text:
Talk:Abstract algebra

I've just fleshed out the chapter on ideals, hopefully this isn't too controversial. I agree with earlier comments that the structure is lacking - e.g. no connections between modules and vector spaces. There's also the question of who this is aimed at - advanced high school, undergraduate, graduate / reference and whether accomodating these is easier if using a wiki rather than just a book. The other question is also to what depth one wants to study each subject - too much group theory might be annoying to someone only interested in commutative algebra. Presenting everything in the utmost generality for the sake of non-commutative algebra would obscure the simple case, but not enough would naturally annoy the non-commutative algebraist. The first example isn't too problematic - the reader can simply omit the complicated group theory, and having a massive wikibook doesnt have the same problems as having a massive dead-tree book - but the second is a bit harder because it influences the presentation in an essential way. A similar question might be whether to use category theory, or add in a geometric perspective (ala Atiyah-McDonald and Eisenbud), again these might affect the presentation quite fundamentally. My answers to these questions are probably quite biased - would be good to hear other perspectives --Drufino 22:59, 29 April 2007 (UTC)

This Abstract algebra book seems to be more like a collection of related topics rather than a planned literature. It assumes too much prior knowledge and all the modules are still quite immature. I'd like see a little more structure to it, maybe it should have been called a first course in Abstract algebra and it should assume knowledge of basic linear algebra? Xiaodai 00:56, 22 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Of course the modules are still immature, nearly everything here needs work (not just in this section)
 * Some sections do assume some prior knowledge, and some do not. The section on Groups for example should be able to be picked up with just a relatively small amount of prior mathematical knowledge. Some of the stuff is quite "disgusting" and needs a lot of work.
 * The linear algebra stuff needs merely to be bumped up the top, as it shouldn't be too difficult to understand.
 * Why do you want it to be called "a first course in abstract algebra"? Dysprosia 02:05, 22 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * It's very hard trying to cover everything in Abstract algebra all at once, we might want to break the book into smaller books. It's very dangerous calling the book just Abstract Algebra, it's better to do the elementary stuff in a "first course" book then more advaced stuff in a "second course" book and so. Xiaodai 08:01, 24 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Hello I'm new to Wikibooks (Been on wikipedia for a while). I have a few humble sugestions:
 * Much of this material needs to be made more accesible. This sort of text ought to develop the ideas more gradually, with more examples and more explanation.
 * Category theory really should not be in here. It is way too advanced really and might put people off.
 * We should have some sort of dependencies table or at least each chapter should say what knowledge it presumes.
 * We should have exercises at the end of each chapter and some sort of answers section (preferably it should have a slowdown built in to encourage people to work things out for themselves).
 * We should include a section on naive set theory together with a cautionary exhibition of Russels paradox.

I'm thinking of starting a wikibook on Galois theory and maybe one on Set theory so I may be around some more. Barnaby dawson 21:26, 25 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * 1) Barnaby, the books still need a lot of work. I just said that above. They will get better with time and effort.
 * 2) It should be included in a book on abstract algebra. The stuff isn't that hard. If we stratify the abstract algebra outline more, it will have a place
 * Ok
 * 1) see 1.
 * 2) see Discrete mathematics/Set theory, though it should be here too since it overlaps, I think I need to go rip out the DM book a bit more.

Cool, a section on Galois theory would be very welcome. When I get a chance to, I'll go and radically restructure everything, or something. Dysprosia 22:16, 25 Aug 2004 (UTC)

--- Outline of Basic Ring Theory?

In the ring theory section, one thing that would help unify the concepts that are being presented would be to spend some time developing the concept of the Division Algorithm, GCDs, and the Euclidean algorithm. It appears that this is begun under the "Modular Arithmetic" module of the discrete math book. However, the strong connection between relative primality/irreducibility and existence of multiplicative inverses is not really described.

Having done this, it becomes possible to generalize the Division Algorithm to polynomials of a single variable. This allows for the Euclidean algorithm to be carried over and we can develop the idea of quotient rings. (And of F[x] as a field.) This leads naturally into the development of ideals.

Finally, coverage of ring homomorphisms and the Isomorphism Theorems needs to be introduced. This would be a good start on getting to more advanced topics like modules, lattices, and eventually, polynomials in multiple variables.

All in good time, I know, but it might be wise to spend a moment thinking about what the overall organization of ring theory is like. I personally see the initial definitions of rings, fields, and integral domains as being the "easy" part and the development of the Division Algorithm, GCDs, the Euclidean Algorithm, followed by polynomial rings, ideals and quotient rings, and ring homomorphisms as the "meat" of basic ring theory.

Thoughts? --Ashsong 06:44, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, be bold, and add the stuff! That's what the wiki's all about. Though, I've removed the division algorithm, etc., from having their own modules (they can and should be dealt with in their respective modules when necessary) and cleaned up the structure a bit. Dysprosia 07:37, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Do you have any favorite wikibooks that I ought to look at in order to get a better idea of the style that you'd like to see? --Ashsong 15:27, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Proposed name change
I'd like to change all the subpages of this book so that they begin with "Abstract Algebra/" rather than "Abstract Algebra:" to make them consistent with the new naming convention. I trust this will be non-controversial, but note it here to allow for comments before the move, Jguk 07:01, 7 April 2006 (UTC)

hey can some1 tell me what "Ris are predicate symbols of some arity and ν is an interpretation of these symbols on the set." means?Vandal 0nly account 07:52, 22 August 2007 (UTC)

Number theory is not prerequisite
Requiring that one knows number theory before beginning is a little silly to me. Algebra is far more fundamental to everything, while number theory is a bunch of cool results that aren't useful, many times.

Proposed merger with group theory
I am currently in the process (which may take some years) of totally rewriting the wikibooks, and this encompasses that I distribute the material into the books where they are in the right place. Therefore, I would like to advise against the merger. This wikibook may in the process be renamed "introduction to abstract algebra", because abstract algebra is much larger than this wikibook and contains, for instance, "commutative algebra", geometric group theory, galois theory and the like. Hence, this wikibook is, in my view, improperly named and ought to be split up so that interested students find the material in the place they look first. --Mathmensch (discuss • contribs) 22:22, 2 December 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Abstract algebra


text:
European History/Glossary

A

 * Absolutism - Political theory that one person should hold all power; in some cases justified by "Divine Right of Kings."
 * Act of Supremacy (1534) - Act of Parliament under King Henry VIII of England declaring the king as the head of the Church of England, making official the English Reformation; (1559) reinstatement of the original act by Queen Elizabeth I.
 * Adam Smith (1723-1790) - Scottish economist and philosopher, author of The Wealth of Nations, thought of as the father of capitalist economics.
 * Age of Enlightenment - An intellectual movement in 18th century Europe marked by rational thinking, in contrast with the superstition of the Dark Ages.
 * Albert Einstein (1879–1955) - Physicist who proposed the theory of relativity and made advances in quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics, and cosmology.
 * Alexander Kerensky (1881-1970) - The second prime minister of the Russian Provisional Government, immediately before the Bolsheviks and Lenin came to power.
 * Algeciras Conference - Took place in 1906 in Algeciras, Spain. The purpose of the conference was to mediate the Moroccan dispute between France and Germany, and to assure the repayment of a large loan made to the Sultan in 1904. The Entente Cordiale between France and the United Kingdom gave the British a free hand in Egypt in exchange for a French free hand in Morocco. France tried to achieve a protectorate over Morocco, but was opposed by Germany.
 * Allied Powers (World War I) - Russia, France, British Empire, Italy, and United States.
 * Anschluss (1938) - The inclusion of Austria in a "Greater Germany"; in contast with the Ausschluss, the exclusion of Austria from Imperial Germany in 1871.
 * Ancien Régime ("Old Order") - the social and political system established in France under the absolute monarchy; removed by the French Revolution.
 * Appeasement - Neville Chamberlain's policy of accepting conditions imposed by Nazi Germany.
 * April Theses (1917) - Lenin's writings on how Russia should be governed and the future of the Bolsheviks.
 * Aristotelian (Ptolemaic) Cosmology - The belief that Earth is at the center of the universe
 * Arms Race - A competition between two or more countries for military supremacy. This was perhaps most prominent during the Cold War, pitting the USA against the Soviet Union.
 * Aryans - In Nazism and neo-Nazism, a non-Jewish Caucasian, especially one of Nordic type, supposed to be part of a master race.
 * Autarky - An economy that does no trade with the outside world.
 * Avant-garde - People or actions that are novel or experimental, particularly with respect to the arts and culture.
 * Avignon Papacy (1305-1378) - Period during which the Papacy was moved from Rome to Avignon, France.

B

 * Babylonian Captivity - A term referring to the Avignon Papacy which implies that the Popes were captives under the French kings.
 * Banalities - Fees imposed by a feudal lord on serfs for the use of his facilities.
 * Baroque - A cultural movement in art originating around 1600 in Rome; art designed for the illiterate rather than the well-informed (Protestant Reformation).
 * Bastille ("Stronghold") - Generally refers to Bastille Saint-Antoine, demolished in the Storming of the Bastille at the start of the French Revolution.
 * Battle of Gallipoli (1915) - Failed attempt by the Allies to capture the Ottoman capital of Constantinople. (World War I)
 * Battle of Jutland (1916) - Largest naval battle of World War I; fought in the North Sea between British and German fleets.
 * Battle of the Argonne (1918) - Biggest operation and victory of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) in World War I; in the Verdun Sector.
 * Battle of the Somme (1916) - Attempt by British and French forces to break through the German lines, to draw German forces away from Verdun.
 * Battle of Verdun (Feb-Dec 1916) - Longest and possibly largest battle in history; resulted in over 1 million deaths and 450,000 wounded or missing.
 * Battle of Lepanto (1571) - The first major victory of any European power over the Ottoman Empire; destruction of most of the Ottoman Empire's ships resulted in its loss of control over the Mediterranean Sea.
 * Beer Hall Putsch (1923) - An unsuccessful coup by Adolf Hitler and other leaders in Munich, Bavaria, Germany.
 * Belgian Congo - An area of central Africa, which was under formal control of the Belgian parliament from 1908 to 1960. The Belgian administration was one of paternalistic colonialism in which the educational and political system was dominated by the Roman Catholic Church and Protestant churches.
 * Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) - British author and Prime Minister, best known for his defense of the Corn Laws.
 * Berlin Crisis (1948-1949) - The Soviet blockade of West Berlin during the Cold War; abated after the Soviet Union did not act to stop American, British and French airlifts of food and other provisions to the Western-held sectors of Berlin
 * Bill of Rights 1689 - One of the fundamental documents of English law; agreed to by William and Mary in return for their being affirmed as co-rulers by the English Parliament after the Glorious Revolution.
 * Black Death - The plague which killed one third of Europe's population in the 14th century.
 * Bloodless Revolution - A term used to refer to the Glorious Revolution; the description is largely accurate of William's succession to the English throne, although his struggle to gain the Scottish and Irish thrones was far from bloodless.
 * Boer War - Two wars, one in 1880-81 and the second from October 11, 1899 – 1902 both between the British and the settlers of Dutch origin (called Boere, Afrikaners or Voortrekkers) in South Africa that put an end to the two independent republics that they had founded.
 * Bolsheviks - A faction of the Russian revolutionary movement formed 1903 by followers of Vladimir Lenin, who believed in a small party of revolutionaries with a large fringe group of supporters.
 * Book of Common Prayer - The prayer book of the Church of England; was first published in 1544 and has been through many revisions.
 * Boxer-Rebellion - Uprising against Western influence in China.
 * Burschenschaften - Liberal German associations of university students; helped initiate the Revolution of 1848 in Germany.

C

 * Cahier des doléances ("Statement of Grievances") - documents drawn up by electors of the French States-General, since 1484, listing complaints with the state.
 * Calvinism - Protestant religion founded by John Calvin, centered upon "the sovereignty of God" (Protestant Reformation).
 * Carbonari ("coal-burners") - groups of secret revolutionary societies founded in early 19th century Italy, and instrumental in organizing revolution in Italy in 1820 and 1848.
 * Carlsbad Decrees (1819) - A set of restrictions placed on Germans, under influence of Metternich of Austria; dissolved the Burschenschaften, provided for university inspectors and press censors.
 * Catholic monarchs - The Spanish rulers Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdidand II of Aragon whose marriage marked the start of Christian dominance in Spain.
 * Cavaliers - Supporters of Charles I of England in the English Civil War; also known as Royalists.
 * Cecil Rhodes - (1853–1902) British imperialist and the effective founder of the state of Rhodesia (since 1980 known as Zimbabwe), named after himself. He profited greatly from southern Africa's natural resources, generally at the expense of the natives; severely racist.
 * Central Powers (World War I) - Dual Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.
 * Cesare Beccaria (1735-1794) - Italian philosopher and mathematician, author of On Crimes and Punishments resulting in penal code reforms.
 * Charles Fourier (1772-1837) - French utopian socialist thinker; supported man's right to a minimum standard of life.
 * Charles I (of England, Scotland) (1600-1649) - Struggled against Parliament, favoring absolutism, hostile to religious reform efforts; executed at the end of the English Civil War.
 * Chartism - A movement for social and political reform in England, named from the People's Charter of 1838.
 * Cheka (1917-1922) - The first of many Soviet secret police organizations.
 * Chivalry - Church-endorsed warrior code of ethics for knights, valuing bravery, loyalty, and self-sacrifice.
 * Cobden–Chevalier Treaty (1860) - Treaty substantially lowering duties between the Britain and France, marking increasing cooperation between the two nations.
 * Classical - Pertaining to the culture of ancient Greece and Rome.
 * Classical liberalism - A political and economic philosophy, originally founded on the Enlightenment tradition that tries to circumscribe the limits of political power and to define and support individual rights.
 * Claude Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) - The founder of French socialism.
 * Comintern (Communist International) - International Communist organization founded in March 1919 by Lenin, intended to fight for complete abolition of the State.
 * Committee of Public Safety - the executive government of France during the Reign of Terror of the French Revolution, established on April 6, 1793.
 * Common Market - A customs union with common policies on product regulation, and freedom of movement of all the four factors of production (goods, services, capital and labour). It is established across most modern European nations.
 * Code Napoléon - (see Napoleonic code).
 * Collectivisation - An agriculture system in which peasants are not paid wages, but instead receive a share of the farm's net output.
 * Committee of Public Safety - The executive government of France during the Reign of Terror of the French Revolution.
 * Communist Manifesto - Document laying out the purposes of the Communist League, first published on February 21, 1848, by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
 * Concordat of 1801 - Agreement between Napoléon and Pope Pius VII after Napoléon's coup d'état of France.
 * Congress of Berlin - Prompted in 1878 by Otto von Bismarck to revise the Treaty of San Stefano. Proposed and ratified the Treaty of Berlin.
 * Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) - a conference held in Vienna, Austria, to redraw Europe's political map after the defeat of Napoleonic France.
 * Consubstantiation - Lutheran belief that in the Eucharist sacrament, the spirit of Christ is present in the bread and wine, but they are not actually the body and blood of Christ (Protestant Reformation).
 * Continental System - Foreign economic warfare policy of Napoléon, consisting of an embargo against Great Britain, which failed.
 * Corn Laws (1815-1846) - British import tariffs designed to protect farmers and landowners against foreign competition.
 * Corporative state - A political system in which legislative power is given to corporations that represent economic, industrial, and professional groups.
 * Corvée - In feudal societies, an annual tax on a serf that is payable by labor; used to complete royal projects, to maintain roads, and for other purposes.
 * Council of Constance (1414-1418) - Called for the abdication of all three popes of the Western Schism; successfully elected Martin V as the single pope, ending the Schism.
 * Council of Trent (1545-1563) - Council of the Catholic Church to condemn Protestantism and to initiate some internal reform of Church corruption (Protestant Reformation).
 * Count Cavour (1810-1861) - Leader in the movement for Italian unification; first Prime Minister of Kingdom of Italy.
 * Coup d'état - Sudden overthrow of a government, typically done by a small group that only replaces the top power figures.
 * Crédit Mobilier (1872) - Involved the Union Pacific Railroad and the Crédit Mobilier of America construction company. $47 million contracts had given Crédit Mobilier a profit of $21 million and left Union Pacific and other investors near bankruptcy. A Congressional investigation of thirteen members led to the censure of the board members and many political figures had their careers damaged.
 * Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) - Started on October 16, 1962, when U.S. reconnaissance was shown to U.S. President John F. Kennedy which revealed evidence for Soviet nuclear missile installations on the island, and lasted for 13 days until October 28, 1962, when Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev announced that the installations would be dismantled.

D

 * Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) - Author of The Divine Comedy, a highly sarcastic work criticizing the Church; one of the first authors to write in vernacular.
 * David Hume (1711-1776) - Philosopher and historian of the Scottish Enlightenment.
 * Decembrists - Officers of the Russian Army that led 3,000 soldiers in the Decembrist Revolt, an attempted uprising at Senate Square in December, 1825.
 * Declaration of Pillnitz (1791) - A statement issued by Emperor Leopold II and Frederick William II of Prussia, warning French revolutionaries to allow restoration to power of Louis XVI.
 * Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) - French Revolution document defining a set of individual rights, adopted by the National Constituent Assembly as a first step toward writing a constitution.
 * Defenestration of Prague (Second) (1618) - Act of revolt of the Bohemian aristocracy against the election of Ferdinand II, a Catholic zealot, as ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.
 * Deism - Belief in a God as the creator, based on reason instead of faith (Enlightenment).
 * Denis Diderot (1713-1784) - French writer and philosopher dealing with free will, editor-in-chief of the early encyclopedia, Encyclopédie (Enlightenment).
 * Destalinization - Actions taken by Khruschev in the Soviet Union to allow greater dissent and to speak out against the actions of former USSR Premier Stalin.
 * Détente - The relaxation of tensions between the Soviets and Americans.
 * Dialectical materialism - The philosophical basis of Marxism as defined by later Communists; uses the concepts of thesis, antithesis and synthesis to explain the growth and development of human history.
 * Diggers - A group begun by Gerrard Winstanley in 1649 during Oliver Cromwell's England; called for a social revolution toward a communistic and agrarian lifestyle based on Christian Nationalism.
 * Directory - A group of five men who held the executive power in France, according to the French Revolution constitution of 1795.
 * Duke of Alva - Commonly refers to Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, the third Duke of Alva (or Alba).
 * Dutch East India Company (1602-1798) - The first joint-stock company; granted a trade monopoly with Asia by the government of the Netherlands.
 * Dutch Revolt - Term referring to the Eighty Years' War.

E

 * Edict of Nantes (1598) - Declaration by Henry IV of France granting Huguenots substantial rights in a Catholic nation; introduction of religious tolerance (Protestant Reformation).
 * Edict of Worms (1521) - Declaration by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the end of the Diet of Worms that Martin Luther was an outlaw and a heretic (Protestant Reformation).
 * Edmund Burke (1729-1797) - Irish philosopher, Whig politician, and founder of modern conservatism; criticized the French Revolution.
 * Eighty Years' War (1568-1648) - A war of secession in which the Netherlands first gained independence as the Dutch Republic.
 * Emigration - The action and the phenomenon of leaving one's native country to settle abroad. In particular, a large amount of emigration took place during the late 1800s in Europe.
 * Ems Telegram (1870) - Document edited by Otto von Bismarck to provoke the Franco-Prussian War.
 * Enclosure - The post-feudal process of enclosing open fields into individually owned fields; took off rapidly in 15th and 16th centuries as sheep farming became increasingly profitable.
 * Enlightenment - (see Age of Enlightenment).
 * English Civil War (1642-1649) - A civil war fought between supporters of Charles I, (king of England, Scotland, and Ireland) and the Long Parliament led by Oliver Cromwell.
 * Erich Ludendorff (1865-1937) - German general responsible for capturing the forts of Liège, critical to the Schlieffen Plan.
 * Erich Maria Remarque (1898-1970) - German soldier on the front lines of World War I, wrote All Quiet on the Western Front (1929).
 * Escorial - Large palace, monastery, museum, and library near Madrid, Spain; commanded by King Philip II, promoting study in aid of the Counter-Reformation.
 * Estates-General - An assembly of the three classes, or Estates, of France before the French Revolution.
 * Excommunication - Suspension of one's membership in the religious community; banning from the Church.

F

 * Factory Act (1833) - An attempt to establish normal working hours for workers in the textile industry.
 * Fall of Eagles - Refers to the collapse of tsarist Russia.
 * Fascism - Right-wing authoritarian political movement.
 * Fashoda Incident - The climax of colonial disputes between imperial Britain and France in Eastern Africa; brought Britain and France to the verge of war but ended in a diplomatic victory for Britain.
 * February Revolution (1917) - The first stage of the Russian Revolution of 1917, consisting of riots in Petrograd which resulted in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II.
 * Ferdinand Foch, General (1851-1929) - French soldier critical in stopping German advance during Spring 1918 and the Second Battle of Marne (July 1918); began the counter-attack leading to German defeat.
 * Ferdinand Lassalle (1825-1864) - German politician whose actions led to the formation of the Social Democratic Party, which was strongly opposed by Karl Marx.
 * Fernando Álvarez de Toledo (1508-1583) - A Spanish general and governor of the Spanish Netherlands, nicknamed "the Iron Duke" for his cruelty; fought against Protestants in the Netherlands (Eighty Years' War).
 * Feudalism - Medieval system of holding land as a fief, provided by a lord to a vassal.
 * Fief - Revenue-producing property granted by a lord to a vassal (feudalism).
 * First Five-Year Plan - Outline the goals of the Soviet bureaucracy, focusing on heavy industry.
 * Flora Tristan (1803-1844) - One of the founders of modern feminism, author of several feminism works; grandmother of Paul Gauguin.
 * Fourteen Points - United States President Woodrow Wilson's outline for reconstructing Europe after World War I.
 * Francesco Sforza (1401-1466) - Founder of the Sforza dynasty in Milan, Italy; successfully modernized the city, which became a center of Renaissance learning and culture.
 * Francis Bacon (1561-1626) - English philosopher, advocate of absolute duty to the sovereign, and defender of the Scientific Revolution.
 * Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) - War fought between France and Prussia over a possible German claim to the Spanish throne.
 * French Academy of Sciences (1666) - Learned society founded by Louis XIV to encourage French scientific research.
 * Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) - German Socialist philosopher who co-published The Communist Manifesto with Karl Marx.

G

 * Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) - First to use the telescope in astronomy; proved Copernicus' heliocentric theory (Scientific Revolution).
 * Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400) - Author of The Canterbury Tales, a collection of stories exposing the materialism of a variety of English people.
 * Gestapo - The official secret police force of Nazi Germany, Geheime Staatspolizei (secret state police).
 * Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) - Brief ruler of Florence known for religious anti-Renaissance preaching, book burning, and destruction of art.
 * Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1885) - Italy's most famous soldier of the Risorgimento and considered one of the greatest generals of modern times.
 * Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–1872) - Italian writer and politician who helped to bring about the modern, unified Italian state.
 * Glorious Revolution (1688-1689) - The removal of Stuart king James II from the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland; replaced by William and Mary; sometimes referred to as the Bloodless Revolution.
 * Great Fear (1789) - Event at the start of the French Revolution; upon rumors that nobles planned to destroy the peasants' harvest, the peasants sacked nobles' castles and burned records of feudal obligations.
 * Great Purges - Campaigns of repression against social groups, often seen as a desire to consolidate the authority of Joseph Stalin.
 * Great Schism - Term used to refer to either the Western or Eastern Schism within the Catholic Church.
 * Gulag - The branch of the Soviet police that operated forced labor camps and prisons.

H

 * Heinrich Himmler (1900-1945) - The commander of the German Schutzstaffel and one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany; one of the key figures in the organization of the Holocaust.
 * Henry Palmerston (1784-1865) - British Prime Minister and Liberal politician.
 * Henri-Phillippe Petain, General (1856-1951) - A French soldier and Head of State of Vichy France. He became a French hero because of his military leadership in World War I. (ed: specifically...?)
 * Henry V (1387-1422) - King of England (1413-1422); accepted by the English as heir to Charles VI and the French throne, thus adding conflict to the Hundred Years' War.
 * Hermann Goering (1893–1946) - A prominent and early member of the Nazi party, founder of the Gestapo, and one of the main architects of Nazi Germany.
 * Heresy - Holding of beliefs which are contrary to those of organized religion.
 * Huguenot - Member of the Protestant Reformed Church of France (Protestant Reformation).
 * Humanism - A secular ideology centered on human interests, stressing the value of the individual (Renaissance).
 * Humanitarianism - The belief that the sole moral obligation of humankind is the improvement of human welfare.
 * Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) - 116-year conflict between England and France.

I

 * Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) - Founder of the Society of Jesus, to strengthen the Church against Protestantism (Protestant Reformation).
 * Il duce (The Leader) - Name adopted by Italian prime minister Benito Mussolini in 1923 to position himself as the nation's supreme leader.
 * Impressionism - Art movement focused on creating an immediate visual impression, using primary colors and small strokes to simulate reflected light. (19th century)
 * Imperialism - The policy of extending a nation's authority by territorial acquisition or by the establishment of economic and political hegemony over other nations.
 * Individualism - Emphasis of the individual as opposed to a group; humanism (Renaissance).
 * Innocent III - Pope who organized the Fifth Crusade (1217); began the Papacy's interference in European affairs.
 * Irish Easter Rebellion (Easter Monday, 1916) - An unsuccessful rebellion against British rule in Ireland.
 * Iron Curtain - Boundary which separated Western and Eastern Europe during the Cold War.
 * Isaac Newton (1643-1727) - English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher; credited for universal gravitation, laws of motion, and calculus (Scientific Revolution).

J

 * James Hargreaves (1720-1778) - English inventor of the spinning jenny in 1764.
 * James Watt (1736-1819) - Scottish engineer who improved the steam engine, a catalyst of the Industrial Revolution.
 * Jan Hus (1369-1415) - Founder of the Hussites, with reform goals similar to those of John Wyclif; author of On the Church, criticizing the Church; was burned at the stake.
 * Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) - Swiss-French philosopher and political theorist; "noble savage" idea that man is good by nature but corrupted by society.
 * Jesuits - see Society of Jesus
 * Joan of Arc (1412-1431) - Peasant girl who defended an English siege on Orléans during the Hundred Years' War; was captured and burned as a heretic.
 * Johann Tetzel (1465-1519) - Dominican priest known for selling indulgences (Protestant Reformation).
 * John Calvin (1509-1564) - Founder of Calvinism in Geneva, Switzerland (Protestant Reformation).
 * John Kay (1704-1780) - British inventor of the flying shuttle for weaving, a catalyst of the Industrial Revolution.
 * John Knox (1505-1572) - A Protestant reformer who founded Presbyterianism in Scotland (Protestant Reformation).
 * John Locke (1632-1704) - An English philosopher of the Enlightenment who wrote about "government with the consent of the governed" and man's natural rights; provided justification for the Glorious Revolution.
 * John Wyclif (1328-1384) - Initiator of the first English translation of the Bible, an important step toward the Protestant Reformation.
 * Joseph Joffre, General (1852-1931) - Catalan French general; helped counter the Schlieffen Plan through retreat and counterattack at the First Battle of the Marne.

K

 * Karl Marx (1818-1883) - An influential German political theorist, whose writing on class conflict formed the basis of the communist and socialist movements.
 * Khruschev - See Nikita Khrushchev
 * Kristallnacht (1938) - A massive nationwide pogrom in Germany, directed at Jewish citizens throughout the country.
 * Kulturkampf (Cultural Fight) - Attempt by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck to reduce Catholic influence in the early years of the 1871 German Empire.

L

 * Laissez-Faire - Libertarian philosophy of pure capitalism, without regulation of trade (Enlightenment).
 * Law of Maximum Général - A comprehensive program of wage and price controls in Revolutionary France.
 * Lay - in Catholicism, all non-clergy persons.
 * Lay investiture - The induction of clerics by a king (a layman).
 * Lenin, Vladimir (1870-1924) - The leader of the Bolshevik party and the first Premier of the Soviet Union; enacted the New Economic Policy.
 * Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) - Italian Renaissance architect, inventor, engineer, sculptor, and painter; most known for The Last Supper and Mona Lisa; the archetype of the "Renaissance man."
 * Leopold III (1835–1909) - King of Belgium; founder of the Congo Free State, a private project to extract rubber and ivory.
 * Levée en masse - French term for mass conscription, used to mobilize armies during the French Revolutionary Wars.
 * Lord - The owner of land who grants a fief to a vassal (feudal system).
 * Lorenzo de' Medici (1449-1492) - Ruler of the Florentine Republic during the Renaissance; Christian supporter of Platonism and humanism.
 * Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1808-1873) - The nephew of the Emperor Napoleon I of France; member of the Carbonari in his youth; elected President of the Second Republic of France in 1848; reigned as Emperor Napoleon III of the Second French Empire from 1852 to 1870.

M

 * Machiavellian - Having the qualities seen by Niccolò Machiavelli as ideal for a ruler; using ruthless authoritarian tactics to maintain power.
 * Manchurian Incident (1931) - Japan's military accused Chinese dissidents of blowing up a sectin of a Japanese railroad in Manchuria, thus providing an excuse for the Japanese annexation of Manchuria.
 * Mannerism - Art after the High Renaissance in reaction to it, using exaggeration or distortion instead of balance and proportion.
 * Manor - The local jurisdiction of a lord over which he has legal and economic power (feudalism).
 * Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794) - French philosopher and mathematician, inventor of the Condorcet method, a voting system.
 * Marshall Plan - The primary plan of the United States for rebuilding the allied countries of Europe and repelling communism after World War II.
 * Martin Luther (1483-1546) - German theologian and Augustinian monk who began Lutheranism and initiated the Protestant Reformation.
 * Meiji Restoration (1866-1869) - Revolution in Japan; replaced the Tokugawa shogunate with imperial rule, and modernized the feudal country; provoked by the opening of Japan's ports to the West.
 * Mein Kampf (My Struggle) - A book written by Adolf Hitler, combining elements of autobiography with an exposition of Hitler's political ideology of nazism.
 * Mensheviks - A faction of the Russian revolutionary movement formed 1903 by followers of Julius Martov, who believed in a large party of activists.
 * Mercantilism - The economic theory that a country's economic prosperity depends on its supply of gold and silver, and that a country should export more than it imports.
 * Metternich (1773-1858) - Austrian foreign minister during and after the Era of Napoleon.
 * Michaelangelo (1475-1564) - Renaissance painter, sculptor, poet and architect; most known for the fresco ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.
 * Mir - In Russian, "peace," Connotes "community." (ed: relate this to the subject????)
 * Monasticism - Complete devotion to spiritual work.
 * Munich Agreement (1938) - An agreement regarding the Munich Crisis; discussed the future of Czechoslovakia and ended up surrendering much of that state to Nazi Germany, standing as a major example of appeasement.

N

 * Napoléon Bonaparte (1769-1821) - General and politician of France who ruled as First Consul (1779–1804) and then as Emperor (1804–1814).
 * Napoleonic code - French code of civil law, established by Napoléon on March 21, 1804, to reform the French legal system in accordance with the principles of the French Revolution.
 * National Socialist German Workers' Party - The Nazi party which was led to power in Germany by Adolf Hitler in 1933.
 * Nationalism - Ideology which sustains the nation as a concept of common identity among groups of people.
 * NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) (1769-1821) - An international organization for collective security established in 1949, in support of the North Atlantic Treaty signed in Washington, DC, on 4 April 1949.
 * Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (1939) - A non-aggression treaty between foreign ministers Ribbentrop of Germany (Third Reich) and Molotov of Russia (Soviet Union).
 * Neo-platonism - Philosophy based on the teachings of Plato, which resurfaced during the Renaissance.
 * Neville Chamberlain (1869-1940) - British Prime Minister who maintained a policy of appeasement toward Nazi Germany.
 * New Economic Policy (NEP) (1921) - Lenin's system of economic reforms which restored private ownership to some parts of the economy.
 * New Model Army - An army of professional soldiers led by trained generals; formed by Roundheads upon passage of the Self-denying Ordinance in 1645; became famous for their Puritan religious zeal (English Civil War).
 * New Monarchies - The states whose rulers in the 15th century began authoritarian rule using Machiavellian tactics (Northern Renaissance).
 * Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) - Florentine political philosopher; author of The Prince (Renaissance).
 * Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) - Astronomer and mathematician who developed the heliocentric theory of the solar system (Scientific Revolution).
 * Nietzsche's Superman (Übermensch) - Concept that the strong and gifted should dominate over the weak.
 * Night of the Long Knives (1934) - A purge ordered by Adolf Hitler of potential political rivals in the Sturmabteilung.
 * Nihilism - Philosophy viewing the world and human existence as without meaning or purpose.
 * Nikita Khrushchev - Leader of the Soviet Union after Stalin's death, from 1953 until 1964.
 * NKVD - An agency best known for its function as secret police of the Soviet Union; also handled other matters such as transport, fire guards, border troops, etc.
 * No man's land (World War I) - In trench warfare, land between two opposing trenches which provides no cover.

O

 * October Revolution (1917) - The second stage of the Russian Revolution of 1917, led by Leon Trotsky; the first officially communist revolution, also known as the Bolshevik Revolution.
 * Old Regime - see Ancien Régime.
 * Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) - Military leader and politician who led an overthrow of the British monarchy in the English Civil War; established the Commonwealth of England over which he ruled as Lord Protector.
 * Open-Door Policy - Maintenance of equal commercial and industrial rights for all nations in China after the Opium War.
 * Opium War (1834-1860) - Two wars between Britain and China over a Chinese attempt to eliminate the opium trade and reduce foreign influence within its borders.
 * Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) - Prime Minister of Prussia who unified Germany and became the Chancellor of the German Empire.

P

 * Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) - Founder, along with Georges Braque, of Cubism.
 * Pagan - Of or relating to classical, non-Christian religions.
 * Paris Commune (1871) - Socialist government briefly ruling Paris, formed by a civil uprising of post-Franco-Prussian War revolutionaries.
 * Parlements - Law courts of the ancien régime in France.
 * Parliamentarians - Anything associated with a parliament; sometimes refers to Roundheads (English Civil War).
 * Paris Peace Conference (1919) - A six-month international conference between the Allied and Associated Powers and their former enemies; proposed Treaty of Versailles.
 * Paul von Hindenburg, General (1847-1934) - German war general; Reich President of Germany (1925–1934).
 * Peace of Westphalia (1648) - A series of treaties ending the Thirty Years' War.
 * Peasants' War (1524-1526) - A mass of economic and religious revolts in Germany (Protestant Reformation).
 * Peninsular War (1808-1814) - A major conflict during the Napoleonic Wars, fought in the Iberian Peninsula; Spain, Portugal, and Britain vs. France.
 * Perspective - Artistic technique used to give a painting the appearance of having three dimensions by depicting foreground objects larger than those of the background (Renaissance).
 * Philosophes - A group of French philosophers of the Enlightenment, including Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire.
 * Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865) - French anarchist, most famously asserting "Property is theft."
 * Politburo (Political Bureau) - The executive organization for Communist Parties.
 * Politique - A term used in the 16th century to describe a head of state who put politics and the nation's well being before religion.
 * Popolo - The poor, working class of Italy (Renaissance).
 * Predestination - The religious idea that God's decisions determine destiny; particularly prevalent in Calvinism (Protestant Reformation).
 * Presbyterianism - A Protestant church based on the teachings of John Calvin and established in Scotland by John Knox (Protestant Reformation).
 * Proletariat - A lower social class; term used by Karl Marx to identify the working class.
 * Protectorate - A relationship of protection and partial control assumed by a superior power over a dependent country or region; the protected country or region.
 * Protestant Wind - Term used to refer to one of two incidents in which weather favored Protestants in battle: 1) the storm which wrecked the Spanish Armada, preventing an invasion of England (1588); 2) the favorable winds that enabled William III to land in England and depose the Catholic King James II (1688).

Q

 * Queen Victoria (1819–1901) - Queen of the United Kingdom, reigning from 1837 until her death, longer than any other British monarch. As well as being queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, she was also the first monarch to use the title Empress of India. The reign of Victoria was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. The Victorian Era was at the height of the Industrial Revolution, a period of great social, economic, and technological change in the United Kingdom.

R

 * Raphael (1483-1520) - Florentine painter and architect of the Italian High Renaissance.
 * Rasputin, Father Grigori (1872-1916) - Russian mystic having great influence over the wife of Tsar Nicholas II's wife Alexandra, ultimately leading to the downfall of the Romanov dynasty and the Bolshevik Revolution.
 * Rationalism - The philosophical idea that truth is derived from reason and analysis, instead of from faith and religious dogma (Renaissance).
 * Realism (Renaissance) - Depiction of images which is realistic instead of idealistic.
 * Realism (19th century) - Artistic movement originating in France as a reaction to Romanticism; depiction of commonplace instead of idealized themes.
 * Realpolitick (Politics of reality) - A term coined by Otto von Bismarck which refers to foreign politics based on practical concerns rather than theory or ethics.
 * Reconquista - The Spanish "reconquering" resulting in the removal of Jews and Muslims from the state, and a unification of Spain under Catholicism.
 * Red Guards (Russia) - The main strike force of the Bolsheviks, created in March 1917.
 * Reichstag (Imperial Diet) - Between 1871 and 1945, the German parliament.
 * Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669) - A baroque painter and engraver of the Netherlands during the Dutch Golden Age.
 * Renaissance - A cultural movement started in Italy in the 14th century marked by a rebirth of classic art and scientific learning of ancient Greece and Rome.
 * René Descartes (1596-1650) - Mathematician (inventor of the Cartesian coordinate system) and rationalist philosopher ("I think, therefore I am").
 * Risorgimento (resurrection) - The gradual unification of Italy, culminating in the declaration of the Kingdom of Italy (1861) and the conquest of Rome (1870).
 * Rite of Spring - A ballet composed by Russian Igor Stravinsky; controversy due to its subject, pagan sacrifice.
 * Robert Owen (1771-1858) - Welsh social reformer, father of the cooperative movement.
 * Robespierre (1758-1794) - One of the best known leaders of the French Revolutions; known as "the Incorruptible"; leader of the Committee of Public Safety.
 * Romanticism (18th century) - Artistic and intellectual movement, after the Enlightenment period, stressing strong emotion, imagination, freedom from classical correctness in art forms, and rebellion against social conventions.
 * Rotten borough - A small British parliamentary constituency which could be 'controlled' by a patron and used to exercise undue and unrepresentative influence within parliament.
 * Roundheads - Puritans under Oliver Cromwell in the English Civil War; named after the round helmets they wore; also known as Parliamentarians.
 * Royal Society of London (1660) - An institution of learning committed to open content, the free availability and flow of information.
 * Royalists - An adherent of a monarch or royal family; sometimes refers to Cavaliers (English Civil War).
 * Russian Civil War (1918-1920) - Conflict between communists and monarchists, after the Russian Revolution of 1917.

S

 * Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572) - A wave of Catholic mob violence against the Huguenots, lasting for several months.
 * Sans-culottes (without knee-breeches) - Term referring to the ill-clad and ill-equipped volunteers of the French Revolutionary army.
 * Schleswig-Holstein - A region of northern Germany which Denmark surrendered to Otto von Bismarck in 1865.
 * Schutzstaffel (SS) (Protective Squadron) - A large paramilitary organization that belonged to the Nazi party.
 * Secularism - Concern with worldly ideas, as science and rationalism, instead of religion and superstition (Renaissance).
 * Self-denying Ordinance (1645) - A Bill passed by English Parliament, depriving members of Parliament from holding command in the army or navy, to promote professionalism in the armed forces; aided creation of the New Model Army (English Civil War).
 * Sepoy mutiny (1857–1858) - Rebellions against British colonial rule in India; caused the end of the British East India Company's rule in India, and led to a century of direct rule of India by Britain.
 * Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) - Austrian neurologist credited for psychoanalysis and the theory of unconscious motives.
 * Simony - The ecclesiastical crime of paying for offices or positions in the hierarchy of a church (Protestant Reformation).
 * Sir Richard Arkwright (1732-1792) - English inventor of the Water Frame, a water-powered cotton mill.
 * Sir Thomas More - Author of Utopia, a novel which extols the hypothetical ideal society, by the Northern Renaissance ideals of humanism and Christianity.
 * Social Darwinism - The application of Darwinism to the study of human society, specifically a theory in sociology that individuals or groups achieve advantage over others as the result of genetic or biological superiority.
 * Society of Jesus - A Roman Catholic Order founded in 1534 by Ignatius of Loyola (Protestant Reformation).
 * Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) - The result of the complex political and even cultural rift in Spain.
 * Sphere of Influence - A territorial area over which political or economic influence is wielded by one nation.
 * Stalin, Joseph (1879-1953) - Bolshevik revolutionary who ruled the Soviet Union after the death of Lenin; responsible for the Great Purge and five year plans.
 * States-General - (see Estates-General).
 * Subsistence - Production of food only in quantities needed for survival, without the creation of surpluses.
 * Sudetenland - The region inhabited mostly by Sudeten Germans in various places of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia; became part of Czechoslovakia in 1945.
 * Suez Canal (constructed 1854-1869) - A canal in Egypt between the Mediterranean and Red Seas, allowing access between Europe and Asia.

T

 * Tabula rasa (Blank slate) - John Locke's idea that humans are born with no innate ideas, and that identity is defined by events after birth.
 * Taille - A direct land tax on the French peasantry in ancien régime France.
 * T.E. Lawrence (1888-1935) - also known as Lawrence of Arabia; a British liaison officer during the Arab Revolt of 1916–1918.
 * Tennis Court Oath (1789) - A pledge by France's Third Estate to continue to meet until a constitution had been written; may be considered the birth of the French Revolution.
 * Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) - Conflict principally taking place in the Holy Roman Empire involving a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics, fought for the self-preservation of the Hapsburg dynasty.
 * Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) - English political philosopher advocating an authoritarian version of the social contract (absolutism).
 * Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) - English economist who, in An Essay on the Principle of Population, predicted that increasing population growth would cause a massive food shortage.
 * Thomas Newcomen (1664-1729) - English inventor of the Newcomen engine, a steam engine for pumping water out of mines.
 * Tory - A member of the British Conservative party.
 * Totalitarianism - A form of government in which the political authority exercises absolute and centralized control over all aspects of life.
 * Treaties of Tilsit (1807) - Treaties ending war between Russia and France; began a powerful secret alliance between the two countries.
 * Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) - Peace treaty which marked Russia's exit from World War I.
 * Treaty of Versailles (1919) - Peace treaty created by the Paris Peace Conference; which officially ended World War I.
 * Trotsky, Leon (1879-1940) - Bolshevik revolutionary, early Soviet Union politician, and founding member of the Politburo; expelled from the Communist Party after a power struggle with Stalin.
 * Truman Doctrine (1947) - Harry S. Truman's statement initiating the U.S. policy of containment toward Russia.

U

 * Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) - Founder of Zwinglianism in the Zürich, Switzerland; leader of the Swiss Reformation (Protestant Reformation).
 * Usury - Charging a fee generally in the form of interest on loans; forbidden by most religious doctrines (Protestant Reformation). Usury was forbidden in the Catholic Church, so Jews became wealthy, successful merchants
 * Utopian Socialism - The socialist ideals of creating a perfect communist society. Writers such as Charles Fourier, Henri de Saint-Simon and Robert Owen were prominent Utopian Socialists.

V

 * Vassal - The tenant of land who receives a fief in exchange for knightly service (feudalism).
 * Vernacular - The standard, native language of a region (generally as opposed to Latin).
 * Virtu - Humanist value of the Renaissance emphasizing a nobility of spirit and action, stressing an individual's dignity and worth; replaced the chivalrous Medieval value of humility.
 * Voltaire (1694-1778) - French deist philosopher, author of Candide, which sarcastically attacks religious and philosophical optimism (Enlightenment).

W

 * War of the Three Henrys (1584-1598) - A series of three civil wars in France, also known as the Huguenot Wars; fought between the Catholic League and the Huguenots.
 * Wars of the Roses (1455-1487) - Intermittent civil war fought over the throne of England between the House of Lancaster and the House of York.
 * Warsaw Pact (1455-1487) - An organization of Central and Eastern European Communist states. It was established in 1955 to counter the threat from the NATO alliance.
 * Weimar Republic (1919-1933) - The first attempt at liberal democracy in Germany; named after the city of Weimar, where the new constitution was written.
 * Western Schism (1378) - Split within the Catholic Church at the end of the Avignon Papacy.
 * Whig - A member of the British Liberal Democrat party.
 * White-collar - Class of labor performing less "laborious" tasks and are more highly paid than blue-collar manual workers.
 * White Man’s Burden - The concept of the white race's obligation to govern and impart it beliefs upon nonwhite people; often used to justify European colonialism.
 * William and Mary - King William III and Queen Mary II; jointly ruled England and Scotland after the Glorious Revolution of 1688; they replaced the absolutist King James II and ruled as constitutional monarchs.
 * William Gladstone (1809-1898) - A British Liberal politician and Prime Minister (1868–1874, 1880–1885, 1886 and 1892–1894), a notable political reformer, known for his populist speeches, and was for many years the main political rival of Benjamin Disraeli.

X

 * X-ray - first systematically studied by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen in 1895.

Y

 * Yekaterinburg - The location at which the family of Czar Nicholas II was murdered by Bolsheviks

Z

 * Zimmermann Telegram (1917) - Message sent by German Arthur Zimmermann, proposing that Mexico ally with Germany against the United States; hastened U.S. entry into World War I.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: European History/Glossary


text:
Internet Technologies/VNC

Virtual Network Computing (VNC) is a remote desktop protocol to remote control another computer. VNC is used to transport the desktop environment of a graphical user interface from one computer to a viewer application on another computer on the network. There are clients and servers for many platforms including Linux, Microsoft Windows, Berkeley Software Distribution variants and MacOS X. In fact you would be hard pressed to not find a viewer available for any GUI operating system. The VNC protocol allows for complete platform independence. A VNC viewer on any operating system can connect to a VNC server on any other operating system. It is also possible for multiple clients to connect to a VNC server at the same time. Popular uses of the technology include remote tech support, and accessing your files on your work PC while at home or even on the road. There is even a Java viewer for VNC, so you can connect to a VNC server from your web browser without installing any software. The original VNC code is open source, as are many of the flavors of VNC available today.

How it works
VNC is actually two parts, a client and a server. A server is the machine that is sharing its screen, and the client, or viewer is the program that is doing the watching and perhaps interacting with the server. VNC is actually a VERY simple protocol and is based one one and only one graphic primitive, "Put a rectangle of pixel data at a given x,y position". What this means is VNC takes small rectangles of the screen (actually the framebuffer) and transports them from the server to the client. This in its simplest form would cause lots of bandwidth to be used, and hence various methods have been invented to make this process go faster. There are now many different 'encodings' or methods to determine the most efficient way to transfer these rectangles. The VNC protocol allows the client and server to negotiate which encoding it will use. The simplest and lowest common denominator is the raw encoding method where the pixel data is sent in left-to-right scanline order, and after initial setup, then only transfers the rectangles that have changed.

how to copy and paste
How do I copy-and-paste from applications running on a server (visible inside a local VNC window) to applications running locally (outside the VNC window) and back?

Some people   suggest using xcutsel or autocutsel as a work-around:

On the VNC server side (inside the VNC window) run " ". Leave it up and running.
 * 1. If you want to copy from VNC to local, select what you want to copy, then click "copy PRIMARY to 0" in xcutsel, then paste in local.
 * 2. If you want to copy from local to VNC, select what you want to copy, then click "copy 0 to PRIMARY" in xcutsel, then paste in VNC window.

Others recommend autocutsel (or is it autcutsel?), pointing at the VNC FAQ.

For more about the subtleties of cutting and pasting in the X Window System, see "X Selections, Cut Buffers, and Kill Rings." by Jamie Zawinski 2002 (especially helpful if you are writing X11 applications).

title: Internet Technologies/VNC


text:
User:Satyr~enwikibooks

Hometown: Gwinnett (G-Town) Status: 2nd year Computer Science student at Georgia Institute of Technology Languages: English and some Japanese

title: User:Satyr~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Midwestern Cuisine

| Cuisine of the United States

Midwestern cuisine in the United States is based on simple dishes such as pot roast, sausage, and pancakes. Dairy is an important ingredient, especially cheese. In homes, meals tend to be served family-style rather than in courses. Seasoning is mild, and tends to the sweet.

Like most American cuisines, Midwestern cooking is influenced by the cuisine of the immigrants who settled in the region. Scandinavians and Germans settled the northern Midwest, so Swedish and Norwegian lutefisk, Cornish pasties, or Polish pa˛czki may be found. Missouri and Illinois were destinations for many ethnic German immigrants, so sausages and potatoes are more prevalent.

The Midwest produces most of America's grain, beef, and dairy products, and these products are staples of traditional Midwestern cuisine.

Midwestern U.S. Recipes List

If you are reading this on the Midwestern U.S. cooking page, the list of all Midwestern U.S. recipes should already be shown to the right.

This module uses text originally published by our sister project, Wikipedia, in the article Midwestern cuisine.

title: Cookbook:Midwestern Cuisine


text:
Cookbook:Midwestern Chicken Wings

| Meat Recipes | United States

Midwestern chicken wings are not to be confused with hot wings; midwestern wings are not spicy.

Ingredients

 * 2 cloves garlic, minced
 * 1 tablespoon fresh ginger, minced
 * 1 cup soy sauce
 * 12 ounces apricot preserves (not preserved apricots, not apricot jelly)
 * 4–5 pounds chicken wings

Procedure

 * 1) Place all ingredients except chicken into a bowl and mix to make a marinade.
 * 2) Marinate the chicken in the refrigerator with the marinade for at least 3 hours. A plastic bag sealed tight without much air or free space is believed to provide the best marinating. As with many marinating recipes, the longer the better.
 * 3) Clean and preheat grill to medium heat.
 * 4) Place wings on grill. Turn 1–4 times over the next 20 minutes.

Notes, tips, And variations

 * Cut the chicken wings into two pieces at the elbow joint (recommended).
 * For the health conscious, remove the chicken skin.
 * Heat marinade on grill along with chicken wings, and add a little to the wings when done (See Warnings below).
 * 1 teaspoon of ginger powder can be substituted for the fresh ginger.
 * Feel free to apply the marinade recipe to other chicken cuts, such as breasts. A shish-kabob variation of this recipe is also excellent.

Warnings

 * Ensure a clean kitchen environment (hands, surfaces, etc), since this recipe requires marinating.
 * Never serve the marinade without first heating it to a boil.

title: Cookbook:Midwestern Chicken Wings


text:
Cookbook talk:Midwestern Chicken Wings

Yes, there is a new, free, non copyrighted cookbook that came in the mail recently. It has the same recipe.

I said to my mom "isnt this your recipe?", and she agreed it was the same, but said "Josh, its not a unique family recipe. Its just chicken wings"

But damn it, it's the best thing she cooks...

It is what we call "generic" or traditional much like British Blues. You know Clapton. Page, Beck, and others imported the likes of Howlin Wolf and Muddy Waters to learn their guitar riffs and record their versions... What connection relates to this recipe, simple. Early Brits Band which some of later great guitarist, was named the yard birds. Slang for chicken!

title: Cookbook talk:Midwestern Chicken Wings


text:
Numerical Methods

Contents

 * 1) Introduction
 * 2) Solution of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations
 * 3) Solution of Linear Equation Systems
 * 4) Interpolation
 * 5) Numerical Differentiation
 * 6) Numerical Integration
 * 7) Solution of ODEs: Initial value problems
 * 8) Solution of ODEs: Boundary value problems
 * 9) Solution of PDEs
 * 10) Numerical Methods Qualification Exam Problems and Solutions (University of Maryland)

Calcul scientifique אנליזה נומרית 数値解析

title: Numerical Methods


text:
Numerical Methods/Equation Solving

An equation of the type $$f(x)=0$$ is either algebraic or transcendental.

E.g, these equations are algebraic.
 * $$2x=5; \quad x^2+x=1; \quad x^7=x(1+2x). $$

and these are transcendental
 * $$ \sin x = 0; \quad \quad e^\sqrt{x} = \pi; \quad \tan x = x.$$

While roots can be found directly for algebraic equations of fourth order or lower, and for a few special transcendental equations, in practice we need to solve equations of higher order and also arbitrary transcendental equations.

As analytic solutions are often either too cumbersome or simply do not exist, we need to find an approximate method of solution. This is where numerical analysis comes into the picture.

Some Useful Observations

 * The total number of roots an algebraic equation can have is the same as its degree.
 * An algebraic equation can have at most as many positive roots as the number of changes of sign in $$f(x)$$.
 * An algebraic equation can have at most as many negative roots as the number of changes of sign in $$f(-x)$$.
 * In an algebraic equation with real coefficients, complex roots occur in conjugate pairs
 * If $$f(x)=a_0x^n+a_1x^{n-1}+a_2x^{n-2}+...+a_{n-1}x+a_n$$ with roots $$\alpha_1, \alpha_2, ..., \alpha_n$$ then the following hold good:
 * $$\sum_i\alpha_i=\frac{-a_1}{a_0}$$
 * $$\sum_{i<j}{\alpha_i\alpha_j}=\frac{a_2}{a_0}$$
 * $$\prod_i\alpha_i=(-1)^n \frac{a_n}{a_0}$$
 * If $$f(x)$$ is continuous in the interval $$[a,b]$$ and $$f(a)f(b)<0$$ then a root must exist in the interval $$(a,b)$$

Initial Approximation
The last point about the interval is one of the most useful properties numerical methods use to find the roots. All of them have in common the requirement that we need to make an initial guess for the root. Practically, this is easy to do graphically. Simply plot the equation and make a rough estimate of the solution. Analytically, we can usually choose any point in an interval where a change of sign takes place. However, this is subject to certain conditions that vary from method to method.

Convergence
A numerical method to solve equations will be a long process. We would like to know, if the method will lead to a solution (close to the exact solution) or will lead us away from the solution. If the method, leads to the solution, then we say that the method is convergent. Otherwise, the method is said to be divergent.i.e, in case of linear and non linear interpolation convergence means tends to 0.

Rate of Convergence
Various methods converge to the root at different rates. That is, some methods are slow to converge and it takes a long time to arrive at the root, while other methods can lead us to the root faster. This is in general a compromise between ease of calculation and time.

For a computer program however, it is generally better to look at methods which converge quickly. The rate of convergence could be linear or of some higher order. The higher the order, the faster the method converges.

If $$e_i$$ is the magnitude of the error in the $$i$$th iteration, ignoring sign, then the order is $$n$$ if $$\frac{e_{i+1}}{e_i^n}$$ is approximately constant.

It is also important to note that the chosen method will converge only if $$e_{i+1}<e_i$$.

Bisection Method
This is one of the simplest methods and is strongly based on the property of intervals. To find a root using this method, the first thing to do is to find an interval $$[a,b]$$ such that $$f(a) \cdot f(b) < 0 $$. Bisect this interval to get a point $$(c,f(c))$$. Choose one of $$a$$ or $$b$$ so that the sign of $$f(c)$$ is opposite to the ordinate at that point. Use this as the new interval and proceed until you get the root within desired accuracy.

Example
Solve $$e^x-2x^2+3x+1$$ correct up to 2 decimal places.

 * $$f(x)=e^x-2x^2+3x+1$$

$$\Rightarrow f(2) \cdot f(3) < 0 $$ $$\Rightarrow \epsilon = \frac{1}{2}10^{-2}$$ $$\Rightarrow i = \frac{2.3010}{0.3010} = 8$$ $$\Rightarrow x_1=2.5$$
 * $$f(x_1)=5.625 > 0$$

$$\Rightarrow x_2 = 2.25$$ $$\Rightarrow ... x_8 = 2.09$$

Error Analysis
The maximum error after the $$i$$th iteration using this process will be given as
 * $$\epsilon_i=\frac{|b-a|}{2^i}$$

$$\Rightarrow i\ge\frac{[\log(b-a)-\log\epsilon_i]}{\log 2}$$

As the interval at each iteration is halved, we have $$\frac{\epsilon_{i+1}}{\epsilon_i} = \frac{1}{2}$$. Thus this method converges linearly.

If we are interested in the number of iterations the Bisection Method needs to converge to a root within a certain tolerance than we can use the formula for the maximum error.

Example
How many iterations do you need to get the root if you start with a = 1 and b = 2 and the tolerance is 10−4?

The error $$\epsilon_i$$ needs to be smaller than 10−4. Use the formula for the maximum error:

 * $$\epsilon_i = 2^{-i} \cdot (2-1) < 10^{-4} $$

 * $$\epsilon_i = 2^{-i} < 10^{-4} $$

Solve for i using log rules

 * $$\displaystyle\log_{10}{2^{-i}} < \log_{10}{10^{-4}} $$

 * $$\displaystyle -i \cdot \log_{10}{2} < -4 $$

 * $$\displaystyle i > \frac{4}{\log_{10}{2}} = 13.29 = 14 $$

Hence 14 iterations will ensure an approximation to the root accurate to $$\displaystyle 10^{-4}$$. Note: the error analysis only gives a bound approximation to the error; the actual error may be much smaller.

False Position Method
The false position method (sometimes called the regula falsi method) is essentially same as the bisection method -- except that instead of bisecting the interval, we find where the chord joining the two points meets the X axis. The roots are calculated using the equation of the chord, i.e. putting $$y = 0$$ in

 * $$y-f(x_0)=\frac{f(x_1)-f(x_0)}{x_1-x_0}(x-x_0)$$.

The rate of convergence is still linear but faster than that of the bisection method. Both these methods will fail if f has a double root.

Example
Consider f(x)=x2-1. We already know the roots of this equation, so we can easily check how fast the regula falsi method converges.

For our initial guess, we'll use the interval [0,2].

Since f is concave upwards and increasing, a quick sketch of the geometry shows that the chord will always intersect the x-axis to the left of the solution. This can be confirmed by a little algebra.

We'll call our nth iteration of the interval [an, 2]

The chord intersects the x-axis when

 * $$-(a_n^2-1)=\frac{(2^2-1)-(a_n^2-1)}{2-a_n} (x-a_n)$$

Rearranging and simplifying gives

 * $$x=\frac{1+2a_n}{2+a_n}$$

Since this is always less than the root, it is also an+1

The difference between an and the root is en=an-1, but

 * $$e_{n+1}=\frac{1+2a_n}{2+a_n}-1 = \frac{a_n-1}{a_n+2} =

\frac{1}{a_n+2}e_n $$

This is always smaller than en when an is positive. When an approaches 1, each extra iteration reduces the error by two-thirds, rather than one-half as the bisection method would.

The order of convergence of this method is 2/3 and is linear.

In this case, the lower end of the interval tends to the root, and the minimum error tends to zero, but the upper limit and maximum error remain fixed. This is not uncommon.

Fixed Point Iteration (or Staircase method or x = g(x) method or Iterative method)
If we can write f(x)=0 in the form x=g(x), then the point x would be a fixed point of the function g (that is, the input of g is also the output). Then an obvious sequence to consider is

 * $$x_{n+1}=g(x_n) \,$$

If we look at this on a graph we can see how this could converge to the intersection.

Any function can be written in this form if we define x=g(x), though in some cases other rearrangements may prove more useful(must satisfy the condition |g(x)|<1). This method is useful for finding a positive root to the infinite series also.

Fixed Point Theorem (Statement)

If g is continuous on[a,b] and a ≤ g(x) ≤ b for all x in [a,b], then g has at least a fixed point in [a,b].

Further, suppose g'(x) is continuous on (a,b) and that a positive constant c exists with |g'(x)| ≤ c <1, for all x in (a,b). Then there is a unique fixed point α of g in [a,b]. Also, the iterates xn+1 = g(xn) n≥0 will converge to α for any choice of x0 in [a,b].

Error analysis
We define the error at the nth step to be

 * $$e_n=x_n-x \mbox{ where } x=g(x) \,$$

Then we have

 * $$\begin{matrix}

e_{n+1} & = & x_{n+1}-x & \\ & = & g(x_n)-x & \\ & = & g(x+e_n) -x & \\ & = & -x + g(x)+ e_n g^\prime(x) + \cdots & \\ & = & e_n g^\prime(x) + \cdots & \mbox{since } g(x)=x \end{matrix}$$

So, when |g′(x)|<l, this sequence converges to a root, and the error will be approximately proportional to n. Because the relationship between en+1 and en is linear, we say that this method converges linearly, if it converges at all.

When g(x)=f(x)+x this means that if

 * $$x_{n+1}=x_n+f(x_n) \,$$.

converges to a root, x, of f then

 * $$ -2 < f^\prime(x) < 0 \, $$

Note that this convergence will only happen for a certain range of x. If the first estimate is outside that range then no solution will be found.

Also note that although this is a necessary condition for convergence, it does not guarantee convergence. In the error analysis we neglected higher powers of en, but we can only do this if en is small. If our initial error is large, the higher powers may prevent convergence, even when the condition is satisfied.

If |g′(x)|<1 is true at the root, the iteration sequence will converge in some interval around the root, which may be smaller than the interval where |g′(x)|<1. If |g′(x)| isn't smaller than one at the root, the iteration will not converge to that root.

Example
Lets consider $$f(x)=x^3+x-2$$, which we can see has a single root at x=1. There are several ways f(x)=0 can be written in the desired form, x=g(x).

The simplest is

1):$$x_{n+1}=x_n+f(x_n)=x_n^3 +2x_n -2$$

In this case, $$g'(x)=3x^2+2$$, and the convergence condition is

 * $$1>|g'(x)|=3x^2+2, \qquad -1>3x^2$$

Since this is never true, this doesn't converge to the root.

2)An alternate rearrangement is

 * $$x_{n+1}=2-x_n^3$$

This converges when

 * $$1 > |g'(x)|= |-3x^2|, \qquad x^2 < \frac{1}{3},

\qquad |x| < \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}$$

Since this range does not include the root, this method won't converge either.

3)Another obvious rearrangement is

 * $$x_{n+1}=\sqrt[3]{2-x_n}$$

In this case the convergence condition becomes

 * $$\frac{1}{3}\left| (2-x_n)^{-\frac{2}{3}} \right| <1, \qquad

\left(2-x_n \right)^{-2} < 3^3, \qquad
 * x_n-2|>\sqrt{27} $$

Again, this region excludes the root.

4)Another possibility is obtained by dividing by x2+1

 * $$x_{n+1}=\frac{2}{x_n^2+1}$$

In this case the convergence condition becomes

 * $$\frac{4|x|}{(1+x^2)^2}<1, \qquad 4|x| < (1+x^2)^2 $$

Consideration of this inequality shows it is satisfied if x>1, so if we start with such an x, this will converge to the root.

Clearly, finding a method of this type which converges is not always straightforwards.

Newton-Raphson
In numerical analysis, Newton's method (also known as the Newton–Raphson method or the Newton–Fourier method) is an efficient algorithm for finding approximations to the zeros (or roots) of a real-valued function. As such, it is an example of a root-finding algorithm.

Any zero-finding method (Bisection Method, False Position Method, Newton-Raphson, etc.) can also be used to find a minimum or maximum of such a function, by finding a zero in the function's first derivative, see Newton's method as an optimization algorithm.

Description of the method
The idea of the Newton-Raphson method is as follows: one starts with an initial guess which is reasonably close to the true root, then the function is approximated by its tangent line (which can be computed using the tools of calculus), and one computes the x-intercept of this tangent line (which is easily done with elementary algebra). This x-intercept will typically be a better approximation to the function's root than the original guess, and the method can be iterated. Suppose f : [a, b] → R is a differentiable function defined on the interval [a, b] with values in the real numbers R. The formula for converging on the root can be easily derived. Suppose we have some current approximation xn. Then we can derive the formula for a better approximation, xn+1 by referring to the diagram on the right. We know from the definition of the derivative at a given point that it is the slope of a tangent at that point.

We can get better convergence if we know about the function's derivatives. Consider the tangent to the function:

Near any point, the tangent at that point is approximately the same as f('x'') itself, so we can use the tangent to approximate the function.

The tangent through the point (xn, f(xn)) is

 * $$\frac{y-f(x_n)}{x-x_n}=f'(x_n)$$

The next approximation, xn+1, is where the tangent line intersects the axis, so where y=0. Rearranging, we find

 * $$x_{n+1}=x_n-\frac{f(x_n)}{f'(x_n)}$$

Error analysis
Again, we define the root to be x, and the error at the nth step to be

 * $$e_n=x_n-x \,$$

Then the error at the next step is

 * $$e_{n+1} = e_n - \frac{f(x)+e_n f'(x)+ \frac{1}{2}e_n^2 f''(x)+ \cdots}

{f'(x)+e_n f''(x)+ \cdots }$$ (1)

where we've written f as a Taylor series round its root, x. Rearranging this, and using f(x)=0, we get

 * $$\begin{matrix}

e_{n+1} & = & e_n & - & e_n \left( f'(x)+\frac{1}{2}e_n f''(x) \right) /f'(x) + \cdots \\ & = & -\frac{f''(x)}{f'(x)}e_n^2 & + & \cdots \end{matrix}$$

where we've neglected cubic and higher powers of the error, since they will be much smaller than the squared term, when the error itself is small.

Notice that the error is squared at each step. This means that the number of correct decimal places doubles with each step, much faster than linear convergence.

This sequence will converge if

 * $$ \left| \frac{f''(x)}{f'(x)}e_n^2 \right| < |e_n|, \qquad

 * e_n|< \frac{f'(x)}{f''(x)} $$

If f′ isn't zero at the root, then there will always be a range round the root where this method converges.

If f′ is zero at the root, then on looking again at (1) we see that we get

 * $$e_{n+1} = e_n /2 \,$$

and the convergence becomes merely linear.

Overall, this method works well, provided f does not have a minimum near its root, but it can only be used if the derivative is known.

Example
Let's consider f(x)=x2-a. Here, we know the roots exactly, so we can see better just how well the method converges.

We have

 * $$x_{n+1} = x_n-\frac{f(x_n)}{f'(x_n)} = x_n-\frac{x_n^2-a}{2x_n}

= \frac{x_n^2+a}{2x_n} = \frac{1}{2}\left( x_n + \frac{a}{x_n} \right) $$

This method is easily implemented, even with just pen and paper, and has been used to rapidly estimate square roots since long before Newton.

The nth error is en=xn-√a, so we have

 * $$\begin{matrix}

e_{n+1} & = & \frac{(e_n+\sqrt{a})^2+a}{2(\sqrt{a}+e_n)} - \sqrt{a} \\ & = & \frac{2a+2e_n\sqrt{a}+e_n^2}{2(\sqrt{a}+e_n)} - \sqrt{a} \\ & = & \frac{2(\sqrt{a}+e_n)\sqrt{a}+e_n^2}{2(\sqrt{a}+e_n)} - \sqrt{a} \\ & = & \frac{e_n^2}{2(\sqrt{a}+e_n)} \end{matrix}$$

If a=0, this simplifies to en/2, as expected.

If a>0, en+1 will be positive, provided en is greater than -√a, i.e provided xn is positive. Thus, starting from any positive number, all the errors, except perhaps the first will be positive.

The method converges when,

 * $$ |e_{n+1}| = \left| \frac{e_n^2}{2(\sqrt{a}+e_n)} \right| < |e_n| $$

so, assuming en is positive, it converges when

 * $$ e_n < 2 \left( e_n + \sqrt{a} \right) $$

which is always true.

This method converges to the square root, starting from any positive number, and it does so quadratically.

Higher order methods
There are methods that converge even faster than Newton-Raphson. e.g

 * $$x_{n+1} = x_n-\frac{f(x_n)}{f'(x_n)}

+ \frac{1}{2} \frac{f''(x_n)f^2(x_n)}{{f'}^3(x_n)} $$

which converge cubicly, tripling the number of correct digits at each iteration, which is 50% faster than Newton-Raphson. However, if iterating each step takes 50% longer, due to the more complex formula, there is no net gain in speed. For this reason, methods such as this are seldom used. Ostrowski's efficiency index describes the trade-off well: if each step takes $n$ units of work (e.g. evaluating a function) for an algorithm of convergence order $p$, the "effective work" required for a given amount of convergence is $n^{1/p}$.

A quite honorable mention here is the ITP method, an improvement of the false position method. It provides a guaranteed (tunable, typically) $$\sqrt{2}$$ order of convergence without requiring a derivative.

Main Page - Mathematics bookshelf - Numerical Methods

title: Numerical Methods/Equation Solving


text:
User:Sajo

Hi, I'm an Indian undergraduate currently in the 5th semester at Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur looking for a degree in Ocean Engineering and Naval Architecture. I have a fairly comprehensive knowledge of scientific and engineering disciplines and would most likely contribute in these areas.

title: User:Sajo


text:
Cookbook:Red Devils

| Cuisine of the United States | Sandwiches

Red Devils are hot, open faced sandwiches. They are a great dinner or lunch. They include all the major food groups and taste great. Their ease of preparation makes them suitable for people on the move and the recipe can easily be scaled up or down for family or guests.

Ingredients

 * Bread, sliced
 * American cheese, sliced
 * Tomato, sliced
 * Onion, diced
 * Bacon

Procedure

 * 1) Place bacon in a sheet pan.
 * 2) Set the broiler to 'low'.
 * 3) Pre-cook the bacon under the broiler until it is about halfway done.
 * 4) While bacon cooks, place white bread on a sheet, one slice per diner.
 * 5) Place a slice of American cheese on each slice of bread.
 * 6) Place the tomato slices on each sandwich
 * 7) Sprinkle a small amount of onion onto each sandwich.
 * 8) Place a strip of half-cooked bacon on each sandwich.
 * 9) Place the cookie sheet under broiler, set to maximum temperature, and broil for approximately 3–4 minutes. You must check on them often to prevent burning.
 * 10) Remove once the bread is toasted, the cheese is golden at the edges, and the bacon is fully cooked.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Often it may be easier to eat with utensils instead of by hand.
 * The bacon is usually too long to fit on the sandwich so cut it in half. One strip of bacon is usually used per sandwich so it will have 2 halves on it when finished.
 * Precooking the bacon may be accomplished while preparing the rest of the food. It is best to cook until between rare and crisp.
 * Red devils usually require one tomato per sheet of sandwiches but may vary depending upon the size of your sheets or the size of your tomato slices.
 * A whole onion is not needed for a tray of Red Devils. A small sprinkling of diced onions is sufficient. Sweet onions or red onions are a good substitution for normal white "storage" onions.
 * As always, you can experiment or change things according to your tastes.

Warnings

 * It is very important to check on the Red Devils once they are in the oven. They can quickly change from being undercooked to overcooked within a few seconds. The goal is to quickly cook the bacon and toast the bread and cheese without making the sandwich too hot to eat soon after being finished.

title: Cookbook:Red Devils


text:
Korean/Lesson I3

"And" and "And?" "Or" or "Or"?
One thing that varies in Korean is that there is a difference between an “and” for a verb and an “and” for a noun. In this lesson, we will learn these ands, ors, and buts. It just so happens that today 찬호 is introducing his friends to Joseph, so this is a perfect opportunity to use these forms! (Don't feel overwhelmed, there's only 3 ways to say each!)

 * 찬호: 오늘 저는 조세프에게 친구들을 소개하겠습니다.
 * 조세프: 오케이! 기대합니다!
 * 찬호: 저 친구들은 "연희"와 "가영"입니다.
 * 저세프: 만나서 반갑습니다!
 * 연희와 가영: 반갑습니다.
 * 연희: 조세프는 미국에서 왔고 한국말을 공부하고 있습니까?
 * 조세프: 네, 그래요.
 * 가영: 와우! 고생 많네요! 한식을 좋아합니까?
 * 조세프: 양식이나 한식 둘 다 좋아합니다. 하지만, 한국에서 양식을 먹지 않습니다.
 * 가영: 그렇군요... 학교에 걸어갑니까? 아니면 버스를 탑니까?
 * 찬호: 집에서 버스를 타지 못합니다. 걸어가거나 뛰어갑니다. 하하하!

The above example has several new forms in it because of the differentiation between noun "and/or" & verb "and/or". We'll look at the examples and pick out new vocabulary, and then discuss new grammar separately.

 * 찬호: 오늘 저는 조세프에게 친구들을 소개하겠습니다.
 * 조세프: 오케이! 기대합니다!

소개하다 means "to introduce." It's used really often when talking about friends and people you know, but it can also be used to refer to something like "introducing information." Following that, 기대하다 means "to await expectedly or excitedly." This can also be said 기대되다, which sometimes sounds more natural.

 * 찬호: 저 친구들은 "연희"와 "가영"입니다.

Here we meet the noun connective particle 와 (“and”) and its alternative 과, used after consonants. More information can be learned about this in the following section, but its use is fairly straight forward.

 * 찬호: 만나서 반갑습니다!
 * 연희와 가영: 반갑습니다.

Nothing new here.

 * 연희: 조세프는 미국에서 왔고 한국말을 공부하고 있습니까?
 * 조세프: 네, 그래요.

오다 means “to come” (the form you see, "왔-" in this sentence is past tense.) but the connective verb suffix -고 (“and”) is connected to it (왔고). 에서 in this case means “from”. (So keep track! You now know it means “from” or “at”.) Finally, Joseph responds with 그래요 (“that’s right”).

 * 가영: 와! 고생 많네요! 한식을 좋아합니까?
 * 조세프: 양식이나 한식 둘 다 좋아합니다. 하지만, 한국에서는 양식을 먹지 않습니다.

가영 uses a phrase that is often heard in Korea: "고생 많다." This means "you have lots of struggles," but is used sort of like "must be difficult," a sort of compliment for the listener who might be going through hard times. The ending on this is "VS+군요" Which is a sort of exclamatory form. This will also be discussed in the next section. "한식" means "Korean food," a sort of contraction of "한국 음식," and "양식" is "Western food." Can you guess the contraction for this one?

Joseph links the two with "N+(이)나" which is "or" for nouns. The verb form is "VS+거나" (discussed later, of course). "둘 다" means "both" Afterwards, Joseph uses the stand-alone word "하지만," meaning "however" or "but." The verb form of this is "VS+지만." It's simplicity doesn't merit any further discussion.

 * 가영: 그렇군요... 학교에 걸어갑니까? 아니면 버스를 탑니까?
 * 찬호: 집에서 버스를 타지 못합니다. 걸어가거나 뛰어갑니다. 하하하!

<>

title: Korean/Lesson I3


text:
User:AdamRetchless~enwikibooks

I am a Wikipedia vetran, who came to Wikibooks to find practise problems for Statistics. I am trying to teach it to myself, and I have a good textbook, but I don't have the answers to the practise problems. Since the stats Wikibook doesn't have practise problems, I figure that I can write up some practise problems. If I'm fairly confident of the answer, I will give the answer and then other users can double-check. If I don't understand a topic, I'll just note that we need a question addressing that topic.

I couldn't find any precedent or discussion about practise problems, so I'll just go ahead and get started.

title: User:AdamRetchless~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Statistics

About

 * Started: 29 February 2004
 * Size: 43,200 words. (June 2009)

Okay Thabsile23 (discuss • contribs) 09:56, 18 September 2022 (UTC)

Practice Problems
I added a "practise problem" section. I see no precedent for this, nor any discussion of it, so I'm just going ahead and doing something. I'll mark the new problem as new. Please double check those and then remove the "new" marking. Thanks. AdamRetchless 14:05, 24 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * It might make more sense to put a 'practice problem' section at the end of each chapter. But what if the last chapter (where you have these practice problems now) had solutions to the "odd numbered problems" as is often the case in textbooks? --Murraytodd 19:32, 15 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I don't know why we wouldn't just put the answers to all the problems. I don't know what the learning value would be of questions without answers.  And it seems like, in order to develop a question, you must've also developed the answer.  Why throw away that work?  Don't the commercial textbooks do it so that there can be problems to be graded on?  Nobody is grading you here.  Nobody has the teacher's edition.  Gnebulon (discuss • contribs) 17:46, 7 November 2011 (UTC)

Quantiles/Quartiles
This is probably fairly moot since the actual section hasn't even been written yet, but should the section be titled Quantiles or Quartiles? Both are common in statistics and I don't know which would be more likely to be the header of a section.--Carraway 19:05, 25 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Good point. Quartiles are a better title given the context of the chapter.  --Llywelyn 08:18, 26 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I would disagree. Quantiles is a more general term. Ie. a quartile is a type of quantile, but the converse is not true. In fact, the quartile section now discusses quantiles, quinties and percentiles, none of which are quartiles! --Murraytodd 19:32, 15 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree with Murraytodd, the section should be titled "Quantiles", since not only quartiles are mentioned, but also quintiles, deciles and percentiles.Nijdam 16:05, 31 March 2006 (UTC)

 * As far as I know, quintiles is the general term. For example $$ F(x)= 1 - \alpha $$ is called the alpha-quintile of the stochastic variable X. Quartile refers to fixed quintiles in steps of 25%, where alpha is 25%, 50% (median) and 75%. For steps of 10% we have got deciles, and for single percentages we have percentiles. I hope that I am bringing light to this discussion. I will see if I can fix it.

--Whisky Brewer 22:54, 27 Dec 2006 (UTC)

Distributions
I took the liberty or rearranging the distributions chapter a little bit. First, I separated the discrete and continuous distributions, then I placed them in a more natural order—from the simplest to the more complex. We should be careful when writing this chapter to create a consistent "train of thought" to link these distributions together, lest our "textbook" turn into an unreadable encyclopedia. I would suggest that whenever applicable we show phenomena in the real world that follow these sorts of distributions. For example, the Exponential distribution being a good measure of "time to failure" like the lifespan of lightbulbs; the Poisson distribution being the distribution of how many customers walk into a store in any 5-minute interval; the Binomial distribution being the number of students in the classroom with green eyes—and thus a sum of simple Bernoulli trials. (Oh, and I added the Bournoulli distribution!) --Murraytodd 19:32, 15 Sep 2004 (UTC)

A Programming Language
What would people think of the idea of adopting R as an optional tool for students within this text? R is arguably the up-and-coming standard in academic statistics programs (at least the graduate programs) and it's Open Source and available for Windows, Mac OS X and Linux. It would be nice to occasionally show how results can be computed using R. When we show graphs of distributions, etc., we could include the R code that was used to generate those graphs. It would be an excellent resource for potential students. --Murray Todd Williams 22:38, 15 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * While I like the idea of adding a section on R, I do not believe that it should be integrated through the text. There is too much of an emphasis today on getting a piece of software and/or hardware to do someone's thinking for them, and at least I would advocate that for an introductory course in something as basic as statistics should emphasis the process and the understanding and not the function, which is the emphasis of software packages.

 * That having been said: I personally think a chapter, set of chapters, integrating sections into chapters of more advanced statistics (e.g., multivariate analysis), or even a separate textbook on R would be incredibly valuable. --Llywelyn 01:39, 16 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree with the spirit of your concern, but I still think R would provide the student with a quick way to explore the field. Back in the days of SAS and SPSS I would wholeheartedly agree with you. Those packages focused on the "load up the data into the black-box, hit go, and assume the reams of meaningless output was a good thing". R, however, is more of an interactive language that makes it easy for the student to "play around with" and explore these concepts quickly.

 * Instead of looking around for a calculator that can somehow handle factorials and punching in esoteric equations, the student can quickly type something like dpoisson(0:6,3) and see the probabilities of of Poisson distribution with lambda parameter=3 for X=0..6. Add a quick plot function around that and the student can see that graphically. A little more and the student can overlay a normal distribution and see how well (or poorly) a normal curve will approximate it. Equally easy the student can create a vector with a random sample from that same Poisson distribution.

 * Frankly, I can't imagine teaching statistics without providing some mechanism for playing around with examples and encouraging the student to do the same. Also, with some pre-generated sample data it becomes easy to create homework problems that encourage exploration, examination, etc. I don't mean saying "load this data set and perform an ANOVA and give me a p-value from the pre-canned report" but rather "Here's a set of data. Do you think an ANOVA would be suitable? What problems and questions are we facing? Do you feel the sample size is sufficient, or is the problem over-parameterized?"

 * Of course, this discussion is (pardon the pun:) academic. Probably the best thing to do would be to go ahead and write a section or two (with problems) to demonstrate what I'm thinking and get feedback to see if people concur. --Murray Todd Williams 16:44, 16 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * It sounds like there are two independent issues here: 1) whether to add practical problems with online data that students can use to better understand the concepts and 2) whether to include statistical-package specific information on how to implement different types of analysis. In my mind, these can be implemented seperately.

 * For the first case, the homework problems can include data for students to use with any of the common packages. For the second case, my opinion is that this should not be directly integrated into the text because people might be reading them to understand the core concepts and forcing them to read through a bunch of programming syntax while they do so will lose a lot of these types of readers.

 * Rather an external page with a title like 'implementing historgrams' or 'how it's done' with a step by step process and code for major languages, Excel, oo and the like would be a great resource for more advanced readers. I'd think that a lot of this type of info could reference other textbooks in wikibooks or not to reduce duplication. Antonrojo 13:38, 17 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Like this, or this? --Naught101 (discuss • contribs) 04:39, 17 July 2012 (UTC)

Random Variables?
The way I was taught probability, it doesn't make much sense to discuss distributions without any discussion of random variables. Is this a standard approach, or are the probability courses I have taken odd? I'm willing to add a section on random variables and adjust the sections regarding distributions if other people think this is a good idea. Adam Wolfe Gordon 02:34, 7 March 2006 (UTC)

Just a quick comment...
...And I guess it's a little ridiculous to add it to the discussion page -- no response required! -- but I just wanted to thank everyone who's contributing to this book, I'm really excited that there'll be an open, online introductory book on statistics, and hopefully a broader array of statistics books to come.

Frequency Density
I haven't done much yet other than the definitions, but in the histogram section I started frequency density. Do you think this can be applied to statistics and the course? Pinkie closes 20:00, 29 March 2006 (UTC)

merge "Research Methods" into this page?
I actually have a couple of comments.

First, this is fantastic! I hope it's a topic at a future statistics conference.

Second, I definitely like the idea of using R. However, that may well require another separate document on installing/updating/how to...

Finally, some material is synonomous with the Research Methods site. Since Statistics is currently more comprehensive, I'd suggest merging that data in with this one. I was expecting more of a study design flavor at that site, but didn't find it.

Who is this book aimed at?
Please make clear who this book is supposed to be aimed at. Doing so will guide the content. Whole books have been written on linear models, graphing data, testing hypotheses, and so on. This single book cannot cover all areas in the depth they deserve. The level of depth depends on the intended audience, though. A book aimed at 18 year old students of statistics will be very different from one aimed at 21 year old students of statistics or at medical practitioners, for example.

Basically we should ask who is willing to contribute? The contribution from me and my students (Numerical Methods & Analysis of Specific Datasets) might be little to high-level for student in basic statistics courses. On the other hand I would not mind to move it to another book, e.g. something like "Various topics in statistics". --sigbert 11:25, 02 April 2007 (MESZ)

Permutations and combinations
Should we have a section on permutations and combinations and if so where? Zginder 20:13, 30 September 2007 (UTC)

Issue with the PDF
The PDF version of this book has two issues that I can see - one is that tables go over two pages with no additional column headings, and also it's showing tags. - 114.76.227.0 (discuss) 07:07, 5 October 2011 (UTC)

These two issues have been resolved in the PDF I uploaded today.Dirk Hünniger (discuss • contribs) 20:34, 28 October 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Statistics


text:
Statistics/Practise Problems/Summary Statistics

Questions:
 * 1) Calculate the sample mean and sample standard deviation of 34, 45, 17, 25, 30, and 23. Report the answer to two decimal places.

Answers:
 * 1) (NEW) Sample mean = 29, Sample standard deviation = 9.78


text:
User:Luzzi

Brown sugar is not Vegan--it's white sugar with molasses. Can you use raw or turbinado instead and get good results?
 * White sugar is vegan insofar as there are no animal products in it. You may consider the possibility of using bone charcoal to be unacceptable, though. (I tend not to care; the animals aren't killed for their bones -- better to use the waste products for something productive) In any case, replacing with turbinado, fructose, evaporated cane (florida crystals), etc is usually fine; add a bit of molassas =) Kellen

Hmm..good idea. I will add it to the bread recipe. Thanks for your suggestion.

title: User:Luzzi


text:
Cookbook talk:Gazpacho

Chili
Gazpacho is a Spanish recipe which originated in Andalucia. The authentic gazpacho recipe is Andaluz and I think wikibooks should reflect that. The addition of chilli is a Latin American innovation, and I think should just be mentioned as an aside. 87.127.73.65 21:04, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

This recipe was originaly published in the English language Wikipedia article Gazpacho. The page history from Wikipedia is included below:

 * 1) (cur) (last)  10:20, 6 Aug 2004 Darksun (Red Dwarf)
 * 2) (cur) (last) 13:33, 3 Aug 2004 Timc (move the recipe to the cookbook wiki)
 * 3) (cur) (last) 06:00, 12 Jul 2004 Lupin (Category:Spanish cuisine)
 * 4) (cur) (last) 07:15, 18 Jun 2004 Sverdrup m (Category:Soup)
 * 5) (cur) (last) 08:05, 12 Jun 2004 Rissa of the saiya-jin m (bypass redirect: Spanish to Spanish)
 * 6) (cur) (last) 13:39, 28 May 2004 213.37.213.29 (+ japanese link)
 * 7) (cur) (last) 00:43, 7 Feb 2004 Emperorbma m
 * 8) (cur) (last) 15:23, 16 Oct 2003 Dgrant (changed coriander link, added cilantro)
 * 9) (cur) (last) 13:16, 26 Jul 2003 Cgs
 * 10) (cur) (last) 22:20, 12 Jul 2003 Dysprosia m
 * 11) (cur) (last) 09:38, 29 Jun 2003 Olivier
 * 12) (cur) (last) 20:20, 27 Jun 2003 Ram-Man m
 * 13) (cur) (last) 20:14, 27 Jun 2003 Marj Tiefert (quite too many quites)
 * 14) (cur) (last) 19:58, 27 Jun 2003 Roadrunner
 * 15) (cur) (last) 17:03, 27 Jun 2003 SimonP
 * 16) (cur) (last) 16:25, 27 Jun 2003 Cprompt m (Headings in bigger font)
 * 17) (cur) (last) 16:06, 27 Jun 2003 Tomos m
 * 18) (cur) (last) 05:10, 29 Aug 2002 Montrealais
 * 19) (cur) (last) 05:10, 29 Aug 2002 Montrealais
 * 20) (cur) (last) 08:51, 25 Feb 2002 Conversion script m (Automated conversion)

title: Cookbook talk:Gazpacho


text:
User:Nebu Pookins

I'm an Asian male born in 1982 with a bachelor's degree in computer science from McGill university in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. My interests include computers, anime, video games and Japanese culture.

title: User:Nebu Pookins