text:
Radiation Oncology/NHL/MALT

Overview

 * MALT is classified as an extra-nodal marginal zone lymphoma.
 * Extra-nodal marginal zone lymphomas tend to home to a certain tissue and remain localized. Therefore, MALT lymphomas are often stage I and highly curable.
 * Pathologically, see lymphoepithelial lesions as the malignant lymphoma cells invade and destroy normal epithelium (such as glands).

Work-Up

 * Tel Aviv, 2007 (Israel) PMID 17662066 -- "Diagnostic accuracy of PET/CT in patients with extranodal marginal zone MALT lymphoma." (Perry C, Eur J Haematol. 2007 Sept 79(3), 205-209)
 * Prospective. 33 patients with bx-proven MALT lymphoma, evaluated with PET/CT. Sites: gastric 55%, lung 15%, orbit 12%, parotid 9%
 * PET/CT: Active disease at diagnosis 55%. Sensitivity gastric 39% vs. non-gastric 75%. Advanced disease 100% vs. early stage (I-II) 42%
 * Conclusion: PET/CT useful tool; sensitivity depends on stage and location

Reviews

 * See also reviews at Nodal marginal zone lymphoma

Treatment

 * See also Follicular lymphoma treatment page

 * JAROG; 2007 (Japan)(2002-2004) PMID 17601683 -- "A Multicenter Phase II Study of Local Radiation Therapy for Stage IEA Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue Lymphomas: A Preliminary Report From the Japan Radiation Oncology Group (JAROG)." (Isobe K, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007 Nov 15;69(4):1181-6. Epub 2007 Jul 2.)
 * Phase II. 37 patients with MALT (orbit n=24, thyroid n=4, salivary n=4, others n=5). RT dose: if orbital or minimal residual disease 30.6 Gy, if residual tumor <6cm 36 Gy, if >6 cm 39.6 Gy. Median F/U 3.1 years
 * Outcome: 3-year OS 100%, PFS 92%, LC 97%
 * Toxicity: Late Grade 3 (cataract) 3 patients
 * Conclusion: Moderate RT dose highly effective

Helicobacter pylori eradication

 * Germany, 2005 - PMID 16204012 — "Long-Term Follow-Up of Gastric MALT Lymphoma After Helicobacter Pylori Eradication." Wündisch T et al. J Clin Oncol. 2005 Nov 1;23(31):8018-24.
 * 120 pts. Stage IE. Median f/u 75 mo.
 * 5-yr OS 90%. 80% achieved CR by biopsy. 80% of CR pts remained in CR; 17% showed histologic residual dz during follow-entered a second CR; 3% of those with CR had a relapse.

Radiation

 * International Extranodal Lymphoma Study Group (IELSG); 2013 - PMID 23293112 -- "Long-term outcome for gastric marginal zone lymphoma treated with radiotherapy: a retrospective, multi-centre, International Extranodal Lymphoma Study Group study." (Wirth A, Ann Oncol. 2013 May;24(5):1344-51.)
 * Retrospective. Multicenter. 102 pts (58 de novo, 44 with relapse) treated with RT. Of the 44 relapsed pts: 35 previously treated with antibiotics, 9 with chemo, 8 with surgery. 61 pts treated with RT to the stomach/nodes only and 41 to whole abdomen. Median RT dose 40 Gy in 22 fractions.
 * Median f/u 7.9 yr. 10- and 15-year FFTF was 88%. 10-yr OS 70%.
 * Worse outcome: large-cell component (13%) and an exophytic growth pattern (12%).
 * Conclusion: "Radiotherapy achieves cure for the majority of patients with low-grade GMZL, including patients who have had prior therapy"

 * Princess Margaret Hospital; 2001 (1989-98) - PMID 11483337 -- "Stage I and II MALT lymphoma: results of treatment with radiotherapy." (Tsang RW, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2001 Aug 1;50(5):1258-64.)
 * Retrospective. 15 pts with gastric MALT, Stage I-IIE (paper includes a total of 70 pts with MALT lymphoma of various sites). 11 pts (gastric MALT) treated with RT. 1 pt treated with surgical excision only; 2 pts antibiotics only; 1 refused tx. RT dose 20-30 Gy.
 * No relapses were observed in patients with stomach and thyroid lymphoma. The 5-year DFS for these patients was 93%, in contrast to 69% for patients presenting in other sites.
 * Conclusion: "Localized MALT lymphomas have excellent prognosis following moderate-dose RT"

 * Memorial Sloan Kettering; 1998 - PMID 9586910 — "Treatment of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma of the stomach with radiation alone." (Schechter N, J Clin Oncol. 1998 May;16(5):1916-21.)
 * Retrospective. 17 patients with stage 1-2 low-grade MALT of the stomach. RT alone to median 30 Gy (range, 28.5 to 43.5 Gy) in 1.5 Gy fractions within 4 weeks to stomach and adjacent lymph nodes. Median F/U 27 mo.
 * Outcome: 100% biopsy-confirmed CR. 100% EFS at last F/U
 * Toxicity: No significant side effects
 * Conclusion: Low-dose RT alone is feasible and safe

Chlamydophila Psittaci eradication

 * Extrandoal Lymphoma Study Group; 2012 PMID 22802315 -- "Chlamydophila Psittaci Eradication With Doxycycline As First-Line Targeted Therapy for Ocular Adnexae Lymphoma: Final Results of an International Phase II Trial." (Ferreri AJ, J Clin Oncol. 2012 Aug 20;30(24):2988-94. Epub 2012 Jul 16.)
 * Phase II. 47 patients with ocular adnexal marginal zone lymphoma (OAMZL). Assessment of Chlamydophila psittaci (Cp), followed by treatment with doxycyline. Median F/U 3.1 years
 * Outcome: Cp DNA detected in 89% of biopsies. Lymphoma regression in 65%. 5-year PFS 55%. Cp eradication associated with improved response (SS) and PFS (NS)
 * Conclusion: Upfront doxycycline is a rational and active treatment for patients with Stage I Cp-positive OAMZL

title: Radiation Oncology/NHL/MALT


text:
Radiation Oncology/NHL/DLBCL

Pathology

 * Morphology - not clinically useful
 * Immunoblastic
 * Centroblastic
 * Anaplastic
 * Multilobated
 * Markers
 * Improved survival
 * Rb (cell cycle)
 * Germinal centre (bcl-6, CD10)
 * Decreased survival
 * CD5 (T-cell lineage)
 * HLA-I, HLA-II (immune)
 * Ki-67 (proliferation)
 * p53+, p21, p27, cyclin D3 (cell cycle)
 * bcl-2, bax, survivin (apoptosis)
 * CD44 (adhesion)
 * Origin
 * Germinal center of activated lymphoid follicle

Subclassification

 * Gene profiling identified 3 separate subtypes, with different clinical behavior (5-year OS)
 * Activated B-cell - activation of NFkB - 30% survival
 * Germinal B-cell - hypermutations, REL amplification, bcl-2 translocations - 64% survival
 * Primary Mediastinal B-cell - 59% survival
 * Mediastinal B-cell lymphoma is more closely related to nodular sclerosis subtype of Hodgkin lymphoma (clinically and by gene expression profile), than to the other types of B-cell lymphoma
 * Morphologically, there is also a significant overlap with Burkitt's Lymphoma

 * Charite, 2006 (Germany) PMID 16760442 -- "A biologic definition of Burkitt's lymphoma from transcriptional and genomic profiling." (Hummel M, N Engl J Med. 2006 Jun 8;354(23):2419-30.)
 * Gene analysis. 220 mature aggressive B-cell lymphomas. Molecular Burkitt's lymphoma (mBL) signature developed: 58 gene set. Some patients with this signature had morphologic appearance of DLBCL
 * 5-year OS: mBL 75%, GCB-DLBCL 51%, ABC-DLBC 12%
 * Myc locus survival (mBL and DLBCL): breakpoint 15% vs. no breakpoint 44%
 * Conclusion: molecular definition of Burkitt's lymphoma

 * Lymphoma profiling project
 * 2006 PMID 16760443 -- "Molecular diagnosis of Burkitt's lymphoma." (Dave SS, N Engl J Med. 2006 Jun 8;354(23):2431-42.)
 * Gene analysis. 303 patients with aggressive lymphomas, 25 pathological Burkitt's. Gene profile developed.
 * 8 samples submitted as DLBCL had molecular profile of Burkitt's
 * Conclusion: Gene-expression profiling is accurate to differentiate BL and DLBCL
 * 2005 PMID 16046532 -- "Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma subgroups have distinct genetic profiles that influence tumor biology and improve gene-expression-based survival prediction." (Bea S, Blood. 2005 Nov 1;106(9):3183-90.)
 * ABC-DLBCL: trisomy 3, gain of 3q, gain of 18q21-q22, loss of 6q21-q22
 * GCB-DLBCL: gain of 12q12
 * PMBCL: gain of 9p21, gain of 2p14-p16

 * Dana Farber, 2003 PMID 12933571 -- "The molecular signature of mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma differs from that of other diffuse large B-cell lymphomas and shares features with classical Hodgkin lymphoma." (Savage KJ, Blood. 2003 Dec 1;102(12):3871-9.)
 * Gene expression profiles compared. Shared survival pathway between MBCL and HL

 * NCI, 2002 PMID 12075054 -- "The use of molecular profiling to predict survival after chemotherapy for diffuse large-B-cell lymphoma." (Rosenwald A, N Engl J Med. 2002 Jun 20;346(25):1937-47.)
 * Biopsy samples of 240 patients examined with DNA microarrays. 17 gene-set predictor developed
 * Gene array independent predictor to IPS

 * Stanford, 2000 PMID 10676951 -- "Distinct types of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma identified by gene expression profiling." (Alizadeh AA, Nature. 2000 Feb 3;403(6769):503-11.)
 * DNA microarrays to conduct a systemic characterization of gene expression
 * Two molecularly distinct types: 1) Germinal Center and 2) Activated B-like
 * OS significantly better for Germinal Center patients

Primary Mediastinal Large B-cell

 * Epidemiology:
 * 2% of NHL patients
 * Tends to affect younger women
 * Clinical presentation:
 * Rapidly growing (bulky >10cm) mediastinal mass, often with respiratory symptoms
 * Up to 50% can have symptoms of SVC syndrome (facial edeme, neck vein distension, upper extremity edema
 * Criteria
 * No clear definition for Primary Mediastinal Large B-Cell Lymphoma
 * Various definitions include:
 * Some: restrict only to tumors with sclerosis and clear-cell morphology or only with involved thymic tissue
 * Restricted to low-stage disease or excluding extrathoracic involvement
 * "a [DLBCL] that either presents with disease limited to the mediastinal field or more advanced presentations with the dominant site of disease in the mediastinum" (Rodriguez 1994, PMID 8001905)
 * mediastinal mass of at least 5 cm with no extramediastinal mass larger than that in the mediastinum (Abou-Elella 1999, PMID 10071267)
 * Pathology
 * Believed to arise from thymic B-cells
 * Have bcl-6 translocation, but also gain in Janus kinase (JAK-2), bcl-2 translocation absent
 * Striking clinical, immunologic, and molecular similarities to Hodgkin's disease (NScHL), but cells retain B-cell differentiation markers (eg CD20), and lack Reed-Sternberg cells
 * Treatment
 * ''Please see the Specific Sites section for more detail
 * Some evidence that dose-intensified therapy (eg MACOP-B, VACOP-B, DA-EPOCH) may be superior to CHOP. Role of Rituxan is unclear, but magnitude of benefit probably similar to DLBCL. Dunleavy article in Specific Sites section suggests the need for radiotherapy is significantly reduced with DA-EPOCH-R.
 * Many patients given consolidative RT for bulky/residual disease, but role of RT somewhat unclear
 * Outcome
 * Somewhat more aggressive course, despite younger age, with similar survival as DLBCL
 * Rarity of relapses past 2 years

Reviews

 * JCO 2005 - PMID 16155024 — "State-of-the-Art Therapeutics: Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma." Coiffier B et al. Journal of Clinical Oncology, Vol 23, No 26 (September 10), 2005: pp. 6387-6393.

Treatment
Please see Aggressive lymphoma treatment section

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Radiation Oncology/NHL/DLBCL


text:
User talk:130.238.13.40

Got a bit lost?
I tried to answer your question on Wikibooks talk:Community Portal.

title: User talk:130.238.13.40


text:
Talk:Behringer FCB1010 MIDI Pedal

Is the Behringer FCB1010 Midi pedal interesting enough to have a book's worth of information?
Perhaps this book should be merged as a module into another. -Monk 04:07, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

terminology
This document needs a "Terminology" section. I'll see what I can do to start it, then anyone can add terms.

steve meiers - tekrytor

title: Talk:Behringer FCB1010 MIDI Pedal


text:
User talk:V. Molotov~enwikibooks

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called V. Molotov. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name V. Molotov~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:51, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:37, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:V. Molotov~enwikibooks


text:
User:Chovy~enwikibooks

You can read more about me on my blog, or see my web developer resume.

You can reach me at: [mailto:apwebdesign@yahoo.com apwebdesign@yahoo.com]

title: User:Chovy~enwikibooks


text:
User:Mshonle/Charters

The charter process is the mechanism used to keep the development of wikibooks on track and to preemptively resolve some issues of editorial dispute.

The Charter Process
The steps of the charter process are as follows:
 * 1) A new, unchartered wikibook is created and placed on a chartered bookshelf.
 * 2) Unchartered Status Space/Time Limit: After there are five content modules of the wikibook, or a single content module that reaches 32kbytes (i.e. the "this page is getting to big" limit), or after the period of 6-weeks, whichever comes first, an unchartered wikibook must have a charter. A "content module" is any module of the book, excluding title pages, author pages, table of contents and indexes.
 * 3) The contributors of the wikibook and all other interested parties participate in the charter creation process by creating a document that satisfies the properties of a charter (as described below). A consensus must be reached, and disputes will be resolved by favoring common sense solutions and precedence. Some disputes may be resolved by creating two or more different charters to describe different projects, so that the differing views can still both be articulated.
 * 4) Chartered Status: After a charter is decided upon by all interested parties is it submitted for approval. A charter is approved if the greater Wikibooks community believes satisfies the properties of the charter. Any deficiencies that are pointed out must be resolved and revisions made before approval. The approval process should also be used to provide advice to charter writers.
 * 5) Contributors of unchartered books do not have to wait until the unchartered-status-limit passes to begin writing the charter and can submit the charter for approval even before the unchartered-status-limit.
 * 6) Any wikibooks that don't have charters and have exceeded the unchartered-status-limit shall be removed from the bookshelf and placed on an abandoned unchartered books list. Other interested parties can take on abandoned charters as their own project and try the charter submission process again.

Grandfather clauses:
 * 1) All wikibooks and shelves that were extant prior to the passing of this policy will not be subject to the unchartered-status-limit. However, progress should be made to create wikibook charters (or series-charters) for these texts. Shelve and wikibook charters of extant materials can be written concurrently but in the end must be consistent with all other rules.

Properties of a Charter
A charter must
 * 1) Explain what bookshelf its wikibook belongs to and explain how that wikibook satisfies that shelf's criteria. (Place)
 * 2) Explain the expected audience (Audience)
 * 3) Explain how the wikibook is in accordance with Wikibooks policy by stating which inclusion clause it falls under and by describing how the book will avoid any potential dangers of included prohibited or excluded content. In the approval process any voiced concerns of potential dangers must be addressed. For all warranted voiced concerns the explaination must be included in the charter itself. (Appropriate)
 * 4) Provide a general goal (Purpose)
 * 5) A target for what fits and doesn't (Scope)
 * 6) First edition criteria (First Edition)

A charter should not
 * 1) Include information that is likely to change; including chapter order, chapter listings,  or anything else where book progress would be limited by requiring changes to the charter

Here is an example charter for a programming languages computer science book:
 * Place: This book is part of the Computer Science bookshelf. The relevant goal from the Computer Science bookshelf that this book satisfies is the goal of creating a textbook for each course in a computer science ciriculum. This book covers the topic of programming languages, a commonly taught course.
 * Audience:
 * Appropriate: This book is permitted by Wikibooks policy because it is an instructional resource for a university-level course. This book will not cover any content related into breaking (hacking) into computer systems.
 * Purpose:
 * First Edition:

Series Charters
A series of wikibooks can have a single series-charter, in place of individual book charters, to coordinate tasks between books in a series. For example, a series-charter could be used to allow for a sensible progression from beginner, intermediate, to advanced books on a subject with attention to what content is appropriate for which book.

Bookshelf Charters
All bookshelves must themselves be chartered, to dictate the extent of their scope and to explicitly allow or disallow materials. For example, the Biology bookshelf could forbid the shelving of Creation Science.

All wikibooks that correctly follow the What is a Wikibook policy must be allowed to be put on some existing bookshelf. Thus, for example, Creation Science itself cannot be excluded by charters and it would be up to the contributors of the Philosophy, Religion, Biology or other shelves to determine the appropriate place. A Miscellaneous shelf exists for the purposes of allowing books to be shelved that are incompatible with all other shelf charters.

The development of bookshelf charters must be coordinated with each other in order to provide a usable interface and to minimize as much as possible the use of the Miscellaneous shelf.

A charter system would also respect the experts more, because it would prevent just anyone (or a group) coming along and making changes to a book that are counter to the (approved) charter. It's easier for an expert (e.g. an academic) to argue for and against charters than it is for them to fight against pseudo-trolls and other project hijackers. This could also be an enforced policy, which would mean charter deviations can be reverted.

Whatever the case, this sounds more like VFD/book creation policy than it does in defining what is a WikiBook. But the two can be complimentary. We might not be satisfied until we see both.

title: User:Mshonle/Charters


text:
Active Server Pages/Functions and Subroutines

= Objectives =

In this chapter we will introduce the concepts of creating procedures. A procedure may be a function or subroutine definition. Once defined, a procedure can be called from anywhere in your code. After reading this chapter, you should understand how to write your own procedure and then call that from another point in your code.

= Content =

One of the most powerful features of the Active Server Pages is the ability to create powerful procedures that can extend the scripting language. If you are new to procedural programming, you can think of a procedure as a macro that performs a complex task. Once defined and included in your web page, you can reference the macro in any code block you define.

For example, if you created a function to display the current date and time you could call this function with something like:

What is a Function?
A function is a procedure that returns a value to the caller. By "caller", we mean the place in the ASP code where you invoke the procedure through a "function call". Functions are declared using the Function statement and terminated with an End Function statement.

Above, we have an example of a function definition that will return the current date and time using the built-in function Now. By assigning a value to a variable which has the same name as the function (TodaysDate), we return a value to the calling process. There is no return statement like the PHP scripting language or in C programming.

This function can be declared anywhere in your web page and it will be made available for you to call from within anywhere in the page. As we will see later, you can even place commonly used procedures within a Server-Side Include page so that you don't have to write duplicate procedures on multiple pages from your web site.

This function is totally useless because it's easier to just call the built-in function Now.

It is important to note that a procedure declaration like this will not do anything meaningful until it is actually called. It simply declares a procedure which will do work when it is called.

What is a Subroutine?
A subroutine is a procedure that does not return a value to the caller. Subroutines are declared using the Sub statement and terminated with an End Sub statement.

The subroutine call above will output text that looks like "Today's Date is: Jan, 23 2004 06:43:12AM" when it is called. The location in the web page where this is output depends on where the subroutine is called. You should call the subroutine at the exact point where you would like it to output the text.

Unlike a function declaration, you are not allowed to assign a return value to the procedure name (ShowDate). If you attempt to use a subroutine as a function, you will receive a runtime error. The same is true when you try to use a function as a subroutine.

Procedure Parameters
Thus far, we have only looked at procedures which have no parameters. A parameter is an ASP value which is passed to the procedure for the purpose of completing a task. An optional parameter list is declared along with the function or subroutine by appending a comma-separated list of parameter names and enclosing this within parentheses.

Above we have a very simple subroutine which takes a single argument. This argument is the name of the person you want to say hello to. When you invoke this subroutine with a call such as:

Your ASP page will output "Hello Bill Gates, Nice to Meet You!". In this case we pass a string literal as the argument to the subroutine. You may also pass an ASP variable or a complex expression.

Finally, this example shows how multiple parameters are declared for a function. These two values are used to compute the number of seconds from the hours and minutes. You can see that multiple parameters are separated by a comma. If you want to place a long list of parameters on multiple lines, you will have to use the "line continuation" operator which is the underscore character (_).

Passing by Reference
By default, all procedure parameters are passed by reference. This means that when you use a variable as your procedure argument, any changes to the parameter within the procedure, will be reflected in the original argument. If you want to explicitly declare your parameter as "by reference", you may use the ByRef keyword:

You need to be careful when writing and invoking procedures like these. This procedure will actually modify the calling argument by removing everything except the first word in the argument.

Passing by reference is the default calling method. So even if the ByRef keyword is not present, the parameter is defined as "by reference" by default. It is important to remember this so that you don't fall into the trap mentioned above.

Passing by Value
The other way to pass values into your procedure is "by value". This means that a copy of the value is taken when the procedure is called. The parameter holds a copy of the value so that any modifications to this parameter will not affect any arguments that were used by the calling process.

Parameters which should be "passed by value" should be declared using the ByVal prefix. By default, all parameters are passed "by reference". If you need to pass a value "by value", you need to prefix the parameter declaration with ByVal.

When invoking this subroutine call, you will be guaranteed that the original argument will not be modified. You won't have that same guarantee with the previous declaration which declares the parameter ByRef.

You should only use ByVal when it is absolutely necessary. It is more efficient to pass parameters "by reference" than it is to pass them "by value". In typical use, most parameters are used as "read only", so you will probably only use the ByVal keyword occasionally.

Of course, you can mix the ByRef and ByVal prefixes together on a list of multiple parameters. Each parameter in your list can have one prefix modifying it (or none at all).

Calling Conventions
When invoking a subroutine or function, you need to be aware of the different calling conventions used for each. If you fail to follow these guidelines, you will receive a syntax error when loading the page in your browser.

Calling a function will always require you to enclose the arguments within parentheses. Unlike subroutines, a function can be used within expressions or as an argument to another function.

In the last example above, you will notice we call the function but ignore the return result. This is only useful when your function has some side effect on a global variable, or modifies a variable passed "by reference".

Calling subroutines, on the other hand, requires that you do not enclose the arguments within parentheses. The one exception to this rule is when you precede your function call with the Call keyword. The two different invocations are shown below

Local Variables
Just as you can declare variables using the Dim statement in your web page, you can also declare variables for use within your procedures. These are typically referred to as "local variables" because they are only available "locally" within the procedure declaration. The variables declared outside of the procedures can be thought of as "global variables".

You declare local variables within a procedure block just as you would a regular variable:

The scope of the variable I is strictly within the procedure declaration. You won't be able to reference I outside of the procedure. It is created when the function is called and disappears when the function finishes.

Active Server Pages allows you to reference global variables within your procedures. Although this is not recommended because it makes your procedures less portable, there are some instances where this proves useful.

Variable Hiding
A variable may be declared "locally" and "globally" using the same name. This is perfectly legal in ASP. When you do this, the local variable will "hide" the global variable within the context of the procedure.

In the example above, we have the variable I declared globally (actually the scope is the life of the web page) and locally. When you run this sample code, you will notice that the global variable I remains unchanged after the call to CountTo. This is because the local variable is completely separate from the global. Changes to the local variable have no effect on global I.

Because you declared a local variable with the same name as a global one, you effectively hide the reference to the global variable. Within the procedure CountTo, there is no way to reference the global I. While other languages provide a mechanism to access such variables, ASP does not. One way to get around this is to either: change the name of your local variable or pass the global variable as a parameter (using a different name).

Recursion
Recursion refers to the practice of having a function "call itself" in order to perform a repetitive task. Creating a recursive function is as simple as declaring a function that contains a call to itself.

As you can see on the last line of the subroutine, the bubble sort routine will call itself recursively as the span decreases by one each time. The function will stop calling itself once the span distance reaches one. The "depth" or "level of recursion" depends on the size of the array passed. If you have seven elements, the procedure will call itself 6 times.

Shown below is some ASP code which will test the bubble sort routine be creating an array of seven numbers and invoking the BubbleSort procedure:

You should notice, that we first call the procedure with a span of zero. Code in the procedure will recognize this as a signal to initialize the span parameter with for sorting.

You should also be aware, that the bubble sort routine outlined above could easily be re-written to use no recursion at all. A good rule-of-thumb is: if the procedure is much easier to write and maintain using recursion then go ahead and do so.

= Summary =

Procedures allow you to create reusable code "macros" that perform a specific task. Functions are procedures which return a value, whereas subroutines do not. Procedures may be declared anywhere within a page and referenced from anywhere on your page. Output from a subroutine or function will be placed at the location where the sent to the location where the procedure is invoked.

Each procedure declaration may have an optional list of parameters. Parameters may be declared as being passed "by reference" or "by value". The default parameter passing convention is "by reference". Use ByVal or ByRef to explicitly declare your procedure parameters.

= Review Questions =

 * Procedures may be subroutines or functions.
 * Only functions may return a value to the caller.
 * Function declares a function, Sub declares a subroutine.
 * Procedures may be placed anywhere on the page from which they are called.
 * Commonly-used procedures may be placed in a Server-Side Include file.
 * An optional parameter list may be declared after the procedure name.
 * The parameter list must be enclosed in parentheses.
 * Multiple parameters are separated by a comma.
 * The default parameter passing convention is "by reference".
 * ASP variables passed "by reference" to a procedure may be modified.
 * The default parameter passing convention is "by reference".
 * When calling functions, enclose the arguments in parentheses
 * When calling subroutines, use no parentheses around the arguments
 * Functions may be used in expressions and as arguments to functions
 * Local variables may be declared inside of a procedure block.
 * Local variables hide references to global (page-scoped) ones.

= Exercises =

 * Write a function to compute the diameter of a circle (2 * pi * radius) with the single parameter being the radius.
 * Write a function to compute the area of a rectangle (length * width) having two parameters.
 * Write a subroutine to output a greeting such as: "Good Morning", "Good Afternoon" or "Good Evening" based on the time-of-day.
 * Re-write the bubble-sort procedure as a non-recursive function.


text:
Tok Pisin/Articles

Articles
Tok Pisin does not have a definite article. The word ol can be mistaken for a definite plural article, since it can feel like it should be translated as "the" for instance in "ol diwai" meaning "the trees". However, it is merely a marker for plurality and if plurality has already been established it is not used.

In Tok Pisin, the word for "one" wanpela is also used for the indefinite article.

title: Tok Pisin/Articles


text: C++ Programming/Programming Languages/C++/Code/Statements/Variables/Type/Data Types


text:
C++ Programming/Standard Headers

Standard Headers
and the

Everything inside C++'s standard library is kept in the std:: namespace.

Old compilers may include headers with a .h suffix (e.g. the non-standard  vs. the standard  ) instead of the standard headers. These names were common before the standardization of C++ and some compilers still include these headers for backwards compatibility. Rather than using the std:: namespace, these older headers pollute the global namespace and may otherwise only implement the standard in a limited way.

Some vendors use the SGI STL headers. This was the first implementation of the standard template library.

title: C++ Programming/Standard Headers


text:
Rebol Programming/Design Guide/Think Simple

Yes, think simple, but not simply.

Most beginner scripts are too complicated.

It is more difficult to write something simple and elegant.

 * Strive to keep your code simple.

 * Treat every script as if it were unfinished until you have removed all unnecessary code and data.

Small, simple scripts are easier to read and maintain.

"A designer knows he has achieved perfection not when there is nothing left to add, but when there is nothing left to take away." -Antoine de Saint-Exupery

For example to return the days in a month you could write something like:

data-block: [ "January" 31 "February" 28 "March" 31 "April" 30 "May" 31 "June" 30 "July" 31 "August" 31 "September" 30 "October" 31 "November" 30 "December" 31 ] month: {June} print first skip find data-block month 1

It works .... but is a bit long for what it provides.

 * you don't need to hold the months as strings

 * data-block is not a very descriptive name. Maybe days-in-month would be better

 * the Rebol path notation makes the navigation to the answer direct so you don't need to use the find and worry about where you are in the series after you find the value you sought

 * you don't need to define variables like 'month' for values that can be accessed directly

This should be easier to follow and maintain:

days-in-month: [ January 31 February 28 March 31 April 30 May 31 June 30 July 31 August 31 September 30 October 31 November 30 December 31 ] print days-in-month/June

Or we don't need to define a variable for the month block:

print select [ January 31 February 28 March 31 April 30 May 31 June 30 July 31 August 31 September 30 October 31 November 30 December 31 ] 'June

Now you might decide to make this a function so that it can be re-used or you might have that sneaking suspicion that because you needed this function someone else has already written it.

If you decide to make it a function, you now have the ability to add the leap-year decision.


text:
C++ Programming/Operators Table

Table of operators
Operators in the same group have the same precedence and the order of evaluation is decided by the associativity (left-to-right or right-to-left). Operators in a preceding group have higher precedence than those in a subsequent group.

title: C++ Programming/Operators Table


text:
C++ Programming/Programming Languages/C++

Introducing C++
C++ (pronounced "see plus plus") is a general-purpose, multi-paradigm, statically typed, free-form programming language, supporting procedural; object-oriented; generic; and (more recently) functional programming paradigms, and is well-known for facilitating low-cost abstractions in code. If any of the preceding concepts are unfamiliar to you, do not worry, they will be introduced in subsequent sections.

During the 1990s C++ grew to become one of the most popular computer programming languages, and it is still the fourth most popular language, according to the TIOBE index. C++ was first designed with a focus on systems programming, but its features also make it an attractive language for creating end-user applications, especially those with resource constraints, or that require very high performance. C++ is extensively used in game development, web clients/server side, back office of financial applications and robotics.

History and standardization
Bjarne Stroustrup, a Computer Scientist from Bell Labs, was the designer and original implementer of C++ (originally named "C with Classes") during the 1980s, as an enhancement to the C programming language. C, which had also been created at Bell Labs for the purpose of implementing the Unix operating system by Dennis Ritchie, gave users great control over hardware at a higher conceptual level than assembly language (ASM), but still with limited expressivity. Stroustrup decided to combine features for program organization from the object-oriented Simula language with C's efficient use of hardware resources. Enhancements started with the addition of object-oriented concepts like classes and virtual functions, followed by, among many features, namespaces, operator overloading, templates, and exception handling. These and other features are covered in detail in this book. Several features of C++ were later adopted by C, including the  keyword for creating immutable values in a program,  functions, declarations in , and C++-style comments (using the // symbol).

The C++ programming language is a standard recognized by the ANSI (The American National Standards Institute), BSI (The British Standards Institute), DIN (The German national standards organization), and several other national standards bodies, and was ratified in 1998 by the ISO (The International Standards Organization) as ISO/IEC 14882:1998, though more commonly referred to as C++98 or simply C++. The standard consists of two parts: the Core Language and the Standard Library; the latter includes the Standard Template Library and the Standard C Library (ANSI C 89).

The 2003 version, ISO/IEC 14882:2003, referred to as C++03, redefined the standard language as a single item. The STL ("Standard Template Library") that pre-dated the standardization of C++ (and was originally implemented in Ada) became an integral part of the standard, and a requirement for a compliant implementation of the same.

From 2004, the standards committee (which includes Bjarne Stroustrup) worked out the details of a new revision of the standard, with C++11 (previously called C++0x) approved on 12 August 2011. C++11 made the language more efficient, easier to use, and added more functionality to the Standard Library. The specification for C++14 was released on 15 December 2014, with smaller changes compared to C++11, and compiler support for this standard has followed quickly. Several tables of compiler support for so-called modern C++ features are available.

Many other C++ libraries exist which are not part of the Standard, a popular example being Boost. Also, non-Standard libraries written in C can generally be used by C++ programs.

 * C++ source code example

Traditionally, the first program people write in a new language is called "Hello World", because all it does is simply display the words Hello World, while revealing basic information about the language in the process. Hello World Explained (in the Examples Appendix) offers a detailed explanation of this code, in which can be seen several elements of C++ mentioned here, including C-like syntax and use of the Standard Library.

Overview
Before you begin your journey to understand how to write programs using C++, it is important to understand a few key concepts that you may encounter. These concepts are not unique to C++, but are helpful to understanding computer programming in general. Readers who have experience in another programming language may wish to skim through this section, or skip it entirely.

There are many different kinds of programs in use today. From the operating system you use that makes sure everything works as it should, to the video games and music applications you use for entertainment, programs can fulfill many different purposes. What all programs (also called software or applications) have in common, is that they all are made up of a sequence of instructions written, in some form or another, in a programming language. These instructions tell a computer what to do, and generally how to do it. Programs can contain anything from instructions to solve math problems, to how to behave when a video game character is shot in a game. The computer will follow the instructions of a program one instruction at a time from start to finish.

Another thing true of all computer programs (or most programs, rather) is that they solve problems and perform tasks. Say hello to the world. Paint a button on the screen. Calculate 26*78. Drive the car. Fortunately or not, computers must be taught how to perform these tasks. In other words, they must be programmed.

Why learn C++?
Why not? This is the most clarifying approach to the decision to learn anything. Although learning is always good, selecting what you learn is more important as it is how you will prioritize tasks. Another side of this problem is that you will be investing some time in getting a new skill set. You must decide how this will benefit you. Check your objectives and compare similar projects or see what the programming market is in need of. In any case, the more programming languages you know, the better.

C++ is not the ideal first language. However, if you are willing to dedicate a more than passing interest in C++, then you can even learn it as your first language. Make sure to dedicate some time understanding the different paradigms and why C++ is a multi-paradigm, or hybrid, language.

If you are approaching the learning process only to add another notch under your belt, that is, willing only to dedicate enough effort to understand its major quirks and learn something about its dark corners, then you would be best served in learning two other languages first. This will clarify what makes C++ special in its approach to programming. You should select one imperative and one object-oriented language. C will probably be the best choice for the former, as it has a good market value and a direct relation to C++, although a good substitute would be ASM. For the latter, Java is a good choice, mostly because it shares much of its syntax with C++ but it does not support imperative programming. Read the language comparison section for better understanding the relations.

Although learning C is not a requirement for understanding C++, you must know how to use an imperative language. C++ will not make it easy for you to understand some of these deeper concepts, since in it you, the programmer, are given the greater range of freedom. There are many ways of doing things in C++. Understanding which options to choose will become the cornerstone of mastering the language.

You should not learn C++ if you are solely interested in learning Object-oriented Programming. C++ offers some support for objects, but is still not truly Object-oriented, and consequently the nomenclature used and the approaches taken to solve problems will make it more difficult to learn and master those concepts. If you are truly interested in Object-oriented programming, you should learn Smalltalk.

As with all languages, C++ has a specific scope of application where it can truly shine. C++ is harder to learn than C and Java but more powerful than both. C++ enables you to abstract from the little things you have to deal with in C or other lower level languages but will grant you more control and responsibility than Java. As it will not provide the default features you can obtain in similar higher level languages, you will have to search and examine several external implementations of those features and freely select those that best serve your purposes (or implement your own solution).


text:
German/Grammar/Cases

German has four cases. A case may determine the particular adjective, adjective ending, pronoun, and noun ending to use. If there is a definite article, the case is often easier to recognise.

The nominative case is used in reference to the subject of a sentence.

Der Mann /  Die Frau /  Das Kind isst. (The man / the woman / the child is eating.)

The accusative case is used in reference to the direct object of a sentence.

Ich sehe den Mann /  die Frau /  das Kind. (I see the man / the woman / the child.)

The dative case is used in reference to the indirect object of a sentence.

Er gibt dem Mann /  der Frau  /  dem Kind den Löffel. (He gives the spoon to the man / the woman / the child.)

The genitive case is used in reference to a possessed object of a sentence.

das Buch des Mannes /  der Frau  /  des Kindes  (the man's / woman's / child's book)

To determine the case of a noun or pronoun in German, use the following steps, in order.

Determining Cases

 * If the noun or pronoun is a subject, it takes the nominative case. If the noun is an object, it takes either the accusative, dative or genitive case.
 * If the expression contains a dative, accusative or genitive preposition, the case of the noun or pronoun takes the case of that preposition.
 * If the expression contains a two-way preposition, if the verb is transitive, the expression takes the accusative case. If the verb is intransitive, the expression takes the dative case.
 * If the expression contains no prepositions, the expression takes the accusative case if the verb is intransitive, and the dative case if the verb is transitive. (see also Prepositions and Postpositions)
 * In some cases, a noun or pronoun will take the genitive case, if it is possessed by the subject, or if the verb implies possession.

What are cases for?
In English, and many other languages, you know what role a noun plays from its place in the sentence. For example:

The dog bit the man

Here, you know that the man has bite-marks on his leg.

The man bit the dog.

Here, surprisingly, the dog has the bite-marks.

In German, you can change the word order around as you like. You can write:

Der Hund biss den Mann (The dog bit the man)

or

Den Mann biss der Hund (The dog bit the man)

These are both the "unsurprising" version where the man has teeth-marks. You can see that because in both sentences, it says "den Mann", not "der Mann". "Den Mann" is the accusative form which means that the person is the one bitten, not the biter. In both cases, the dog is "der Hund", making it the biter. "The man bit the dog" would be "Der Mann biss den Hund" or "Den Hund biss der Mann".

So while English uses word order to tell us what is the subject (here, the biter) and what is the object (here, the bitten), German uses cases to give us this important information. This allows German to have the advantage over English of being able to stress the object or the subject of a sentence by changing the word order (normally the first noun is the stressed part).

Alemão/Gramática/Casos

title: German/Grammar/Cases


text:
Old English

Ƿes þū hāl and ƿilcume! Hello and welcome! This a Wikibook about Old English, the Germanic language spoken in England from about 500 AD (after the arrival of the Angles, the Saxons, and Jutes from the area around northern Germany, the Netherlands, and Denmark) in southern Great Britain, until about 1100 AD, shortly after the Norman Conquest lead by William I (William the Conqueror), at which time Old English became Middle English.

While we would like this Wikibook to be a useful resource for learning Old English, it is not yet in very good condition; but it is being improved. Leorna þū ƿel! Learn well!

If you are already a speaker of Old English, or are learning it, you can see some Old English texts at Wikisource.

History

 * /History, Culture, and Society/

Old English Grammar

 * /Roadmap to learning Old English/
 * /Fōresprǣc/ (Introduction) ~ The Alphabet and Pronunciation, A Short Example of Old English
 * /Grammar/
 * /Orthography/
 * /I-mutation/
 * /Nouns/
 * /Pronouns/
 * /Articles/
 * /Adjectives/
 * /Numbers/
 * /Verbs/
 * /Participles/
 * /Adverbs/
 * /Conjunctions/
 * /Prepositions/
 * /Interjections/
 * /Appositives/
 * /Word Formation/
 * /Punctuation/
 * /Syntax/

Old English reading lessons

 * /1st reading: David's feats/

Additional Old English resource pages

 * Authentic Old English Phrasing
 * An informal Old English phrasebook, with some explicitly marked neologisms
 * Titles and Nicknames

Vocabulary
After you've mastered the grammar, the main things to do is learn vocabulary and idiomatic language usage. They both can be done by reading actual historical texts and practicing what you have already learnt, but here are some lists to help with the vocabulary.
 * /Vocabulary/100 Keywords/
 * /Vocabulary/Nouns/
 * /Vocabulary/Verbs/

Other electronic resources
Thankfully, there are many other quality online accessible resources already available for Old English. Here are some of them:

 * An online searchable version of the Bosworth and Toller dictionary, and other Germanic language resources
 * Another online searchable version of Bosworth and Toller, but this time with no other Germanic language resources

title: Old English


text:
Old English/Prepositions

Old English has many prepositions, and like German, they require certain cases of noun to come after them to complete their meaning. Old English has 4 cases other than nominative (subject) case which can be objects of prepositions. The genitive, dative, instrumental, and accusative cases can all be objects of prepositions. Prepositions are used to make a sentence more descriptive.

Mid

 * This preposition means 'with', as in:
 * I went with him - ic ēode mid him.
 * I traveled along with her - ic fōr mid hire.

Tō

 * This means 'to,' as in:
 * I spoke to him - ic spræc tō him.
 * I go to the door - ic gā tō þǣre dura.

Þurh
This preposition governs the accusative case.
 * This means 'through,' as in:
 * I go through the gate - ic gā þurh þæt geat.

Now, there are a great deal of prepositions in Old English, so going through them by case governed will be helpful.

Genitive Prepositions
Genitive prepositions that only take the genitive case are rare, and there is only one true such preposition, andlang.

andlang, andlanges

 * 1) alongside, along, on length, by the side of
 * 2) I go alongside the street - ic gā andlang(es) þǣre strǣte.
 * 3) I go by the side of the way - ic gā andlang(es) þæs ƿeges.

There are several prepositions which do take genitive objects in addition to other cases:
 * betƿēonan (dative/accusative too)
 * innan (dative/accusative too) - within, from within
 * þurh (mainly accusative)

Tōgeagnes

 * 1) where there is motion towards the object governed by the word
 * 2) without the idea of hostility, towards, so as to meet
 * 3) with idea of hostility, against, to meet
 * 4) where there is motion of the object governed by the word
 * 5) without idea of opposition, in the way of, to meet the approach of, in readiness for, against the coming of
 * 6) with the idea of opposition, against, for the purpose of resisting
 * 7) marking the object towards or against which an action is directed
 * 8) of reciprocal action, again, in return
 * 9) marking time, on the approach of, towards
 * 10) marking comparison or contrast

Accusative Prepositions
There are several pure accusative prepositions, among the most common are geond, geondan, oþ, þurh, underneoðan, ƿiþgeondan, ymb, ymbūtan. Some of these prepositions can take other cases, but only rarely. There are also some less common prepositions, which will be listed below with the others.

geond

 * 1) throughout, during

geondan

 * 1) beyond

oþ

 * to, up to, as far as

þurh

 * 1) through, during

þurhūt

 * 1) right through, throughout
 * 2) hē ēode þurhūt Ēoforƿīc - he went throughout York

underneoðan

 * 1) underneath, below

ƿiþgeondan

 * 1) beyond

ymb

 * 1) around, about, at

ymbūtan

 * 1) around, about

ābūtan
(variant of onbūtan)
 * on, about, around, around about, on the outside

innan

 * 1) dative - in
 * 2) rest in, within - innan healle within a hall
 * 3) motion in, within - hé éode innan þǽm mynstre he went within the monastery
 * 4) time within the limits of a period, in; híe ƿendon innan þǽre middanƿintres tíde they went within the limits of midwinter time
 * 5) accusative - into

onbūtan

 * 1) about
 * 2) place
 * 3) time
 * 4) about All Saint's Day or later onbūtan Ealra Hālgena dæg and gīet lator

Dative

 * 1) with, in conjunction with, in company with, together with

Instrumental

 * 1) through, by means of

Reference

 * Place Prepositions
 * Time Prepositions
 * Manner Prepositions
 * Relation Prepositions

title: Old English/Prepositions


text:
Old English/Prepositions of Time

Old English prepositions of time, which detail the temporal relationships of their sentences.

Dative
Prepositions of time in the dative case generally concern events within a certain block of time.

Innan

 * 1) within the limits of a period, in; híe ƿendon innan þǽre middanƿintres tíde they went within the limits of midwinter time

On

 * On with the dative is used with generic time nouns, such as dæg and gēar.
 * 1) on + gēare: hæbbe ic þriƿa on gēare mid tōþlǣccan gesetne dæg - I have a set day with a dentist thrice in the year.
 * 2) on + þǣm + ǣrdæge: on þǣm ǣrdæge ēodon hīe tō cirican - in early morning they went to church.

Tōgeagnes

 * 1) on the approach of, towards; tōgeagnes Ēastran cōm þæs pāpan sande the pope's legate came towards Easter

On

 * on/in a day, month, year; This is used with the accusative with named days and months

 * 1) on + dæg: gif gē lesaþ ƿyrte on Sunnandæg - if you gather roots on Sunday
 * 2) on + mōnaþ: se ǣresta Frīgedæg þe man sceal fæsten is on Hlȳdan (Hrēþmōnaþ) - the first Friday that one shall fast is in March
 * 3) on + morgen: on morgen gā ic tō scōle - in the morning I go to school

No Preposition
Often cases can be used to indicate when something happens. This is often used with the dative, but can also be accusative and genitive.
 * Sunnan dagum gā ic tō cirican (or on Sunnandagum) - Sundays I go to church.
 * Sunnan dæges cēapinge ne dōþ man (on gehƿamlicum Sunnandæge) - Sunday one does not do marketing.
 * þȳ gēare æfter his lyre (oþþe on gēare) - the year after his loss (instrumental case)

title: Old English/Prepositions of Time


text:
User:Sfdan~enwikibooks

My English Wikipedia user page.

title: User:Sfdan~enwikibooks


text:
Template:Old English

Introduction:  Introduction - Grammar - Orthography - I-mutation

Grammar: Nouns - Pronouns - Articles - Adjectives - Numbers - Verbs - Participles - Adverbs - Conjunctions - Prepositions - Interjections - Appositives - Word Formation -

title: Template:Old English


text:
Old English/Nouns

Nouns are words which indicate a person, place, animal, thing, or idea, like "thing", "rabbit", "Samuel", and "Buddhism" in Modern English.

In Old English they have 3 genders (masculine, neuter, feminine), 2 numbers (singular, plural), and 5 cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, instrumental). Note that the so-called "genders" were purely grammatical genders - they very often did not correspond to biological sex. For example the word ƿīf - "woman" is actually of the neuter (grammatical) gender, not referencing female sex.

In Old English, nouns were inflected (they changed how they were written and spoken) to add little bits of extra information to communicate their function within the sentence and the number of the noun (whether singular or plural). Although learning a language with three different genders might seem hard, it isn't really very hard - it can easily enough be done if you just make sure to memorize nouns along with their definitive articles, because the definitive articles for each grammatical gender are unique. For example, don't just remember the word "ġiefu" - remember "sēo ġiefu", so you'll always know it's a feminine noun - you can easily just not say the article if you don't need to; on the other hand, if you don't know the gender of a noun, it might be annoying.

Nouns were the essential element to a noun phrase (either a noun or a pronoun had to be in a noun phrase), which is an important part of most sentences. Also in the noun phrase you could put noun modifiers, like numbers, adjectives (words that describe, like "cool" or "special"), articles ("the" or "a/an), and demonstratives ("this" and "that"). All those other words within a noun phrase had to have the same number, grammatical gender, and case as the noun that they were modifying. In addition, most adjectives (but not most numerals) could either be declined strong or weak depending on what other words were used with them. For more information on adjective declension, please see the page about Old English adjectives.

Noun Declensions
Nouns are divided into two main categories of declension in Old English: the so called "Strong" and "Weak" nouns. There are other minor declension groups, as well; but most nouns fall into these two classifications. If a noun belongs to a particular declension group, it can usually only be declined that way. Occasionally, you can decline an Old English noun one of several ways. Whether or not a noun is weak or strong does not affect whether or not the modifiers (adjectives) used with it are declined weak or strong.

Which declension a noun takes must be memorized along with the noun itself. Often, the noun itself may give clues as to which declension it takes, but not always.

Strong Nouns
The strong noun paradigm declines for case, gender and singular/plural.

We should consider a few different word stem patterns which affect how a noun is declined:
 * The -e in feminine plural is only found in late Old English
 * The -an in dative plural is a late Old English feature
 * -u was often written as -o in Anglian dialects
 * If a word ends in a long vowel, it usually "swallows" up the short vowel of any declensional suffix, except the u of -um, which remains intact. For example: rā (roebuck) becomes rān in genitive singular, instead of rāan. However, you would still have rāum in dative plural.
 * If word has one syllable, and the first stressed syllable of a word (almost always the first syllable excluding most short prefixes) has a short vowel, and ends in the consonant, then the word may take all expected declensional suffixes in a straightforward manner. Note that this type of strong neuter nouns also take -u in the nominative and accusative plural. E.g. you say "sċipu" for "ships". Likewise, this kind of strong feminine noun takes -u in the nominative singular, e.g. you say "ġiefu" for "gift". Note that such a syllable, which has a short vowel and ends in a single consonant, is called a light syllable.
 * If the word has one syllable, and either has a long vowel and ends with a consonant, or ends in two consonants, the word is declined in a straightforward manner, and takes the expected declensional suffixes, except that such strong neuter and strong feminine words do not take the -u in nominative and accusative plural, and nominative singular, respectively. For example, you should not write "þingu" to mean "things" - instead omit the declensional -u suffix, and write "þing". Likewise, do not write "strǣtu" to mean "street" (strong feminine noun) - write instead "strǣt" in the nominative singular. Note that a syllable which either contains a long vowel, or ends in two consonants, is called a "heavy" syllable.
 * If the word has two syllables, and the first syllable is heavy, and the second syllable is light, then the vowel of the second syllable is omitted before any declensional suffixes, and the suffix is added as expected, including the -u for neuter and feminine nouns.
 * If the word has two syllables, and the final syllable is heavy, then the declensional suffix is added, but -u is not added to neuter and feminine nouns. For example, one writes "ƿoruld" - "world", instead of "ƿoruldu" (which would be incorrect). Likewise, one writes "hēorēdes" - "a household's", instead of "hēordes" - which would be wrong. NOTE HOWEVER, that the second vowel had become short or altogether omitted in Late West Saxon, and one does find, "hīrd" and derived forms.
 * If the word has two syllables, and the first syllable is light, and the second syllable is light, then -u suffix of strong neuter and feminine declensions might be added, or might not be added, according to dialect (potentially, the usage of -u in such situations may be associated with Anglian dialects). However, the second short vowel of the word, would not be omitted. For example, both "ƿæteru" and "ƿæter" ("waters") are present in historical Old English.
 * NOTE: Many feminine nouns with any length end in -u or -þu. This was often a productive noun suffix (e.g. it could be used to create nouns), instead of a grammatical declensional suffix, so the comments made above about the strong neuter and feminine -u declensional suffix, do not apply. The -þu/-u noun suffixes were usually treated as indeclinable (e.g. you would find -u as the ending in all cases and numbers of the word), but was by some writers declined according to the strong feminine declension (in which case, the -u suffix was conflated with the declensional -u suffix, and was replaced by -e in the same instances).

Here are the strong neuter and feminine declensions:

U-nouns
Some masculine and some feminine nouns belong to the u-declension. They were either light and two-syllabled (like "sunu"), or heavy and one-syllabled (like "hand").

They had the same endings for both genders, but slightly different endings depending of stem structure (see the explanation for strong neuter and feminine nouns in strong nouns). Here are two examples of this declension:

Other nouns in this category are feld - field (masc.), ƿeald - forest, wood (masc.), and sunu - son (masc.)

Ƿ-nouns
Nouns whose stem ended in -u or -o (the two were interchangeable) would turn this -u/o to a -ƿ- before a vowel of a grammatical suffix. For example:

Note that this applied to the other genders, as well. There are quite a few nouns like this, and it is fairly easy to remember that their stem ends with -u/o, so I won't list them here. But do make sure you don't confuse nouns like this with u-nouns (see above) or strong feminine nouns with the grammatical ending -u.

I-mutation nouns
A small handful of nouns in Old English take the i-mutation in parts of their declension. This is for historical reasons, which are not delved into here. Some of these nouns actually have survived into Modern English with their i-mutation in the plural, for example "goose" and "geese", "mouse" and "mice", "louse" and "lice", and "man" and "men". All i-mutation nouns in Old English are either masculine or feminine. Here is an example of the declension:

As you can see, the i-mutation affects the stem vowels in singular dative and genitive, and plural nominative and accusative. Other masculine i-mutation nouns with their i-mutated forms are:
 * frēond (frīend) - "friend"
 * fēond (fīend) - "fiend", "enemy"
 * fōt (fēt) - "foot"
 * tōþ (tēþ) - "tooth"

Other feminine i-mutation nous with their i-mutated forms are:
 * mūs (mȳs) - "mouse"
 * lūs (lȳs) - "louse"
 * burg (byriġ) - "city"
 * āc (ǣċ) - "oak tree"
 * gāt (gǣt) - "goat"
 * gōs (gēs) - goose

Note that sometimes these usually i-mutated nouns were declined just like other strong nouns.

Weak Declension
The weak paradigm is more simplified and has less variation between the genders and cases.

Note that the plural weak declension is the same for all genders.

There are very many other weak masculine and feminine nouns, so they aren't listed here; but there is only one other weak neuter noun, and that is ēare - "ear".

Make sure not to confuse weak feminine nouns with some strong masculine or neuter nouns that end with -e.

Indeclinable nouns
Some nouns are indeclinable, or can optionally be treated as indeclinable. This means that they do not change at all according to case or number, but words that modify them, such as adjectives, still do; and verbs that they are used with also still change according to number.

One large category of such nouns are feminine nouns ending in -o/-u, such as lengu - "length" and strengu - "strength". Sometimes these nouns had weak feminine equivalents that were otherwise identical. Also, country names borrowed from Latin, often ending in "-a", could usually optionally be treated as indeclinable. There are a few more indeclinable nouns, which should be memorized as you go.

Appositives
In Old English, as in Modern English, nouns could sometimes be used similarly to an adjective to modify another noun. These are called appositives. One example of appositives in Modern English is in titles: "Queen Elizabeth", "Brother John", "General Schwartzkopf", where "Queen", "Brother", and "General" are all nouns used to modify other nouns.

To get a better understanding of how appositives were used in Old English, see the appositives page.

title: Old English/Nouns


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User talk:Hellznrg

Deleting UAE
Hey Hellznrg. While your book on the United Arab Emirates is really intriguing, because it's really your own experiences and viewpoints, it really probably shouldn't be on Wikibooks as a collaborative effort...however, you really should pursue this as a blog or something, even on your user page....I for one would find it an interesting read. It's currently listed as a Vote for deletion which means we as a community are voting and discussing its removal. If you want to make a comment about it then go over to that page and fill us in. Good luck with writing the rest of it, where ever that ends up! Cheers, Serge 10:12, September 10, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Hellznrg


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User:Cmadler

See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Cmadler

title: User:Cmadler


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Rebol Programming/Design Guide/Scripts start with a header

Headers provide a consistent way to to give your script an official title and filename.

Take advantage of them. They can save you and others time by explaining:

 * what a script does

 * who wrote it

 * when it was last modified

 * how it should be used

 * its change history, and more.

Headers also provide reliable search information for libraries, archives, and search engines.


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Rebol Programming/Design Guide/Data drives it

Embrace the concept that data can drive your program.

This is an old idea called "data driven code", and REBOL promotes it to a new level.

Keep an eye out for repeating patterns in your source code.

Often a pattern can be reduced to simply a block that expresses the parts of the pattern that are different.

This saves time, shortens the script, and makes the program easier to maintain.

Data driven programming is a computer programming paradigm which contrasts to Event Driven Programming and Flow Driven Programming. In data driven programming the flow of control and look of the program is altered by changing a data structure inside the program, or by altering a data file that is used by the program. An extreme example of this is REBOL itself which interprets REBOL code. REBOL code is the data.

Leaving that aside, when we create mini dialects that are read by REBOL at run time to produce modified behaviour, we are using the data driven programming paradigm. In this book we have an example where a data structure is used to describe a GUI, which is generated at run time. Rather than have the data structure inside the program, it could just as easily be read from a file. In this case we mix paradigms by using a data driven program to create an event driven program.

The point about this is that we are reducing complexity, and easing maintenance by taking the decisions outside of the program and placing them into easily modified data.

External References

 * Data-Driven Programming from Eric Raymond
 * Wikiwiki - Data Driven Programs


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Rebol Programming/Design Guide/Names are critical

Words are the symbols that your brain uses to deal with language.

When defining functions and variables, pick good words that help your brain.

Good words also help others understand your script.

Take the time to find just the right word.


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Rebol Programming/Design Guide/Use words not strings

A common mistake of beginners is to use text strings to dynamically compose code and data.

This is unnecessary, inefficient, and does not maintain the context of words appropriately.

All dynamic code and data can be composed directly with words, blocks, and data values.

This is also the best way to experience the power of REBOL dialecting.

For example:

days-in-month: [ January 31 February 28 March 31 April 30 May 31 June 30 July 31 August 31 September 30 October 31 November 30 December 31 ]

print days-in-month/November

print days-in-month/March


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Rebol Programming/Design Guide/Code in style

Rebol is a highly dynamic language that allows massive creative freedom in a script's design.

But, when it comes to the source format of your script, use the standard script style (found in the REBOL User's Guide).

Adhering to a standard style will make your script easier for you and others to read.


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Rebol Programming/Design Guide/Embed your documentation

Keep your documentation in sync with your code by embedding documentation in your code.

Rebol was designed with this principle in mind.

Function argument blocks can be used to explain the purpose of the function, its arguments, and refinements.

HELP will automatically use this information.

Example:

days-in-month: func [ {Returns number of days in a month} month [ word!] {Month of the year} ] [ days: [ January 31 February 28 March 31 April 30 May 31 June 30 July 31 August 31 September 30 October 31 November 30 December 31 ]  days/month ]

>> help days-in-month USAGE: DAYS-IN-MONTH month DESCRIPTION: Returns number of days in a month DAYS-IN-MONTH is a function value. ARGUMENTS: month -- Month of the year (Type: word)


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Rebol Programming/Design Guide/Define the problem

When faced with coding a task, defining the problem creates most of the solution.

After all, if you cannot define the problem, then can you ever really find its solution?


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Rebol Programming/Design Guide/Use the shell

The command shell is a good way to test an idea or find a quick answer about a function.

In the shell, you can quickly display information about a particular function and its arguments.

In addition the SOURCE function can show you how other functions are written.

>> help func USAGE: FUNC spec body DESCRIPTION: Defines a user function with given spec and body. FUNC is a function value. ARGUMENTS: spec -- Help string (opt) followed by arg words (and opt type and string) (Type: block) body -- The body block of the function (Type: block) (SPECIAL ATTRIBUTES) catch

>> source func func: func [ "Defines a user function with given spec and body." [catch] spec [block!] {Help string (opt) followed by arg words (and opt type and string)} body [block!] "The body block of the function" ][   throw-on-error [make function! spec body] ]


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Rebol Programming/Design Guide/Take advantage of return values

Many functions return useful values.

For instance, the INSERT function returns the series just past the insertion.

IF, EITHER, and most of the looping functions return the value of the block they evaluated.

>> j: 0 == 0 >> print foreach entry [red green blue water aqua] [j: j + 1] 5

Don't use RETURN in every function you write
The last value evaluated is returned automatically in user-defined functions. While you can use the RETURN function to exit a function early and return a value, you do not need to use it in every function you write. One reason not to do so is that it is another function call, with the overhead that entails. Another is that using RETURN only for early exit scenarios (as you would use EXIT) makes those special cases more obvious.

>> fn: does [100] >> fn == 100 >> fn: does [return 100] >> fn == 100


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How to Write a Research Paper in History/Doing research

You've got your topic (or at least a general idea of something to explore), you've got an idea of where your primary sources might be — what now? This section will cover the basics of doing historical research and note taking.

Taking notes
Taking notes may seem like a straightforward thing to do, but there are a few pitfalls which can be easily avoided which will save you a lot of time in the end.

When taking notes, make sure to write as much information on the source's citation as you have available. You likely won't need all of this information for your final paper (formal citation will be covered later), but it will help you find the source again should you need to (as well as help anybody else who would like to find the source and contacts you). If you are dealing with boxed collections (usually full of individual folders), definitely make sure to note which boxes and which folders you looked at — even if you don't find anything useful in them. This will help you later if you suffer pangs of doubt about whether or not you missed something important.

There is no "right way" to take notes. The goal of notetaking is to have enough information as to use it later. Sometimes this will mean copying out long quotations, sometimes it will be brief summary notes. Most archives will make photocopies for you (for a price), which is another good reason to keeping careful track of citation information (should you later desire copies of something you looked at). When taking notes from books, keep careful track of which page numbers any information is coming from, as it will allow you to cite it thoroughly and convincingly.

After you've taken your notes, make a backup copy, whether they are on a computer or on actual paper. Never keep only one copy of your notes in any form, unless you enjoy re-doing a lot of tedious work. Never send your only copy of notes in any form of post or mail. Never leave them anywhere where water could even possibly do them damage. The historical discipline is full of stories of hard work gone to nought because of a tragic and unlikely accident.

Next section: ../Organizing your work/


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Cookbook talk:Chicken Curry

Have tidied this up a bit, in keeping with the other recipes. This is my first attempt at Wiki-ing, so be gentle! The 1/4th in the original I assume is a quarter ounce (would seem about right from my experiences), though I'd usually use 1-2 teaspoons myself as the measure. The original recipe also had black peppers in it, but didn't mention what to do with it. I personally don't use black peppers in my Indian cooking, so I've omitted them from this recipe, though I suppose they could be added to the curry spice. TheMoog 14:13, 10 September 2005 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Chicken Curry


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User:TheMoog~enwikibooks

Matt Godbolt, interested in grammar, spelling, and curry!

title: User:TheMoog~enwikibooks


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User talk:24.18.157.108

Fortran
If you want to add Fortran then you should all a propper date for when you have read the book. I do not belive you read the book on the "Jan, 01 0000". You can add the entry again - but do it properly.

title: User talk:24.18.157.108


text:
Engineering Acoustics/Solution Methods for Electro-Mechanical Analogies

After drawing the electro-mechanical analogy of a mechanical system, it is always safe to check the circuit. There are two methods to accomplish this:

Review of Circuit Solving Methods
Kirchkoff's Voltage law

"The sum of the potential drops around a loop must equal zero."

$$v_1 + v_2 + v_3 + v_4 = 0 \displaystyle$$

Kirchkoff's Current Law

"The Sum of the currents at a node (junction of more than two elements) must be zero"

$$ -i_1+i_2+i_3-i_4 = 0 \displaystyle$$

Hints for solving circuits:

Remember that certain elements can be combined to simplify the circuit (the combination of like elements in series and parallel)

If solving a circuit that involves steady-state sources, use impedances. Any circuit can eventually be combined into a single impedance using the following identities:

Impedances in series: $$Z_\mathrm{eq} = Z_1 + Z_2 + \,\cdots\, + Z_n.$$

Impedances in parallel: $$\frac{1}{Z_\mathrm{eq}} = \frac{1}{Z_1} +   \frac{1}{Z_2}  + \,\cdots\, +  \frac{1}{Z_n} .$$

Dot Method: (Valid only for planar network)
This method helps obtain the dual analog (one analog is the dual of the other). The steps for the dot product are as follows: 1) Place one dot within each loop and one outside all the loops.  2) Connect the dots. Make sure that there is only one line through each element and that no lines cross more than one element. 3) Draw in each line that crosses an element its dual element, including the source.  4) The circuit obtained should have an equivalent behavior as the dual analog of the original electro-mechanical circuit.

Example:

The parallel RLC Circuit above is equivalent to a series RLC driven by an ideal current source

Low-Frequency Limits
This method looks at the behavior of the system for very large or very small values of the parameters and compares them with the expected behavior of the mechanical system. For instance, you can compare the mobility circuit behavior of a near-infinite inductance with the mechanical system behavior of a near-infinite stiffness spring.

=Additional Resources for solving linear circuits=

Thomas & Rosa, "The Analysis and Design of Linear Circuits", Wiley, 2001

Hayt, Kemmerly & Durbin, "Engineering Circuit Analysis", 6th ed., McGraw Hill, 2002

Back to Main page


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Japanese/Numbers

Native Japanese numbers
There are two sets of counter words in Japanese. The older is the native Japanese reading and is appended with "〜つ" when counting things without counters.

 * 1) ひとつ
 * 2) ふたつ
 * 3) みっつ
 * 4) よっつ
 * 5) いつつ
 * 6) むっつ
 * 7) ななつ
 * 8) やっつ
 * 9) ここのつ
 * 10) とお (sometimes とを or even とう)

Note that there are three pairs of similar pronunciation: 1 (ひとつ) and 2 (ふたつ), 3 (みっつ) and 6 (むっつ), 4 (よっつ) and 8 (やっつ). Also note that there is no "つ" ending for the number 10.

These numbers are used for counting days and general objects (without counters) of numbers ten or less. Dates mix these with the chinese numbers below and have an extra word for twenty: "はつ". Sometimes these counters are also used without the suffix ( ひと (rarely, ひ)，ふた (rarely, ふ)，み，よ，いつ，む，なな，や，ここの，とお).

Chinese numbers
With the large number of Chinese words adopted and integrated into Japanese, came the Chinese numbers. Their reading is called onyomi (音読み, おんよみ) and they are used for numbering most things, such as time, months, and counting. There are still four numbers where the native kunyomi pops up: ひ, ふ, よん and なな.

 * 1) (一) いち
 * 2) (二) に
 * 3) (三) さん
 * 4) (四) し
 * 5) (五) ご
 * 6) (六) ろく
 * 7) (七) しち
 * 8) (八) はち
 * 9) (九) きゅう or く
 * 10) (十) じゅう

Note that the "く" reading of "9" is just a contraction of きゅう and both can be used when counting. The "きゅう" reading is usually preferred in telephone numbers and when counting "90", "900", etc. (such as for prices, distances, altitude) In telephone numbers usually きゅう (kyū) is used. Also for 90, 900, 9000 etc. (in e.g. price, distance, altitude) that is the prefered reading. For September (lit: "9th month") and for the time 9:00 the く (ku) reading is used (９月:くがつ and ９時:くじ).

When counting people, the kunyomi readings "ひとり" and "ふたり" are used for one and two people (written "１人" and "２人"), but higher numbers of people use the onyomi with the suffix "〜にん" (written "〜人"; e.g. )

It is highly irregular which reading is used for four and seven. For situations including normal counting and the months, the onyomi readings are used. The kunyomi readings "よん" and "なな" are used in many other situations for (over "し" and "しち") for the numbers "4" and "7". Some prefer kunyomi-readings due to tetraphobia.

Note finally that the kunyomi reading "よん" is somewhat irregular with the "ん" being omitted in "four o'clock" (よじ) and "4 years" (よねん).

For larger numbers, prepend the number to the words for tens, hundreds, etc.

Japanese counts the decimals up to ten-thousand and then in powers of that.

Tens, hundreds and thousands don't get a "one" preceding them (i.e. "hundred" not "one-hundred"). Ten thousand, however, is "いちまん" and for numbers, ten thousand or larger, one thousand becomes "いっせん".

Scoring
Here is the East Asian scoring method to count up to five and more. You will repeat writing the kanji 正 as many fives as you count.

title: Japanese/Numbers


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Cookbook:Saffron Rice and Beans

| Vegetarian | Vegan Cuisine

This recipe originally started as a vegetarian approximation to paella. It has since diverged from its resemblance to paella.

Ingredients

 * ½ cup olive oil
 * 1 tablespoon curry powder
 * 1 small potato, sliced extremely thin
 * 1 big onion, cut into chunks or sliced thin
 * 2–3 red bell peppers, sliced
 * 1–3 tomatoes, cut into cubes or slices
 * 5–10 cloves garlic
 * 2 tablespoon pine nuts
 * 1 tablespoon caraway
 * 1–3 tablespoon ground oregano
 * 1–2 tablespoon ground chile or chile powder
 * 1 tablespoon paprika
 * 1–2 pinch(es) saffron
 * 1 tablespoon cumin
 * 1 cup basmati rice
 * ½ cup red wine
 * 1 cube vegetarian bouillon
 * 1 can black beans
 * Cheese (Parmesan or cotija work best)

Procedure

 * 1) Heat the olive oil in a very large saucepan.
 * 2) When oil is hot, add curry powder, potatoes, onions, red peppers, and tomatoes. Stir and fry until potatoes are nearly done.
 * 3) Reduce heat, then stir in crushed garlic, pine nuts, caraway, half the dried oregano, and chili powder.
 * 4) In a separate pot (with a lid) bring 1 ¾ cup water to a boil.
 * 5) While waiting for water to boil, make a rice spice mix from paprika, pinch of saffron, cumin, and remaining oregano.
 * 6) Mix rice spice mix with basmati rice.
 * 7) When water has begun to boil, reduce heat, add rice and rice spice mix. Cover and simmer for 10 minutes.
 * 8) Add wine and bouillon cube to the tomato mixture, stir, and turn the heat to low. Simmer, stirring occasionally, while the rice is cooking.
 * 9) Let rice simmer for another 10 minutes, then remove from the heat.
 * 10) When the contents of the saucepan appear to be frying again instead of simmering, stir in the rice.
 * 11) When liquid is absorbed by rice, stir in the beans.
 * 12) Turn off heat and serve with cheese.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * For a vegan variation, serve without cheese.
 * This dish is easier to cook if the potatoes are left out altogether.
 * Most vegetables go well in this dish. Feel free to chop up any vegetable and throw it in the pan during the initial frying stage.

title: Cookbook:Saffron Rice and Beans


text: Wikijunior talk:Big Cats/Snow leopard

title: Wikijunior talk:Big Cats/Snow leopard


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Ayyavazhi

Ayyavazhi அய்யாவழி (Tamil: "path of the father") is a Tamil monistic religion that originated in South India in the mid-19th century. The 'zhi' (ழி) in the word, 'Ayyavazhi', is a retroflex, ri. Though Ayyavazhi has not received official recognition, it has transformed itself into a distinctive religious phenomenon, making its presence felt in India's southern districts of Tamil Nadu.

Front Matter

 * 1) Introduction

Section 1: The Essence of Ayyavazhi

 * 1) /Ekam/
 * 2) /Ayya Vaikundar/
 * 3) /Sivam/
 * 4) /Sakthi/
 * 5) /Narayana/

Section 2: Worship Centers

 * 1) /Thalaimaippathi/
 * 2) /Panchappathi/
 * 3) /Pathis/
 * 4) /Nizhal Thangals/

Section 3: Scriptures

 * 1) /Akilattirattu Ammanai/
 * 2) /Arul Nool/
 * 3) /Ayyavazhi Prayers/
 * 4) /Religious Characters/

Section 4: History

 * 1) /History of Ayyavazhi/
 * 2) /History of Pathis/
 * 3) /History of Nizhal Thangals/

Section 5: Philosophical Concepts

 * 1) /Philosophy of Akilattirattu Ammanai/
 * 2) /Eight Yugas/
 * 3) /Avatars/
 * 4) /Kroni/

Section 6: Theology

 * 1) /Monism/
 * 2) /Panentheism/
 * 3) /Formation of Species/

Section 7: Doctrine

 * 1) /Incarnation of Vaikundar/
 * 2) /Vinchai, Thirukkalyanam and Dharma Yukam/
 * 3) /Other teachings and debates/

Section 7: Festivals

 * 1) Ayya Vaikunda Avataram
 * 2) Thiru Eadu Vasippu
 * 3) Akila Thirunal

title: Ayyavazhi


text:
Ayyavazhi/Ekam

This is the term used in Akilattirattu Ammanai the holy book of Ayyavazhi to represent The Ultimate Oneness, and in Thiruvasakam - 2 it was stated that it was from this Ekam all this objects including the separate Godheads, Devas, Asuras etc. of the Universe formed.

Ekam is akin to the concept of Brahman in Advaita philosophy and Smarta theology.

title: Ayyavazhi/Ekam


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Ayyavazhi/Ayya Vaikundar

Ayya Vaikundar அய்யா வைகுண்டர், is a Manu (father, sovereign) avatar (the incarnation of a deity) of the Lord Narayana according to Akilattirattu Ammanai the holy script of the Ayyavazhi religion, a Tamil Hindu sect. (See also Ayyavazhi Mythology).

The physical human body of Ayya Vaikundar was born with the name Muthukutty. However, Muthukutty is referred to as Sampooranathevan, a deva (a deity), in the religious book Akilam. Ayya Vikundar, therefore, is a combination of the spirit of Narayana, the soul of the Supreme God, Ekam (God beyond conciousness) and the body of an ordinary human being (Muthukutty).

Contents [hide] 1 Early life 2 The transformation 3 The incarnation of Ayya Vaikundar 4 Tavam 5 Incinerating evil spirits 6 Seizing the powers of witchcraft, sorcery, and other esoteric magical practices 7 Vaikundar as Pantaram 8 Ordeals 9 Post-imprisonment activities 10 Attaining Vaikundam 11 See also 12 References

Early life
In 1809, Muthukutty was born in the southern most tip of south India, in a holy place named Swamithoppe (then part of a Tamaraikulam village) in the Kanyakumari District. His parents, Ponnu Nadar and Veiyelal, of the lower caste and of very poor means, initially named him Mudisoodum Perumal, meaning "Lord Vishnu with a crown", but due to objections from those of higher caste, the family changed his name to Muthukutty.

The religious book, Akilam, states that the child was born dead, and then the soul of the deva Sampooranathevan was installed in the body. The family realized only stillness in the child, for a time immedietly after the birth, and then found the child alright. They were completely unaware of the exchange. This was in accord with the plan of Mayon to defeat the evil Kroni (analogous to Satan) during the sixth yuga (see The Incarnation of Ayya Vaikundar below and Ayyavazhi mythology). Thereafter, that boy grew up called Muthukutty in human history, and Sampooranathevan in Ayyavazhi mythology.

Muthukutty (Sampooranathevan), a religious minded boy, had special interest in choosing to worship Lord Vishnu (herein, synonymous with Narayana and Mayon). The holy book Akilam mentions that he had set a pedestal for Lord Vishnu in his house and worshipped the deity devoutly.

At the age of seventeen, Muthukutty married Thirumalammal (called Paradevathai in the holy book, Akilam) from the nearby village of Puviyur, and led a family life with her and their only son. Although Thirumalammal had been previously married, she was allowed to leave her former husband since her karma with him was fulfilled.

(Note: There are claims that the child was born to her in the relationship with her first husband, consistent with some quotes from the holy book, Akilam.)

According to the Akilam, Sampooranathevan's marriage had been divinely established to the mythical figure Paradevathai in an arrangement with the Lord Mayon (again as part of the plan to defeat the evil Kroni).

Muthukutty earned his living as a Palmyra climber and as an agricultural laborer.

The transformation
In his twenty-fourth year, Muthukutty (Sampooranathevan) was struck by a severe illness that inflicted acute pain and suffering for a year. Muthukutty's mother, receiving instruction in her dreams, took her diseased son to the temple at Thiruchendur, during the Fall festival (19th day of the month of Masi, in the year 1008 of Malayalam era), 1833 AD. Muthukutty arrived in Thiruchendur in a cradle, carried by the kith and kin of the family. In Thiruchendur, Muthukutty went in to the sea and disappeared. Following a full day of waiting for him at the shore, all, but his mother, Veilal, returned to Tamaraikulam, but Veilal alone stayed weeping on the sea-shore.

On the third day, Lord Vaikundar appeared on the sea-shore. (See: post-incarnational events)). On seeing him, Veiyelal mistook him to be her son and tried to embrace him. But Lord Vaikundar told her that he was no longer her son, but the son of Narayana. He also told that "Look upon the face of the water of the sea, where I've born" and he told that " Before 1008, Masi you were known as my mother, but now I was born as the son of Narayan and for the dawn of Dharma Yukam I am going to the world with the Vinchais given by Narayana." By saying this he take some sea water (Katal Patham) in his hand, he asked her to drink. Upon her refusal, she fell down and died.

Then as per the instructions of Lord Narayana, inside the sea, he started walking towards Detchanam. The place where Ayya Vaikundar performed the Avataram (translation unsure: possibly, a ceremony of the incarnation) was a holy place for the devotees of Ayyavazhi and they erected a temple there named Avatharappathi at Thiruchendur.

The incarnation of Ayya Vaikundar
Ayya Vaikundar, who arose from the sea at Thiruchendur on 20th of the Tamil Month of Masi, is considered a unique Avatar. Akilam, the holy book, speaks about it in great detail, as summarized below:

First, in each of the five yugas (see Pre-Incarnational Events) prior to the Avatar of Ayya Vaikundar, as each fragment of Kroni (evil or Devil) came into physical form, the Lord Narayana incarnated as well, destroying them. However, in this the sixth yuga, Kroni was called Kali (also Kalineesan and Kaliyan), (not the Hindu deity) and having no physical form (see Pre-Incarnational Events for this account) he occupied the mind of people of earth as the Mayai (illusion), causing them to behave discourteously. Due to the boons Kaliyan claimed, it was impossible to destroy him in this yuga as in the previous ones, as found in the Akilam, the holy book, "Munnindru kolla Moovaralume arithu" (translated: It was impossible even for Trimurthi to oppose him). Since, Kaliyan held the boon for the birth of gods, and birth of Brahmins, it was impossible for Narayan, or any others, to incarnate directly in the world to destroy him. Finally, Kaliyan promised that if he made trouble to any Pantaram on earth, (See:Promise made by Kaliyan) all his boons would be forfeited and he would die in hell. So Kaliyan would only be destroyed if he trouble any Pantarams on earth.

Since God could not incarnate directly, He incarnated as Ayya Vaikundar in three stages.

 * The first stage of Avatar was the born dead child (birth of the Body).
 * Next, immediately the soul of Sampooranathevan was installed into the body, along with the Spirit (not Soul) of Narayana kept in Parvatha Ucchi Malai (a mythical mountain believed to be in this region) after the completion of the Krishna Avatar. This was the second stage of the Avatar.
 * Then in the sea (during the 24th year), the soul of Sampooranathevan was granted moksha (liberation from the cycle of death and birth, synonymous with heaven), unified to the Ultimate Soul. Now, the Spirit of Narayana along with the Ultimate Soul (Paramatma) incarnated in the body of a human being (Muthukutty). (see:The Incarnation) This is the third stage of Avatar and from here he was called Ayya Vaikundar.Then Ayya Vaikundar was given Vinchai by Narayanar.(see: Vinchai to Vaikundar).

So Ayya Vaikundar is not merely a human, not merely Narayana, and not merely the Ultimate Soul, on the other hand he is a human and he is the Ultimate Soul and he is Narayana. He is the one who had the responsibility to destroy the sixth fragment of Kroni, as told by Sivan earlier. Such a technique was practiced to overcome the boons offered to Kaliyan.

Tavam
Having reached Poovantanthoppe, (present-day Swamithope), he undertook to perform the proclaimed tavam. The tavam consisted of three stages, each spanning two years. Akilattirattu says that there were three specific intentions for the respective three stages of the Tavam. There is a tradition that describes his postures during the six-year tavam as follows: during the first two years, he stood inside a pit of six depth, during the next two years, squatted on the ground, and, during last two years, sat on a raised platform. His appearance was squalid, "long and entangled plait of hair" and frayed clothes. He seems have spoken less and subsisted on frugal meals.

Incinerating evil spirits
Akilattirattu speaks of this act of incinerating the evil spirits as an important event in the incarnation of Ayya Vaikundar. It took place when he was performing his great tavam, which had been announced by him to be the means of destroying the kalimayai - the illusory evil force. Akilattirattu says that, since he had come as 'the invincible avatar', his foes – the devils, demons, and evil spirits were to be incinerated. He, then, gathered the people around, and caused some of them, both male and female, to get 'possessed' of the evil spirits (peyattam). The 'possessed' ones came and danced in front of the crowd as if the evil spirits had come upon them. Vaikundar, then, ordered these evil spirits to make an oath, in front of the people, to surrender their powers and get burned up in flames. When he had finished his orders, those dancing under the duress of 'possession' got exhausted and fell flat on the ground. Thus the evil spirits were incinerated. Akilam speaks it in a grand way.

Seizing the powers of witchcraft, sorcery, and other esoteric magical practices
Similarly, Vaikundar performed another action to 'seize the esoteric evil powers'. Akilam says that, he had taken away the powers of those who knew to perform witchcraft, sorcery, and other magical rituals. People living in the hills, called as Kanikkarar, were believed to be powerful shamans or witchdoctors, having powers to contain or to provoke the demons. Vaikundar, in yet another occasion of trance, made some of these Kanikkarar to testify in front of the people that they had surrendered their powers. People grew appreciative of Ayya's actions. They began addressing him as Vaikuntacami. This implied an attribution of divinity to Vaikundar. Having incinerated the demons, and seized the powers of esoteric evil practices, Vaikundar exhorted the people as follows:

 * "There are no demons, no devils, No ill effects of magical practices, No disease, no pain, and no extortion of taxes, And, therefore, live courageously."

Vaikundar as Pantaram
The fame of Vaikundar had begun to spread in the countries of Tiruvitankur and Tirunelveli, and he had been gradually recognised socially as a religious person with extraordinary powers. In the religious parlance of the time, he was addressed as a Pantaram, a religious person hailing from, and serving the ordinary folk. Akilattirattu addresses him as NarayanaPantaram.

People came to him to listen to his teachings and instructions, "to be cured by him of different diseases", to witness, worship and serve a religious person undertaking tavam. Vaikundar encouraged the people to come together around a well to take a ritual bath, irrespective of caste differences. He encouraged them to dine together in his presence.

He gave out a number of teachings and instructions, the central point of which was that he had come to abolish Kali Yukam, and to usher in an age of Dharma Yukam, during the time of which the now-oppressed and suffering people would be liberated and rule the land under his leadership. 'Uplift of the lowly is dharmam’ was a constant refrain in his teachings.

People were enjoined to serve as catalysts for the destruction of Kali by transforming themselves to be 'people of Dharma Yukam' and to acquire a new character. The new character would come upon them, he said, if they-learned to live with self-respect, social dignity and fearlessness. Underscoring the importance of self-respect and social dignity, he said, ‘if one lives with dignity and self-respect, the kali would destroy itself’. He said when people grew out of kalimayai, Dharma Yukam would unfold itself and in that age, he would rule over the people as Dharma Raja, the king of Dharma Yukam.

Ordeals
Against the background of the growing popularity of Vaikundar, and the convergence of people around him in multitudes, a complaint seems to have been preferred against him to the king of Travancore (Kalineesan). He arrests Vaikundar and jailed and tortured him a lot.

Post-imprisonment activities
After he returned from imprisonment, Vaikundar inspired a group of his devotees to undertake a religious exercise called Thuvayal Thavasu. He also practiced several activities of divinity. He married the Saptha Kanniyar as Narayanar, the Seven deities in the form of Ekam , He initiated a lot of festivities around him ." There were ceremonial processions held amidst singing, incantations and shouts of joy by the followers. Several rites and rituals were instituted during these occasions.

Attaining Vaikundam
Later Vaikundar was invited by his 'devotees' to their homes and treated in a grand manner. By way of soliciting his blessings, his 'devotees' carried him to different places. During these occasions, he laid foundations in various places for small shrine-like centres, called as Nizhal Thangals. Vaikundar came to recognize five individuals as his closest disciples. Through one of his disciples, Hari Gopalan Citar, he wrote the holy book, called Akilam.

On June 2, 1851, Vaikundar attained Vaikundam (see also:Attaining Vaikundam). As he attained Vaikundam his body was interned in a tomb and, around that, a pati (temple) was raised later on. His devotees continued to visit this site, and performed the rituals as the used to do when Vaikundar was bodily present. His life and works remain the foundation of the religion Ayyavazhi. The head temple of the Ayyavazhi religion is called the Swamithoppepathi and is located in the Village of Swamithope.

title: Ayyavazhi/Ayya Vaikundar


text: Category:Book:Ayyavazhi

title: Category:Book:Ayyavazhi


text:
Ayyavazhi/Thalaimaippathi

Swamithoppe Pathi (Tamil: சுவாமிதோப்பு பதி; also called Swamithoppu-pathi, Manavaippathi, or Thalaimaippathi) is the primary pathi of the Ayyavazhi path of Hinduism, the head of all worship centers of Ayyavazhi, and the place where Ayya Vaikundar is said to have performed the Tavam.

According to Ayyavazhi, Ayya Vaikundar , an incarnation of Lord Narayana, carried out his tavam (efforts) at Poovantanthoppe, attracting many people from across India. The ponnmenikkoodu (Sacred Golden Body) of Ayya Vaikuntar were interred there, and the square-shaped Swamithoppu-pathi was constructed enveloping them. The holy book Akilathirattu ammanai of Ayyavazhi refers to the temple as "Thoppuppathi".

Swamithoppe Pathi contains two oil lamps (kuthuvilakku), an elunetru, and a large mirror. On a raised pedestal, covered with kavi cloth, the temple also preserves some articles believed to have been used by Ayya Vaikuntar, including a rattan cane (perampu) and a pair of wooden sandals.

Swamithoppe Pathi is the headquarters of the five pathis (Panchappathis) of Ayyavazhi, and its geographical focal point. Swamithoppe Pathi, is located in the village of Swamithope, which lies southeast of the City of Nagercoil, the head quarters (capital) of the District of Kanyakumari in the State of Tamil Nadu at the extreme southern tip of India. Swamithope lies about half-way between the Cities of Nagercoil and Kanniyakumari on the Nagercoil-Kanniyakumari road.

title: Ayyavazhi/Thalaimaippathi