text:
Persian/Planning

This page is for people who might help improve this Persian course on English Wikibooks.

To take the Persian language course, click here.

Book definition

 * Scope: This Wikibook aims to teach the Persian language from scratch, including grammar, core vocabulary, common phrases, formal/literary language, and conversational language. By the end, the student should be able to read and write Persian, but may need a human teacher to help with listening and speaking.
 * Audience: Anyone who can read English and wishes to learn Persian. Students may not know much about grammar or linguistics, so the text should describe grammar ideas in simple English.
 * Organization: This Wikibook requires no prior knowledge of Persian, and all relevant terms are explained as they are encountered. The book is meant to be read from lesson 1 forward to the end.
 * Narrative: The course will move slowly. The conversations are meant to be engaging and thorough.  Each lesson should include many examples and exercises. Key grammar and vocabulary items are repeated several times to reinforce the foundation being built. After describing each grammar topic, provide several examples and exercises, then a summary.
 * Style: The formatting is consistent throughout, with UniPers transcription in angle brackets (e.g., ‹alef›) the same formatting throughout. Each lesson begins with a conversation, including the key grammar and vocabulary in the lesson. At the end, a summary reviews what was learned.

To-Do List

 * Add any missing language topics to the list below.
 * Move the language topics into the appropriate lesson, building from common or easier topics to uncommon or more difficult ones.
 * Create audio files of entire spoken sentences or short conversations (rather than several individual files) for convenient downloading.
 * Add more examples to the handwriting section. More explanation of Persian handwriting.
 * Possibly: An introductory section for Arabic speakers. (Shouldn't such a section be in an Arabic Wikibook?)
 * A section on Arabic grammar. (Only in the limited sense that such grammar is used in Persian, right?)
 * A definitive policy on what level of language should be used.

Transliteration
The transliteration system UniPers, consistent with Persian phonology and wikt:Wiktionary:Persian transliteration, is used in these lessons. That system gives a single transcription letter for each Persian phoneme, so when it is written within angle brackets (‹alef be pe te se›), it is consistent with the orthographic use of International Phonetic Alphabet.

Pronunciation
Both formal and colloquial pronunciation should be included, with a consistent register throughout any given dialogue. Differences between colloquial and formal (e.g. formal [ɒːn] becomes colloquial [uːn]) should be mentioned to the student. This course has a print version, wherever pronunciation of a single word is to be presented, show it visually using IPA and include a link to the audio file for convenient online access. template:listen is helpful here. (Supply IPA pronunciation as the last parameter, which replaces "listen".)

Practice
After explaining each grammar topic or lesson, show example phrases, then invite the student to participate actively with reading, listening, and speaking exercises. Exercises should be simple, show answers if relevant, and even repetitive to help instill an intuition for Persian.

Lesson Planning
This is a space for the development of an overall framework for the book, so that grammar and vocabulary can be introduced in a logical order and at a good pace. Previously covered grammar and vocabulary should be revisited regularly.

As you write, remember that people reading this book may be totally new to the language. Do not write as if you are writing for another Persian speaker, but explain things so learners can use this book easily.

Add any missing topics below. Keep the lesson contents manageable and their size regular.

Note: The first bullet point in each lesson below shows the main focus for the lesson.

Fundamentals
The first four lessons focus on the writing system with minimal grammar and vocabulary.

Persian/Lesson 1
 * Orthography: Introduce alphabet from ‹alef› to ‹xe›.  Show stroke order with animate gif files.
 * Dialogue: ‹salâm!› Friends آرش  ‹âraš› and شيرين ‹širin› greet each other informally.
 * Culture: Brief Arab-Persian history and the influence of the Arab language on Persian.
 * Orthography: separate and joined letter forms (‹alef› lacks a joined form)
 * Orthography: short vowels and how they are usually omitted in writing.

Persian/Lesson 2
 * Orthography: Continue alphabet: د ‹dâl›, ذ ‹zâl›, ر ‹re›, ز ‹ze›, ژ ‹že›, س ‹sin›, ش ‹šin›, ص ‹sâd›, ض ‹zâd›, ط ‹tâ›, ظ ‹zâ›.  Show stroke order with animated images.
 * Dialogue: ‹hâl-e šomâ cetor ast?› آرش ‹âraš› and آقاى پیمان ‹âqâ-ye peymân› greet each other formally.
 * Phonology: syllable stress
 * Culture: titles like آقا and its feminine homophone آغا are used before or after the first name, last name, or both. پيمان is a first name. Family names are relatively new (1912?) in Iran.
 * Orthography: د ‹dâl›, ذ ‹zâl›, ر ‹re›, ز ‹ze›, ژ ‹že› lack a joined form

Persian/Lesson 3
 * Orthography: Continue alphabet: ع ‹'eyn›, غ ‹qeyn›, ف ‹fe›, ق ‹qaf›, ک ‹kaf›, گ ‹gaf›, ﻝ ‹lâm›, م ‹mim›, ن ‹nun›.  Show stroke order with animated gif files.
 * Dialogue: صبح بخیر ‹sobh bexeyr› ("good morning") حسن ("Hassan", a.k.a. حسن ی /hasani/) talks with Mohamad (a.k.a. ممد /Mamad/).
 * Vocabulary : Introduce one form of the negative present tense copula, e.g. and a few adjectives.

Persian/Lesson 4
 * Orthography: Finish alphabet: و ‹vâv›, ه ‹he›, ی ‹ye› (‹vâv› lacks a joined form). Show stroke order with animated gif files.
 * Dialogue: آقا رضا ‹âqâ rezâ› talks with خانم شيرين ‹xânom širin›.
 * Orthography: long vowels (with alef at beginning vs. without alef in the middle/end)
 * Orthography: Alphabet summary. Copyedit and move most of Persian/Alphabet into here.
 * Vocabulary: include pronouns that have not yet been introduced in preparation for the grammar lessons: ما, آنها, او
 * Grammar: تشديد tašdid

Basic grammar
The next several lessons establish a foundation of Persian grammar.

Persian/Lesson 5
 * Grammar: introduction to verb conjugation via the present tense forms of copula بودن (the most common verb in Persian) in short/clitic form (ام، است، ...) and emphatic/full-form (هستم، ...)
 * Dialogue: ___ talks with احمد جان /Ahmad jân/ ("dear Ahmad", term of endearment), include all standard personal pronouns in copular sentences
 * Grammar: simple copular sentence structure, verb last, optional subjects. (no definite object marker yet, no prepositions)
 * است (with singular and plural subjects) and هستند (animate plural subjects only) for "there is" and "there are". Some sources disagree with this and say است is only a copula, not used for existence.

Persian/Lesson 6
 * Grammar: Ezâfe
 * Dialogue:
 * Grammar: adjectives following nouns, unstressed ی (like ezafe and considered such by modern/western grammars, but functionally different and not considered ezafe by traditional Persian grammars because it does not join two substantives) as enclitic (not suffix), pronunciation and written/unwritten form after consonant (/e/) or vowel (/je/); colloquially, short forms are used even after vowels.
 * demonstrative adjectives: این /in/ ("this"), آن /un/ ("that"), before noun.
 * Demonstrative contractions: /injâ/ ("here"), آنجا /unjâ/ ("there"), /conin/ ("like this"), /conân/ ("like that"), /hamin/ ("this [very] same"), /hamân/ ("that [very] same")
 * Demonstrative pronouns آنها ‹unhâ› ("those there" or just "those", special case where ها is always joined) and اینها ‹inhâ› ("these here", second special case where ها ‹hâ› is always joined).

Persian/Lesson 7
 * Grammar: simple past tense conjugation (infinitive /-an/; past stem + /-am/ /-i/ /-/, /-im/, /-id/, /-and/)
 * Dialogue:
 * Culture: plurality and formality/deference
 * Grammar: plurality of verb with animate vs. inanimate subject
 * Plurality of subject reference, optional subject pronoun, and verb as it relates to formality and deference:
 * Semantically plural human subject requires plural verb.
 * 2nd person semantically singular addressee:
 * Friendly, informal reference: (optional pronoun) تو /tow/, singular verb (ی ending)
 * Semi-formal, respectful: (optional plural pronoun) شما /šomâ/, singular verb (ی ending)
 * Formal, more respectful: plural verb, optional plural pronoun (شما), plural verb written with ید ending, pronounced colloquially as ین.
 * Very formal conditions treating the addressee with deference: جناب عالی /jenâb âli/ ("your excellency")
 * 3rd person semantically singular human reference: او /u/ or ایشان /išân/. May use plural verb to show greater respect.

Persian/Lesson 8
 * Grammar: negation
 * negative particle ن ‹na-› takes the stress and prefixes conjugated verb, not the invariant part
 * Grammar: negative copula (بیستم، بیست، ...)

Persian/Lesson 9
 * Grammar: plural nouns, (joined or ZWNJ plus) ها suffix, works for all nouns in spoken Persian.
 * Bonus: Alternatively, plurals of certain Arabic nouns representing animates or paired body parts can take ان ‹-un›. Regular (un-"broken") Arabic plurals can take ات ‹-ât›.  Arabic final ه becomes جان. Some Arabic nouns can take ین ‹-in›.
 * No suffix when numeral is used (before the noun). Written Persian: use ان suffix for human nouns, irregular plurals from Arabic (ات، ین، or vowel alternation, e.g. کتاب)
 * non-pronoun subject may be unspecified for number
 * plural non-human subject with plural suffix ها may take singular verb if it is thought of as a collective unit. Plural verb is always used with plural autonomous subjects, e.g. vehicles carrying people, governments of people, buildings with people, etc.

Persian/Lesson 10
 * Grammar: indefinite marker as unstressed clitic ی, translates as “a”, “an”, or “some” (after ها)
 * written as ئی after ا or و
 * singular noun with ی may express uncertainty about the quantity
 * colloquial use of یک as a singular indefinite determiner vs. indefinite clitic ی. Avoid confusion between ezâfe (کتابهای "books of") and indefinite (کتابهائی "some books")
 * homographs with different short vowels: کرم for ‹kerm› "worm", ‹karam› "generosity", ‹kerem› "cream", ‹krom› "chrome", ‹karm› "vine"; also, مردی as noun ‹mard› + indefinite suffix or + linking enclitic or + 2nd person singular copula enclitic or + abstract morpheme, or verb ‹mord› + 2nd person singular conjugation suffix

Persian/Lesson 11
 * Grammar: direct objects and prepositions
 * definite or human object enclitic را, colloquially pronounced or /o/ after consonant, /ro/ after vowel
 * Dialogue:
 * Grammar: no actual direct article, but in some situations را carries similar meaning, less used than "the".
 * Grammar: prepositions, semantic objects marked by prepositions (/az/, /be/)
 * Grammar: single-clause sentence structure: (subject) (definite object را) (prep phrases) (adverbs) (predicate nominative/adjective) verb

Persian/Lesson 12
 * Present tense conjugation (می + ZWNJ + imperative stem): imperative/present stem + /-am/, /-i/, /-ad/, /-im/, /-id/, /-and/
 * Old form of simple present was without می, which carries imperfective sense, but the می form has replaced the simple present in modern use for most verbs.
 * Verbs that don't take می in the present tense: بودن (ههستم، ...)، داشتن (درم، ...)
 * Negative present (نمی)

Persian/Lesson 13
 * Grammar: (bound) personal enclitics after (singular or plural) noun phrase:
 * After consonant: /am/, /at/, /aš/, /emân/, /etân/, /ešân/
 * After و or ا, /yam/, /yat/...
 * After ه or ی, singular suffixes are spelled with leading zwnj+ا.
 * after noun phrase, expresses possession /pedaram/ ("my father"), /dust-e xubam/ ("my good friend")
 * alternative pronomial direct objects as enclitics
 * Differences between spoken and written forms (e.g., written را is spoken و, ‹e› as the spoken form of است, colloquial verb endings: ه ‹eh›, written ان ‹ân› vs spoken ‹un›, but not in خانم ‹xânom›)

Persian/Lesson 14
 * Grammar: verbs with invariant separable prefixes (sometimes known as "light" verb constructions, similar to English "make an announcement", "catch a cold")
 * causative sense of کردن vs. شدن (e.g. تلفن کردن, تمیر کردن, گریه کردن, فراموش کردن, فکر کردن)

Persian/Lesson 15
 * formal questions with sentence-initial آیا
 * informal questions with voice tone only

Intermediate grammar
Persian/Lesson 16
 * Perfective aspect:
 * Present perfect ("... has/have [done]"): past participle + auxiliary present بودن in simple clitic or bound form: دیدهم /dideam/, دیدهی /didei/, دیدهست /dideast/, ...; رفتهم /rafteam/, رفتهی /raftei/, رفتهست /rafteast/, ...
 * negative perfect: negative ن /na-/ prefixes main verb, not the auxiliary (in case full/emphatic form is used).
 * Use of از ... ن with negative present perfect verb for "have not done ... for [some period of time]"
 * Use of است که ... ت with negative present perfect verb for "it's been ... since [someone did something]"
 * Past perfect ("... had [done]"): with ...ه past participle + auxiliary simple past بودن, e.g.: دیده بودم /dide budam/, دیده بودی /dide budi/, دیده بود /dide bud/, ...; رفته بودم /rafte budam/, رفته بودی /rafte budi/, ...
 * Negative past perfect: ن /na-/ prefixes main verb, not auxiliary: نرفنه بودم /narafte budam/
 * Invariant prefix before auxiliary verb.
 * Negative auxiliary with positive main verb.

Persian/Lesson 17
 * Comparative adjectives (ZWNJ + stressed تر suffix) follow noun with ezâfe like other adjectives.
 * Superlative adjectives (ZWNJ + stressed ترین suffix). Superlative comes before noun.
 * Comparing two nouns using, prepositional phrase typically goes before predicate nominative
 * Proverb: /došman-e dânâ behtar az dust-e nâdân ast/ ("a wise foe is better than a foolish friend")

Persian/Lessons 18-?
 * Imperative: stem changes, with and without ب prefix, informal imperative as ب + present stem with no personal ending, negative imperative as ن replacing ب
 * Subjunctive: subordinate statement of desire, doubt, possibility, or indirect quote.
 * Imperative/conditional/subjunctive: ب /be-/ + present stem + present personal clitic: بنویسم /benevisam/, بنویسی /benevisi/, بنویسد /benevisad/, ...; دیدن : present stem بین /bin/ (to see): ببینم /bebinam/, ببینی /bebini/, ...; رفتن raftan, ‘to go’, stem رو (rav), بروم /beravam/, بروی /beravi/, /biravad, biravim, biravid, biravand/; bibakhshid, 'pardon!', bibinid, 'see!'
 * Negative imperative/subjunctive/conditional: ن /na/ + present stem + personal endings e.g. naravid 'don't go'; nakunid 'don't do!’
 * Informal imperative: 'bi' + present stem + Ø, e.g. bibin 'see!', bikhuwr 'eat!’, bigu, ‘say!'.
 * Subjunctive ("[that] I write") and conditional: "I want to go" translates as می‌خواهم بروم /mixâham beravam/ ("I want [that] I go"). Similarly, /mitavânam bebinam/ ("I can [that] I see").  Past: xâstam biram, 'I wanted to go'; nazasht biram (naguzasht biravam)', ‘He didn't let me go.'
 * verbs frequently followed by subjuctive: tavanistan, 'to be able to', xâstan, 'to want', fikr kardan, 'to think', umidvar budan, 'to hope', guzaŝtan, ‘to let’.
 * /be/ pronounced as /bu/ before syllable with /u/, pronounced as /bi/ before syllable with /â/
 * Explicit possession with the noun مال, e.g. مال من ‹mâl-e man› (“mine”): این کتاب مال من است، ن مال تو ‹in ketâb mâl-e man ast, na mâl-e to› (“"this book is mine, not yours")
 * Future:
 * Spoken Persian, future expressed with present imperfective and time adverb (/fardâ/ ("tomorrow"), /baødan/ ("later")), e.g. /fardâ sobh be muze miravim/ ("We'll go to the museum tomorrow morning").
 * With auxiliary خواستن, e.g. خواهم، خواهی، ... followed by simple past stem (otherwise unconjugated main verb)
 * Literary Persian future simple tense
 * Abstraction with stressed suffix ی. Works with nouns and adjectives.  آب، مرد، خوب، بزرک، گل، صورت، نارنج، قهوه، خاکستر...
 * progressive/continuous tense:
 * No progressive tense in written Persian
 * Informal progressive/continuous with simple present auxiliary داشتن /dâštan/ conjugated for person + imperfective (present or past, depending on sense) tense main verb (both verbs conjugated for person). Sometimes also used as informal future tense. /dâram minevisam/ ("I am writing"), /dârad minevisad/ ("he/she is writing").
 * No negative progressive ( */dâram neminevisam/ ). Instead, the negative imperfective main verb is used with no auxiliary. /neminevisam/ ("I'm not writing")
 * Tendency not to negate present continuous, but to use negative simple present instead
 * Relative pronouns آنجه، هرجه، کدام
 * Reflexive pronoun always replaces a standard personal pronoun if it has the same referent as the subject
 * Past imperfect:
 * Expresses continuous or habitual past action, e.g. ‹‹vaqtî bachchih bûdam tû yik furûshgâh kâr mîkardam›› 'I used to work in a department store when I was a child.'
 * می /mi/ + ZWNJ + simple past stem + personal suffix.
 * When negated نمی is pronounced /nemi-/ in standard dialect, but /nami-/ in Afghanistan and Tajik
 * Past continuous
 * past continuous + که (for "while" or "when") + simple past
 * اگر ("if"), مگر ("unless") with subjunctive verb prefix ب
 * باید می + simple past tense for "should have [done]": auxiliary verb is invariant
 * شاید + present perfect for "may/might have [done]": auxiliary verb is invariant
 * توانستن conjugated for "can [do]"
 * خواستن conjugated + (dropped که +) subjunctive for "want to [do]"
 * Coordinating conjunctions:
 * [subject] هم [complement 1] هستم/است/.../هستند ("am/is/are both") هم ("and") [complement 2]
 * [subject] یا [complement 1] است/هستم/.../هستند ("am/is/are either") یا ("or") [complement 2]
 * [subject] نه [complement 1] هیت/هستم/.../هستند ("am/is/are neither") نه ("nor") [complement 2]
 * [subject] نه تنها [complement 1] هستم/است/.../هستند ("am/is/are not only") بلکه ("but") [complement 2] هم هستم/است/.../هستند ("also am/is/are")
 * Nouns used like prepositions but read with ezafe: کنار, رو ,پهلو ,پشت ,جلو, عفب, زیر
 * Impersonal verbs (آدم)
 * Addressing people:
 * Friend: آقا /âqâ/ (Mr.) or جان /jân/ (dear) before or after the names as آقا احمد /âqâ Ahmad/, احمد آقا /Ahmad âghâ/ (Mr. Ahmad) or رضا جان /Reza jân/ (dear Reza).
 * Father: بابا /bâbâ/ (dad), پدر /pedar/ (father), آقاجان /âgha jân/ (dear Mr.), بابایی /bâbâii/ (daddy), باباجان /bâbâ jân/ (dear dad)
 * Mother: مامان /mâmân/ (mom), مادر /mâdar/ (mother), مامانی /mâmâni/ (mommy), مامان جان /mâmân jân/ (dear mommy)
 * Brother: برادر /barâdar/, داداش /dâdâš/ or داداشی /dâdâši/ (brother), خان داداش /khân dâdâš/ (great brother), or by first name
 * Sister: خواهر /xâhar/, آبجی /âbji/ or همشیره /hamšireh/ (sister), and also by their FN.
 * Father's sister: عمه /ammeh/, عمه جان /ammeh jân/, عمه خانم /ammeh xânom/
 * Mother's sister: خاله /xâleh/, خاله جان /xâleh jân/ and خاله خانم /xâleh xânom/
 * Father's brother: عمو /amu/, عمو جان /amu jân/, خان عمو /xân amu/
 * Mother's brother: دایی /dâii/, دایی جان /dâii jân/ and خان دایی /khân dâii/
 * Mother's sister's daughter: دخترخاله /doxtar xâleh/
 * Father's sister's son: پسرعمه /pesar ammeh/
 * Mother's bother's son: پسر دایی
 * Grandfather: بابابزرگ /bâbâ bozorg/, پدربزرگ /pedar bozorg/, پدرجان /pedar jân/, آقا جان /âghâ jân/
 * Grandmother: مادربزرگ /mâdar bozorg/, مامان بزرگ /mâmân bozorg/, مادرجان /mâdar jân/, خانم جان /xânom jân/, ننه /naneh/, بی بی /bibi/
 * Daughter-in-law: عروس /arus/ (bride).
 * Addressing addressee with addresser's title: Father to his son: "بابایی ٬ در رو باز کن." ("Daddy, open the door."). Aunt to niece/nephew: "خاله, ..." (/xâleh/, "aunt"), or /ammeh/ ("aunt").
 * Use of family terms for non relatives: پدر /pedar/ ("father"), مادر /mâdar/ ("mother"), پسرم /pesaram/ ("my son"), دخترم /doxtaram/ ("my daughter"), ننه /naneh/ ("grand ma"), etc. Among these, terms عمو /amu/, دایی /dâii/ (uncle), داداش /dâdâš/ (brother), are mostly used by male speakers when calling their male addressees. The terms همشیره /hamšireh/, خواهر /xâhar/, آبجی /âbji/ (sister), are used when addressing a female recipient.
 * Religious: Addressing someone as /hâji/, /karbalâii/ or /mašhadi/. Specifically, a male who done the religious ceremony حج /haj/ may be addressed as حاجی /hâji/ or حاج آقا /hâj âqa/, or a female as حاجیه خانم ‹hâjieh xânom›. Similarly a pilgrim to Karbalâ is called کربلایی /karbalâii/ or کربلایی احمد /karbalâii Ahmad/, and a pilgrim to Mashhad is called مشهدی /mašhadi/ or مشهدی علی /mašhadi Ali/.
 * Pet names: e.g., عزیزم /azizam/ ("my dear"), گلم /golam/ ("my flower"), خانم خانما /xânom xânoma/ ("beauty Miss")
 * Very intimate pet names: کوچولو /kučulu/ ("the little"), جیگر /jigar/ ("the liver"), رفیق /rafiq/ ("mate"), عزیز /aziz/ ("dear"), پهلوان /pahlavân/ ("champion"), ارباب /arbâb/ ("lord"), etc.
 * Descriptive address: آقای عزیز /âqaye aziz/ ("dear sir"), خانم محترم /xânome mohtaram/ ("respected lady"), عزیز دلم /azize delam/ ("darling of my heart"), دختر نازم /doxtare nâzam/ ("my lovely girl"), خوشتیپ /xoštip/ ("handsom person") and گل پسر /gol pesar/ ("good boy")

Advanced grammar

 * Classifiers: optional, never used with یک, but often used by natives with other numbers
 * Books:
 * People:
 * Paper:
 * Soap:
 * General:, e.g. works with میز، در، چراغ، ...
 * Relative clauses: nominal + که + RC. resumptive pronoun is required when the gap is anything other than the subject or DO. Optional RP in the object gap.  No RP in subject gap. E.g.: subject که (omitted subject repetition) object را verb "subject that verbs object"; subject1 که subject2 (omitted object corresponding to subject1) PP verb-optionalObjectPronounEnclitic "subject1 that subject2 verbs (it) PP"; subject1 که subject2 preposition prep.object.pronoun.clitic.for.subject1 direct.object را verb "subject1 preposition which subject2 verb direct.object"
 * Exhortations, optative
 * Reported speech, perception verbs

Topics
This section is for building out topics. They can be augmented, organized, and formatted here while we're not yet sure which lesson to put them into.

Calendar
Iranian newspapers publish three different calendars: Persian, Muslim, and Christian.

The Persian calendar dates back to Zoroastrian pre-Islamic times. It begins with the Persian New Year on the vernal equinox (March 20 or 21) and each month corresponds to a sign of the Zodiac:

The first day of the calendar year is, the most important festival of the year in Persian regions.

Seasons:, , ,

In Iran, the weekend is on Thursday and Friday and the standard business office workweek is from Saturday through Wednesday. The weekend schedule accommodates the Muslim day of prayer—Friday. Other than, the days of the week are named based on :
 * 1)  (one day after Saturday)
 * 2)  (two days after Saturday)
 * 3)  (three days after Saturday)
 * 4)  (four days after Saturday)
 * 5)  (five days after Saturday)

Note that is pronounced as ‹-mb-›, not just in, but in all Persian words where the consonant  is immediately followed by.

Vocabulary
Limit the core vocabulary to about 15 new words per lesson, but feel free to add any additional words that fit the lesson topic as bonus vocabulary. Doing so gives students the choice of how much to learn. If the topic for which you have new words hasn't been introduced yet, add them to Persian/Glossary.

As each word below finds its way into a lesson, move it from below to Persian/Glossary (above) and indicate the lesson where it is introduced.

pleasantries:
 * لطفا || "please"
 * خواهش می‌کنم || "you're welcome"
 * (title used after first name)
 * دس خوش || interjection
 * خیلی مخلصیم || interjection
 * دست مريزاد || interjection
 * معذرت می خوام /mazerat mixâm/ || interjection to get listener's attention when name is unknown
 * (used like "don't mention it.")
 * (used like "don't mention it.")

Also review vocabulary linked from other language Wikibooks of Persian:
 * de:Persisch: Übersicht
 * de:Persisch: Zeitangaben
 * de:Persisch: Tiere
 * de:Persisch: Indogermanische Wurzeln
 * fr:Persan/Vocabulaire/Couleurs
 * fr:Persan/Vocabulaire/Famille
 * fr:Persan/Vocabulaire/Mots

Classifiers:

Dialogue
In the dialogues, use sentences that the reader might use, hear, or read.

Following are several characters to use in the dialogues. Various relationships, ages, levels of formality, and dialects can be assigned to each and used to introduce register, deference, etc:
 * : female, friend of Arash. In Persian/Lesson 1, آرش ‹âraš› and شيرين ‹širin› greet each other informally.
 * : male, friend of Shirin, acquaintance of Peyman. In Persian/Lesson 1, آرش ‹âraš› and شيرين ‹širin› greet each other informally.  In Persian/Lesson 2, آرش ‹âraš› and آقاى پیمان ‹âqâ-ye peymân› greet each other formally.
 * : male, acquaintance of Arash. In Persian/Lesson 2, آرش ‹âraš› and آقاى پیمان ‹âqâ-ye peymân› greet each other formally.
 * : male, close friend of Mohamad. In Persian/Lesson 3 (صبح بخیر ‹sobh bexeyr› "good morning"), حسن ("Hassan", a.k.a. حسن ی /hasani/) talks with Mohamad (a.k.a. ممد /Mammad/).
 * : male, close friend of Hassan. In Persian/Lesson 3 (صبح بخیر ‹sobh bexeyr› "good morning"), حسن ("Hassan", a.k.a. حسن ی /hasani/) talks with Mohamad (a.k.a. ممد /Mamad/).
 * : male. In Persian/Lesson 4, خانم شيرين ‹xânom širin› stops by the office of آقا رضا ‹âqâ rezâ›.
 * : female
 * : male
 * : male
 * : female
 * : male
 * : female
 * : female
 * : male
 * : male
 * : male
 * : female
 * : male
 * : female
 * : male
 * : male
 * : male
 * : female
 * : male
 * : female
 * : female
 * : transliterated surname

Following are phrases that can be worked into dialogues:
 * Used as vocative between friends.
 *   Used to flatter someone who is learning Persian.
 * Used to excuse oneself, usually followed by mutual "goodbye"s.
 * Used to introduce oneself, with either first name or full name replacing “[...]”. (If the name ends in a vowel, does the final ‹e› change, e.g. into ‹s› or ‹st›?)
 * Used to ask for reciprocation after various things, including the name introduction above.
 * Fill in the blank with an occupation, role, or nationality. If it ends in و or ی, append ام instead of just م.
 * Final ‹e› becomes ‹st› or ‹s› after a vowel.
 * Final ‹e› becomes ‹st› or ‹s› after a vowel.
 * Fill in blank with a person's name or a pronoun, e.g. ,
 * Fill in blank with a role, e.g., , etc.
 * Fill in blank with a role, e.g., , etc.
 *  Fill in blank with a person's name.
 * Fill in blank with adjective, e.g. for a thing or  for a person.
 * . Fill in blank with place of residence, e.g.
 * Fill first blank with descriptive noun phrase and second with adjective.
 * Fill first blank with day of week (e.g. ), and second with a complete present tense clause, indicating what is done on those afternoons.
 * Fill in blank with adjective, e.g. for a thing or  for a person.
 * . Fill in blank with place of residence, e.g.
 * Fill first blank with descriptive noun phrase and second with adjective.
 * Fill first blank with day of week (e.g. ), and second with a complete present tense clause, indicating what is done on those afternoons.
 * Fill first blank with day of week (e.g. ), and second with a complete present tense clause, indicating what is done on those afternoons.
 * Fill first blank with day of week (e.g. ), and second with a complete present tense clause, indicating what is done on those afternoons.
 * Fill first blank with day of week (e.g. ), and second with a complete present tense clause, indicating what is done on those afternoons.

Archive Lessons
This is the archive of the Persian Lessons in Dutch which were originally here, which could be translated to develop this course in English: Persian Archive Lessons

Suggested Future Persian Wikibooks
Add suggestions here:

 * Persian Picture Dictionary
 * The best way to do this is probably just to add pictures to Persian entries in the English Wiktionary
 * Persian Reader

title: Persian/Planning


text:
Talk:Persian/Planning

Untitled
OK, I thought here there could be a framework for the lessons so people can come in and write a chapter at any level. This has worked well in the Chinese wikibook. Poppy 10:52, 26 February 2007 (UTC)

Learning Farsi-English fast ! Words that both languages have in common or are very similar or easy to remember - and little useful easy phrases and mnemotechnic means on how to remember them
It's alway very encouraging when you get to know some words in a foreign language. And why not start with an easy to remember list of words that are similar or very similar or for some reason easy to remember using a mnemotechnic means. Then why not start with some easy and very useful phrases and then spin out and learning how to conjugate verbs used in these very useful phrases?

--SvenAERTS (discuss • contribs) 11:41, 19 April 2013 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Persian/Planning


text:
Cookbook:Corn Pancakes

| American cuisine | Breakfast Cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine

Ingredients

 * ¾ cup all-purpose bleached flour
 * 2 teaspoons white granulated sugar
 * ½ teaspoon salt
 * ½ teaspoon baking powder
 * ¼ teaspoon baking soda
 * ½ cup fine yellow corn meal
 * ¾ cup buttermilk
 * ¼ cup milk
 * 1 large egg
 * 2 tablespoon unsalted butter, melted
 * 1 teaspoon vanilla extract
 * Vegetable oil for brushing griddle
 * 1 cup frozen corn

Procedure

 * 1) Heat a large non-stick skillet or griddle over low heat while preparing ingredients.
 * 2) Mix flour, sugar, salt, baking powder, and baking soda in medium bowl.
 * 3) Whisk corn meal into dry ingredients.
 * 4) Microwave buttermilk and milk in a 2-cup Pyrex measuring cup until room temperature, 20 to 30 seconds.
 * 5) Whisk in egg, butter, and vanilla.
 * 6) Add wet ingredients to dry ingredients and whisk until just mixed.
 * 7) Return batter to measuring cup, stirring in a teaspoon or two of water, if necessary, to make a thick, but pourable batter.
 * 8) Increase heat to medium and generously brush skillet or griddle with oil.
 * 9) When oil starts to spider, but before it starts to smoke, pour in batter to make pancakes, about ¼ cup at a time. Work in batches, if necessary, to avoid overcrowding.
 * 10) Sprinkle 2 tablespoons corn over the uncooked side of each pancake as it cooks.
 * 11) When pancake bottoms are golden brown and tops start to bubble, 2 to 3 minutes, flip pancakes.
 * 12) Cook until pancakes are golden brown on remaining side.
 * 13) Repeat, brushing skillet or griddle with oil.
 * 14) Serve hot.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Use all-purpose flour (which is softer than unbleached), not unbleached flour to make a tender pancake.
 * If using salted butter, reduce salt to ¼ teaspoon.
 * You can substitute a tablespoon of lemon juice (or vinegar) in milk for the buttermilk.
 * Pancake batter should pour, not glug! On the other hand, runny batter makes thin, oddly shaped pancakes that frequently collide on the griddle. Stir in a touch more flour into thin batter. For batter that's too thick, whisk in water, a teaspoon at a time.
 * The temperature of the pan or griddle is important: too hot and the pancakes are dark and raw; too cool and they're blond and hard. For tender, golden brown pancakes, heat the pan or griddle on low while you make the batter. Then increase the heat to medium and generously brush the pan or griddle with oil. It's ready when the oil starts to shimmer and, in any skillet or griddle other than non-stick, sends out tendrils that resemble and octopus or spider. But if the pan starts to smoke, set it down off the burner until the smoking subsides and the oil cools a bit.
 * This recipe easily doubles for a crowd.

title: Cookbook:Corn Pancakes


text:
Cookbook:Ginger Pancakes

| American cuisine | Breakfast Cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine | Bread

Ingredients

 * 1 cup all-purpose bleached flour
 * 2 teaspoons sugar
 * ½ teaspoon salt
 * ½ teaspoon baking powder
 * ¼ teaspoon baking soda
 * 1 teaspoon ground ginger
 * ¾ cup buttermilk
 * ¼ cup milk
 * 1 large egg
 * 2 tablespoon unsalted butter, melted
 * 1 teaspoon vanilla extract
 * Vegetable oil for brushing griddle
 * ½ cup finely-chopped crystallized ginger

Procedure

 * 1) Heat a large non-stick skillet or griddle over low heat while preparing ingredients.
 * 2) Mix flour, sugar, salt, baking powder, and baking soda in medium bowl.
 * 3) Whisk ground ginger into dry ingredients.
 * 4) Microwave buttermilk and milk in a 2-cup Pyrex measuring cup for 20–30 seconds until it is room temperature. Whisk in egg, butter, and vanilla.
 * 5) Add wet ingredients to dry ingredients and whisk until just mixed.
 * 6) Return batter to measuring cup, stirring in a teaspoon or two of water, if necessary, to make a thick, but pourable batter.
 * 7) Increase heat to medium and generously brush skillet or griddle with oil.
 * 8) When oil starts to spider, but before it starts to smoke, pour in dollops of batter, about ¼ cup at a time. Work in batches, if necessary, to avoid overcrowding.
 * 9) Sprinkle 1 tablespoon crystallized ginger over the uncooked side of each pancake as it cooks.
 * 10) When pancake bottoms are golden brown and tops start to bubble (2–3 minutes), flip pancakes.
 * 11) Cook until pancakes are golden brown on remaining side.
 * 12) Repeat cooking with remaining batter, brushing skillet or griddle with oil between batches.
 * 13) Serve hot.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Use bleached flour to make a more tender pancake.
 * If using salted butter, reduce salt to ¼ teaspoon.
 * Pancake batter should pour, not glug! On the other hand, runny batter makes thin, oddly shaped pancakes that frequently collide on the griddle. Stir in a touch more flour into thin batter. For batter that's too thick, whisk in water, a teaspoon at a time.
 * The temperature of the pan or griddle is important: too hot and the pancakes are dark and raw; too cool and they're blond and hard. For tender, golden brown pancakes, heat the pan or griddle on low while you make the batter. Then increase the heat to medium and generously brush the pan or griddle with oil. It's ready when the oil starts to shimmer and, in any skillet or griddle other than non-stick, sends out tendrils that resemble and octopus or spider. But if the pan starts to smoke, set it down off the burner until the smoking subsides and the oil cools a bit.
 * This recipe easily doubles for a crowd.

title: Cookbook:Ginger Pancakes


text:
Cookbook:Gingerbread Pancakes I

| American cuisine | Breakfast Cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine

Ingredients

 * 1 cup all-purpose bleached flour
 * ½ teaspoon salt
 * ½ teaspoon baking powder
 * ¼ teaspoon baking soda
 * ½ teaspoon ground cinnamon
 * 1½ teaspoons ground ginger
 * ⅛ teaspoon ground cloves
 * ¾ cup buttermilk
 * ¼ cup milk
 * 1 large egg
 * 2 tablespoons unsalted butter, melted
 * 1 teaspoon vanilla extract
 * 4 teaspoons molasses
 * Vegetable oil for brushing griddle

Procedure

 * 1) Heat a large non-stick skillet or griddle over low heat while preparing ingredients.
 * 2) Mix flour, salt, baking powder, and baking soda in medium bowl.
 * 3) Whisk ground cinnamon, ground ginger, and ground cloves into the dry ingredients.
 * 4) Combine buttermilk and milk, and bring to room temperature by microwaving or heating gently on the stove.
 * 5) Whisk egg, butter, vanilla, and molasses into the milk mixture.
 * 6) Add wet ingredients to dry ingredients and whisk until just mixed.
 * 7) Return batter to measuring cup, stirring in a teaspoon or two of water, if necessary, to make a thick, but pourable batter.
 * 8) Increase heat to medium and generously brush skillet or griddle with oil.
 * 9) When oil starts to spider, but before it starts to smoke, pour batter, about ¼ cup at a time.
 * 10) Work in batches, if necessary, to avoid overcrowding.
 * 11) When pancake bottoms are golden brown and tops start to bubble (2–3 minutes), flip pancakes.
 * 12) Cook until pancakes are golden brown on remaining side.
 * 13) Repeat, brushing skillet or griddle with oil.
 * 14) Serve hot.

Notes, tips and variations

 * Use bleached all-purpose flour to make a tender pancake.
 * If using salted butter, reduce salt to ¼ teaspoon.
 * You can substitute a tablespoon of lemon juice (or vinegar) in milk for the buttermilk.
 * Pancake batter should be thin enough to pour, not glug. On the other hand, runny batter makes thin, oddly shaped pancakes that frequently collide on the griddle. Stir in a touch more flour into thin batter. For batter that's too thick, whisk in water, a teaspoon at a time.
 * The temperature of the pan or griddle is important: too hot and the pancakes are dark and raw; too cool and they're blond and hard. For tender, golden brown pancakes, heat the pan or griddle on low while you make the batter. Then increase the heat to medium and generously brush the pan or griddle with oil. It's ready when the oil starts to shimmer and, in any skillet or griddle other than non-stick, sends out tendrils that resemble and octopus or spider. But if the pan starts to smoke, set it down off the burner until the smoking subsides and the oil cools a bit.
 * This recipe easily doubles for a crowd.

title: Cookbook:Gingerbread Pancakes I


text:
Cookbook:Cajun Red Beans and Rice

Ingredients

 * 1 pound dry red beans
 * 6 ea. (3½–4 pounds / 1.5–2 kg) large ham hocks
 * 2 cups (½ stalk) finely-chopped celery
 * 2 cups (1 ea.) finely-chopped onions
 * 2 cups (1 ea.) finely-chopped bell peppers
 * 5 bay leaves
 * 3 Tbsp Paul Prudhomme's Seafood Magic, or a similar spice
 * 1 Tbsp tabasco sauce or similar hot sauce
 * 4 cups cooked rice

Procedure

 * 1) Cover beans with water, and let soak overnight. Drain.
 * 2) Place ham hocks, celery, onions, bell peppers, bay leaves, and seasoning into a large saucepan with 10 cups water. Cover and bring to boil.
 * 3) Simmer until meat is fork tender, about an hour after boiling starts, stirring occasionally.
 * 4) Remove ham hocks from pan and set aside. Skim fat from pan and discard.
 * 5) Remove a significant fraction of liquid from pan, add drained beans, and add back just enough liquid to cover beans. Simmer beans until they just begin to break up and the liquid starts to become creamy, about 45 minutes. Stir frequently. Add back liquid as needed to keep beans covered. If beans begin to scorch, do not stir; transfer mixture to another pan without scraping scorched beans into new pot.
 * 6) Add ham hocks and cook 45 minutes more, and serve immediately.
 * 7) On a heated serving platter, mound ¾ cup rice per serving at one end of platter, place ham hocks at other end, and put 1 cup beans per serving in middle.

title: Cookbook:Cajun Red Beans and Rice


text:
Cookbook:Lemon Blueberry Pancakes

| American cuisine | Breakfast Cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine | Bread

Ingredients

 * 1 cup all-purpose bleached flour
 * 2 teaspoons granulated sugar
 * ½ teaspoon salt
 * ½ teaspoon baking powder
 * ¼ teaspoon baking soda
 * 1 teaspoon finely-grated lemon zest
 * ¾ cup buttermilk
 * ¼ cup milk
 * 1 large egg
 * 2 tablespoons unsalted butter, melted
 * 1 teaspoon vanilla extract
 * Vegetable oil for brushing griddle
 * 1 cup frozen blueberries

Procedure

 * 1) Heat a large non-stick skillet or griddle over low heat while preparing ingredients.
 * 2) Mix flour, sugar, salt, baking powder, and baking soda in medium bowl.
 * 3) Whisk lemon zest into dry ingredients.
 * 4) Microwave buttermilk and milk in a 2-cup Pyrex measuring cup to room temperature (20–30 seconds).
 * 5) Whisk in egg, butter, and vanilla.
 * 6) Add wet ingredients to dry ingredients and whisk until just mixed.
 * 7) Return batter to measuring cup, stirring in a teaspoon or two of water if necessary, to make a thick, but pourable batter.
 * 8) Increase heat to medium and generously brush skillet or griddle with oil.
 * 9) When oil starts to spider, but before it starts to smoke, pour in batter about ¼ cup at a time to make pancakes. Work in batches, if necessary, to avoid overcrowding.
 * 10) Sprinkle about 2 tablespoons frozen blueberries over the uncooked side of each pancake as it cooks.
 * 11) When pancake bottoms are golden brown and tops start to bubble (2–3 minutes) flip pancakes.
 * 12) Cook until pancakes are golden brown on remaining side.
 * 13) Repeat, brushing skillet or griddle with oil between pancakes.
 * 14) Serve hot.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Use bleached flour to make a tender pancake.
 * If using salted butter, reduce salt to ¼ teaspoon.
 * Pancake batter should pour, not glug! On the other hand, runny batter makes thin, oddly shaped pancakes that frequently collide on the griddle. Stir in a touch more flour into thin batter. For batter that's too thick, whisk in water a teaspoon at a time.
 * The temperature of the pan or griddle is important: too hot and the pancakes are dark and raw; too cool and they're blond and hard. For tender, golden brown pancakes, heat the pan or griddle on low while you make the batter. Then increase the heat to medium and generously brush the pan or griddle with oil. It's ready when the oil starts to shimmer and, in any skillet or griddle other than non-stick, sends out tendrils that resemble and octopus or spider. But if the pan starts to smoke, set it down off the burner until the smoking subsides and the oil cools a bit.
 * This recipe easily doubles for a crowd.

title: Cookbook:Lemon Blueberry Pancakes


text:
Cookbook:Lemon Poppy Seed Pancakes

| American cuisine
 * Breakfast Cuisine
 * Vegetarian Cuisine
 * Bread

Ingredients

 * 1 cup all-purpose bleached flour
 * 2 teaspoons sugar
 * ½ teaspoon salt
 * ½ teaspoon baking powder
 * ¼ teaspoon baking soda
 * 1 teaspoon finely-grated lemon zest
 * 1 teaspoon poppy seeds
 * ¾ cup buttermilk
 * ¼ cup milk
 * 1 large egg
 * 2 tablespoons unsalted butter, melted
 * 1 teaspoon vanilla extract
 * Vegetable oil for brushing griddle

Procedure

 * 1) Heat a large non-stick skillet or griddle over low heat while preparing ingredients.
 * 2) Mix flour, sugar, salt, baking powder, and baking soda in medium bowl.
 * 3) Whisk lemon zest and poppy seeds into dry ingredients.
 * 4) Microwave buttermilk and milk in a 2-cup Pyrex measuring cup to room temperature, 20 to 30 seconds.
 * 5) Whisk in egg, butter, and vanilla.
 * 6) Add wet ingredients to dry ingredients and whisk until just mixed.
 * 7) Return batter to measuring cup, stirring in a teaspoon or two of water, if necessary, to make a thick, but pourable batter.
 * 8) Increase heat to medium and generously brush skillet or griddle with oil.
 * 9) When oil starts to spider, but before it starts to smoke, pour batter, about ¼ cup at a time. Work in batches, if necessary, to avoid overcrowding.
 * 10) When pancake bottoms are golden brown and tops start to bubble, 2 to 3 minutes, flip pancakes.
 * 11) Cook until pancakes are golden brown on remaining side.
 * 12) Repeat, brushing skillet or griddle with oil.
 * 13) Serve hot.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Use all-purpose flour (which is softer than unbleached), not unbleached flour to make a tender pancake.
 * If using salted butter, reduce salt to ¼ teaspoon.
 * I usually substitute a tablespoon of lemon juice (or vinegar) in milk for the buttermilk.
 * Pancake batter should pour, not glug! On the other hand, runny batter makes thin, oddly shaped pancakes that frequently collide on the griddle. Stir in a touch more flour into thin batter. For batter that's too thick, whisk in water, a teaspoon at a time.
 * The temperature of the pan or griddle is important: too hot and the pancakes are dark and raw; too cool and they're blond and hard. For tender, golden brown pancakes, heat the pan or griddle on low while you make the batter. Then increase the heat to medium and generously brush the pan or griddle with oil. It's ready when the oil starts to shimmer and, in any skillet or griddle other than non-stick, sends out tendrils that resemble and octopus or spider. But if the pan starts to smoke, set it down off the burner until the smoking subsides and the oil cools a bit.
 * This recipe easily doubles for a crowd.

title: Cookbook:Lemon Poppy Seed Pancakes


text:
Cookbook:Orange Cardamom Pancakes

| American cuisine | Breakfast Recipes | Vegetarian Cuisine

Ingredients

 * 1 cup all-purpose bleached flour
 * 2 teaspoons sugar
 * ½ teaspoon salt
 * ½ teaspoon baking powder
 * ¼ teaspoon baking soda
 * 1 teaspoon finely grated orange zest
 * ¼ teaspoon ground cardamom
 * ¾ cup buttermilk
 * ¼ cup milk
 * 1 large egg
 * 2 tablespoons unsalted butter, melted
 * 1 teaspoon vanilla extract
 * Vegetable oil for brushing griddle

Procedure

 * 1) Heat a large non-stick skillet or griddle over low heat while preparing ingredients.
 * 2) Mix flour, sugar, salt, baking powder, and baking soda in medium bowl.
 * 3) Whisk orange zest and ground cardamom into dry ingredients.
 * 4) Microwave buttermilk and milk in a 2-cup Pyrex measuring cup to room temperature, 20–30 seconds.
 * 5) Whisk in egg, butter, and vanilla.
 * 6) Add wet ingredients to dry ingredients and whisk until just mixed.
 * 7) Return batter to measuring cup, stirring in a teaspoon or two of water, if necessary, to make a thick, but pourable batter.
 * 8) Increase heat to medium and generously brush skillet or griddle with oil.
 * 9) When oil starts to spider, but before it starts to smoke, pour batter, about ¼ cup at a time.
 * 10) Work in batches, if necessary, to avoid overcrowding.
 * 11) When pancake bottoms are golden brown and tops start to bubble (2 to 3 minutes), flip pancakes.
 * 12) Cook until pancakes are golden brown on remaining side.
 * 13) Repeat, brushing skillet or griddle with oil.
 * 14) Serve hot.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Use bleached flour (which is softer than unbleached) to make a tender pancake.
 * If using salted butter, reduce salt to ¼ teaspoon.
 * You can substitute 1 tablespoon of lemon juice (or vinegar) in milk for the buttermilk.
 * Pancake batter should pour, not glug! On the other hand, runny batter makes thin, oddly shaped pancakes that frequently collide on the griddle. Stir in a touch more flour into thin batter. For batter that's too thick, whisk in water, a teaspoon at a time.
 * The temperature of the pan or griddle is important: too hot and the pancakes are dark and raw; too cool and they're blond and hard. For tender, golden brown pancakes, heat the pan or griddle on low while you make the batter. Then increase the heat to medium and generously brush the pan or griddle with oil. It's ready when the oil starts to shimmer and, in any skillet or griddle other than non-stick, sends out tendrils that resemble an octopus or spider. But if the pan starts to smoke, set it down off the burner until the smoking subsides and the oil cools a bit.
 * This recipe easily doubles for a crowd.

title: Cookbook:Orange Cardamom Pancakes


text:
Cookbook talk:Cajun Red Beans and Rice

Suspect copyvio
I suspect that this might be a copyvio; it sounds a lot like many similar recipes on the web, and was added by an anon IP who also added a copyvio for Cookbook:Beignet. Webaware talk 12:14, 26 February 2007 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Cajun Red Beans and Rice


text:
Horticulture/Lactuca

Lactuca, commonly known as lettuce, is a genus of flowering plants in the Sunflower family Asteraceae. The genus includes about 100 species, distributed worldwide, but mainly in temperate Eurasia.

Description
Its best-known representative is the garden lettuce (Lactuca sativa), with its many varieties. But many are just common weeds. They are annuals or perennials. Their height can vary between 10–180 cm. They form heads or capitula in panicles of yellow, brown or purple flowers in ray florets.

The non-edible species may contain bitter elements. Others contain a milky juice.

Species

 * ../Lactuca biennis/ : Tall Blue Lettuce, Wild Blue Lettuce
 * ../Lactuca canadensis/ : Canada Lettuce, Florida Blue Lettuce, Wild Lettuce (North America)
 * ../Lactuca sativa/ : Garden Lettuce, Lettuce
 * ../Lactuca serriola/ : Prickly Lettuce, China Lettuce, Wild Lettuce (Southern Europe)
 * ../Lactuca tatarica/ : Blue Lettuce, Chickory Lettuce, Russian Blue Lettuce (Asia, India)

Uses
The garden lettuce is grown as a salad green, other species occur as weeds.

title: Horticulture/Lactuca


text:
Horticulture/Beta

Beets are members of the genus Beta, several of which are grown in the garden as ornamentals and food crops.

Pests and diseases
Wilt and Blight: ../Damping Off/
 * ../Phytophthora capsici/

../Leaf Spots/

../Beet Curly Top Virus/

../Aphids/ ../Hoppers/ ../Maggots/ ../Beetles/ ../Caterpillars/
 * Bean Aphid: ../Aphis fabae/
 * Green Peach Aphid: ../Myzus persicae/
 * Sugarbeet Root Aphid: ../Pemphigus populivenae/
 * Beet Leafhopper: ../Eutettix tenellus/
 * Leafhopper: ../Eutettix strobi/
 * American Serpentine Leafminer: ../Liriomyza trifolii/
 * Beet Leafminer: ../Pegomya betae/
 * Spinach Leafminer: ../Pegomya hyoscyami/
 * Seedcorn Maggot: ../Delia platura/
 * Sugarbeet Root Maggot: ../Tetanops myopaeformis/
 * Banded Cucumber Beetle: ../Diabrotica balteata/
 * Redheaded Flea Beetle: ../Systena frontalis/
 * Hop Flea Beetle: ../Psyllioides punctata/
 * Spinach Flea Beetle: ../Disonycha xanthomelas/
 * Rose Chafer: ../Macrodactylus subspinosus/
 * Beet Webworm: ../Loxostege stricticalis/
 * Beet Armyworm: ../Spodoptera exigua/
 * Cabbage Looper: ../Trichoplusia ni/

Nutrient:
 * Boron Deficiency

title: Horticulture/Beta


text:
Horticulture/Prunus

Prunus is a genus of trees and shrubs traditionally placed within the rose family, (Family Rosaceae), but now sometimes placed in its own family, the Prunaceae (or Amygdalaceae), or in a subfamily of Rosaceae, the Prunoideae (or Amygdaloideae). There are several hundred species of Prunus, spread throughout the northern temperate regions of the globe.

Description
The flowers are usually white to pink, with five petals and five sepals. They are borne singly, or in umbels of two to six or more on racemes. The fruit of all Prunus species is a drupe with a relatively large stone. Leaves are simple and usually lanceolate, unlobed and toothed along the margin.

Subgenera
Some treatments break the genus up into several different genera, but this segregation is not widely recognised other than at the subgeneric rank.

 * Prunus subgenera:
 * Subgenus Amygdalus: almonds and peaches. Axillary buds in threes (vegetative bud central, two flower buds to sides). Flowers in early spring, sessile or nearly so, not on leafed shoots. Fruit with a grove along one side; stone deeply grooved. Type species Prunus dulcis (Almond).
 * Subgenus Prunus: plums and apricots. Axillary buds solitary. Flowers in early spring stalked, not on leafed shoots. Fruit with a grove along one side; stone rough. Type species Prunus domestica (Plum).
 * Subgenus Cerasus: cherries. Axillary buds single. Flowers in early spring in corymbs, long-stalked, not on leafed shoots. Fruit not groved; stone smooth. Type species Prunus cerasus (Sour cherry).
 * Subgenus Lithocerasus: dwarf cherries. Axillary buds in threes. Flowers in early spring in corymbs, long-stalked, not on leafed shoots. Fruit not groved; stone smooth. Type species Prunus pumila (Sand cherry).
 * Subgenus Padus: bird cherries. Axillary buds single. Flowers in late spring in racemes on leafy shoots, short-stalked. Fruit not groved; stone smooth. Type species Prunus padus (European bird cherry).
 * Subgenus Laurocerasus: cherry-laurels. Axillary buds single. Flowers in early spring in racemes, not on leafed shoots, short-stalked. Fruit not groved; stone smooth. Mostly evergreen (all the other subgenera are deciduous). Type species Prunus laurocerasus (European cherry-laurel).

Uses
The genus Prunus includes the almond, apricot, cherry, peach, and plum, all of which have cultivars developed for commercial fruit production. The edible part of the almond is the seed; the almond fruit is a drupe and not a "nut". There are also a number of species, hybrids, and cultivars grown strictly as ornamentals, usually for their profusion of flowers, occasionally for leaves and bark. These ornamentals include the group that may be collectively called flowering cherries.

Because of their considerable value as both food and ornamental plants, many Prunus species have been introduced to parts of the world to which they are not native. Many of the Old World species are grown for ornament or fruit, and have been planted throughout the world; and some have become naturalised beyond their native range.

Pests and diseases
Bacterial ../Leaf Spots/ (Shot-hole) ../Fireblight/ ../Powdery Mildew/ ../Blights/ ../Leaf Spots/ ../Black Knot/ ../Root Rot/ ../Wilt/ ../Witches’ Broom/ ../Leaf Curl/ Plum Pockets: Little Leaf Virus
 * Xanthomonas pruni
 * Erwinnia amylovora
 * Podosphaera oxycanthae
 * Monilinia fructicola
 * Cercospora circumscissa
 * Cercospora cladosporioides
 * Coccomyces hiemalis
 * Coccomyces lutescens
 * Phyllachora beaumontii
 * Phyllosticta laurocerasi
 * Septoria ravenelii
 * Apiosporina morbosa
 * Armillaria mellea
 * Clitocybe tabescens
 * Verticillium albo -atrum
 * Taphrina cerasi
 * Taphrina deformans
 * Taphrina communis

../Root Rot/ ../Leaf Drop/ ../Aphids/ ../Scales/ ../Hoppers/ ../Whiteflies/ ../Bugs/ ../Walkingsticks/ ../Earwigs/ ../Thrips/ ../Maggots/ ../Beetles/ ../Caterpillars/ ../Sawflies/ ../Ants/ ../Mites/ ../Slugs and Snails/
 * Pratylenchus penetrans
 * Bordeaux mix and copper sprays may cause leaf drop.
 * Melon Aphid, Cotton Aphid: ../Aphis gossypii/
 * Leafcurl Plum Aphid: ../Brachycaudus helichrysi/
 * Black Peach Aphid: ../Brachycaudus persicae/
 * Green Peach Aphid: ../Myzus persicae/
 * Waterlily Aphid: ../Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae/
 * Apple Grain Aphid: ../Rhopalosiphum fitchii/
 * Black Cherry Aphid: ../Myzus cerasi/
 * Hop Aphid: ../Phorodon humuli/
 * Mealy Plum Aphid: ../Hyalopterus pruni/
 * Rusty Plum Aphid: ../Hysteroneura setariae/
 * Thistle Aphid: ../Anuraphis cardui/
 * Indian Wax Scale: ../Ceroplastes ceriferus/
 * Scurfy Scale: ../Chionaspis furfura/
 * Calico Scale: ../Eulecanium cerasorum/
 * Greedy Scale: ../Hemiberlesia rapax/
 * Cottony Cushion Scale: ../Icerya purchasi/
 * European Fruit Lecanium Scale: ../Lecanium corni/
 * Terrapin Scale: ../Lecanium nigrofasciatum/
 * Oystershell Scale: ../Lepidosaphes ulmi/
 * Obscure Scale: ../Melanaspis obscura/ (synonym Aspidiotus obscura)
 * White Peach Scale: ../Pseudaulacapsis pentagona/
 * Cottony Hydrangea Scale: ../Pulvinaria hydrangeae/
 * Cottony Grape Scale: ../Pulvinaria vitis/
 * San Jose Scale: ../Quadraspidiotus perniciosus/
 * Euonymus scale: ../Unaspis euonymi/
 * Forbes Scale: ../Quadraspidiotus forbesi/
 * Planthopper: ../Anormensis septentrionalis/
 * Rose Leafhopper: ../Edwardsiana rosa/
 * Citrus Flata Planthopper: ../Metcalfa pruinosa/
 * Buffalo Treehopper: ../Stictocephala bisonia/
 * Plum Leafhopper: ../Macropsis trimaculata/
 * Privet Leafhopper: ../Fieberiella florii/
 * White Apple Leafhopper: ../Typhlocyba pomaria/
 * Citrus Whitefly: ../Dialeurodes citri/
 * Lacebugs: ../Corythuca/
 * Boxelder Bug: ../Leptocoris trivittatus/
 * Tarnished Plant Bug: ../Lygus lineolaris/
 * Western Boxelder Bug: ../Leptocoris rubrolineatus/
 * European Earwig: ../Forficula auricularia/
 * Western Flower Thrips: ../Frankliniella occidentalis/
 * Pear Thrips: ../Taeniothrips inconsequens/
 * Apple Maggot: ../Rhagoletis pomonella/
 * Black Cherry Fruit Fly: ../Rhagoletis fausta/
 * Cherry Fruit Fly: ../Rhagoletis cingulata/
 * Chokeberry Gall Midge: ../Contarinia virginianae/
 * Walnut Husk Fly: ../Rhagoletis completa/
 * Western Cherry Fruit Fly: ../Rhagoletis completa/
 * Plum Gouger: ../Coccotorus scuttelaris/
 * Plum curculio: ../Conotrachelus nenuphar/
 * Asiatic Garden Beetle: ../Maladera castanea/
 * Japanese Beetle: ../Popillia japonica/
 * Asian Ambrosia Beetle: ../Xylosandrus germanus/
 * Cherry Curculio: ../Anthonomus consors/
 * Green Fruit Beetles: Cotinus/ spp.
 * Pacific Flatheaded Borer: ../Chrysobothris mali/
 * Rain Beetles: ../Pleocoma/ spp.
 * Redheaded Ash Borer: ../Neoclytus acuminatus/
 * Shothole Borer: ../Scolytus rugulosus/
 * Tenlined June Beetle: ../Polyphylla decimlineata/
 * Fruittree Leafroller: ../Archips argyrospila/
 * Promethia Moth: ../Callosamia promethia/
 * Apple and Thorn Skeletonizer: ../Choreutis pariana/
 * Obliquebanded Leafroller: ../Choristoneura rosaceana/
 * Yellownecked Caterpillar: ../Datana ministra/
 * American Plum Borer: ../Euzophera semifuneralis/
 * Cecropia Moth: ../Hyalophora cecropia/
 * Fall Webworm: ../Hyphantria cunea/
 * Gypsy Moth: ../Lymantria dispar/ (syn. Porthetria dispar):
 * Eastern Tent Caterpillar: ../Malacosoma americanum/
 * Western Tent Caterpillar: ../Malacosoma californica/
 * Cherry Leafminer: ../Nepticula slingerlandella/
 * Speckled Green Fruitworm: ../Orthosia hibisci/
 * Stalk Borer: ../Papaipema nebris/
 * Eastern Tiger Swallowtail: ../Papilio glaucus/
 * Cherry Leafminer: ../Paraleucoptera heinrichi/
 * Western Tentiform Leafminer: ../Phyllonorycter elmaella/
 * Tentiform Leafminer: ../Phyllonorycter mispilella/
 * Blackheaded Fireworm: ../Rhopobota naevana/
 * Redhumped Caterpillar: ../Schizura concinna/
 * Saddleback Caterpillar: ../Sibine stimulea/
 * Peach Tree Borer: ../Synanthedon exitiosa/
 * Lesser Peach Tree Borer: ../Synanthedon pictipes/
 * Apple Pandemis: ../Pandemis pyrusana/ (Pacific Northwest)
 * Cherry Fruitworm: ../Grapholita packardi/
 * Cherry Bark Tortrix: ../Enarmonia formosana/
 * European Leafroller: ../Archips rosanus/
 * Eyespotted Bud Moth: ../Spilonota ocellana/
 * Leaf Crumpler: ../Acrobasis indigenella/
 * Lesser Appleworm: ../Grapholita prunivora/
 * Mineola Moth: ../Arcobasis tricolorella/
 * Navel Orangeworm: ../Amyelois transitella/
 * Oriental Fruit Moth: ../Grapholita molesta/
 * Peach Twig Borer: ../Anarsia lineatella/
 * Pistol Casebearer: ../Coleophora malivorella/
 * Redbanded Leafroller: ../Argyotaenia velutinana/
 * Resplendent Shield Bearer: ../Coptodisca splendoriferella/
 * Stinging Rose Caterpillar: ../Parasa indetermina/
 * Twotailed Swallowtail: ../Papilio multicaudatus/
 * Uglynest Caterpillar: ../Archips cerasivorana/
 * Variegated Leafroller: ../Platynota flavedana/
 * Pear Slug: ../Caliroa cerasi/
 * Cherry Fruit Sawfly: ../Hoplocampa lacteipennis/
 * Cherry Webspinning Sawfly: ../Neurotoma fasciata/
 * Chokeberry Sawfly: ../Pristophora serrula/
 * Peach Sawfly: ../Pamphilius persicus/
 * Plum Webspinning Sawfly: ../Neurotoma inconspicua/
 * Texas Leafcutting Ant: ../Atta texana/
 * Plum Rust Mite: ../Aculus fockeui/
 * Mite: ../Eriophyes emarginatae/
 * Southern Red Mite: ../Oligonychus illicis/
 * Mite: ../Phytoptus cerasicramena/
 * Twospotted Spider Mite: ../Tetranychus urticae/
 * Brown Mite: ../Bryobia rubrioculus/
 * European Red Mite: ../Panonychus ulmi/
 * Plum Rust Mite: ../Aculus fockeui/

title: Horticulture/Prunus


text:
Talk:C++ Programming/Programming Languages/C++/Code/Statements/Variables/Type/Data Types

Shouldn't the "magic numbers" (127, -32767, etc.) in this document be replaced with their constants from limits.h (SCHAR_MAX, SHRT_MIN, etc.)? --12.9.179.117 18:30, 26 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Magic number should be avoided but we don't have a list of default values, the standard (2003) only mentions of reserved identifiers from the C library, personally I don't know if the values one expects them to represent are fixed (consider for instance http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/296az74e(VS.71).aspx it states that that list is Microsoft Specific). --Panic (talk) 03:50, 17 September 2008 (UTC)

Less or More?
I have made a change to the Data Types table. The original text was: "Any encoding of 8 bits or less (e.g. ASCII) can be used to store characters". I have changed it to read: " Any encoding of 8 bits or more ...", since that is what the previous column in the table would suggest. Was the wording simply incorrect, or did I miss the point of that line? – e James  (talk) – 22:34, 16 September 2008 (UTC)

 * I've restored to the prev. edit, the intention expressed is that char is only guaranteed to have 8 bits (it may indeed hold more in specific setups, compiler and OS).  --Panic (talk) 03:32, 17 September 2008 (UTC)

==== There seems to be confusion over the two words char and character. C++11 (Draft): "The fundamental storage unit in the C++ memory model is the byte. A byte is at least large enough to contain any member of the basic execution character set (2.3) and the eight-bit code units of the Unicode UTF-8 encoding form and is composed of a contiguous sequence of bits, the number of which is implementation defined. ... The memory available to a C++ program consists of one or more sequences of contiguous bytes. Every byte has a unique address." So a byte is 8 bits OR MORE and a char is one byte OR MORE. I am changing the table. I am also removing "sizeof" it is a great idea to have it on this page, but not in the table. 71.31.146.16 (discuss) 22:50, 10 June 2012 (UTC)
 * gives the size in units of chars. These "bytes" need not be 8-bit bytes (though commonly they are); the number of bits is given by the CHAR_BIT macro in the climits header.


text:
Talk:Horticulture/Prunus

Page blanked to avoid excessive bad wikilinks. this revision has lists of species from the wikipedia article, which can be modified to chapterlinks later. -- SB_Johnny | talk 19:05, 26 February 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Horticulture/Prunus


text:
Horticulture/Hoppers

Leafhopper is a common name applied to any species from the family Cicadellidae. Leafhoppers, also known as hoppers, are minute plant-feeding insects in the superfamily Cicadelloidea in the homopterous division of the order Hemiptera. Recent classification within the Hemiptera has changed the old term 'Homoptera' into two new suborders: Sternorryncha (aphids, whiteflies, scales, psyllids...) and Auchenorryncha (cicadas, leafhoppers, treehoppers, planthoppers...) with the suborder: Heteroptera containing a large group of insects known as the 'true-bugs', (gnat bugs, pond skaters, shore bugs, toad bugs, water boatmen, backswimmers, etc...)

Leafhoppers are found all over the world, and it is the second largest family in the Hemiptera; there are at least 20,000 described species. Leafhoppers have piercing sucking mouthparts, they feed on plant sap and can transmit plant-infecting viruses and bacteria. Species that are significant agricultural pests include the potato leafhopper, beet leafhopper, white apple leafhopper, two-spotted leafhopper, and glassy-winged sharpshooter. A Leafhoppers' diet commonly consists of plant sap from a wide and diverse range of plants. Leafhoppers mainly consume vegetation but have been known to indulge in small insects.

Description
The Cicadellidae combine the following features:
 * thickened part of the antennae very short and ending with a bristle (arista)
 * two simple eyes (ocelli) present on the top or front of the head
 * 3 segments on the tarsi
 * front femora with at most weak spines
 * hind tibia with one or more distinct keels, with a row of movable spines on each, sometimes on enlarged bases
 * base of middle legs close together where they originate under the thorax
 * front wings not particularly thickened. An additional, unique character of leafhoppers is the production of brochosomes which are thought to protect egg masses from predation and pathogens.  Leafhoppers are susceptible to various pathogens; viruses as in the(Dicistroviridae), bacteria, fungi, as well as having a host of parasitoids which attack the eggs.

title: Horticulture/Hoppers


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Subjects

Note that this table only refers to Harry's, Ron's, and Hermione's education. Ancient Runes is certainly taught to students other than Hermione in year 1 and 2, but that is not recorded here because none of the Trio are taking it.


text:
Objective-C Programming/Getting Started

Objective C files
In objective C, files normally use the extension  for interface files and the extension   for implementation files.

These objective C files are text files that contain instructions on how to write a program. For example, this is a minimal hello world program

The #import  is a preprocessor directive that will cause the compiler to import the contents of the file stdio.h, just as if it was in the file. A C programmer may immediately see a slight difference in this directive, which is that C uses the #include directive instead. Objective-C programmers usually use the #import directive, which includes the specified header file but, unlike #include, #import is only done once.

Apple's XCode IDE
Objective-C is most commonly used to develop software for the Apple products Mac OS X and iOS (iPodTouch, iPhone, iPad-Mini, and iPad). It's also used in the GNUStep environment on Linux. If you're developing on a Mac, you can use Apple's nice graphical user interface (GUI) called XCode, which is free.

There is documentation, but don't expect a python tutorial. There is a tutorial on ios programming for instance, that half is for learning how to use the IDE, and half to make a simple phone app that reads from an input field, and outputs a message in a label when a button is pressed.

The basic steps for the IOS tutorial are:
 * 1) create a project from the main menu bar, select the project type single view and controller.
 * 2) Make sure the project summary in the left top of the project page says compiling to a phone simulator, if the UI being designed is on a phone.
 * 3) Open the main storyboard file the device (phone) you are working on, and use drag-and-drop to design a form.
 * 4) using the buttons on the top left, switch to assistant editor, and put the storyboard in one pane and a source view of the interface file for generated view controller.
 * 5) graphically make connections between the storyboard objects ( fields, buttons ) and interface file, by pressing control and dragging from the user interface design page to source code of the interface file.
 * 6) On control dragging graphical elements to the interface file of the view controller, there will be prompts showing choices. The easy common case is to make them "outlets" which give reference to the readable or writeable graphical elements on the user interface designer; for button elements,  create an action connection and fill in the method name. The actions for button is usually where code needs to start.
 * 7) There is also a concept called delegate, and in this example, the delegate is for giving up focus when the return key is pressed on the keyboard during entry for the text field entry widget (UITextField).  A delegate is just a handler that can implement one or more methods from  a set of method signatures defined as a protocol, in this case , UITextFieldDelegate protocol.  The delegate method called when the return button is pressed  is not "returnButtonPressed", but "textFieldShouldReturn", and this will be found in the protocol documentation.. Inside the textFieldShouldReturn, the textField's "resignFirstResponder" method should be called to allow the keyboard to hide, as a response to the return button being pressed.
 * 8) the tutorial implements the action button's action of copying the entry text to the label with a few unnecessary but illustrative steps . e.g. copying the textfield's text NSString property to your view controller's NSString property, which was created as an exercise; then creating a local scope NSString variable using alloc and "initWithFormat"  so that the name typed in the textfield is concatenated with a hello message. Then assigning the local NSString variable to the label's text property, which has an elided alloc-initCopy semantic.  Shorter, but equal , is  " self.label.text = [[NSString alloc] initWithFormat:@"Hello %s!", self.textField.text] ;"

After this, more complicated learning examples could be attempted e.g.

example 1
- this can be done by creating a parser-lexer class that has the responsibility of top-down parsing with a 1 character lookahead into a given string. The parser has a recursive grammar, and methods can represent non-terminal symbols in the grammar, with a lexer method used for converting a terminal string of characters to a number. If the initial symbol of a valid calculation is 'L', then L -> E, is the initial line of the grammar, represented by a call to the a method E (  e.g. [ self  E ];  ). An expression is made of one or more terms separated by + or -, and can be expressed recursively as E -> T |  T + E | T - E So E  can be one of 3 cases, T  , or T + E  if the symbol after T is +,  or  T - E , if the symbol after T is -. A start for the E method, could be:- The reason 'plus' and 'minus' are called at the end is that normal arithmetic grammar can be converted to reverse polish notation, where operands can be loaded onto a stack, and operations operate on the 2 last operands pushed onto the stack, and an alternative implementation could be to translate a given input string from normal notation to a string in reverse polish notation, which is then traversed to push/pop/operate in order. Otherwise, in this implementation, 'plus' might look like: Another implementation of plus, is that there is a second instance of a mutableArray that stores NSString tokens, and 'plus' simply pushes a '+' NSString token onto this second array. When parsing is complete, this array is traversed, and a third mutable array is used to process each token in order, pushing number tokens, and popping numbers for operations and pushing results.
 * make a calculator, where the formula is entered in the textField and the formula is parsed and the result returned in the label.

A third implementation could eliminate the use of a stack by having operations return numbers which are the result of applying operations or converting a number lexeme. This relies on the program stack to use recursion not only to provide the ordering for the grammar rules, but to do depth first processing so that intermediate results are stored on the stack in the callers' program stack frames. e.g. if the function expr is returning [self term] + [self term],  the first term call's return value is being held in a register and pushed on the cpu stack before the second call to term.

The rest of the grammar is something like The constant is a parse of a lexeme which consists of (whitespace ignored) initial + or -, a string of numbers and/or decimal point occurring once. An exercise is to write out the grammar, and then devise the other methods of the grammar, as well as the constant tokenizer. Once the parser implementation is tested to work on test cases, the action button implementation for the "hello world" app can create a parser to parse the textField's text and output the resulting final number as the label's text, giving a calculator. Other widgets, like a UISegmentedControl can later be used to implement calculator buttons.
 * 1) a term is a factor, a factor multiplied by a term, or a factor divided by a term, and
 * 2) a factor is a parenthesised expression or a entity, and
 * 3) the only current entity is a constant.
 * division doesn't work as expected if T -> F | F * T | F / T, since the T after * or / will recurse until T -> F, and then the operation evaluates from the last F back, so 3/3/3 = .333  would be 3/(3/3) = 3 which is not correct. The solution is to reimplement the grammar to eliminate the right sided evaluation. T is always F followed by * T, / T, or nothing, and this can be called T' or Tdash , so  T -> F T' , and  T'    -> * F T'  | / F T'  | e .  The ideas is to move the terminating parse F to the left by wrapping the optional recursive part after the first F with a third symbol T' which always is optionally  'e' or an empty parse.  This technique also helps for solving some ambiguity in grammars, such as if-then-statement-(optional)-else-statement -or- if-then-statement-(optional)-else...
 * a parsing bug exists if the expression grammar rule isn't likewise made left-wise resolving.

example 2

 * have 2 more textFields, and make the button action sending email to an address with a subject and body;

GCC Command-Line Tools
If you're developing for platforms other than the Mac, you can use GCC from the command-line. GCC is a collection of various GNU compilers. GCC has an Objective-C package which works from the command-line. If GCC is installed properly, you should be able to link against the objective-C runtime library; otherwise, you will have to consult your package system.

To build programs under GCC, you need to specify at least one input file and link your program against the Objective-C library:

gcc hello.m -lobjc

You might want to use additional flags to let the compiler point out common mistakes and suppress warnings about the  keyword:

gcc -std=c99 -pedantic -Wall -Wextra -Wno-import -lobjc -o hello hello.m

Any additional files or libraries required for the program will need to be added to the command line. In addition, gcc allows compiling Objective-C files into intermediate files, which can then be linked into an output binary:

gcc -c hello.m -o hello.o gcc hello.o -o hello

To use the object-oriented features of objective-C, you need to place the following code at the top of the file:
 * 1) import

Other compilers
In general, the compiler name used is  unless specified otherwise by your compiler.

In a general case, you need to have the following at the top to support objects:
 * 1) import

title: Objective-C Programming/Getting Started


text:
Horticulture/Tetranychus urticae

Tetranychus urticae (an animal with over 60 common names, including red spider mite and two-spotted spider mite) is one of many species of plant-feeding mites found in dry environments, and generally considered a pest. It is the most widely known member of the family Tetranychidae or Spider mites.

Description
During the summer, T. urticae has a greenish brown appearance with two darker spots, but as winter approaches it gains a strong red color. Some populations are pemanently greenish or reddish, and these are considered different species of Tetranychus by some authorities.

Symptoms and Signs
Tetranychus urticae is extremely small, barely visible with the naked eye as reddish or greenish spots on leaves and stems; the adults measure about 0.5 mm. The red spider mite, which can be seen in greenhouses and tropical and temperate zones spinning a fine web on and under leaves. The red spider mite is extremely polyphagous; it can feed on hundreds of plants, including most vegetables and food crops (peppers, tomatoes, potatoes, beans, corn, strawberries) and ornamentals: roses, etc. It lays its eggs on the leaves, and it poses a threat to host plants by sucking cell contents from the leaves cell by cell, leaving very tiny, pale spots or scars where the green epidermal cells have been destroyed. Although the individual lesions are very small, commensurate with the small size of the mites, the frequently-observed attack of hundreds or thousands of spider mites can cause thousands of lesions and thus can significantly reduce the photosynthetic capability of plants, greatly reducing their production of nutrients, sometimes even killing the plants. Although this way of feeding could spread plant viruses, this is considered of secondary importance.

Host plants
A wide range of hosts, including the folloring genera:
 * ../Aquilegia/ (Columbine)
 * ../Aster/
 * ../Cucumis/ (Cucumber, Melon)
 * ../Cornus/ (Dogwood)
 * ../Dahlia/
 * ../Dendranthema/ (Hardy Mum)
 * ../Dianthus/ (Carnation)
 * ../Hedera/ (Ivy)
 * ../Hemerocallis/ (Daylily)
 * ../Hosta/ (Plantain Lily)
 * ../Hydrangea/
 * ../Impatiens/
 * ../Juniperus/ (Juniper)
 * ../Lycopersicon/ (Tomato)
 * ../Malus/ (Apple)
 * ../Morus/ (Mulberry)
 * ../Ocimum/ (Basil)
 * ../Pachysandra/
 * ../Phlox/
 * ../Prunus/ (Stone Fruits)
 * ../Pseudosasa/ (Arrow Bamboo)
 * ../Rhododendron/ (Rhododendron, Azalea)
 * ../Rosa/ (Rose)
 * ../Rubus/ (Brambles)
 * ../Salvia/ (Sage)
 * ../Solanum/
 * ../Verbena/
 * ../Viburnum/
 * ../Viola/ (Violets)

title: Horticulture/Tetranychus urticae


text:
Cookbook:Phở Bò (Vietnamese Beef Noodle Soup)

| Cuisine of Vietnam

Along with phở gà, phở bò (Vietnamese beef noodle soup) could easily be called Vietnam's national dish. Most often served in the early morning, it is available on any street corner, everywhere in Vietnam, all day, and is a staple of most Vietnamese restaurants outside of the country. The broth is the star of this meal and can vary from North to South and is in some cases a closely guarded family secret. Experimenting with the ingredients is a must as long as they are traditionally South-East Asian in origin.

Broth

 * 2 large white onions, cut into quarters
 * 1 tablespoon vegetable or peanut oil
 * 5 lbs beef bones (choose ones with a bit of meat on them)
 * 1 small knob of ginger, chopped
 * 1 small cinnamon stick
 * 2 whole cardamom pods
 * 4 whole cloves
 * 1 star anise pod
 * 1 tablespoon whole black peppercorns

Serving

 * Phở noodles (thin, flat rice noodles), soaked in hot water until soft and drained
 * Finely sliced white onion
 * Finely sliced scallions
 * Chopped coriander leaf
 * Finely sliced beef sirloin (ask your butcher)

Condiments

 * Whole chile peppers
 * Bean sprouts
 * Limes, cut into wedges
 * Thai basil
 * Nước mắm
 * Hot sauce
 * Hoisin sauce
 * Black pepper

Procedure

 * 1) Fry onions in oil until lightly browned. Remove and drain.
 * 2) Rinse the beef bones, place in a stockpot, cover with cold water, and bring slowly to a boil. Reduce heat and simmer, uncovered, for 10–15 minutes. For a clear broth skim off foam.
 * 3) After this initial cooking, add cooked onions, ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, star anise, cloves, garlic and peppercorns. Bring to a boil again and gently simmer the stock, partially covered, for a minimum of 6 hours but up to 12 hours if you can, skimming regularly. If necessary, add more water to keep the bones covered.
 * 4) Strain stock to remove the vegetable and spices and discard them. Return the broth to the stove to keep it boiling hot.
 * 5) In a large soup bowl, place a handful of cooked phở noodles, top with thinly sliced raw beef, and ladle on generous amounts of very hot broth, which will cook the raw beef. Garnish with sliced onions, scallions and coriander, and serve immediately.

Serving
Place condiments on a large serving plate. It's not necessary to add any of the condiments to the soup, but adding a few basil leaves, a squeeze of lime, and some bean sprouts, is customary. Many Vietnamese will also take small bites of very hot chili peppers while eating the soup to spice up the meal. Proceed with caution! The fish sauce, hot sauce, and hoisin sauce, can either be added directly into the soup or placed in a small bowl for dipping the meat and noodles.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Traditionally, the Vietnamese prefer fatty meat in their soup. Some other serving ingredients include beef tendon, beef shank, beef tripe and meatballs.


text:
Horticulture/Solanum

Solanum is a large, variable genus of annual plants and perennial plants, forbs, vines, sub-shrubs, shrubs, and small trees. They often have attractive fruit and flowers. Most are poisonous, but many bear edible fruits, leaves, or tubers, and the genus includes several cultivated species, including three major food crops: Tomatoes, Potatoes, and Eggplants.

Description
Annual, perennial, or tropical herbs or vines with alternate leaves and a watery sap. The flowers are in cymes or solitary, perfect, showy, 4-5 parted, with thick yellow anthers. Fruits are fleshy berries. Most species have a distinctive scent common to the genus.

Species

 * ../Solanum aculeastrum/ - Sodaapple nightshade
 * ../Solanum adscendens/ - Sonoita nightshade
 * ../Solanum aethiopicum/ - Ethiopian nightshade or nakati
 * ../Solanum americanum/ - Purple or glossy nightshade; American black nightshade; Poroporo
 * ../Solanum arcanum/
 * ../Solanum aviculare/ - Poroporo
 * ../Solanum bahamense/ - Bahama nightshade
 * ../Solanum. bulbocastanum/ - Ornamental nightshade
 * ../Solanum burbankii/ - Wonderberry
 * ../Solanum campechiense/ - Redberry nightshade
 * ../Solanum capsicastrum/ - False Jerusalem cherry
 * ../Solanum capsicoides/ - Cockroach berry
 * ../Solanum cardiophyllum/ - Heartleaf nightshade
 * ../Solanum carolinense/ - Apple of Sodom, Horsenettle
 * ../Solanum centrale/ - Australian desert raisin
 * ../Solanum chenopodioides/ - Goosefoot nightshade
 * ../Solanum citrullifolium/ - Watermelon nightshade
 * ../Solanum clokeyi/ - Clokey's nightshade
 * ../Solanum commersonii/ - Commerson's nightshade
 * ../Solanum conocarpum/ - Marron bacoba
 * ../Solanum crispum/ - Chilean potato vine
 * ../Solanum davisensen/ - Davis horsenettle
 * S. demissum - Dwarf wild potato
 * S. dimidiatum - Torrey's nightshade
 * S. diphyllum - Twinleaf nightshade
 * S. donianum - Mullein nightshade
 * S. douglasii - Greenspot nightshade
 * S. drymophilum - Erubia
 * S. dulcamara - Bittersweet
 * S. elaeagnifolium - Silverleaf nightshade
 * ../Solanum ellipticum/ - Potato bush
 * ../Solanum erianthum/ - Mullein nightshade, Potato tree
 * ../Solanum fendleri/ - Fendler's horsenettle
 * ../Solanum ferox/ - Hairy-fruited eggplant, Thai hairy-fruited eggplant
 * ../Solanum furcatum/ - Forked nightshade
 * ../Solanum gayanum/ - Chilean nightshade
 * S. gilo - Scarlet Eggplant, Gilo (Brazilian jiló)
 * S. glacum -
 * ../Solanum glaucophyllum/ - Waxyleaf nightshade
 * ../Solanum gracilius/ - Slender nightshade
 * S. haleakalense -
 * ../Solanum heterodoxum/ - Melon-leaf nightshade
 * ../Solanum hindsianum/ - Hinds' nightshade
 * ../Solanum huaylasense/
 * S. hyporhodium - synonym of S. sessiliflorum
 * S. imcompletum -
 * S. incanum -
 * ../Solanum incompletum/ - Popolo ku mai
 * ../Solanum interius/ -
 * ../Solanum jamaicense/ - Jamaican nightshade
 * ../Solanum jamesii/ - Wild potato
 * ../Solanum jasminoides/ - Jasmine nightshade
 * ../Solanum khasianum/ - Indian nightshade
 * ../Solanum lanceifolium/ - Lanceleaf nightshade
 * ../Solanum lanceolatum/ - Orangeberry nightshade
 * ../Solanum leptosepalum/ - Tigna potato
 * S. linnaeanum - Apple of Sodom (Hawaii)
 * ../Solanum lumholtzianum/ - Sonoran nightshade
 * ../Solanum lycocarpum/ - Wolf Apple
 * ../Solanum lycopersicum/ - Tomato
 * S. macrocarpon -
 * S. mammosum - Nipplefruit
 * ../Solanum marginatum/ - White-margined nightshade
 * S. mauritianum - Earleaf nightshade
 * ../Solanum melanocerasum/ - Garden huckleberry
 * ../Solanum melongena/ - Eggplant
 * S. mucronatum - Pepino
 * S. muricatum - Pepino
 * ../Solanum nelsonii/ - Nelson's horsenettle
 * ../Solanum nigrescens/ - Divine nightshade
 * S. nigrum - Black or blackberry nightshade
 * ../Solanum nudum/ - Forest nightshade
 * ../Solanum parishii/ - Parish's nightshade
 * S. pericifolium
 * ../Solanum persicifolium/ - Berengena de playa
 * ../Solanum peruvianum/ - Peruvian nightshade
 * S. phureja -
 * ../Solanum physalifolium/ - Hairy nightshade
 * ../Solanum pimpinellifolium/ - Currant tomato
 * ../Solanum pinnatisectum/ - Tansyleaf nightshade
 * ../Solanum polygamum/ - Cakalaka berry
 * ../Solanum pseudocapsicum/ - Jerusalem cherry
 * ../Solanum pseudogracile/ - Glowing nightshade
 * ../Solanum ptycanthum/ - Eastern black nightshade
 * S. pyrifolium -
 * ../Solanum quitoense/ - Naranjilla
 * ../Solanum racemosum/ - Canker berry
 * ../Solanum riedlei/ - Riedle's nightshade
 * ../Solanum robustum/ - Shrubby nightshade
 * ../Solanum rostratum/ - Texas thistle
 * ../Solanum rugosum/ - Tabacon aspero
 * ../Solanum. sandwicense/ - Hawaii horsenettle
 * ../Solanum sarrachoides/ - Green nightshade
 * ../Solanum seaforthianum/ - Brazilian nightshade
 * ../Solanum sessiliflorum/ - Cocona
 * ../Solanum sisymbriifolium/ - Sticky nightshade
 * ../Solanum surattense/ -
 * ../Solanum tampicense/ - Wetland nightshade
 * ../Solanum tenuilobatum/ - San Diego nightshade
 * ../Solanum tenuipes/ - Fancy nightshade
 * ../Solanum torvum/ - Devil's fig
 * ../Solanum triflorum/ - Cutleaf nightshade
 * ../Solanum triquetrum/ - Texas nightshade
 * ../Solanum tuberosum/ - Potato
 * ../Solanum umbelliferum/ - Bluewitch nightshade
 * ../Solanum viarum/ - Tropical soda apple
 * ../Solanum villosum/ - Hairy nightshade
 * ../Solanum viride/ - Green nightshade cv. form from Fiji: S. anthropophagorum
 * ../Solanum wallacei/ - Wallace's nightshade, Catalina Nightshade
 * ../Solanum wendlandii/ - Giant potatocreeper
 * ../Solanum woodburyi/ - Woodbury's nightshade
 * ../Solanum xanthi/ - Purple nightshade

Uses
Aside from the species grown as food crops, many species are cultivated for their showy flowers and fruits. Several species are weeds.

Maintenance
Monitoring for pests and diseases is very important for all species of Solanum.

Pests and diseases
../Crown Gall/ ../Stem Rot/ ../Leaf Spots/ ../Wilts/ ../Blights/ ../Root Rots/ ../Damping Off/
 * ../Agrobacterium tumeifaciens/
 * Erwinia carotovora var. atroseptica: Potato Black Leg
 * Didymella lycopersicae
 * Alternaria solani
 * Ascochyta lycopersici
 * Cercospora dulcamarae
 * Mycosphaerella solani
 * Phyllosticta pseudocapsici
 * Stemphylium solani
 * ../Phytophthora/
 * ../Phytophthora capsici/
 * ../Verticillium albo-atrum/
 * Alternaria solani
 * ../Botrytis/
 * ../Phytophthora infestans/
 * ../Fusarium/: Potato Dry Rot
 * Helminthosporium solani: Potato Silver Scurf
 * Phoma exigua var. foveata: Potato Gangrene
 * Sporangospora subterranea: Potato Powdery Scab
 * Streptomyces scabies: Potato Scab

Viruses Mop-top Spraing Leaf Roll Other Viri
 * Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus
 * Mosaic
 * Tobacco Mosaic Virus
 * Potato Mop Top Virus
 * Tobacco Rattle Virus
 * Potato Mop Top Virus
 * Potato Leaf Roll Virus
 * Potato Virus X
 * Potato Virus Y

../Root Knots/
 * Southern Root Knot Nematode: ../Meliodgyne incognita/
 * Javanese Nematode: ../Meliodgyne javanica/

../Potato Cyst Nematodes/ ../Calcium Deficiency/

../Drought/ (causes hollow tubers on potatoes) ../Aphids/ ../Hoppers/ ../Psyllids/ ../Whiteflies/ ../Bugs/ ../Crickets/ ../Thrips/ ../Maggots/ ../Beetles/ ../Caterpillars/ ../Mites/ ../Millipedes/ ../Slugs and Snails/
 * Foxglove Aphid: ../Acyrthosiphon solani/
 * Bean Aphid: ../Aphis fabae/
 * Melon Aphid: ../Aphis gossypii/
 * Potato Aphid: ../Macrosiphum euphorbiae/
 * Green Peach Aphid: ../Myzus persicae/
 * Crescent-marked Lily Aphid: ../Neomyzus circumflexus/
 * Aster Leafhopper: ../Macrosteles facifrons/
 * Intermountain Potato Leafhopper: ../Empoasca filamenta/
 * Potato Leafhopper: ../Empoasca fabae/
 * Southern Garden Leafhopper: ../Empoasca solana/
 * Western Potato Leafhopper: ../Empoasca abrupta/
 * Potato Psyllid: ../Bactericerca cockerelli/
 * Citrus Whitefly: ../Dialeurodes citri/
 * Silverleaf Whitefly: ../Bemisia argentifolii/
 * Western Tarnished Plant Bug: ../Lygus hesperus/
 * Tarnished Plant Bug: ../Lygus lineolaris/
 * Garden Fleahopper: ../Halticus bractatus/
 * False Cinch Bug: ../Nysius raphanus/ (Western North America)
 * Southern Green Stink Bug: ../Nezara viridula/
 * Mole Crickets
 * Western Flower Thrips: ../Frankliniella occidentalis/
 * Flower Thrips: ../Frankliniella thricti/
 * Onion Thrips: ../Thrips tabaci/
 * Melon Thrips: ../Thrips palmi/
 * Vegetable Leafminer: ../Liriomyza sativae/
 * American Serpentine Leafminer: ../Liriomyza trifolii/
 * Seedcorn Maggot: ../Delia platura/
 * Black Blister Beetle: ../Epicuata pennsylvanica/
 * Colorado Potato Beetle: ../Leptinotarsa decemlineata/
 * Eggplant Flea Beetle: ../Epitrix fuscula/
 * Western Potato Flea Beetle: ../Epitrix subcrinita/
 * Eggplant Tortoise Beetle: ../Gratiana pallidula/
 * False Japanese Beetle: ../Strigoderma arboricola/
 * Hop Flea Beetle: ../Psyllioides punctata/
 * June Beetles: ../Phyllophaga/ spp.
 * Palestriped Flea Beetle: ../Systena blanda/
 * Potato Flea Beetle: ../Epitrix cucumeris/
 * Potato Stalk Borer: ../Trichobaris trinotata/
 * Tobacco Flea Beetle: .. Epitrix hirtipennis/
 * Tuber Flea Beetle: ../Epitrix tuberis/
 * European Corn Borer: ../Ostrinia nubilalis/
 * Stalk Borer: ../Papaipema nebris/
 * Variegated Cutworm: ../Peridroma saucia/
 * Cabbage Looper: ../Trichoplusia ni/
 * Beet Armyworm: ../Spodoptera exigua/
 * Hornworms
 * Orange Tortrix:../Argyrotaenia citrana/
 * Potato Stem Borer: ../Hydraecia micacea/
 * (Solanum species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species - see list of Lepidoptera which feed on Solanum.)
 * Two-spotted Spider Mite: ../Tetranychus urticae/
 * Garden Symphylan: ../Scutigerella immaculata/

title: Horticulture/Solanum


text: User:Aldaron

title: User:Aldaron