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Lists of airports

An airport is an aerodrome with facilities for flights to take off and land. Airports often have facilities to store and maintain aircraft, and a control tower. An airport consists of a landing area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including at least one operationally active surface such as a runway for a plane to take off or a helipad, and often includes adjacent utility buildings such as control towers, hangars and terminals.

An airport with a helipad for rotorcraft but no runway is called a heliport. An airport for use by seaplanes and amphibious aircraft is called a seaplane base. Such a base typically includes a stretch of open water for takeoffs and landings, and seaplane docks for tying-up. An international airport has additional facilities for customs and immigration.

By continent

 * Lists of airports in Africa
 * List of airports in Antarctica
 * Lists of airports in Asia
 * Lists of airports in Europe
 * Lists of airports in North America
 * Lists of airports in Oceania
 * Lists of airports in South America

By traffic type

 * List of busiest airports by aircraft movements
 * List of busiest airports by cargo traffic
 * List of busiest airports by passenger traffic
 * List of busiest airports by international passenger traffic

By continent

 * List of the busiest airports in Africa
 * List of the busiest airports in Asia
 * List of the busiest airports in Europe
 * List of the busiest airports in North America
 * List of the busiest airports in Oceania
 * List of the busiest airports in South America

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By elevation

 * List of highest airports
 * List of lowest airports

Other

 * List of international airports by country
 * List of eponyms of airports - airports named after people
 * List of airports with triple takeoff/landing capability
 * List of airports by metropolitan area, see: Category:Airports by city
 * List of airports with scheduled commercial service, see: Airline destinations
 * Lists of military installations

title: Lists of airports


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Talk:Inorganic chemistry

Chemistry
Is hydrogen until now fixed in periodic table? If yes Then HOW? Gautam kumar sah (talk) 15:34, 19 December 2016 (UTC)

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Possible organization
I am trying to think of ways to organize this article without reinventing what has been done and trying to avoid my (or any editor's) biases. One idea, which I applied to agricultural chemistry, is to apply the scope of the field as defined by an authoritative journal. For Agricultural Chemistry, I relied on the American Chem Society's Journal of Agricultural Chemistry's statement of scope. Below, I list excerpts from the Royal Society of Chemistry's journal and the corresponding ACS journal
 * Dalton Transactions, Journal scope
 * inorganic chemistry, which encompasses the organometallic, bioinorganic and materials chemistry of the elements, with applications including synthesis, catalysis, energy conversion/storage, electrical devices and medicine. ...areas of our scope is given below.
 * Solid-state inorganic materials (including nanomaterials). solid-state, materials and nano-chemistry ... synthesis, characterisation, and applications of new inorganic or inorganic-organic hybrid solids, together with studies of their properties.
 * Catalysis ...This would include catalyst design and synthesis, structure-activity relationships and/or mechanistic studies.
 * Bioinorganic and medicinal inorganic chemistry...model compounds of metalloenzymes and biologically active inorganic compounds ... the sensing and visualization of biorelevant metal ions.
 * Theoretical and computational studies...models of reactivity, selectivity, bonding or structure, or new computational methods.
 * Analytical/separation studies and sensor development ... provided there is significant insight into the chemistry of the inorganic component.
 * notice no explicit mention of coordination or main group chemistry or industrial.

Going to check textbook. --Smokefoot (talk) 21:50, 26 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Inorganic Chemistry.  Aims & Scope:
 * Coordination and Organometallic Chemistry
 * Bioinorganic Chemistry
 * Solid State, Materials, and Nanoscale Chemistry
 * Energy and Photochemistry
 * Catalysis
 * Theory and Computation
 * notice no explicit mention of main group chemistry.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Inorganic chemistry


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Inclusion body myositis

Inclusion body myositis (IBM) (sometimes called sporadic inclusion body myositis, sIBM) is the most common inflammatory muscle disease in older adults. The disease is characterized by slowly progressive weakness and wasting of both proximal muscles (located on or close to the torso) and distal muscles (close to hands or feet), most apparent in the finger flexors and knee extensors. IBM is often confused with an entirely different class of diseases, called hereditary inclusion body myopathies (hIBM). The "M" in hIBM is an abbreviation for "myopathy" while the "M" in IBM is for "myositis". In IBM, two processes appear to occur in the muscles in parallel, one autoimmune and the other degenerative. Inflammation is evident from the invasion of muscle fibers by immune cells. Degeneration is characterized by the appearance of holes, deposits of abnormal proteins, and filamentous inclusions in the muscle fibers. sIBM is a rare disease, with a prevalence ranging from 1 to 71 individuals per million.

Weakness comes on slowly (over months to years) in an asymmetric manner and progresses steadily, leading to severe weakness and wasting of arm and leg muscles. IBM is more common in men than women. Patients may become unable to perform activities of daily living and most require assistive devices within 5 to 10 years of symptom onset. sIBM does not significantly affect life expectancy, although death related to malnutrition and respiratory failure can occur. The risk of serious injury due to falls is increased. There is no effective treatment for the disease as of 2019.

Classification and terminology
IBM stands for "inclusion body myositis: not "inclusion body myopathy." The 'inclusion body' refers to a histological finding of rimmed vacuoles in muscle tissue. However, IBM does not refer to the collection of diseases that feature these inclusion bodies. It refers to a specific disease entity.

Multiple genetic diseases that feature inclusion bodies have been grouped into "hereditary inclusion body myopathies (hIBM)." Myopathy is used because inflammation is not a prominent finding. There is inconsistency in what individual disease entities fall under the category of hIBM. The term "sporadic inclusion body myositis" (sIBM) was introduced as a way to refer to IBM to avoid confusion with hIBM. However, one author discourages use of sIBM, as it implies that IBM and hIBM differ only in inheritance; they actually have unrelated mechanisms and manifestations of disease.

Signs and symptoms

sIBM causes progressive muscle weakness. How sIBM affects individuals is variable, including the age of onset (which generally varies from the forties upwards) and rate of progression. Because of this variability, there is no "textbook case".

Common early symptoms include frequent tripping and falling and difficulty going up stairs. Foot drop in one or both feet can occur. Part of the cause for this dysfunction is the early involvement of the quadriceps muscles. Weakness of the tibialis anterior muscle is responsible for foot drop. Another common early symptom is trouble manipulating the fingers, such as difficulty with tasks such as turning doorknobs or gripping keys. Weakness of finger flexion and ankle dorsiflexion occurs early. sIBM also preferentially affects the wrist flexors, biceps, and triceps.

During the course of the illness, the patient's mobility is progressively restricted as it becomes difficult to bend down, reach for things, and walk quickly. Many patients say they have balance problems and fall easily, as the muscles cannot compensate for an off-balanced posture. Because sIBM makes the leg muscles weak and unstable, patients are very vulnerable to serious injury from tripping or falling down. Although pain has not been traditionally part of the "textbook" description, many patients report severe muscle pain, especially in the thighs.

Progressive difficulty swallowing (dysphagia) is present in 40 to 85% of IBM cases and often leads to death from aspiration pneumonia.

IBM can also result in diminished capacity for aerobic exercise. This decline is most likely a consequence of the sedentary lifestyle leading to disuse muscle atrophy that is often associated with the symptoms of IBM (i.e. progressive muscle weakness, decreased mobility, and increased level of fatigue). Therefore, one focus of treatment should be the improvement of aerobic capacity.

Patients with sIBM usually eventually need to resort to a cane or a walker and in most cases, a wheelchair eventually becomes a necessity.

"The progressive course of s-IBM leads slowly to severe disability. Finger functions can become very impaired, such as manipulating pens, keys, buttons, and zippers, pulling handles, and firmly grasping handshakes. Arising from a chair becomes difficult. Walking becomes more precarious. Sudden falls, sometimes resulting in major injury to the skull or other bones, can occur, even from walking on minimally irregular ground or from other minor imbalances outside or in the home, due to weakness of quadriceps and gluteus muscles depriving the patient of automatic posture maintenance. A foot-drop can increase the likelihood of tripping. Dysphagia can occur, usually caused by upper esophageal constriction that often can be symptomatically improved, for several months to years, by bougie dilation per a GI or ENT physician. Respiratory muscle weakness can sometimes eventuate."

Causes
The cause of IBM is unknown. IBM likely results from the interaction of a number of genetic and environmental factors.

There are two major theories about how sIBM is caused. One hypothesis suggests that the inflammation-immune reaction, caused by an unknown trigger – likely an undiscovered virus or an autoimmune disorder – is the primary cause of sIBM and that the degeneration of muscle fibers and protein abnormalities are secondary features. Despite the arguments "in favor of an adaptive immune response in sIBM, a purely autoimmune hypothesis for sIBM is untenable because of the disease's resistance to most immunotherapy."

The second school of thought advocates the theory that sIBM is a degenerative disorder related to aging of the muscle fibers and that abnormal, potentially pathogenic protein accumulations in myofibrils play a key causative role in sIBM (apparently before the immune system comes into play). This hypothesis emphasizes the abnormal intracellular accumulation of many proteins, protein aggregation and misfolding, proteosome inhibition, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress.

One review discusses the "limitations in the beta-amyloid-mediated theory of IBM myofiber injury."

Dalakas (2006) suggested that a chain of events causes IBM – some sort of virus, likely a retrovirus, triggers the cloning of T cells. These T cells appear to be driven by specific antigens to invade muscle fibers. In people with sIBM, the muscle cells display "flags" telling the immune system that they are infected or damaged (the muscles ubiquitously express MHC class I antigens) and this immune process leads to the death of muscle cells. The chronic stimulation of these antigens also causes stress inside the muscle cell in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and this ER stress may be enough to cause a self-sustaining T cell response (even after a virus has dissipated). In addition, this ER stress may cause the misfolding of protein. The ER is in charge of processing and folding molecules carrying antigens. In IBM, muscle fibers are overloaded with these major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules that carry the antigen protein pieces, leading to more ER stress and more protein misfolding.

A self-sustaining T cell response would make sIBM a type of autoimmune disorder. When studied carefully, it has not been possible to detect an ongoing viral infection in the muscles. One theory is that a chronic viral infection might be the initial triggering factor setting IBM in motion. There have been a handful of IBM cases – approximately 15 – that have shown clear evidence of a virus called HTLV-1. The HTLV-1 virus can cause leukemia, but in most cases lies dormant and most people end up being lifelong carriers of the virus. One review says that the best evidence points towards a connection with some type of retrovirus and that a retroviral infection combined with immune recognition of the retrovirus is enough to trigger the inflammation process.
 * amyloid protein
 * The hypothesis that beta amyloid protein is key to IBM has been supported in a mouse model using an Aβ vaccine that was found to be effective against inclusion body myositis in mouse models. Although this vaccine is likely, not safe for human use, it still shows that attacking Aβ has efficacy in mice against IBM.
 * Following up on earlier leads, the Greenberg group report finding that the protein TDP-43 is a very prominent and highly sensitive and specific feature of IBM. This protein is normally found within the nucleus but in IBM is found in the cytoplasm of the cell. This important advance should help develop a new screening technique for IBM and may provide clues in terms of a therapeutic approach

Genetics
sIBM is not inherited and is not passed on to the children of IBM patients. There are genetic features that do not directly cause IBM but that appear to predispose a person to getting IBM – having this particular combination of genes increases one's susceptibility to getting IBM. Some 67% of IBM patients have a particular combination of human leukocyte antigen genes in a section of the 8.1 ancestral haplotype in the center of the MHC class II region. sIBM is not passed on from generation to generation, although the susceptibility region of genes may be.

There are also several rare forms of hereditary inclusion body myopathy that are linked to specific genetic defects and that are passed on from generation to generation. Since these forms do not show features of muscle inflammation, they are classified as myopathies rather than forms of myositis. Because they do not display inflammation as a primary symptom, they may in fact be similar, but different diseases to sporadic inclusion body myositis. There are several different types, each inherited in different ways. See hereditary inclusion body myopathy.

A 2007 review concluded there is no indication that the genes responsible for the familial or hereditary conditions are involved in sIBM.

Diagnosis

Elevated creatine kinase (CK) levels in the blood (at most ~10 times normal) are typical in sIBM but affected individuals can also present with normal CK levels. Electromyography (EMG) studies display variable abnormalities such as increased insertional activity, increased spontaneous activity (fibrillation potentials and sharp waves), and large/broad or short/narrow motor unit potentials. On EMG, recruitment patterns can be reduced or increased. Findings can vary even within the same muscle of an affected individual. Muscle biopsy may display several common findings including inflammatory cells invading muscle cells, vacuolar degeneration, and inclusion bodies of aggregations of multiple proteins. sIBM is a challenge to the pathologist and even with a biopsy, diagnosis can be ambiguous.

A diagnosis of inclusion body myositis was historically dependent on muscle biopsy results. Antibodies to cytoplasmic 5'-nucleotidase (cN1A; NT5C1A) have been strongly associated with the condition. However, other inflammatory conditions, such as lupus, can have a positive anti-NT5C1A. As of 2019, it remains to be established whether a positive anti-NT5C1A antibody test can make muscle biopsy unneeded.

Muscle imaging can help establish the pattern of muscle involvement and selection of a biopsy site.

Differential diagnosis
IBM is often initially misdiagnosed as polymyositis. A course of prednisone is typically completed with no improvement and eventually, sIBM is confirmed. sIBM weakness comes on over months or years and progresses steadily, whereas polymyositis has an onset of weeks or months. Muscular dystrophy (e.g., limb girdle muscular dystrophy) must be considered as well. sIBM can be mistaken for physical deconditioning.

Hereditary myopathies can mimic sIBM, both in signs and symptoms and in the appearance of muscle biopsies. A small percentage of those initially diagnosed with sIBM are later found to have pathogenic mutations in the genes VCP and SQSTM1, which are known to cause hIBM.

IBM has a distinctive pattern of muscle involvement that distinguishes it among inflammatory myopathies. Characteristic of IBM is weakness of finger flexion, knee extension, and ankle dorsiflexion. Other inflammatory myopathies cause a proximal muscle weakness pattern, such as weakness of hip flexion, abduction, and extension, as well as shoulder abduction. IBM and other inflammatory myopathies both cause bicep/tricep weakness.

Classification

 * The common type is sIBM; it strikes individuals apparently at random.
 * There is a type that has been observed in multiple siblings in the same generation in several families, termed familial inflammatory sIBM, but it is not passed on from generation to generation.
 * There are also several very rare forms of hereditary inclusion body myopathy (hIBM) that are linked to specific genetic defects and that are passed on from generation to generation, each inherited in different ways.

Management
There is no standard course of treatment to slow or stop the progression of the disease as of 2019. sIBM patients do not reliably respond to anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressant, or immunomodulatory medications. Most of disease management is supportive care. Prevention of falls is an important consideration. There is no consensus on exercise guidelines; however, physical therapy is recommended to teach the patient a home exercise program, to teach how to compensate during mobility-gait training with an assistive device, transfers and bed mobility. An exercise regimen preferentially minimizes a patient's risk of injury and corresponds to the patient's goals.

Other related disorders
When sIBM was originally described, the major feature noted was muscle inflammation. Two other disorders were also known to display muscle inflammation, and sIBM was classified along with them. They are dermatomyositis (DM) and polymyositis (PM) and all three illnesses were called idiopathic (of unknown origin) myositis or inflammatory myopathies.

It appears that sIBM and polymyositis share some features, especially the initial sequence of immune system activation, however, polymyositis comes on over weeks or months, does not display the subsequent muscle degeneration and protein abnormalities as seen in IBM, and as well, polymyositis tends to respond well to treatments, IBM does not. IBM is often confused with (misdiagnosed as) polymyositis. Polymyositis that does not respond to treatment is likely IBM.

Dermatomyositis shares a number of similar physical symptoms and histopathological traits as polymyositis, but exhibits a skin rash not seen in polymyositis or sIBM. It may have different root causes unrelated to either polymyositis or sIBM.

Mutations in valosin-containing protein (VCP) cause multisystem proteinopathy (MSP), which can present (among others) as a rare form of inclusion body myopathy.

Epidemiology
Prevalence of disease in a rigorous meta-analysis in 2017 was 46 patients per million. The earliest published prevalence was in 2000 and put at 5 per million. A 2017 study in Ireland reported 112 per million. It is not believed that the disease prevalence is increasing with time, but rather diagnostics and reporting are improving.

Estimates of the mean age of onset range from 61 to 68 years old.

Society and culture
In the biographical drama film Father Stu, the protagonist, a boxer-turned-Catholic priest, has sIBM.

title: Inclusion body myositis


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Ion implantation

Ion implantation is a low-temperature process by which ions of one element are accelerated into a solid target, thereby changing the physical, chemical, or electrical properties of the target. Ion implantation is used in semiconductor device fabrication and in metal finishing, as well as in materials science research. The ions can alter the elemental composition of the target (if the ions differ in composition from the target) if they stop and remain in the target. Ion implantation also causes chemical and physical changes when the ions impinge on the target at high energy. The crystal structure of the target can be damaged or even destroyed by the energetic collision cascades, and ions of sufficiently high energy (tens of MeV) can cause nuclear transmutation.

General principle
Ion implantation equipment typically consists of an ion source, where ions of the desired element are produced, an accelerator, where the ions are electrostatically accelerated to a high energy or using radiofrequency, and a target chamber, where the ions impinge on a target, which is the material to be implanted. Thus ion implantation is a special case of particle radiation. Each ion is typically a single atom or molecule, and thus the actual amount of material implanted in the target is the integral over time of the ion current. This amount is called the dose. The currents supplied by implants are typically small (micro-amperes), and thus the dose which can be implanted in a reasonable amount of time is small. Therefore, ion implantation finds application in cases where the amount of chemical change required is small.

Typical ion energies are in the range of 10 to 500 keV (1,600 to 80,000 aJ). Energies in the range 1 to 10 keV (160 to 1,600 aJ) can be used, but result in a penetration of only a few nanometers or less. Energies lower than this result in very little damage to the target, and fall under the designation ion beam deposition. Higher energies can also be used: accelerators capable of 5 MeV (800,000 aJ) are common. However, there is often great structural damage to the target, and because the depth distribution is broad (Bragg peak), the net composition change at any point in the target will be small.

The energy of the ions, as well as the ion species and the composition of the target determine the depth of penetration of the ions in the solid: A monoenergetic ion beam will generally have a broad depth distribution. The average penetration depth is called the range of the ions. Under typical circumstances ion ranges will be between 10 nanometers and 1 micrometer. Thus, ion implantation is especially useful in cases where the chemical or structural change is desired to be near the surface of the target. Ions gradually lose their energy as they travel through the solid, both from occasional collisions with target atoms (which cause abrupt energy transfers) and from a mild drag from overlap of electron orbitals, which is a continuous process. The loss of ion energy in the target is called stopping and can be simulated with the binary collision approximation method.

Accelerator systems for ion implantation are generally classified into medium current (ion beam currents between 10 μA and ~2 mA), high current (ion beam currents up to ~30 mA), high energy (ion energies above 200 keV and up to 10 MeV), and very high dose (efficient implant of dose greater than 1016ions/cm2).

Ion source
All varieties of ion implantation beamline designs contain general groups of functional components (see image). The first major segment of an ion beamline includes an ion source used to generate the ion species. The source is closely coupled to biased electrodes for extraction of the ions into the beamline and most often to some means of selecting a particular ion species for transport into the main accelerator section.

The ion source is often made of materials with a high melting point such as tungsten, tungsten doped with lanthanum oxide, molybdenum and tantalum. Often, inside the ion source a plasma is created between two tungsten electrodes, called reflectors, using a gas often based on fluorine containing the ion to be implanted whether it is germanium, boron, or silicon, such as boron trifluoride, boron difluoride, germanium tetrafluoride or silicon tetrafluoride. Arsine gas or phosphine gas can be used in the ion source to provide arsenic or phosphorus respectively for implantation. The ion source also has an indirectly heated cathode. Alternatively this heated cathode can be used as one of the reflectors, eliminating the need for a dedicated one, or a directly heated cathode is used.

Oxygen or oxide based gases such as carbon dioxide can also be used for ions such as carbon. Hydrogen or hydrogen with xenon, krypton or argon may be added to the plasma to delay the degradation of tungsten components due to the halogen cycle. The hydrogen can come from a high pressure cylinder or from a hydrogen generator that uses electrolysis. Repellers at each end of the ion source continually move the atoms from one end of the ion source to the other, resembling two mirrors pointed at each other constantly reflecting light.

The ions are extracted from the source by an extraction electrode outside the ion source through a slit shaped aperture in the source, then the ion beam then passes through an analysis magnet to select the ions that will be implanted and then passes through one or two linear accelerators (linacs) that accelerate the ions before they reach the wafer in a process chamber. In medium current ion implanters there is also a neutral ion trap before the process chamber to remove neutral ions from the ion beam.

Some dopants such as aluminum, are often not provided to the ion source as a gas but as a solid compound based on Chlorine or Iodine that is vaporized in a nearby crucible such as Aluminium iodide or Aluminium chloride or as a solid sputtering target inside the ion source made of Aluminium oxide or Aluminium nitride. Implanting antimony often requires the use of a vaporizer attached to the ion source, in which antimony trifluoride, antimony trioxide, or solid antimony are vaporized in a crucible and a carrier gas is used to route the vapors to an adjacent ion source, although it can also be implanted from a gas containing fluorine such as antimony hexafluoride or vaporized from liquid antimony pentafluoride. Gallium, Selenium and Indium are often implanted from solid sources such as selenium dioxide for selenium although it can also be implanted from hydrogen selenide. Crucibles often last 60-100 hours and prevent ion implanters from changing recipes or process parameters in less than 20-30 minutes. Ion sources can often last 300 hours.

The "mass" selection (just like in mass spectrometer) is often accompanied by passage of the extracted ion beam through a magnetic field region with an exit path restricted by blocking apertures, or "slits", that allow only ions with a specific value of the product of mass and velocity/charge to continue down the beamline. If the target surface is larger than the ion beam diameter and a uniform distribution of implanted dose is desired over the target surface, then some combination of beam scanning and wafer motion is used. Finally, the implanted surface is coupled with some method for collecting the accumulated charge of the implanted ions so that the delivered dose can be measured in a continuous fashion and the implant process stopped at the desired dose level.

Doping
Semiconductor doping with boron, phosphorus, or arsenic is a common application of ion implantation. When implanted in a semiconductor, each dopant atom can create a charge carrier in the semiconductor after annealing. A hole can be created for a p-type dopant, and an electron for an n-type dopant. This modifies the conductivity of the semiconductor in its vicinity. The technique is used, for example, for adjusting the threshold voltage of a MOSFET. Ion implantation is practical due to the high sensitivity of semiconductor devices to foreign atoms, as ion implantation does not deposit large numbers of atoms. Sometimes such as during the manufacturing of SiC devices, ion implantation is carried out while heating the SiC wafer to 500°C. This is known as a hot implant and it is used to control damage to the surface of the semiconductor. Cryogenic implants (Cryo-implants) can have the same effect.

The energies used in doping often vary from 1 KeV to 3 MeV and it is not possible to build an ion implanter capable of providing ions at any energy due to physical limitations. To increase the throughput of ion implanters, efforts have been made to increase the current of the beam created by the implanter. The beam can be scanned across the wafer magnetically, electrostatically, mechanically or with a combination of these techniques. A mass analyzer magnet is used to select the ions that will be implanted on the wafer. Ion implantation is also used in displays containing LTPS transistors.

Ion implantation was developed as a method of producing the p-n junction of photovoltaic devices in the late 1970s and early 1980s, along with the use of pulsed-electron beam for rapid annealing, although pulsed-electron beam for rapid annealing has not to date been used for commercial production. Ion implantation is not used in most photovoltaic silicon cells, instead, thermal diffusion doping is used.

Silicon on insulator
One prominent method for preparing silicon on insulator (SOI) substrates from conventional silicon substrates is the SIMOX (separation by implantation of oxygen) process, wherein a buried high dose oxygen implant is converted to silicon oxide by a high temperature annealing process.

Mesotaxy
Mesotaxy is the term for the growth of a crystallographically matching phase underneath the surface of the host crystal (compare to epitaxy, which is the growth of the matching phase on the surface of a substrate). In this process, ions are implanted at a high enough energy and dose into a material to create a layer of a second phase, and the temperature is controlled so that the crystal structure of the target is not destroyed. The crystal orientation of the layer can be engineered to match that of the target, even though the exact crystal structure and lattice constant may be very different. For example, after the implantation of nickel ions into a silicon wafer, a layer of nickel silicide can be grown in which the crystal orientation of the silicide matches that of the silicon.

Tool steel toughening
Nitrogen or other ions can be implanted into a tool steel target (drill bits, for example). The structural change caused by the implantation produces a surface compression in the steel, which prevents crack propagation and thus makes the material more resistant to fracture. The chemical change can also make the tool more resistant to corrosion.

Surface finishing
In some applications, for example prosthetic devices such as artificial joints, it is desired to have surfaces very resistant to both chemical corrosion and wear due to friction. Ion implantation is used in such cases to engineer the surfaces of such devices for more reliable performance. As in the case of tool steels, the surface modification caused by ion implantation includes both a surface compression which prevents crack propagation and an alloying of the surface to make it more chemically resistant to corrosion.

Ion beam mixing
Ion implantation can be used to achieve ion beam mixing, i.e. mixing up atoms of different elements at an interface. This may be useful for achieving graded interfaces or strengthening adhesion between layers of immiscible materials.

Ion implantation-induced nanoparticle formation
Ion implantation may be used to induce nano-dimensional particles in oxides such as sapphire and silica. The particles may be formed as a result of precipitation of the ion implanted species, they may be formed as a result of the production of a mixed oxide species that contains both the ion-implanted element and the oxide substrate, and they may be formed as a result of a reduction of the substrate, first reported by Hunt and Hampikian. Typical ion beam energies used to produce nanoparticles range from 50 to 150 keV, with ion fluences that range from 1016 to 1018 ions/cm2. The table below summarizes some of the work that has been done in this field for a sapphire substrate. A wide variety of nanoparticles can be formed, with size ranges from 1 nm on up to 20 nm and with compositions that can contain the implanted species, combinations of the implanted ion and substrate, or that are comprised solely from the cation associated with the substrate.

Composite materials based on dielectrics such as sapphire that contain dispersed metal nanoparticles are promising materials for optoelectronics and nonlinear optics.

Crystallographic damage
Each individual ion produces many point defects in the target crystal on impact such as vacancies and interstitials. Vacancies are crystal lattice points unoccupied by an atom: in this case the ion collides with a target atom, resulting in transfer of a significant amount of energy to the target atom such that it leaves its crystal site. This target atom then itself becomes a projectile in the solid, and can cause successive collision events. Interstitials result when such atoms (or the original ion itself) come to rest in the solid, but find no vacant space in the lattice to reside. These point defects can migrate and cluster with each other, resulting in dislocation loops and other defects.

Damage recovery
Because ion implantation causes damage to the crystal structure of the target which is often unwanted, ion implantation processing is often followed by a thermal annealing. This can be referred to as damage recovery.

Amorphization
The amount of crystallographic damage can be enough to completely amorphize the surface of the target: i.e. it can become an amorphous solid (such a solid produced from a melt is called a glass). In some cases, complete amorphization of a target is preferable to a highly defective crystal: An amorphized film can be regrown at a lower temperature than required to anneal a highly damaged crystal. Amorphisation of the substrate can occur as a result of the beam damage. For example, yttrium ion implantation into sapphire at an ion beam energy of 150 keV to a fluence of 5*1016 Y+/cm2 produces an amorphous glassy layer approximately 110 nm in thickness, measured from the outer surface. [Hunt, 1999]

Sputtering
Some of the collision events result in atoms being ejected (sputtered) from the surface, and thus ion implantation will slowly etch away a surface. The effect is only appreciable for very large doses.

Ion channelling

If there is a crystallographic structure to the target, and especially in semiconductor substrates where the crystal structure is more open, particular crystallographic directions offer much lower stopping than other directions. The result is that the range of an ion can be much longer if the ion travels exactly along a particular direction, for example the direction in silicon and other diamond cubic materials. This effect is called ion channelling, and, like all the channelling effects, is highly nonlinear, with small variations from perfect orientation resulting in extreme differences in implantation depth. For this reason, most implantation is carried out a few degrees off-axis, where tiny alignment errors will have more predictable effects.

Ion channelling can be used directly in Rutherford backscattering and related techniques as an analytical method to determine the amount and depth profile of damage in crystalline thin film materials.

Hazardous materials
In fabricating wafers, toxic materials such as arsine and phosphine are often used in the ion implanter process. Other common carcinogenic, corrosive, flammable, or toxic elements include antimony, arsenic, phosphorus, and boron. Semiconductor fabrication facilities are highly automated, but residue of hazardous elements in machines can be encountered during servicing and in vacuum pump hardware.

High voltages and particle accelerators
High voltage power supplies used in ion accelerators necessary for ion implantation can pose a risk of electrical injury. In addition, high-energy atomic collisions can generate X-rays and, in some cases, other ionizing radiation and radionuclides. In addition to high voltage, particle accelerators such as radio frequency linear particle accelerators and laser wakefield plasma accelerators present other hazards.

title: Ion implantation


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John Ford (disambiguation)

John Ford (1894–1973) was an American film director who won four Academy Awards.

John or Johnny Ford may also refer to:

Clergymen

 * John Ford (minister) (1767–1826), politician and Methodist leader in South Carolina and Mississippi Territory
 * John Ford (bishop) (born 1952), Bishop of Plymouth, 2005 to 2013

Public officials

 * John Ford (died 1407), MP for Tavistock
 * John Ford (fl. 1410–1426), MP for Dorset, Shaftesbury and Melcombe Regis
 * John Ford (before 1395–after 1416), MP for Colchester in 1416
 * John Salmon Ford (1815–1897), Texas politician known as "Rip" Ford
 * John Anson Ford (1883–1983), California politician
 * John Joseph Ford (1907–1982), California jurist
 * John Meredith Ford (1923–1995), Guyanese politician
 * John Ford (diplomat) (1922–2018), British diplomat
 * John Ford (Tennessee politician) (born 1942), American legislator
 * Johnny Ford (born 1942), Alabama's first African-American mayor
 * John Ford (New York politician) (1862–1941), New York judge and politician
 * John Ford (Oklahoma politician), Oklahoma politician

Literary figures

 * John Ford (dramatist) (1586 – c. 1640), English playwright and poet
 * John M. Ford (1957–2006), American science fiction writer and poet

Entrepreneurs

 * John Baptiste Ford (1811–1903), U.S. businessman, founder of Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company
 * John Gardner Ford (born 1951), business executive, son of U.S. President Gerald Ford
 * John T. Ford (1829–1894), owner and manager of the theater where Lincoln was assassinated

Sports

 * John Ford (American football coach) (before 1880 – after 1906), Marquette University football coach
 * John Ford (baseball) (1894–1947), American Negro league baseball player
 * John Ford (cyclist) (born 1957), Bermudian Olympic cyclist
 * John Ford (footballer, born 1893) (1893–1917), Scottish footballer
 * John Ford (footballer, born 1931), Australian rules footballer for Fitzroy
 * John Ford (footballer, born 1932), Australian rules footballer for North Melbourne
 * John Ford (wide receiver) (born 1966), American football player

Others

 * John Ford (musician) (born 1948), English singer, songwriter and guitarist
 * John Ford (Royal Navy officer) (1738–1796), British admiral
 * John Alexander Ford, Scottish landscape artist
 * John D. Ford (1840–1918), American naval officer
 * John J. Ford (CIA) (1923–1993), American CIA official and cyberneticist
 * John J. Ford Jr. (1924–2005), American numismatist
 * John M. T. Ford, English general practitioner and medical historian
 * John Simpson Ford (1866–1944), Scottish industrial chemist and microbiologist

title: John Ford (disambiguation)


text:
John Woo

John Woo Yu-sen (born September 22, 1946) is a Hong Kong film director known as a highly influential figure in the action film genre. He is a pioneer of heroic bloodshed films and the gun fu genre in Hong Kong action cinema, before working in Hollywood films. He is known for his highly chaotic "bullet ballet" action sequences, stylized imagery, Mexican standoffs, frequent use of slow motion and allusions to wuxia, film noir and Western cinema.

Considered one of the major figures of Hong Kong cinema, Woo has directed several notable action films including A Better Tomorrow (1986), The Killer (1989), Hard Boiled (1992) and Red Cliff (2008/2009). Hard Target (1993) was his first American film directorial debut, and the first major Hollywood film made by a Chinese director. His other Hollywood films include Broken Arrow (1996), Face/Off (1997) and Mission: Impossible 2 (2000). He also created the comic series Seven Brothers, published by Virgin Comics. He is the founder and chairman of the production company Lion Rock Productions.

Woo is a winner of the Hong Kong Film Awards for Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Editing, as well as a Golden Horse Award, an Asia Pacific Screen Award and a Saturn Award.

Early life
Woo was born as Wu Yu-seng (Ng Yu-sum in Cantonese) on September 22, 1946, in Guangzhou, China, amidst the chaotic Chinese Civil War. Due to school age restrictions, his mother changed his birth date to 22 September 1948, which is what remains on his passport. The Woo family, who were Protestant Christians, faced persecution during Mao Zedong's early anti-bourgeois purges after the communist revolution in China, and fled to Hong Kong when he was five.

Impoverished, the Woo family lived in the slums at Shek Kip Mei. His father was a teacher, though rendered unable to work by tuberculosis, and his mother was a manual laborer on construction sites. The family was rendered homeless by the Shek Kip Mei Fire of 1953. Charitable donations from disaster relief efforts enabled the family to relocate; however, violent crime had by then become commonplace in Hong Kong housing projects. At age three he was diagnosed with a serious medical condition. Following surgery on his spine, he was unable to walk correctly until eight years old, and as a result his right leg is shorter than his left leg.

His Christian upbringing shows influences in his films. As a young boy, Woo had wanted to be a Christian minister. He later found a passion for movies influenced by the French New Wave especially Jean-Pierre Melville. Woo has said he was shy and had difficulty speaking, but found making movies a way to explore his feelings and thinking and would "use movies as a language".

Woo found respite in Bob Dylan and in American Westerns. He has stated the final scene of Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid made a particular impression on him in his youth: the device of two comrades, each of whom fire pistols from each hand, is a recurrent spectacle later found in his own work.

1969–1985: Career beginnings in Hong Kong
In 1969, Woo was hired as a script supervisor at Cathay Studios. In 1971, he became an assistant director at Shaw Studios. The same year, he watched Bruce Lee's The Big Boss, which left a strong impression on him due to how different it was from earlier martial arts films. Lee's films inspired Woo to direct his own action films. His directorial debut in 1974 was the feature film The Young Dragons (鐵漢柔情, Tiě hàn róu qíng). In the kung fu film genre, it was choreographed by Jackie Chan,. The film was picked up by Golden Harvest Studio where he went on to direct more martial arts films. He later had success as a comedy director with Money Crazy (發錢寒, Fā qián hàn) (1977), starring Hong Kong comedian Ricky Hui and Richard Ng.

1986–1992: 'Heroic Bloodshed', breakthrough and international recognition
By the mid-1980s, Woo was experiencing occupational burnout. Several of his films were commercial disappointments, and he felt a distinct lack of creative control. It was during this period of self-imposed exile that director/producer Tsui Hark provided the funding for Woo to film a longtime pet project, A Better Tomorrow (1986). The story of two brothers—one a law enforcement officer, the other a criminal—was a financial blockbuster. A Better Tomorrow became a defining achievement in Hong Kong action cinema

John Woo: Interviews includes a 36-page interview with Woo by editor Robert K. Elder, which documents the years 1968 to 1990. It includes Woo's early career in working on comedies, his work on kung fu films (during which time he gave Jackie Chan one of his first major film roles), and more recently, his gunpowder morality plays in Hong Kong.

1993–2000: Move to the United States and international success
An émigré in 1993, the director experienced difficulty in cultural adjustment while contracted with Universal Studios to direct Jean-Claude Van Damme in Hard Target. Like other foreign national film directors confronted with the Hollywood environment, Woo was unaccustomed to pervasive management concerns over matters such as limitations on violence and completion schedules. When initial cuts failed to yield an "R" rated film, the studio assumed control of the project and edited footage to produce a cut "suitable for American audiences".

A three-year hiatus saw Woo next direct John Travolta and Christian Slater in Broken Arrow. A frenetic chase-themed film, the director once again found himself hampered by studio management and editorial concerns. Despite a larger budget than his previous Hard Target, the final feature lacked the trademark Woo style. Public reception saw modest financial success.

Reluctant to pursue projects which would necessarily entail front-office controls, the director cautiously rejected the script for Face/Off several times until it was rewritten to suit him. (The futuristic setting was changed to a contemporary one.) Paramount Pictures also offered the director significantly more freedom to exercise his speciality: emotional characterisation and elaborate action. A complex story of adversaries—each of whom surgically alters their identity—law enforcement agent John Travolta and terrorist Nicolas Cage play a cat-and-mouse game, trapped in each other's outward appearance. Face/Off opened in 1997 to critical acclaim and strong attendance. Grosses in the United States exceeded $100 million. Face/Off was also nominated for an Academy Award in the category Sound Effects Editing (Mark Stoeckinger) at the 70th Academy Awards.

Around this period, Woo would also produce and direct several film and TV projects. In 1996, Woo produced and directed Once a Thief, a Canadian made-for-television remake of Woo's 1991 caper film. The teleplay subsequently spawned a television series of the same name, which Woo executive produced. In 1998, Woo directed Blackjack, which featured Dolph Lundgren as a leukophobic bodyguard who hunts down an assassin. The film was intended as a backdoor pilot for a television series, but was not picked up. That same year, Woo served as executive producer and action choreographer on Antoine Fuqua's directorial debut The Replacement Killers, which featured Chow Yun-Fat's first international starring role.

Later, Woo directed Mission: Impossible 2, the second entry in the Tom Cruise-led action film series. Despite receiving mixed reviews, Mission: Impossible 2 grossed over $549 million worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing film of 2000, as well as of Woo's career.

2001–2007: Decline in Hollywood and other ventures
Woo made two additional films in Hollywood: Windtalkers (2002) and Paycheck (2003), both of which fared poorly at the box office and were summarily dismissed by critics. Also in 2003, Woo directed a television pilot entitled The Robinsons: Lost in Space for The WB Television Network, based on the 1960s television series Lost in Space. The pilot was not purchased.

Woo also directed and produced the 2007 video game Stranglehold, which is a sequel to his 1992 film, Hard Boiled. The game features Woo as a multiplayer playable character. That same year he produced the anime movie, Appleseed: Ex Machina, the sequel to Shinji Aramaki's 2004 film Appleseed.

2008–2017: Red Cliff and return to Asian cinema
In 2008, Woo returned to Asian cinema with the completion of the two-part epic war film Red Cliff, based on a historical battle from Records of the Three Kingdoms. Produced on a grand scale, it is his first film in China since he emigrated from Hong Kong to the United States in 1993. Part 1 of the film was released throughout Asia in July 2008, to generally favourable reviews and strong attendance. Part 2 was released in China in January 2009.

John Woo was presented with a Golden Lion award for lifetime achievement at the Venice Film Festival in 2010.

He followed Red Cliff with another two-part film, The Crossing, in 2014 and 2015. Featuring an all-star cast, the four-hour epic tells the parallel stories of several characters who all ultimately find themselves passengers on the doomed Taiping steamer, which sank in 1949 en route from mainland China to Taiwan and has been described as "China's Titanic".

Following the box-office disappointment of The Crossing, Woo and producer Terence Chang disbanded Lion Rock Productions.

Woo followed up The Crossing with Manhunt, a remake of the 1976 Japanese crime thriller of the same name. Production started on Manhunt in June 2016 in Osaka and later reported to be finished filming by the end of November. The film, co-led by Chinese actor Zhang Hanyu and Japanese actor Masaharu Fukuyama, features a large Japanese cast including Yasuaki Kurata, Jun Kunimura, Hiroyuki Ikeuchi, Nanami Sakuraba, Naoto Takenaka and Tao Okamoto. In addition, Chinese actress Qi Wei, Korean actress Ha Ji-won and Woo's daughter Angeles were cast in key roles in the film. The film was released in China on 24 November 2017.

2021–present: Silent Night and return to Hollywood
Following another hiatus, Woo returned to Hollywood to direct the action thriller Silent Night, where a normal father heads into the underworld to avenge his young son's death. Produced by Basil Iwanyk, the film starred Joel Kinnaman and was told entirely without dialogue. It was Woo's first American feature film since Paycheck (2003).

Woo commented in 2015 that he will remake The Killer for American audiences. Initially, actress Lupita Nyong'o had been cast for the lead role, however by March 2023, Nathalie Emmanuel was cast instead, with Omar Sy joining the film as the cop character. The film will be directed by Woo, produced by Universal Studios and released exclusively on Peacock.

Unrealized film projects
In May 2008, Woo announced in Cannes that his next movie would be 1949, an epic love story set between the end of World War II and Chinese Civil War to the founding of the People's Republic of China, the shooting of which would take place in China and Taiwan. Its production was due to begin by the end of 2008, with a theatrical release planned in December 2009. However, in early April 2009, the film was cancelled due to script right issues. Reports indicated that Woo might be working on another World War II film, this time about the American Volunteer Group, or the Flying Tigers. The movie was tentatively titled "Flying Tiger Heroes" and Woo is reported as saying it will feature "The most spectacular aerial battle scenes ever seen in Chinese cinema." It was not clear whether Woo would not be directing the earlier war film, or whether it was put on the back burner. Woo has stated that Flying Tiger Heroes would be an "extremely important production" and will "emphasise US-Chinese friendship and the contributions of the Flying Tigers and the Yunnan people during the war of resistance." Woo has announced he will be using IMAX cameras to film the Flying Tigers project. "It has always been a dream of mine to explore shooting with IMAX cameras and to work in the IMAX format, and the strong visual element of this film is incredibly well-suited to the tastes of cinemagoers today [...] Using IMAX for Flying Tigers would create a new experience for the audience, and I think it would be another breakthrough for Chinese movies".

Personal life
Woo has been married to Annie Woo Ngau Chun-lung since 1976. They have two daughters, Kimberley Woo, Angeles Woo, and a son Frank Woo. He is a Christian and told BBC in an interview that he believes in God and has utmost admiration for Jesus, whom he calls a "great philosopher".

His three favorite films are David Lean's Lawrence of Arabia, Akira Kurosawa's Seven Samurai and Jean-Pierre Melville's Le Samouraï. A complete list of his 48 inspirational films was published in May 2018. As of July 2024, Woo is the only filmmaker who has listed The Bridge on the River Kwai by David Lean and Zorba the Greek by Michael Cacoyannis as favorites on LaCinetek, a French website that collects and publishes lists from film directors.

Television
Producer only

Other works

 * Airport '98 (Nike commercial) (1998)
 * Hostage (branded content short film for BMW) (2002)
 * 7 Brothers (graphic novel) (2006–2007)
 * Stranglehold (video game) (2007)
 * Bloodstroke (iOS and Android videogame) (2014)
 *  (Asahi Breweries commercial) (2013)
 * The Men of Atalissa (New York Times short documentary) (2014)

Accolades

 * 2022 — Career Achievement Award at 26th Fantasia International Film Festival.

In English

 * Bliss, Michael. Between the Bullets: The Spiritual Cinema of John Woo. Filmmakers series, no. 92. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8108-4110-X.
 * Brown, Andrew M. J. Directing Hong Kong: The Political Cinema of John Woo and Wong Kar-Wai. Political Communications in Greater China: the Construction and Reflection of Identity. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2001. ISBN 0-7007-1734-X.
 * Crawford, Kevin R. "Mixing violence and religion in 'The Reckoning' : The Scripting of a Postmodern Action Thriller inside the John Woo-film noir Paradigm". Digital Dissertation/Theses, 2007..
 * Fang, Karen Y. John Woo's A Better Tomorrow. The New Hong Kong Cinema. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2004. ISBN 962-209-652-2.
 * Hall, Kenneth E. John Woo: The Films. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1999. ISBN 0-7864-0619-4.
 * Heard, Christopher. Ten Thousand Bullets: The Cinematic Journey of John Woo. Los Angeles: Lone Eagle Publishing Co., 2000. ISBN 1-58065-021-X.

Other languages

 * Berruezo, Pedro J. John Woo y el cine de acción de Hong Kong. Biblioteca Dr. Vértigo, 23. [Barcelona]: Ediciones Glénat, 2000. ISBN 84-8449-043-2.
 * Bertolino, Marco, and Ettore Ridola. John Woo: la violenza come redenzione. Recco, Genova: Le mani, 1998. ISBN 88-8012-098-0.
 * Gaschler, Thomas, and Ralph Umard. Woo Leben und Werk. München: Belleville, 2005. ISBN 3-933510-48-1.
 * Nazzaro, Giona A., and Andrea Tagliacozzo. John Woo: la nuova leggenda del cinema d'azione. Contatti, 199. Roma: Castelvecchi, 2000. ISBN 88-8210-203-3.
 * Spanu, Massimiliano. John Woo. Il castoro cinema, 203. Milano: Castoro, 2001. ISBN 88-8033-192-2.
 * Vié-Toussaint, Caroline. John Woo. Paris: Dark star, 2001. ISBN 2-914680-01-5.

title: John Woo