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User:Whiteknight/New Book Guide/Basic Steps

There are a number of steps that I follow when I create a new book. In general, this is the list:

 * 1) Research the topic
 * 2) Create Outline
 * 3) Gather Resources
 * 4) Create Title
 * 5) Introduce Book

I will expand on each of these steps below.

Research the topic
It is impossible to create a new wikibook, if you (the first author) don't have a solid understanding of the material. Keep in mind, you don't need to have knowledge of just a single specific subject, but you also need to understand the various periphery subjects that are going to be related to your book. Also, you will need to know where your book is headed: what are the advanced topics that are related to your subject. Any given book should have a complete set of introductory material, practical material, and advanced material, if you expect the book to attract contributors and readers. If your book attracts neither group of people it is a wasted book.

For many school and university students, there is a strong impetus to create books based on your current and past coursework. This is both a good idea and a bad idea depending on how it is implemented. First off, college courses are limited by time and space constraints. The course must satisfy a set syllabus and calendar cycle. Also, school textbooks are highly limited in many aspects: the number of pages that a textbook can be is often limited by price factors, and manufacturing/printing capacity. Classes rarely conform exactly to the material that is provided in an average textbook, either the class teaches more material than the text covers, or the text covers far more material than the class can cover. Also, when considering textbooks, there is a tendency for authors to discuss unrelated materials. The last several chapters in most books are reserved for a brief summary of advanced material. Also, the first several chapters may contain primers and refresher material that is already available on wikibooks. No sense explaining the fundamentals of algebra in every new book, we have only to link to the relevant work on the mathematics bookshelf.

Keep in mind that some classes can sample a wide variety of topics (I had a physics class that covered electric circuits, light, gravity, and internal combustion engines, for example), while other classes may only be able to cover a small portion of another subject. As a good example, university programs usually split integral and derivative calculus into 3 or 4 separate classes. Basing a wikibook on such a model will create books that either have too little focus, or too little scope. When basing a book off previous and current coursework, make sure to combine together related material from multiple classes, ignore unrelated material, and find out what advanced topics may be learned in future classes. Even if you can't write intelligently on some topics, that doesn't mean that you can't include the topic in your new book.

Create Outline
The most important step that I take when creating a new book (and the step that generally takes the longest for me) is creating an initial outline. The outline provides focus to your new book by determining what subjects you want to write about, but it also helps you to get your material into order. If you create a book, and then you decide that you don't like the page layout, or that you want things in a different order, or that you want to merge subjects or fork subjects into different pages, then the task becomes significantly harder.

A general rule of thumb that I follow is to only create a sub-page if you can populate that subpage with at least 4 headings. Granted, this isn't a hard and fast rule, and there are definitely instances where this might not be appropriate, but it serves as a good guideline. As a matter of practicality, having 4 headings on a page means that the page will automatically generate a table of contents. Notice that this includes sub-headings too, so if you have a lot to write about but only have 3 major headings on the page, you should be able to divide one of those up into subheadings.

I prefer a flat naming scheme for creating my own books. This means that instead of having pages like "Circuit Theory/Circuit Components/Resistors/Ohms Law", we can have a single page called "Circuit Theory/Resistance" to cover all related material, and then make multiple top-level pages. Also, having shorter links helps on your fingers, especially when you have been typing away on your new book all day long.

Also, I never use a title page as a landing page, opting instead to link directly to the table of contents. That way, readers don't need to click an additional link to find out what a book contains, and it is easier for contributors to link directly back to the table of contents. As such, I usually include a small preface or introduction paragraph, The table of contents itself, and then a third section for further reading, extra resources, external links, etc. If you want a title page, include it separately.

On my outline, I generally separate the table of contents down into a number of different sections. Each section will contain a set of related pages and topics. I don't create a new section on the TOC unless I have at least 2 pages that can fit in it, and generally I prefer having at least 4 pages or more for each section. My thinking here, is that if you don't have enough to write about a set of topics, then those topics aren't important enough to warrant their own section in the TOC. Here is a simple framework example:

Now, in that example above, there is either no reason to have a separate section for "middle", or else we can reclassify some of the pages under "Advanced", to balance out the number of sections. If we use a flat naming scheme, this becomes even more dynamic, because we can move pages into different sections after the book has already been introduced, simply by moving a link on the page.

Also, when you are working on your outline, it is a good time to think about book navigation. How will you get from place to place in your book? will you be relying on the automatic backlinks, or will you be providing navigation links? If you want to have links, are you going to write them all out, or are you going to create a navigation template. As the creator of a book, and as the initial contributor, you need to lay a good foundation for your book so that other people will be able to come in and contribute to your book with a minimum of hassle.

Finally, the most important aspect of the outline is to get feedback. Contact other users, especially users who you think might be knowledgable in the subject, and ask them to comment/edit your outline. Feel free to make explanatory notes right on the page. Remember, this is just an outline, not yet a book. Get some input so that you can ensure that your book is good enough, well formed, well-planned, and will be able to attract contributors.

Gather Resources
It is important to have at least one external resource at your disposal when writing a new book. This is important for several reasons. First, material that you write in your new book can be referenced and validated by including a citation to the external resource. Second, having a physical book, or an ebook at your disposal on the same subject enables you to "borrow" the layout of the various topics. This can be a big help when you are creating your outline.

Also, you should do a wiki search on other wikimedia projects, to find related articles and books. On the bright side, if you can find a stub or a half-book that is in a state of disrepair on the same subject as your new book, can can merge them together. This will save you plenty of work and writing along the way.

A rule that I follow (and many other contributors can disagree) is that books should be simply named. This means that a book title should be descriptive enough to identify your given subject, but also easy enough that newcomers can find it and (hopefully) contribute. Also, we need to remember that "Wikibooks isn't paper", a guideline that many people ignore. Let's say that we have the following books on our bookshelf:

...
 * Introduction to Control Engineering
 * Chemical and Mechanical and Electrical Process Control
 * Advanced Process Control with Examples
 * Mechnical Control Units Design and Analysis
 * Mathematical Control Engineering

As we can see from the above list, all these books are on the same general subject, and each of them is so hard to find that a new contributor is likely to create their own new book, and not contribute to any of the existing books. Consider, a new user comes to Wikibooks and types in "Control System" into the search, and gets no results. Or, they do get some results with long titles, and a low relevancy statistic. Below the banner that says the "Control System" book could not be found is a little red link that says "you can create this page". Voila! there is now another book on this same topic, and this new user is going to start reinventing the wheel.

Also, even if a new user finds one of these existing books, it may turn out that the existing list of chapters and the table of contents is too restrictive, and then the new user either needs to cram his additional information into this old book (which is like cramming a round peg into a square hole), or they need to start their own book, with a similar restrictive focus, to account for the new material. Neither of these solutions are good.

Researching on Wikibooks can acquaint you with a number of these half-books, some stubs, some books that are poorly named, or books that are poorly laid-out. When you create your new book, you can merge all of these information resources together, under a single easy-to-find page title.

Create Title
As was alluded to above, the title of the book is one of the single most important factors as to whether your book will sink or swim. If you can't find your book in a search, or if the title is so long and complicated that people cant understand it, or if the title is so long that contributors don't waste the effort adding links to your book, then it is in trouble. Titles should specifically tell what your book is about, without ambiguity or confusion. Also, your book title should not immediately alienate any potential readers or contributors.

Here are some hard and fast rules that I follow, and that I think make good sense for the rest of the community.

 * 1) Avoid qualitative additions such as "Introduction to...", "Advanced...", "Survey of...", "...For Engineers", "...For scientists", "...for dummies", "...basics", etc. These additions in your title make your book harder to find, and they narrow down your pool of interested contributors. If you figure that a given contributor only really has the time and effort to contribute to one book on a given subject, then it doesn't make sense to make people choose between "Advanced Circuit Theory", "Introduction to Circuit Theory", and "Circuit Theory 2". Some contributors may be intimidated by the qualifier "Advanced...", in the same way that some contributors may balk at a book "...for dummies". Adding qualifiers only serves to reduce the pool of potential readers and contributors.
 * 2) Drop useless words. Consider the titles "Understanding Digital Circuits", "Learning Digital Circuits", "Digital Circuits by Example", etc. All of these books are about Digital Circuits, but they add useless words to the title. These additional words make the titles longer, harder to search for, etc. Also, if you delineate your book in such a fashion, it will provide an impetus for other contributors to create their own books to approach the subject from a different direction. If you create a book called "Digital Circuits by Example", it is possible (albeit improbable) that another user could create a book called "Digital Circuits with No Examples". Don't set your book up to be just one possible alternative. Make your book the definitive resource on your topic.
 * 3) Don't be too specific, but also don't be too vague. A title such as "Embedded Systems using FPGAs" eliminates all possible material that doesn't involve embedded systems and FPGAs, and therefore will provide impetus for a new book such as "Embedded Systems using Microcontrollers", "Embedded Systems using Microchip PIC Controllers", etc. Also, a name as vague as "Embedded", even if it is on the CS or EE bookshelf is simply not enough. There is no need to have multiple books on the various aspects of embedded systems, we only need one book to cover the entire subject.
 * 4) Don't say in 3 words what can be said in 1. Don't name your book "Semiconductor Physics", or "The Physics and Principles and Uses of Semiconductors", when the same material can be covered by a book titled "Semiconductors". Again, this makes your book easier to find, and it increases the number of people who will potentially contribute to your book.
 * 5) Avoid combinations. In general, we shouldn't use the word "and" in a book title to combine two different topics. When possible we should try to find a single term that covers everything. Instead of "Control Theory and Control Hardware", consider instead the more direct title, "Control Systems". This blanket term covers both of the other terms, and at the same time maintains the focus on control.
 * 6) Don't use pseudo-namespaces. This is a big issue over on the CS bookshelf, and I personally don't like it. In general, people won't be searching wiki for "Programming:Assembly", they will simply type in "Assembly Language". Remember, you want people, especially people who aren't familiar with the wikibooks bookshelf organization, to be able to find your book.
 * 7) Under no circumstances should you name your book something proprietary, or something that makes no sense outside a small target audience. For example, do not name your book after a particular class from your university: "EEng 321: Semiconductor systems and analysis". The qualifier "EEng 321:" makes no sense to people outside your particular university, and therefore other people will not want to contribute. Also, associating a given book with a particular class taught at a particular university limits the possible content of that book to the content taught in that class.
 * 8) By the same rationale, don't intend to break up books in the same way that the material might be broken down in one of your classrooms. College programs, due to time and space constraints, break down subjects into "Physics 1" and "Physics 2". A wikibook does not need to be the perfect size and shape to exactly fit a 1 semester course. For example, I created the Communication Systems book from a combination of coursework that I took, including classes titled "Analog and Digital Communications", "Telecommunications", and "Communication Networks". Other books, such as an outline that I am currently working on for "Analog and Digital Conversion", are subjects that I've expanded from individual sections in a class: it didn't even take a whole semester! Wikibooks isn't paper, and it also shouldn't be constrained by time or space issues.
 * 9) Use title caps. This is not Wikipedia, we do not have to name things according to their conventions. Here at Wikibooks, we are creating entire books, not articles, and therefore we should title them like books. Use title caps, to signify that your book is an entire book, and not just an encyclopedia article. Title caps are the capitalization of all the important words in the title, such as "A Book About Stuff", instead of "A book about stuff".

These rules may seem like a lot, but they are designed to make book titles informative, helpful, and succinct.

Introduce Book
When it is time to introduce your book, there are a number of sub-steps:

Find the Right Place
If you have created your new book in your user namespace, you will need to move it to the main module namespace. For instance, if your book is titled "User:MyUserName/My Book", you would want to move it to "My Book". Likewise, all pages with names "User:MyUserName/My Book/Page" should be moved to "My Book/Page". If you didn't create the page in your user namespace, type the new title (making sure to use proper spelling and capitalization) into the searchbox. This will take you to the new page (or it will give you a red link to click on, which will take you to the new page), where you can start uploading your content.

Make sure that you don't overwrite anything that is already existing. Double-check that you aren't deleting another persons work.

Advertise
Advertising your book is quick and easy using the comprehensive category system at Wikibooks. To add a new book you don't need to edit any pages except for your book. When you first create a new book, add to the top. This will alert people that your book is new, and it will automatically include the book in the new books list that appears on many pages.

You also need to think about properly categorizing your book. To do this, add the template to your book (top or bottom of page). To figure out what subject category your book belongs in, you can browse the list at Subject:All Subjects, or you can ask the experts at New Books Staff Lounge.

Absorb Stubs
When you introduce your book, go around to all those other half-books, stub books, and malformed books, and post notices that you intend to merge them into your new book, or that you intend to delete them outright (as inferior forks of the new book). If available, contact the major contributors from the other books, and let them know what is happening: You created a new book with X Y Z design objectives, you feel that the new book is superior in terms of planning layout and potential, and you feel that their book should be merged into yours, etc. Also, invite them to come in and help out with your new book. Often times, people are more enthusiastic about helping a large project, than having to deal with administering and supervising their own.

Find Contributors
I generally do a quick search of the User: namespace, to find other contributors who list the subject of your book as a topic of interest. Extend a personal invitation for these other users to contribute as well.

Once you have invited other contributors to help, look around Wikibooks for books on related topics. Related books are perfect places to link your book, and this will help increase traffic. For instance, the book "Robotics" would definitely benefit from links to books such as "Embedded Systems", "Digital Circuits", "Mechanics", etc. This way, the people at "Robotics" don't need to explain all these subjects, they can use your book as a stepping stone. Don't forget to list your book at Wikiversity as well.

An additional step that can be taken is to explore the list of requested wikibooks, and see if anybody has requested a wikibook on the subject of your new book. If there is a pending request on your subject, strike it out, and post a link to your new book. If a registered user made such a request, send him a note about your new book, and invite him to help out.


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User:Whiteknight/New Book Guide/General Timeframe

Outline the Book
When I decide to create a new book, I generally create a new page in my user namespace to host the outline first. Then, I will begin some preliminary research (looking up the topic on the web, finding related books in a library). From my preliminary research (which generally only takes a few hours or so, initially), I create my first outline.

I try to host a particular outline on my user page for at least one month (and I have some that have been in the works for nearly a year or more). I try not to introduce books any more frequently than one per month, although when I am between semesters, or when I have a lot of time off, I can speed up the process considerably. It is important to note that getting a new book up and running is a time-consuming process. Just laying the necessary ground work, without adding any content can take an hour or more of your time. At least, that's if you want to do it right.

In the time that your outline is being hosted on your user page, it is a good idea that you post notes in related Wikibooks, and on the user pages, to try and get feedback for your outline. Sometimes however, there is no feedback to be had, so it is up to you to make sure the book is in good condition.

Introducing the Book
Once I am satisfied with my outline, and I have set aside enough time to actually implement the book, I introduce the book. In an initial flurry of activity, I can usually get the book set up, posted on the main page and shelved on a bookshelf. I can also create a few basic sub pages, an introductory page, a basic list of references, etc. In the weeks that follow, I will contribute to the book significantly. After about a month, I contribute to the new book about as frequently as I do to any other book.

I like to plan out when I introduce new books, and follow the plan pretty strictly. I try to give myself about 1 month between new books, dependent on the amount of time and energy I have to contribute. If I only am creating new books, then I don't have time to contribute to old books, and that's not a good situation at all. For this reason, I try to keep new book introductions spread out.

Growing the Book
When a book has been introduced, it needs to grow. Some of the basic navigation templates should be created and implemented quickly, and they can be expanded later if needed to be more complicated. Pages should be created and filled with bullets, if nothing else. A LMOS should be created, especially if there are "quirks" about your book that you would like other authors to adhere to.

In many instances, material can be imported from wikipedia, or images can be found on commons that can be used in your books. Initially, it can be easy enough to simply import a wikipedia article, or to link to a bunch of images on commons. However when the initial work is completed and the form of the book is set, you can go back and integrate these materials into your narrative in a clean way.

Don't forget to dewikify any pages that you import from wikipedia, and if you do a copy+paste move, you should give attribution to wikipedia (and preferrably a link to the source) in the edit summary, the page itself, or the talk page.

Maintaining the Book
Once the form of the book is set, we start the final phase of the book creation process, which is maintenance. We don't want to maintain the book as it is, we want to maintain the growth of the book. The ultimate goals of a book should be:

 * 1) To be Featured.
 * 2) To have a presentable printable and PDF version of the book.
 * 3) To be distributed, read, and used for learning by other people.

Once your book is created, you can work towards all of these goals by adding content, improving the quality of your pages (including formatting), and by making lots and lots of small improvements.

Development Stages
There is no single cannonical way to interpret the development or  templates, but this is a good way that is even and honest:

 * [[File:00%.svg]] — Book is a stub, contains little or no contents. Main page consists of either a paragraph or an outline with red links.
 * [[Image:25%.png]] — Book is expanding. New pages are being created, the TOC is being expanded and reordered. Many pages are stubs or contain very little content.
 * [[Image:50%.png]] — The basic TOC has been finalized, although more new chapters are added occasionally. Many pages contain significant text content, or image content, but are not integrated. Pages frequently are not properly formatted.
 * [[Image:75%.png]] — Book pages contain significant content, including images and other media, proper formatting, and templates. Some book-specific templates are being designed and implemented, including inter-page navigation. Book has a printable version, and possibly a PDF version.
 * [[Image:100%.png]] — Book pages contain good content, including multimedia, example problems, explanations, etc. Book has a printable version and a PDF version, and possibly sub-versions of each. Book has significant meta pages including LMOS and support pages for new contributors. Book has a cover page, listings of resources, and proper notices of GFDL content.

I recommend against using development stages on individual pages, because it can take more work to update all the different stages, and all too often these stages are neglected and become out of date. Also, I recommend using the template instead of the  template, because people tend not to update the date in the latter template, which also leads to confusion.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User:Whiteknight/New Book Guide/Monolithic Books

Monolithic Books
Sometimes a new book is best formatted as a monolithic book (a single, large page), and some books are better served being broken up into multiple subpages. If you choose to make your book into a monolithic book, you can use your original outline as the list of headings for your page. If you want to break your book into subpages, the outline can be treated as a list of subpages to create, and a list of headings to put on each subpage. Even if your book starts off relatively small, it might become bigger in the future. It is often a good idea, therefore, not to create your books as monolithic structures, but instead to break them up into subpages in anticipation of future expansion. A little forethought can go a long way.

Starting Point: Single Page
It's natural to start creating a new book as a single page, simultaneously adding content and structure as you go. Many books start out this way, and as the format of the book takes shape, the content could optionally be broken into subpages in a logical way. This very book was started as a single page, and was later broken up into subpages when it became too long.

Benefits Of Single Page Formats
Single page books are nice for small books. They reduce the need to navigate between pages to continue reading, and they also serve as a printable version without having to create a new print version page.

Creating Subpages
As a book gets larger, it's often unwieldy and unreasonable to keep the page as a single page. Large pages also put a larger strain on the server software, which can have a negative effect on the entire community.

As a matter of practical significance, books that are in a single-page format are less likely to be considered to be featured by the community. Several books have been voted against because they are large single-page books.

Considerations
Breaking a book into subpages can be difficult for a number of reasons. Copy+paste moves of content between pages can disrupt the history logs, which puts a strain on people who are looking for a particular edit. Also, pages need inter-page navigation, which can be tricky to put together, especially if the page order is not set in stone. Multiple pages also frequently benefit from categorization, a subject that we cover in another chapter.

On the other side of the coin, creating a single large page and then later breaking it into subpages can help to keep you organized while you write. Also, if you don't have a definite plan for your book, you will have to worry about constantly reorganizing and moving content between various pages. If you start out as one large page, you can find the logical break-points in the work and create subpages from that.


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User:Whiteknight/New Book Guide/Appendices

Appendices
What differentiates a wikibook from a wikipedia article, besides relative length, is the fact that a book generally has a flow from subject to subject, an organization structure of related ideas, and a general progression. Books frequently go forward in a linear manner, with basic subjects being taught in the beginning, progressing to the advanced subjects that appear towards the end. However, in a book, there are frequently subjects that don't fit into this nice linear progression, or reference material that is best utilized by reading it in parallel with other topics in your book. This information can be included best in appendices, at the end of your table of contents.

I find it is frequently helpful to create a template for your book that will post automatic links to the relevant appendix page(s). I generally implement such a template as a floating box on the right-hand side of the page that states something to the effect of "There is more information about this subject in the appendix" or "There are related reference materials in the appendix".

Since appendix materials are located outside of the main book progression, you really dont need to agonize over them when creating your outline. Frequently, appendix materials are already created in stub books that your new book will gobble up.

Peripheral Topics
Frequently you will find material that sort-of fits into your book, but it certainly doesn't belong anywhere else, but at the same time isn't worthy of deletion. Such things like historical notes, tangent subjects, etc can be included in additional appendix and "further reading" pages. Since these aren't references that are useful for following the main progression of your book, they aren't called appendices. Peripheral pages consists of materials that maybe don't strictly "belong" in your book, but are interesting enough not to be deleted outright. Also, such tangents can enhance the learning experience of some readers.

For example, in the Communication Systems book that I created, there are some tables (lists of frequencies, lists of Fourier transforms, etc) that are useful resources for the main progression and therefore are appendices. There is other information that I found in a stub book that I merged on the life and history of Claude Shannon. This material wasn't necessarily part of the main progression of the book, but it was well-enough written and informative enough that it didn't deserve deletion. I posted it in an extra page, and made a link to it from the appropriate places.


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User:Whiteknight/New Book Guide/Book Formatting

Formatting
Once a new book is created, the issue about how to format the book is raised. I personally think that the book should use a minimal amount of formatting when it is first created because a new book is subject to far more alterations than a large, well-established book is. In the first few months your book is going to undergo many changes, if not at your hands, then at the hands of the other contributors. As such, it doesn't make sense to format your book rigidly, or to expect other contributors to use large blocks of boiler-plate code for each new page, or each new section. To make a book look good, it should be consistent. Each page should use the same navigation scheme, and therefore navigation is probably best handled by a template. If you want to add cool formatting and all sorts of special tables and CSS markup to your page, I suggest making a single template page or example page, and then apply the markup to the rest of the pages after they have been established.

Local Manual of Style
I find that it's a good idea to post a list of all templates that are specifically designed for your book. I personally put this list on the talk page of the main page of the book. This way, new contributors can read about the various templates and will be able to contribute to the book more effectively.

Another option is to establish a Local manual of style (LMOS), which is essentially a guideline for all contributors to follow. A LMOS can help to prevent arguments and disputes further down the line, as more contributors join the project.

Formatting Templates
There are a number of templates available for adding specially formatted text and other objects to your text. It is generally preferable to use a pre-made template than to create an entirely new template for your book. Many of the general templates have been parameterized so that their look and style can be altered to suit your book. If you don't find a template that you want to use, you can consider making your own. However, make sure that all the contributors to your book know about these templates and how to use them properly. This usually requires the creation of template documentation, which can be costly in terms of time.

Navigation Links
I am on the fence about putting "forward" and "backward" navigation page links in the page-header template, if one is used. Keep in mind that this can be a tedious process for new pages, because links need to be altered when a new page is added, and you need to make sure that no pages are left out of "the loop." I do like the idea of using optional parameters in a template to optionally add forward and backward links, if needed. However, adding optional links is difficult for new users to master, and therefore can probably just be ignored for a new book.

Conclusion
Again, this is the most important point: New books should refrain from having a lot of formatting, templates, or boiler-plate code. New books will undergo heavy editing, reconfiguring, and even reformatting before they are well established. The biggest rule that people should take with them is: Work on content first, Formatting later.


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User:Whiteknight/New Book Guide/Categorizing

Categorizing
Another point that is worth mentioning is that a new book should be properly categorized. Categorizing a book properly won't help attract as much attention as listing it on the main page, or putting it on an appropriate bookshelf, but having things neatly and correctly categorized will help to give your book the professional "look and feel" that is the hallmark of a good and stable book here on wikibooks.

Categorizing a book on Wikibooks can be very easy. The most important thing to determine is what subject your book belongs to. Go to Subject:All Subjects and read through the list of currently existing subjects. If you find one that your book fits into, you are well on your way. If you can't find a good one for your book, ask about it at The New Books Staff Lounge. If other wikibookians can't find a proper category for your book (and they usually can), a new one can be created.

Categorizing your book is simple, and requires only a few short steps.

Categorization Templates
There are a few important categorization templates that, if used properly, can help to categorize your new book properly without needing to deal with the technical details of page categorization.

Subject
The most important categorization template that your book can use is the template. This template lists books by subject, and helps to ensure that the books are properly listed in the Subject Pages.

To list your book with the template, check the list at Subject:All Subjects, and pick the subject that best describes your book. Use the template with this subject. For instance, if your book was about mathematics you would write. The subject template can be used with multiple subjects, especially if your book does not fit into any one particular subject very well.

In general, avoid creating a new subject tag unless your book absolutely doesn't fit in anywhere else. Ask for help at the new books chat or the project chat room for help in creating a new subject page, if you don't know how to do it.

Alphabetical
List your book in the alphabetical listing. To do this, use the template, using the first letter of the book as the first argument. For example, use if your book starts with R.

Prerequisites and Corequisites
Many books have prerequisite topics that readers should be familiar with before they start reading. Use the and  templates on your book to specify these types of relationships.

Reading Level
Books tend to fit into a specific reading level. This is determined by the age and education levels of the target audience. Use the template to specify which reading level a particular book uses. See Reading Levels for an explanation of the various levels in use.


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User:Whiteknight/New Book Guide/Naming Conventions

Naming Conventions
It is important at the offset of a new book for the originial contributor to pick a naming scheme and to stick to it. I am a strong advocate of the "Forward Slash" convention, and I also am an advocate of a flat naming scheme. Granted, there are other ways to name a book, but pick one and stick to it.

Template Names
Make sure that all the book-specific templates that you use in your book have the title of your book in the name of the template. This will help ensure that other people don't try to hijack your templates, and it will also ensure that you won't be taking away template space from other projects. Instead of, use something like Signals and Systems Page.

Templates that are used in the book should be named either: "Template:<>/<>", "Template:<> <>", or something similar. I prefer the first form, although several of my earlier books still imploy the second form.

Category Names
Also, make sure any categories that you create for use with your book are named appropriately. The category names that you employ should mirror the title of your book, or use the title of your book as a prefix. That way, everybody knows that your category goes with your book, and you also aren't stealing any namespace from other books who might need it.


text:
User:Whiteknight/New Book Guide/Conclusions

These are the general steps that I have followed whenever I wanted to create a new book on Wikibooks. My first book, Reverse Engineering taught me a lot of lessons about book creation, and I have spent a lot of time fixing and reformatting that book to be a good resource. One of my more recent books, Control Systems was in planning for a pretty long time, but because of the extra time, was able to reach a good stable state in a matter of days.

For interested readers, I maintain a page in my user space with my upcoming projects listed, and even described. This page is known as My Book Foundry, and people are welcome to come see what projects I have planned, and what books I will be introducing in the future.

Even though this book doesn't represent official Wikibooks policy or official guidelines, I feel that it can be a useful resource for dedicated editors who sincerely want to create new books, and expand Wikibooks. We have the potential and the tools here to truly create a valuable resource for students around the world, and if we put thought and planning into it, we can help to utilize that potential. I would love to hear from other contributors about this guide (positive or negative), and I would love to hear about the experiences other people have had in creating new books and new modules here on Wikibooks. Good luck, and happy writing.


text:
User:Whiteknight/New Book Page

Whiteknight's Book Guide My Page — Talk About It

title: User:Whiteknight/New Book Page


text:
Haskell/Concurrency

Concurrency
Concurrency in Haskell is mostly done with Haskell threads. Haskell threads are user-space threads that are implemented in the runtime. Haskell threads are much more efficient in terms of both time and space than Operating System threads. Apart from traditional synchronization primitives like semaphores, Haskell offers Software Transactional Memory which greatly simplifies concurrent access to shared memory.

The modules for concurrency are Control.Concurrent.* and Control.Monad.STM.

When do you need it?
Perhaps more important than when is when not. Concurrency in Haskell is not used to utilize multiple processor cores; you need another thing, "parallelism", for that. Instead, concurrency is used for when a single core must divide its attention between various things, typically IO.

For example, consider a simple "static" webserver (i.e. serves only static content such as images). Ideally, such a webserver should consume few processing resources; instead, it must be able to transfer data as fast as possible. The bottleneck should be I/O, where you can throw more hardware at the problem. So you must be able to efficiently utilize a single processor core among several connections.

In a C version of such a webserver, you'd use a big loop centered around  on each connection and on the listening socket. Each open connection would have an attached data structure specifying the state of that connection (i.e. receiving the HTTP header, parsing it, sending the file). Such a big loop would be difficult and error-prone to code by hand. However, using Concurrent Haskell, you would be able to write a much smaller loop concentrating solely on the listening socket, which would spawn a new "thread" for each accepted connection. You can then write a new "thread" in the IO monad which, in sequence, receives the HTTP header, parses it, and sends the file.

Internally, the Haskell compiler will then convert the spawning of the thread to an allocation of a small structure specifying the state of the "thread", congruent to the data structure you would have defined in C. It will then convert the various threads into a single big loop. Thus, while you write as if each thread is independent, internally the compiler will convert it to a big loop centered around  or whatever alternative is best on your system.

Software Transactional Memory
Software Transactional Memory (STM) is a mechanism that allows transactions on memory similar to database transactions. It greatly simplifies access to shared resources when programming in a multithreaded environment. By using STM, you no longer have to rely on locking.

To use STM, you have to import. To change into the STM monad the  function is used. STM offers different primitives (, ,   and  ) that can be used for communication.

title: Haskell/Concurrency


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Talk:Stress-related Disorders

PTSD, not uncommon. Knowing some psycho-related basics are not meaningless while handling PTSD/Stress suferrer.

Thanks!

title: Talk:Stress-related Disorders


text:
Circuit Theory/LC Tuned Circuits

Series LC
A circuit of one Capacitor and one inductor connected in series

Circuit Impedance

 * $$Z = Z_L + Z_C$$
 * $$Z = j\omega L + \frac{1}{j\omega C}$$
 * $$Z = \frac{1}{j\omega C} (j\omega^2 + 1)$$
 * $$Z = LC$$

Natural Response
At equilibrium, the total voltage of the two components are equal to zero
 * $$L\frac{dI}{dt} + IR = 0$$
 * $$\frac{dI}{dt} = - I \frac{R}{L}$$
 * $$\int \frac{dI}{I} = - \frac{R}{L} \int dt $$
 * $$ln I = - \frac{t}{T} + C$$
 * $$I = e^(- \frac{t}{T} + C)$$
 * $$I = A e^(- \frac{t}{T})$$

The Natural Response of the circuit is a Exponential Decrease in time

Resonance Response

 * $$ Z_L - Z_C = 0$$ . $$ V_L + V_C = 0$$
 * $$\omega L = \frac{1}{\omega C}$$
 * $$\omega = \sqrt{\frac{1}{LC}}$$
 * $$ V_C = - V_L $$

In Resonance, Impedance of Inductor and Capacitance is equal and the sum of the Capacitor and Inductor's voltage are equal result in Standing Wave Oscillation. Therefore, Lossless LC series can generate Standing Wave Oscillation

LC in Parallel
A circuit of one Capacitor and one inductor connected in parallel

Circuit Impedance

 * $$\frac{1}{Z} = \frac{1}{Z_L} + \frac{1}{Z_C}$$
 * $$Y = \frac{1}{j\omega L} + j \omega C$$
 * $$Y = \frac{1}{j\omega L} (j \omega^2 + 1)$$

title: Circuit Theory/LC Tuned Circuits


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Indian Lore/Foods

The plant foods in the list below were introduced by the Native Americans. Items in bold are known to have retained their Native American names.

(Word origin of some of these verified at Etymology Online.)

|


text:
User talk:Alwares~enwikibooks

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
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 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
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 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
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 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 17:21, 16 May 2007 (UTC)

Links
Please improve the page rather than placing links back there again - thank you -- Herby talk thyme 10:10, 21 May 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Alwares. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Alwares~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 22:56, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:31, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Alwares~enwikibooks


text:
Genetic Information/Glossary

 * codon: three consecutive nucleotides in a strand of DNA or RNA that genetically codes for a specific amino acid.

title: Genetic Information/Glossary


text:
User talk:216.83.97.14

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 18:11, 16 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:216.83.97.14


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Talk:Myers-Briggs Type Indicator/INTJ

The "opinion" section... a little too opinionated, if you catch my meaning? Rather ironic, if you consider the description of the INTJ.

Famous INTPs
Gandalf in the books and House are INTPs.

I agree, House is definitely an INTP, not an INTJ. 125.238.44.148 (talk) 09:13, 3 July 2009 (UTC)

The "guide on how to deal with an INTJ" section is masturbatory, ridiculous and unnecessary.

Doctor Who?
Which incarnations of The Doctor are INTJ? --96.253.50.139 (talk) 22:38, 1 October 2010 (UTC)

Michelle Obama
Really?

title: Talk:Myers-Briggs Type Indicator/INTJ


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Circuit Idea/Passive Voltage-to-Current Converter

<<< contents - active version - page stage >>>

Building a Passive Voltage-to-Current Converter

Circuit idea: Voltage applied across a resistor makes a proportional current flow through the resistor.

Problem: How to convert voltage into current
Have you noted that, in low-voltage electronics, the electrical attributes voltage and current carry information rather than energy? And, for some reasons, we prefer voltage as a data carrier? As a result, most electronic circuits have voltage inputs and outputs.

Unfortunately:), there are also current-input and current-output devices. Examples: an ammeter has only a current input, a current source has only a current output, a bipolar transistor has a current input and current output, a tube and an FET transistor have a voltage input and current output, a transimpedance amplifier and a Norton amplifier have a current input and voltage output, etc. In these cases, we need devices converting the electric attributes carrying information from voltage to current and vice versa.

In this story, we begin revealing the secret of the famous (so much as Ohm's law) voltage-to-current converter, which changes the electrical data carrier from voltage to current (Fig. 1). As usual, there are two versions of this circuit - passive ("bad") and active ("good"). Here, we begin with the "bad" passive version. Then, in another story dedicated to the "good" active version, we will show that the two versions are not independent. Instead, there is a close interrelation between the two circuits: the active version came from the passive one (the active version comprises the passive one, it is just an improved passive version). In this way, we will show the evolution of the famous circuit moving, step-by-step, from simple to complex.

Basic non-electrical idea: Pressure causes flow
Have you ever asked yourself questions about causality in our world: "Which came first, the egg or the hen?" (troubling philosophers from the remote past to the present day:) and, "What causes what - pressure causes flow or flow causes pressure?". As it is hard for us to answer this primary questions we might just assume that both the alternative answers are possible.

Well, let's first begin with the more popular assumption that pressure causes flow. Really, we may observe many situations in life, where a pressure-like quantity puts in motion a flow-like one through an impediment. Here are some examples: pneumatic (imagine a constant pressure pump moves air through a closed loop of pipes - you may carry out such a funny experiment by using an old-fashioned air cleaner, which sucks and blows air through a closed loop made from a corrugated hose), water (remember famous communicating vessels where the height difference between the two vessels causes water to flow), thermal (if we warm up a metal bar on the one side, heat begins flowing to the other side), mechanical (imagine that a motor drives a belt - energy is flowing along this "circuit"), informational (someone tells a story to somebody else - data flows through the phone line), money (the rich give money to the poor:), etc. If you need more examples, just look around and you will find a lot of pressure-causes-flow (more generally, difference-causes-movement) analogies. Let's finally generalize all these situations.

If we apply a pressure to an impediment, a flow begins flowing. In this arrangement, the pressure-like, flow-like and impediment-like attributes are interrelated. Usually, the output flow-like variable is proportional to the input pressure-like one; so, we may say that the impediment converts the pressure like variable into a flow-like one.

Building the circuit

In electricity, we might ask ourselves the electrical version of the philosophical "egg or hen" question above, "What causes what in Ohm's law - voltage causes current or current causes voltage?" Again, as it is hard to answer this primary question we might assume that both the alternative answers are possible.

In this story, we will begin with the more popular assumption that voltage causes current in the most elementary Ohm's circuit supplied by a voltage source (Fig. 2). As we know, if we apply a voltage VIN across a resistor R, a proportional current IOUT = VIN/R begins flowing through the circuit. We may say that this is a voltage-causes-current formulation of Ohm's law: I = V/R.

In this voltage-supplied circuit, the resistor R determines the current flowing through it. We usually say that the resistor converts the voltage VIN into a proportional current IOUT or it serves as a simple voltage-to-current converter - a linear circuit with transfer ratio k = IOUT/VIN [mA/V].

A bare resistor can convert the voltage into current.

Exploring the circuit operation
We may present the circuit operation and Ohm's law in a more attractive manner than I = V/R, if we visualize the invisible electrical quantities by means of voltage bars and current loops (Fig. 2). They are based on the famous water tower and fish tank hydraulic analogies. In this "geometrical" presentation, the height of the voltage bars is proportional to the corresponding voltages (drops) and the thickness of the current loop is proportional to the magnitude of the current (see also an interactive animation).

Then, we may present the circuit operation (and Ohm's law) graphoanalytically - Fig. 3. As the voltage across and the current through the two 2-terminal components (the voltage source and the resistor) are the same, we may superimpose their IV curves on a common coordinate system. The intersection of the two lines is the operating point A; it represents the current magnitudes of the voltage VA and the current IA. When we vary the voltage VIN of the input voltage source, its IV curve moves horizontally (see also an interactive animation). As a result, the working point A slides over the IV curve of the resistor R; its slope represents the converter's ratio.

Finally, we may present the circuit operation by another attractive graphical interpretation of Ohm's law - the voltage diagram (the voltage distribution along the resistive film inside a linear resistor) - Fig. 4. In this geometrical presentation, local bars with corresponding height represent the local voltage drops (for simplicity, we may draw only the envelope of the voltage diagram). We may intuitively derive the idea of voltage diagram from many examples of human routine: hydraulic, pneumatic, mechanical, thermal, etc. These analogies help to understand that the local voltages along the resistive film decrease gradually (linearly) from the left to the right when the input voltage varies. Actually, this arrangement reproduces the famous Ohm's experiment (see also another interactive animation). In this arrangement, the tangent of the angle α represents the current IOUT.

V-to-I converter acting as an output device

Voltage-controlled current source. Almost all the natural electrical sources are constant voltage sources (primary and secondary batteries). Actually, there are no constant current sources in nature (excepting inductor, Van der Graaf generator and photodiode); if we need a current source, we have to build it. For this purpose, we connect a voltage-to-current converter (a resistor R) in series with the input voltage source VIN - Fig. 5. The building formula is:

Current source = Voltage source + Voltage-to-current converter

If we shorten the circuit output with an ideal current load (just a piece of wire), it will generate a constant current IOUT = VIN/R.

A real load (an LED on Fig. 5) introduces some voltage drop VL, which affects the excitation voltage VIN. Now, the voltage difference VIN - VL determines the current IOUT instead the voltage VIN; as a result, the current decreases (see the section about imperfections).

V-to-I converter acting as an input device
Compound voltmeter. A meter movement (a galvanometer) is actually an ammeter. In order to measure a voltage by an ammeter, we connect a voltage-to-current converter (the so called "multiplier" resistor R) before the ammeter (Fig. 6). In this way, we may present the classic voltmeter as a composed device consisting of two components:

Compound voltmeter = Voltage-to-current converter + Ammeter

The multiplier resistor of a classic voltmeter acts as a voltage-to-current converter.

Compound passive converters: Similarly, in the popular passive circuits of capacitive integrator, inductive differentiator, logarithmic converter, etc., the resistor acts as a voltage-to-current converter (Fig. 7):

V-to-V RC integrator = V-to-I converter + I-to-V C integrator

V-to-V RL differentiator = V-to-I converter + I-to-V L differentiator

V-to-V RD log converter = V-to-I converter + I-to-V D log converter

In these circuits, the respective I-to-V converters introduce some voltage drop, which affects the excitation voltage VIN. As a result, the current decreases and an error appears (see the section about imperfections).

Transistor base resistor. A BJ transistor is a current-controlled device; it actually "shorts" the input source (more precisely speaking, we may drive the transistor by a small voltage V IN < V BE0 ). In order to drive a transistor by a relatively high voltage (for example, in the circuit of a transistor switch), we connect a base resistor in series with the base-emitter junction. It acts as a voltage-to-current converter thus endowing the transistor with a voltage input (Fig. 8.):

Voltage-input transistor = V-to-I converter + current-input transistor

With the same purpose, resistors are connected to the inverting and non-inverting inputs of a Norton op-amp, in order to apply a voltage.

The transistor's base resistor acts as a voltage-to-current converter.

Op-amp inverting amplifier (an input part). In the op-amp inverting circuits the op-amp keeps the voltage of the inverting input at zero level (the so-called virtual ground). As a result, the circuit behaves as a current-controlled device, which "shorts" the input source connected to the inverting input. In order to drive the op-amp by a voltage (for example, in the circuit of an op-amp inverting amplifier), we connect a resistor acting as a voltage-to-current converter between the input voltage source and the inverting input (Fig. 9):

Op-amp inverting amplifier = V-to-I converter + op-amp I-to-V converter

Op-amp V-to-V RC integrator = V-to-I converter + op-amp I-to-V C integrator

Op-amp V-to-V RL differentiator = V-to-I converter + op-amp I-to-V L differentiator

Op-amp V-to-V RD log converter = V-to-I converter + op-amp I-to-V D log converter

What are the input/output resistances?

It is interesting to investigate the input and output resistance (for concreteness, let us assume a resistive load RL).

Input resistance. First, connect an ammeter in series with and a voltmeter in parallel to the converter's input; then vary the input voltage to investigate the input resistance. Looking from the side of the input source we see two resistors connected in series; so, the input resistance is RIN = R + RL. As you can see, it depends on the load resistance RL.

Output resistance. Now, connect a voltmeter in parallel to and an ammeter in series with the converter's output; then, vary the load resistance (voltage) and observe the current to investigate the output resistance. Looking from the side of the load, we see only the resistor R; so, the output resistance is ROUT = R. Here we suppose that the input voltage source is perfect (i.e., it has zero internal resistance).

Imperfections

Real loads act as imperfect current loads dissipating energy (for example, simple ammeter, current measuring resistor, a diode, etc.) or storing energy (a capacitor, secondary battery, an inductor, etc.) They have some resistance (linear or non-linear), capacitance or inductance, which cause a voltage drop VL to appear across the load (Fig. 12). As a result, now the voltage difference VIN - VL determines the current IOUT instead only the voltage VIN; as a result, the current decreases. You can explore the circuit operation in a more attractive way, if you click Exploring button in the interactive flash movie or if you go to Stage 2 in the interactive flash builder.

The same problem exists in the water analogy of communicating vessels, where the height difference between the vessels determines the flow rate instead only the height of the input water pressure source to determine it.

Improvement
Classic remedy. In some cases (e.g., when the passive voltage-to-current converter is a part of a current source), we may apply a paradoxical trick from our humane routine - depreciate a harmful quantity by another many times bigger harmful quantity. In electricity, this is the well-known classic remedy to decrease the error caused by the load: increase both the excitation voltage V and the resistance R to suppress the load voltage drop VL. As a result, the output current remains the same but the influence of the load (even, if it varies) decreases; thus we get a comparatively constant current source. If we go too far, we will "invent" the classic "electricity" definition of the ideal current source, where an infinite voltage divided by an infinite resistance gives a finite current. For example, imagine that we build 1mA current source first by using 10V voltage source and 10K resistor, then - 100V and 100K, after - 1000V and 1000K, ...and finally - infinite V and infinite K. Only, imagine what power the resistor will dissipate in this compromised solution! In addition, we usually can not change the input voltage V and the resistance R. How to solve the problem then?

Looking for a perfect remedy. Note, that a strange contradiction exists in the simple voltage-to-current converter: from one side, the voltage drop VL is useful as it serves as an output voltage; from the other side, this voltage drop is harmful as it decreases the actual current-creating voltage VR across the resistor R. How can we solve this contradiction? Remember what we do in life when something bad appears. If you do not manage to find a remedy, visit the related story about active voltage-to-current converter to get an answer.

Wikibooks
Reinventing the op-amp inverting voltage-to-current converter reveals the basic idea behind the active version. Passive current-to-voltage converter will reveal the basic idea behind the passive version of the "mirror" circuit.

Resistors is a comprehensive story about the simplest resistive components.

Wikipedia
Voltage-to-current converter introduces the passive and active versions of the circuit. Current-to-voltage converter introduces the passive and active versions of the "mirror" circuit.

Circuit Fantasia
Reinventing voltage-to-current converter is a similar circuit story but it is better structured and easier to navigate. Passive Voltage-to-Current Converter is an interacting Flash movie (Flash player needed)

Other web resources
Voltmeter design presents a classic but useful viewpoint at the ordinary "movement" voltmeter.

<<< top - contents - active version - page stage >>>


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Talk:Myers-Briggs Type Indicator/Types

Why is it that only the INTP page has a general description? Can no one take the time to work on the others?

title: Talk:Myers-Briggs Type Indicator/Types


text:
Change Issues in Curriculum and Instruction/Note to Contributors

This book will be started by students in a graduate level education course at Old Dominion University in Norfolk, VA. One of the purposes of this text is to consider some of the ways in which the ever-changing global landscape is impacting the ways education is taking place. Further, the text will discuss some of the ways in which the global changes can help improve the educational system in America and beyond.

Anyone interested in the topics discussed is more than welcome to contribute. Thanks for your help, and enjoy the book.


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Cookbook:Frog's Eye Salad

Frog's eye salad is a dessert salad common in the American midwest.

Ingredients

 * 1 package Acini di pepe pasta
 * 2 cans (30–40 oz) crushed pineapple
 * 2 cans (30–40 oz) mandarin oranges
 * 3 egg yolks
 * 1 cup (240 ml) granulated sugar
 * 1 tub imitation whipped topping
 * ½ package miniature marshmallows

Procedure

 * 1) Cook pasta in a large saucepan. Drain and rinse pasta.
 * 2) Drain cans of pineapple and oranges, reserving juice.
 * 3) Mix juices, sugar and egg yolks in a medium saucepan. Bring to full rolling boil, stirring frequently until thickened.
 * 4) Pour hot sauce over pasta. Cool and refrigerate overnight.
 * 5) Add fruit and mix well, then fold in whipped topping and marshmallows.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Keep refrigerated.
 * Lasts for several days.
 * Garnish with Maraschino cherries.
 * You may optionally add ½ cup flaked coconut or chopped nuts (pecans, walnuts, etc.)

title: Cookbook:Frog's Eye Salad


text:
William Shakespeare's Works/Comedies/Taming of the Shrew

The Taming of the Shrew is a comedy by William Shakespeare, written between 1593 and 1594. This play revolves around the gentleman Petruccio's romantic pursuit of the eldest daughter of a local merchant.

Acts

 * /Act 1/
 * /Act 2/
 * /Act 3/
 * /Act 4/
 * /Act 5/

Dramatis Personæ
(Induction)
 * Christopher Sly
 * a Lord
 * Barholemew
 * Hostess
 * Players
 * Huntsmen
 * Servants

(Play-Within-A-Play)
 * Baptista Minola
 * Vincentio
 * Lucentio
 * Petruccio
 * Gremio
 * Hortensio
 * Tranio
 * Biondello
 * Grumio
 * Curtis
 * Pedant
 * Katherine
 * Bianca
 * a Widow
 * Tailor
 * Haberdasher
 * Servants


text:
William Shakespeare's Works/Comedies/The Tempest

The Tempest is a comedy by William Shakespeare. The play's date is a subject of not insignificant debate. Some scholars place it at around 1610, while others at around 1603 or 1604. The story revolves around a sorcerer, his daughter and the young noble who seeks to win her heart.

Acts

 * /Act 1/
 * /Act 2/
 * /Act 3/
 * /Act 4/
 * /Act 5/

Dramatis Personæ

 * Alonso
 * Sebastian
 * Prospero
 * Antonio
 * Ferdinand
 * Gonzalo
 * Adrian
 * Francisco
 * Caliban
 * Trinculo
 * Stephano
 * Shipmaster
 * Boatswain
 * Mariners
 * Miranda
 * Ariel
 * Iris
 * Ceres
 * Juno
 * Nymphs
 * Reapers
 * Dogs
 * Spirits


text:
General Chemistry/Predicting Chemical Reactions

Types of Reactions
There are several guidelines that can help you predict what kind of chemical reaction will occur between a mixture of chemicals.

However, not all elements will react with each other. To better predict a chemical reaction, knowledge of the reactivity series is needed.

Reactivity
When combining two chemicals, a single- or double-replacement reaction doesn't always happen. This can be explained by a list known as the reactivity series, which lists elements in order of reactivity. The higher on the list an element is, the more elements it can replace in a single- or double-replacement reaction. When deciding if a replacement reaction will occur, look up the two elements in question. The higher one will replace the lower one.

Elements at the very top of the series are so reactive that they can replace hydrogen from water. This explains the explosive reaction between sodium and water:

$$2\hbox{Na}_{(s)} + 2\hbox{H}_2\hbox{O}_{(l)} \to 2\hbox{NaOH}_{(aq)} + \hbox{H}_{2(g)}$$

Elements in the middle of the list will react with acids (but not water) to produce a salt and hydrogen gas. Elements at the bottom of the list are mostly nonreactive.

Elements near the top of the list will corrode (rust, tarnish, etc.) in oxygen much faster than those at the bottom of the list.

The Reactivity Series
Most Reactive Least Reactive


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General Chemistry/Limiting Reactants and Percent Yield

Limiting Reactants
When chemical reactions occur, the reactants undergo change to create the products. The coefficients of the chemical equation show the relative amounts of substance needed for the reaction to occur. Consider the combustion of propane:

$$\hbox{C}_3\hbox{H}_8 + 5\hbox{O}_2 \to 3\hbox{CO}_2 + 4\hbox{H}_2\hbox{O}$$

For every one mole of propane, there must be five moles of oxygen. For every one mole of propane combusted, there will be three moles of carbon dioxide and four moles of water produced (along with much heat). If a propane grill is burning, there will be a very large amount of oxygen available to react with the propane gas. In this case, oxygen is the excess reactant. There is so much oxygen that the exact amount doesn't matter—it will not run out.

On the other hand, there is not an unlimited amount of propane. It will run out far before the oxygen runs out, making it a limiting reactant. The amount of propane available will decide how far the reaction will go.

The reactant that is left over after the reaction is complete is called the "excess reactant". Often, you will want to figure out how much of the excess reactant is left after the reaction is complete. to do this, first use mole ratios to determine how much excess reactant is used up in the reaction.

Here are the ratios that need to be used:

$$\left ( \frac{\text{moles of  limiting  reactant}}{1} \right )	*\left ( \frac{\text{coefficient  of  product}}{\text{coefficient of limiting reactant}} \right )	=  \text{moles of excess remaining}$$

Percent Yield
Usually, less product is made than theoretically possible. The actual yield is lower than the theoretical yield. To compare the two, one can calculate percent yield, which is $$ \frac{actual~yield}{theoretical~yield} \times 100$$.

The percent yield tells us how far the reaction actually went.


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General Chemistry/Phases of Matter

Phases of Matter

 * 1) Solids [[Image:50%.svg]]
 * 2) Liquids [[Image:50%.svg]]
 * 3) Gases [[Image:75%.svg]]
 * 4) Phase Changes [[Image:50%.svg]]

Gases

 * 1) Behaviour of Gases [[Image:25%.svg]]
 * 2) Diffusion and Effusion [[Image:75%.svg]]
 * 3) Gas Laws [[File:100 percent.svg]]

title: General Chemistry/Phases of Matter


text:
General Chemistry/Gases

Characteristics of Gases
Gases have a number of special characteristics that differentiate them from other states of matter. Here is a list of characteristics of gases:

Standard Temperature and Pressure
Standard Temperature and Pressure, or STP, is 0 °C and 1 atmosphere of pressure. Expressed in other units, STP is 273 K and 760 torr. The Kelvin and torr are useful units of temperature and pressure respectively that we will discuss later in the following sections.

Avogadro's Law

Avogadro's Law states that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. So both one mole of Xenon at STP (131.3 grams) and one mole of helium at STP (4.00 grams) take up 22.4 liters. Even 1 mole of air, which is a mixture of several gases, takes up 22.4 liters of volume. 22.4 L is the standard molar volume of a gas.

 * $$\frac{V}{n} = k\,$$.

where:
 * V is the volume of the gas.
 * n is the number of moles of the gas.
 * k is a proportionality constant.

The most important consequence of Avogadro's law is that the ideal gas constant has the same value for all gases. This means that the constant

 * $$\frac{p_1\cdot V_1}{T_1\cdot n_1}=\frac{p_2\cdot V_2}{T_2 \cdot n_2} = const$$

where:
 * p is the pressure of the gas
 * T is the temperature of the gas

has the same value for all gases, independent of the size or mass of the gas molecules.

Pressure
Gases exert pressure on their containers and all other objects. Pressure is measured as force per unit area. A barometer is a device that measures pressure. There are a number of different units to measure pressure:
 * torr, equal to millimeters of mercury (mm Hg): if a glass cylinder with no gas in it is placed in a dish of liquid mercury, the mercury will rise in the cylinder to a certain number of millimeters.
 * atmosphere (atm), the pressure of air at sea level.
 * pascal (Pa), equal to one newton (N) per square meter. A newton is the force necessary to accelerate one kilogram by one meter per second squared.

You should know that 1 atm = 760 torr = 101.3 kPa.

Ideal Gases
Gases are complicated things composed a large numbers of tiny particles zipping around at high speeds. There are a number of complex forces governing the interactions between molecules in the gas, which in turn affect the qualities of the gas as a whole. To get around these various complexities and to simplify our study, we will talk about ideal gases.

An ideal gas is a simplified model of a gas that follows several strict rules and satisfies several limiting assumptions. Ideal gases can be perfectly modeled and predicted with a handful of equations.

Ideal gases follow, among others, these important rules:

Ideal Gas Law
Ideal gases can be completely described using the ideal gas law:

 * $$\ pV = nRT  $$

where
 * $$\ p $$ is the absolute pressure of the gas,
 * $$\ V $$ is the volume of the gas,
 * $$\ n $$ is the number of moles of gas,
 * $$\ R $$ is the ideal gas constant,
 * $$\ T $$ is the absolute temperature, in Kelvin.

Ideal Gas Constant
The ideal gas constant, R, is a constant from the ideal gas equation, above, that helps to relate the various quantities together. The gas constant represents the same value, but the exact numerical representation of it may be different depending on the units used for each term. The table at right shows some values of R for different units. Here is the value of R using Joules for energy, Kelvin for temperature, and moles for quantity:

 * $$R = 8.314472\ \ JK^{-1}mol^{-1}$$

Real Gases
All real gases (or non-ideal gases) deviate from the ideal gas laws that we discussed above. These deviations can occur for several reasons:

 * Real molecules have mass and volume. They are too big and no longer behave like ideal point masses
 * Low volumes and high pressures cause molecules to be close enough for intermolecular forces. Polar molecules exaggerate the problem.
 * Low temperature means low kinetic energy. At lower temperatures, intermolecular forces become significant and cannot be ignored like they are in ideal gasses
 * Other complicated factors may prevent ideal behavior.

When these issues are present, gas molecules attract each other, and may even condense into a liquid. Gases act most like ideal gases when the molecules have low mass (small volume), are not polar, and are at high temperature and low pressure. Noble gases like Xenon or Argon act the most like ideal gases because they are mostly electrical neutral and non-interactive.

Kinetic Molecular Theory
This theory describes why gases exhibit their properties. It only applies accurately to ideal gases. Because there is no such thing as an ideal gas, the Kinetic Molecular Theory can only approximate gas behavior. It is still very useful to chemists.

The Kinetic Molecular Theory explains the pressure, temperature, kinetic energy, and speed of gases and their molecules. See Wikipedia for the exact equations of the Kinetic Molecular Theory, as well as detailed explanations. What is most important is understanding the general concepts, not the specific equations.

Kinetic Energy and Temperature
Kinetic energy is the mechanical, or movement, energy. It is given by the equation:

 * $$KE = \frac{1}{2}mv^2_{rms}$$

where
 * $$m$$ is mass and
 * $$v_{rms}$$ is the average velocity

Explained with words, kinetic energy is dependent on the product of a particle's mass and its velocity squared. The more kinetic energy, the faster a particle moves. Conversely, the faster a particle moves, the more kinetic energy it has.

The Kinetic Molecular Theory states that kinetic energy and temperature are directly proportionate. Thus, a double in temperature will result in a double in kinetic energy and an increase in velocity by a factor of 1.4 (the square root of 2, see the KE equation). This means that the higher the temperature of a gas, the faster the individual particles in that gas are moving.

A hotter gas has more kinetic energy than a colder gas. If two gases are at the same temperature, they will have the same kinetic energy. The lighter-massed gas will have a higher average speed for its particles at the same energy level. It is important to know that gas temperature must be measured in kelvin. Zero degrees Celsius is 273 kelvin. One Celsius degree is equal to one kelvin, but the kelvin scale has water's freezing point at 273 and boiling point at 373. It is necessary to use kelvin because temperatures must always be positive when using the Kinetic Molecular Theory.

Pressure and Collisions
Pressure exists because the gas molecules are in continuous random motion, and they will constantly strike the walls of their container. Pressure will increase as the speed of the molecules increases, due to greater forces of collision. Pressure will also increase as the mass of the molecules increase. A small, slow molecule has less momentum than a large, fast molecule, which explains their difference in pressure.

Química/Propiedades de los gases Introdução à Química/A fase gasosa

title: General Chemistry/Gases


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General Chemistry/Gas Laws

Gas Laws
As the result of many different science experiments, several gas laws have been discovered. These laws relate the various state variables of a gas.

These gas laws can be used to compare two different gases, or determine the properties of a gas after one of its state variables have changed.

Combined Gas Law
Combining Charles' Law, Boyle's Law, and Amontons's Law gives us the combined gas law.

Ideal Gas Law
When Avogadro's Law is considered, all four state variables can be combined into one equation. Furthermore, the "constant" that is used in the above gas laws becomes the Universal Gas Constant (R).

To better understand the Ideal Gas Law, you should first see how it is derived from the above gas laws. The ideal gas law is the most useful law, and it should be memorized. If you know the ideal gas law, you do not need to know any other gas laws, for it is a combination of all the other laws. If you know any three of the four state variables of a gas, the unknown can be found with this law. If you have two gases with different state variables, they can be compared.

There are three ways of writing the ideal gas law, but all of them are simply algebraic rearrangements of each other.

 Rules for Using the Ideal Gas Law
 * Always convert the temperature to kelvins (K).
 * Always convert mass to moles (mol).
 * Always convert volume to liters (L).
 * It is preferable to convert pressure to kilopascals (kPa). R, the Universal Gas Constant, would be 8.314 (L·kPa)/(mol·K).

Kinetic Molecular Theory
The Kinetic Molecular Theory attempts to explain the gas laws. It describes the behavior of microscopic gas molecules to explain the macroscopic behavior of gases. According to this theory, an ideal gas is composed of continually moving molecules of negligible volume. The molecules move in straight lines unless they collide into each other or the walls of their container.

The gas laws are now explained by the microscopic behavior of gas molecules:
 * Boyle's Law: The pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume. A container's volume and surface area are obviously proportional.  Based on the pressure equation, an increase in volume (and thus surface area) will decrease pressure.
 * Charles' Law: the volume of a gas is proportional to its temperature. As the volume (and surface area) increases, the pressure will decrease unless the force also increase.  When pressure is constant, the volume and temperature must be proportional.  The temperature equation above explains why:  the energy of the molecules (and their collision force) is proportional to temperature.
 * Gay-Lussac's Law: The temperature of a gas is directly proportional to its pressure. An increase in temperature will increase the kinetic energy of the molecules (shown by the temperature equation).  Greater kinetic energy causes the molecules to move faster.  Their collisions with the container will have more force, which increases pressure.
 * Avogadro's Law: Equal volumes of all ideal gases (at the same temperature and pressure) contain the same number of molecules. According to the Kinetic Molecular Theory, the size of individual molecules is negligible compared to distances between molecules. Even though different gases have different sized molecules, the size difference is negligible, and the volumes are the same.

Deviations from the Ideal Gas Law
In an ideal gas, there are no intermolecular attractions, and the volume of the gas particles is negligible. However, there is no real gas that can perfectly fits this behavior, so the Ideal Gas Law only approximates the behavior of gases. This approximation is very good at high temperatures and low pressures.

At high temperature the molecules have high kinetic energy, so intermolecular attractions are minimized. At low pressure the gas occupies more volume, making the size of the individual molecules negligible. These two factors make the gas behave ideally.

At low temperature or high pressure, the size of the individual molecules and intermolecular attractions becomes significant, and the ideal gas approximation becomes inaccurate.

Eudiometers and Water Vapor
A eudiometer is a device that measures the downward displacement of a gas. The apparatus for this procedure involves an inverted container or jar filled with water and submerged in a water basin. The lid of the jar has an opening for a tube through which the gas to be collected can pass. As the gas enters the inverted container, it forces water to leave the jar (displacing it downward). To fill the entire container with gas, there must enough gas pumped into the container to expel all of the water.

As seen in this diagram, the downward displacement involves water. Therefore, in the container where the gas is collected, there is unwanted water vapor. To account for the water vapor, subtract the pressure of water vapor from the pressure of the gases in the container to find the pressure of the collected gas. This is simply a restatement of Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure: $$P_\text{total} = P_\text{water vapor} + P_\text{gas}$$

The pressure of water vapour can be found on this webpage.

Gas Laws Practice Questions

 * 1) Between the Combined Gas Law and the Ideal Gas Law, which one accounts for chemical change? Explain.
 * 2) Calculate the density of hydrogen at a temperature of 298 K and pressure of 100.0 kPa.
 * 3) What volume does 5.3 moles of oxygen take up at 313 K and 96.0 kPa?
 * 4) Hydrogen and sulfur chemically combine to form the gas hydrogen sulfide, according to the reaction: . How many liters of hydrogen are required to form 7.4 L of hydrogen sulfide (at STP: 273 K, 101.3 kPa)?

Answers to Gas Laws Practice Questions

title: General Chemistry/Gas Laws


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General Chemistry/Diffusion and Effusion

Diffusion
Diffusion is the process of a substance spreading out to evenly fill its container or environment. In a solution, a concentrated solute diffuses to spread evenly in its solvent. This is the process where the particles move from high concentration to low concentration. Diffusion explains why an open bottle of ammonia will fill an entire room with odor. The gas molecules escaping from the bottle spread out to fill their new container: the room. As a result, the whole room smells. Upon opening the windows, the gas will diffuse into the environment.

Diffusion is also the process of two gases mixing together, if both stored in the same container. They will spread out evenly, resulting in a solution (homogeneous mixture).

Effusion
Effusion is the process of gas molecules escaping from a small hole in the container. Effusion explains why fumes are noticeable near a leaky fuel pipe.

Effusion obviously depends on the size of the hole. If small enough, effusion may not occur because, like a beach ball hitting a basketball hoop, the molecules can't fit. If the hole is large enough, the process may be considered diffusion instead of effusion.

Effusion can be seen with balloons. Effusion proves that the balloon has holes in it, even though it looks totally impassable. When left alone for several days, a balloon filled with helium will eventually deflate. If that balloon were filled with hydrogen, it would deflate in less time because the molecules are smaller and escape with ease. and you can try that this is chemistry ks3

==

The more massive a gas is, the slower it effuses. The relationship is given by Graham's Law.

$$\frac{Rate_1}{Rate_2} = \sqrt \frac{M_2}{M_1}$$, where M is the molar mass of a gas molecule.

As an example, assume there are two identical containers with holes. Container A has hydrogen gas (M=2 g/mol) and Container B has helium gas (M=4 g/mol). If the hydrogen gas effuses at a rate of 4 mol/hr, the helium gas would effuse at a slower rate (being heavier). Using Graham's Law, we can see that it would effuse at a rate of about


text:
User talk:199.80.152.42

spam is bad =( Hoogli 21:04, 16 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:199.80.152.42


text:
User talk:Pathfinders/About the author

huh??? Hoogli 21:07, 16 May 2007 (UTC)
 * This page is transcluded at the end of several chapters of a book. Mark is not the only one to have one of these.  --Jomegat 21:56, 16 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Then why is this an orphaned page? Hoogli 20:47, 29 May 2007 (UTC)
 * I wouldn't call it an orphan. It's included in several places: Special:Whatlinkshere/About_the_author/Mark_O'Ffill

title: User talk:Pathfinders/About the author


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IB Environmental Studies/Systems and Models

IB Environmental Systems

Topic 1: System and Models

system	– a collection of interrelated parts that work together by way of some driving process. surroundings – everything around the system being studied

open system – exchanges energy and matter with surroundings. Most ecosystems are open.

closed system – exchanges energy but not matter with surroundings. Our planet is [usually] closed.

isolated system – exchanges neither energy nor matter with surroundings. Laboratory experiments are usually isolated.

- First Law of Thermodynamics: Conservation of energy.

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another. There is a fixed amount of energy in the universe. Therefore, living organisms must get their required energy from their environment and surroundings.

-Second Law of Thermodynamics: In an isolated system entropy tends to increase spontaneously.

When energy is converted from one form to another, some of the energy is degraded into less-usable heat which disperses into the environment. Thus the amount of energy remains the same, but its usability decreases.

Entropy measures the amount of disorder in the universe – usable energy is more organized whereas less-usable energy is more diffuse/disorganized. Entropy increases naturally, or spontaneously.

Equilibrium – A state of balance among the components of a system

Stable equilibrium - The condition of a system in which there is a tendency for it to return to a previous equilibrial condition following disturbance

Steady-state equilibrium – The condition of an open system in which there are no changes over the longer term, but in which there may be oscillations in the very short term. There are continuing inputs and outputs of matter and energy, but the system as a whole remains in a more-or-less constant state.

Dynamic equilibrium –	there is no specific ‘average’ state; the system has different average states at different times. After a disturbance, the system may move to a different ‘average’ state.


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Finite Model Theory/Motivation

We give a simple example of applications of FMT first and then some typical examples.

FMT everywhere
Some simple examples that show how elementary the issues are that FMT cares about:

Databases
A typical application area of FMT is database theory:
 * Consider a companies' database that contains all managers together with the 'is superordinate' relation amongst them. In a proper hierarchy the database should contain no circles, i.e. a manager can not be a superordinate of his superordinate.  Querying this corresponds to checking a graph for cyclicity.  As from above this cannot be done in First Order Logic (FO).
 * Say two managers want to find out if one of them is more powerful than the other. They need to query the database if the number of their subordinates is equal, i.e. the cardinalities of the sets of subordinates (say, directly and indirectly) is equal.  This can't be done in FO ("FO cannot count").  This is the reason SQL is extended by a counting function.
 * Consider a database $$F$$ of airports and connection flights among them, where $$F(x, y)$$means there is a direct flight from airport $$x$$ to airport $$y$$. We can write an order-zero query of the direct reachability of airport $$b$$ from airport $$a$$ as

$$q_0(a, b) = F(a, b)$$.

Now in order to query connections with one change of plane we write

$$q_1(a, b) = \exists_c F(a, c) \land F(c, b)$$ and get $$Q_1(a, b) = q_0(a, b) \lor q_1(a, b)$$

for connections with zero or one change. Thus in order to extend this to reachability (of no matter how many changes) we have to write

$$Q = \bigvee_{k\in\mathbb{N}} q_k$$

which is not a FO expression. So we are fine with FO for a restricted reachability up to a certain k but not for reachibility as it appears in graph theory. In fact it can be shown that reachability cannot be queried in FO.

title: Finite Model Theory/Motivation


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IB Environmental Studies/Ecosystem

Topic 2: The Ecosystem
Ecosystems are the biotic and abiotic factors in a specified area that interact with one another.The term environment means surroundings. It comes from the French word environner (to encircle or to surround). It is a composite term for the conditions in which organisms live and thus consists of air, water, soil and sunlight which are the basic needs of all living beings and plant life, to carry on their life functions. The environment also includes others like temperature, wind, energy etc. Thus it consists of both biotic and abiotic substances. Environment creates favourable conditions for the existence and development of living organisms.

2.1. Structure

 * biotic factor - A living, biological factor that may influence an organism or ecosystem, such as producers-plants,consumers-animals etc
 * abiotic factors – A non-living or physical factor that may influence an organism or ecosystem. For example, precipitation, wind, sunlight, soil, temperature, pH, salinity, light, temperature. Understanding the interaction of the biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem can help us to see why particular human activities may be a problem for human survival. Example: The loss of ozone in the stratosphere increases the quantity of UV radiation on the surface of the planet. In the same way that humans experience sunburn from too much sun exposure, so do plants. Excessive UV may damage or destroy plant protein and DNA, killing the plant.
 * Trophic level - The position that an organism occupies in a food chain, or a group of organisms in a community that occupy the same position in food chains. And is mainly considered as feeding level.

 * 1) Producers/Autotrophs - Organisms that make their own food. Usually plants through photosynthesis.
 * 2) Primary consumers - Organisms that consume producers.
 * 3) Secondary consumers - Organisms that consume primary consumers.

 * 1) Herbivores - Organisms that eat plants, but no meat.
 * 2) Carnivores - Meat-eaters.
 * 3) Omnivores - Organisms that eat both plants and meat
 * 4) Saprotrophic - Decomposers

niche - A species' share of a habitat and the resources in it. An organism's ecological niche depends not only on where it lives but on the role it plays in the ecosystem.
 * 1) species - A group of organisms that interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
 * 2) population - A group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same time, and which are capable of interbreeding.
 * 3) community - A group of populations living and interacting with each other in a common habitat.
 * 4) ecosystem - A community of interdependent organisms and the physical environment they inhabit.
 * 5) habitat - The environment in which a species normally lives.
 * fundamental niche - The part of the habitat in which a species can live in the absence of competitors and predators
 * realized niche - The part of the habitat that the organism actually occupies.

biome – large, relatively distinct terrestrial region characterized by similar climate (temperature and precipitation), soil, and organisms.

 * competition – [– ,–] Two species (interspecies competition) or two populations of the same species (intraspecies competition) compete for the same resources. Both sides are harmed.
 * symbiosis – biological interaction where two different species are in direct contact with each other.
 * commensalism – [0, +] One species benefits, the other is unaffected
 * mensalism – [0, –] One species is harmed, the other is unaffected
 * mutualism – [+, +] Both species benefit
 * predation – [+, –] One species benefits, the other is harmed. The prey is usually killed quickly.
 * parasitism – [+, –] One species benefits, the other is harmed. The host is killed slowly if at all.

2.2. Function
photosynthesis – 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy ⇒ C6H12O6 + 6O2 + heat – Carbon Dioxide, Water and Sunlight go in, Glucose, Oxygen and Heat are produced.

respiration – C6H12O6 + 6O2 ⇒ 6CO2 + 6H2O + released energy (heat) – Glucose and Oxygen go in, Carbon Dioxide and Water and Heat are produced.

2.3. Changes
Reproductive Strategies: r and K r-selection

 * 1) Short-lived
 * 2) Large broods
 * 3) Reproduce early in life
 * 4) Little to no care for young
 * 5) Relatively small

K-selection

 * 1) Long-lived
 * 2) Few offspring per reproductive period
 * 3) Reproduce later in life
 * 4) Nurture young
 * 5) Relatively large

succession – a change over time in the types of species that occupy a given area.
 * primary succession – ecological succession in an environment that has not been previously inhabited (no soil is present).
 * pioneer communities – the first organisms to colonize (or recolonize) an area.
 * secondary succession – ecological succession in an environment that was exposed to some type of disturbance (soil is already present).

sere – a sequence of communities over ecological time. Each stage of succession is called a seral stage.
 * lithosere – succession on bare rock
 * hydrosere – succession in freshwater lakes
 * psammosere – succession on sand dunes
 * halosere – succession on salt marshes

climax community – species composition no longer changes over time; secession stops. Community retains an overall uniform appearance.

title: IB Environmental Studies/Ecosystem


text:
Talk:History of Apple Inc.

NPOV
I think the existence of the phrases "lousy CEO" and "our savior" are enough evidence. Hoogli 22:30, 16 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Done. Those were only empty heading no loss of useful content... --Panic (talk) 02:00, 17 April 2010 (UTC)

Merge and some restructuring of the stub
There is some content on this project and some work put into it, it still needs a lot more and more flow given to the structure, I've done my bit here please do continue... --Panic (talk) 20:31, 25 April 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:History of Apple Inc.