contributions is often the key to a successful answer. Take care not merely to describe who said what, but also to assess the merit of their argument.

Show asks you to indicate something. Make sure you use appropriate evidence and examples to back up your claims. Make clear what something means.

Speculate is similar to prove, but different in that you’re not asked to come up with a definite answer. The very word used indicates that there will be many different explanations, and you’ll have to evaluate the different possibilities. You’re thus asked to form an opinion. Very often this process word is given where you don’t have complete knowledge of the circumstances. You should suggest the most likely case.

State asks you to express something carefully. Make sure you cover the different components and be clear. Often you’re asked to illustrate something, or demonstrate how two different things link.

Suggest is somewhat similar to speculate. You should mention the different possibilities, and choose the most likely one. Make sure you include in the essay the criteria how you evaluate the different possibilities: how you can say that one is the most likely possibility.

Summarize is about the identification of the key points and aspects of an issue or topic. Details can often be omitted, as can be illustrations. However, depending on the tasks, illustrations may be necessary: try to identify the key examples. This process word often occurs together with others, such as analyze. It’s often easier to first summarize and then move to the second task, but make sure the different parts of the answer link.

Trace asks you to provide a narrative that outlines the progress or sequence of an issue or certain events. Often, a chronological order is the easiest form of structure. Sometimes you’ll be asked to write from a particular point of view. Usually, however, you can include the different points of views. The same sequence of events may be interpreted or experienced in different ways by the different participants.

Verify asks you to make sure that something is the case. You’re looking for evidence and examples for and against the case. Evaluate the evidence and provide a judgment whether the statement is true or accurate.


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Writing Better University Essays/Defining key terms

Having decided what to include in the answer, there is another way to make sure the answer is focused: telling the reader what we are talking about. By defining what the key terms mean, we do two things. Firstly, we show that we know what we are writing about. Secondly, we avoid misunderstandings by settling on a single understanding of the key terms. It might be that your marker understands power in a Marxist way, and you want to approach the essay from a feminist point of view. By providing a brief definition, there will be no misunderstanding. Your marker may not agree with you, but that is not necessary to get good grades. A definition makes sure you and your readers talk about the same things. For example, you can define fruit salad as consisting of bananas, pineapples, and yellow apples (ideally you would have a reason for this, too). Having done so, your reader will not object when you later state that fruit salad lacks the vital bits of red.

In order to define the key terms, you first have to bluntly state what they are. Always include the key words included in the question. These have been identified as central concepts for you, and by excluding them, you’ll be very likely answering a different question from the one set. There are often other key terms you want to include, and it’s usually worth spending some time thinking about which ones are the key concept. This is time worth spending, because you can later use the concepts without giving any further qualifications or comments. For this reason you should also define the terms carefully. Having defined power in a particular way, for example, every time you use the term in the essay, it only means what you want it to be.

Providing the definition of the key terms also works as a signal to your marker that you know what you’re talking about. By defining power in a certain way, you demonstrate that you’re aware of other interpretations. In fact, it’ll often not be necessary to state what the other interpretations are, unless the distinction is a key aspect of the argument. Very often, you’ll use the work of somebody else to help you define the key terms. Make sure that you put references accordingly.

The following three paragraphs define the concepts social disadvantage, social mobility, and siblings. The definitions are taken from a range of sources, and referenced accordingly. In the context of another essay, these definitions may be too long or too short.

 * Social disadvantage, to start with, refers to a range of difficulties a person can be exposed to. Social disadvantages include a lower expectancy in educational attainment, lower prospects at work, or lower status in society (McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994). It has been demonstrated that social and economic disadvantages in society often come together, leading some sociologists talking about underclasses (Steinberg, 1999). Social disadvantage, however, does not necessarily have to be as extreme as that: it describes a relative difficulty in reaching a similar position in society than people not disadvantaged.

 * Such disadvantage in society has been shown to be transmitted from one generation to another. The term social mobility is often used to describe this phenomenon (Braham & Sherratt, 2002). Intergenerational mobility describes the difference between a person’s location in society as compared to his or her parents (Goldson, 2004). If social disadvantage is sustained across generations, it is often argued that in one way or another the disadvantage has been passed on.

 * Siblings, finally, in the context of this essay, refer to brothers and sisters of the same birth family. This means that siblings are biologically related, as well as living in the same family. For consistency reasons, often siblings are chosen that live in the same family with one other sibling only. This is thought to reduce influences of effects between siblings that are not the concern in the case here (Sandefur & Wells, 1999).

Depending on the length of your essay, you’ll have between 2 and maybe 5 key terms. Sometimes it takes a bit of time to think which terms are the central ones. Consider the following phrases as ways to define terms: X is understood as a process by which, X regards Y as, one view is that there is X so that Y, or X is commonly considered as.

Sources for Definitions
When writing your definition, there are a number of sources you can use to help you. Using a common-sense definition is hardly ever suitable. In many cases, a definition as found in a specialist dictionary will do. In other cases, you want something even more specialized, and consult your course material. Many introductory books define key terms, and then discuss them in more detail in the chapter. It’s important not just to simply copy a definition, but choose what is suitable for your needs. Bear in mind that every text, even a specialized dictionary, was written with a specific purpose in mind. What you need for your essay is likely to be a bit different.

Google and other internet search engines may be an easy way, but they are usually not suitable. Apart from the fact that your source may not be reliable, you’re likely to end up with a definition that is either too generic, or from a different area. A definition of power from a physics text may not be what we want in our discipline.

It’s often worth spending some time on the key terms. This is the case, because the way you set out this section will direct the remainder of the essay a great deal. Choosing a certain way to interpret a concept rather than another may be just as important as focusing on certain issues and not others in the main part of the essay. Despite its importance, the section providing the definitions should not be too long: focus on the concepts that are really central. These are usually the concepts that are recurring throughout the essay.

Next: Main part