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Game Boy Color

The Game Boy Color (GBC or CGB) is an 8-bit handheld game console, manufactured by Nintendo, which was released in Japan on October 21, 1998, and to international markets that November. It is the successor to the Game Boy and part of its product line. Compared to the original, the Game Boy Color features a color TFT screen rather than monochrome, a processor that operates twice as fast, and four times as much memory. It retains backward compatibility with games initially developed for its predecessor. However, reviewers considered these improvements insufficient to justify Nintendo's releasing it as a separate product.

The handheld is slightly thicker and taller and has a slightly smaller screen than the Game Boy Pocket, its immediate predecessor, although significantly smaller than the original Game Boy. As with its predecessors, the Game Boy Color has a custom 8-bit processor made by Sharp. The American English spelling of the system's name, Game Boy Color, remains consistent throughout the world.

The Game Boy Color is part of the fifth generation of video game consoles. The Game Boy and the Game Boy Color combined have sold 118.69 million units worldwide, making them the fourth best-selling system of all time. Its best-selling games are Pokémon Gold and Silver, which shipped 23 million units worldwide.

History
When the original Game Boy was first introduced in 1989, many questioned why Nintendo had chosen to develop a monochrome handheld, considering competitors like the Atari Lynx and Sega Game Gear boasted color screens. However, Nintendo's gamble paid off. The rivals' color displays, while visually impressive, were criticized for their poor battery life and bulky size. The Game Boy, in contrast, offered superior portability and longevity, propelling it to immense popularity. Publicly, Nintendo pledged to develop a color Game Boy only when technology addressed the limitations of existing color handhelds.

Internally, however, a team led by Satoru Okada, who played a key role in the original Game Boy's design, was already experimenting with color displays. Their early-1990s prototype, codenamed "Project Atlantis," featured a color screen and a powerful 32-bit processor from Sharp. However, the team wasn't satisfied with the outcome and shelved further development.

Despite the lack of color, consumer interest in the Game Boy remained strong. In 1996, Nintendo released the slimmer Game Boy Pocket, and the launch of the Pokémon series that same year further boosted sales. However, developers were starting to lose interest in the aging platform.

The tide began to turn in October 1997 when news broke about Bandai's new handheld, the WonderSwan. Notably, the project was led by Gunpei Yokoi, the engineer who led the development of the Game & Watch series and the original Game Boy. Yokoi had left Nintendo in 1996 following the commercial failure of his final project, the Virtual Boy. His departure caused a stir, with investors dumping Nintendo stock, forcing a temporary halt on trading at the Tokyo Stock Exchange. Tragically, Yokoi would never see the WonderSwan's release, as he was killed in a roadside accident in 1997.

Faced with mounting pressure, Okada revisited Project Atlantis. However, prioritizing speed to market over power, he dropped the 32-bit processor for a faster version of the existing Game Boy's 8-bit processor that would allow for a quicker launch and maintain compatibility with the existing library of Game Boy games.

The Game Boy Color was officially announced in March 1998, hitting store shelves in Japan in October of that year. It received an international rollout throughout November, reaching North America on the 18th, Europe on the 23rd, and Australasia on the 27th. Launching at a price of US$79.95 1998, the Game Boy Color ultimately outsold the WonderSwan, which went on sale in March 1999.

The Game Boy Color had a relatively short lifespan, being on the market for only two and a half years before being succeeded by the Game Boy Advance in 2001. The successor finally brought the 32-bit processing power envisioned in Project Atlantis. Despite the new arrival, the Game Boy Color remained in production, serving as a budget-friendly alternative. The last units were reportedly sold by March 2003.

Hardware

The Game Boy Color uses a custom system on a chip (SoC), integrating the CPU and other major components into a single package, named the CPU CGB by Nintendo and manufactured by the Sharp Corporation. While the CPU CGB was a new design for the Game Boy Color, the technology inside was largely an evolution of the then ten-year-old DMG-CPU SoC used inside the original Game Boy, making the CPU CGB outdated when it was introduced in the late-90s.

Within the CPU CGB, the main processor is a Sharp SM83, a hybrid between two other 8-bit processors: the Intel 8080 and the Zilog Z80. The SM83 has the seven 8-bit registers of the 8080 (compared to 14 on the Z80), but uses the Z80's programming syntax and extra bit manipulation instructions, and it also adds a few new instructions to optimize the processor for certain operations related to the way the hardware was arranged. The Sharp SM83 also powered the original Game Boy, where it operated at a clock rate of 4.194304 megahertz (MHz). However, games on Game Boy Color exclusive cartridges could command the processor to operate in "dual-speed mode," overclocking it to run twice as fast at 8.388608 MHz. This gave developers the option to get more processing power out of the device while retaining backward compatibility for existing games.

The CPU CGB also incorporates the Picture Processing Unit, essentially a basic GPU, that renders visuals using two separate 8 kilobyte (KB) banks of Video RAM, twice as much as the original Game Boy and relocated inside the SoC for faster access. Games developed exclusively for the Game Boy Color could take full advantage of the additional memory to add more effects and display up to 56 colors simultaneously out of a selection of 32,768 colors. When an Original Game Boy Game Pak is inserted into the device, the additional memory is disabled. However, these monochrome games still benefit from enhanced color palettes.

The display itself is a 2.3-inch (diagonal) thin-film transistor (TFT) color liquid-crystal display (LCD), measuring 44 mm wide by 40 mm high. The screen aspect ratio and resolution remain identical to the original Game Boy at 160 pixels wide by 144 pixels high in a 10:9 format. Like the original Game Boy and Game Boy Pocket before it and the Game Boy Advance after it, the screen is passively reflective, with a surface behind the screen that sends light back through the liquid crystal pixel elements to the viewer. Because there is no backlight, the device can be hard to use in dark environments.

The SoC also contains a 2 KB "bootstrap" ROM which is used to start up the device, 127 B of High RAM that can be accessed faster (similar to a CPU cache), and the Audio Processing Unit, a programmable sound generator with four channels: a pulse wave generation channel with frequency and volume variation, a second pulse wave generation channel with only volume variation, a wave channel than can reproduce any waveform recorded in RAM, and a white noise channel with volume variation. The motherboard of the Game Boy Color also contains a 32 KB "working" RAM chip, four times more than the 8 KB on the original Game Boy.

The Game Boy features a D-pad (directional pad), four action buttons labeled 'A,' 'B,' 'SELECT,' and 'START,' and a sliding on-off switch on the right side of the device. The volume is adjusted by a potentiometer dial on the left side of the device.

The left side also offers a Game Link Cable port for connecting to up to four Game Boy devices for multiplayer games or, notably in Pokémon series games, sharing files. This port can also be used with a Game Boy Printer. The port used on the Game Boy Color is of a smaller design first introduced on the Game Boy Pocket, and requires an adapter to link with the original Game Boy. While the original Game Boy could transfer data at 8 kilobits per second (kbit/s), the Game Boy color offered a "high-speed" mode that could reach up to 512 kbit/s, 64 times faster. The Game Boy Color also added an infrared communications port for wireless data transfer, however the feature is only supported by a small number of games and the infrared port was not included on the Game Boy Advance line.

Cartridges
Games are stored on cartridges called Game Boy Game Paks, using read-only memory (ROM) chips. Initially, due to the limitations of the 8-bit architecture of the device, ROM size was limited to 32 KB. However, Nintendo overcame this limitation with a Memory Bank Controller (MBC) inside the cartridge. This chip sits between the processor and the ROM chips. The CPU can only access 32 KB at a time, but the MBC can switch between several banks of 32 KB ROM. Using this technology, Nintendo created Game Boy Color games that used up to 8 megabytes of ROM. Game Paks could also provide additional functionality to the Game Boy system. Some cartridges included up to 128 KB of RAM to increase performance, which could also be battery-backed to save progress when the handheld was off, real-time clock chips could keep track of time even when the device was off and Rumble Pak cartridges added vibration feedback to enhance gameplay.

The Game Boy Color has backward compatibility with all original Game Boy games, and there were three main Game Pak cartridge types for the handheld:

Original Game Boy Game Pak (Gray Case): The classic Game Boy cartridges. The Game Boy Color applies a limited color palette (often dark green) using four to ten colors to enhance games originally intended to be presented in four shades of gray. Many games were programmed to call for a default color palette. However, for games without a default, users could choose from 12 different palettes using button combinations. A dedicated palette option replicates the original Game Boy's grayscale experience.

Color enhanced Game Boy Game Pak (Black Case): These cartridges can use the full color capabilities of the console, displaying up to 56 colors simultaneously out of a palette of 32,768 while use up to 56 colors out of a palette of 32,000 while remaining compatible with the original Game Boy where they were presented in four shades of gray. However, this compatibility comes at the expense of not being able to utilize the handheld's increased processing speed and memory.

Game Boy Color Game Pak (Clear Case): Designed specifically for the Game Boy Color, these cartridges exploit the system's full potential. They boast both the full color range (56 colors simultaneously out of a palette of 32,768) and benefit from the increased processing speed and memory of the Game Boy Color. However, because of this reliance on the newer hardware, these games are incompatible with the older monochrome Game Boy models.

Model colors
Nintendo had seen success selling colored variations of the Play It Loud! Game Boy and the Game Boy Pocket, so the company released the Color in several case variations.

The logo for Game Boy Color spells out the word "COLOR" in the five original colors in which the unit was manufactured: Berry (C), Grape (O), Kiwi (L), Dandelion (O), and Teal (R). Another color released at the same time was "Atomic Purple", made of a translucent purple plastic. Other colors were sold as limited editions or in specific countries.

Games
Due to its backward compatibility with Game Boy games, the Game Boy Color launched with a large playable library. The system amassed a library of 576 Game Boy Color games over a four-year period. While the majority of the games are Game Boy Color exclusive, approximately 30% of the games released are compatible with the original Game Boy. Most Game Boy Color games released after 1999 are not compatible with the original Game Boy.

Tetris for the original Game Boy is the best-selling game compatible with Game Boy Color, and Pokémon Gold and Silver are the best-selling games developed primarily for it. The best-selling Game Boy Color exclusive game is Pokémon Crystal.

The last Game Boy Color game ever released is the Japanese exclusive Doraemon no Study Boy: Kanji Yomikaki Master, on July 18, 2003. The last game released in North America is Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, released on November 15, 2002. In Europe, the last game released for the system is Hamtaro: Ham-Hams Unite!, on January 10, 2003.

Beyond officially released games for the platform, there is an active online community creating new games for the Game Boy and Game Boy Color through the use of tools like GB Studio. One such example is Dragonhym (originally Dragonborne) which was available for release on a physical cartridge which will be playable on the Game Boy Color.

Sales
The Game Boy and Game Boy Color were both commercially successful, selling 118.69 million units worldwide: 32.47 million in Japan, 44.06 million in the Americas, and 42.16 million in all other regions. At the time of its discontinuation in 2003, the combined sales of all Game Boy variants made it the best-selling game console of all time. In later years, its sales were surpassed by the Nintendo DS, PlayStation 2 and Nintendo Switch, making it the fourth-best-selling console the second-best-selling handheld of all time,. Sales of the device were in part driven by the success of Pokémon Gold and Silver and Pokémon Crystal, with combined sales of 29.5 million units, making them one of the best selling-video games of all time.

Sales of the Game Boy Color were strong at launch. Nintendo of America reported a sale of one million units from launch to December 1998, and two million by July 1999. Retail chains in the United States reported unexpectedly high demand for the console, with executives of FuncoLand reporting "very pleasant and unpredicted" sales and Electronics Boutique stating "the entire Game Boy Color line just exploded, including accessories" upon release. Faced with high worldwide demand and competitive retail pricing, retailers such as CompUSA sold out of Game Boy Color stock in the weeks before the 1998 Christmas season.

Critical reception
Reception of the Game Boy Color was positive, with critics praising the addition of color and improved clarity of the display.

Affiliated publications such as Total Game Boy praised the handheld for its "bright, colorful picture that can be viewed in direct light", backward compatibility features preserving the "vast catalogue of original Game Boy games", and improved technical performance. Computer and Video Games praised the Game Boy Color for making the Game Boy library of games "look better than ever – everything is crystal clear, bright and in [color]". Writing for GameSpot, Chris Johnston stated that the display was "crystal clear" and free of motion blur, stating that Tetris DX was the "killer app" of the launch titles on the platform.

Milder reviews included those by Arcade, who said that while that the colors were "very impressive" they were "not as eyeball-popping as you might have hoped for [...] it's mostly seaweed greens, rusty browns, timid yellows and the like". They concluded that "nothing about [the Game Boy Color] is very radical" but said the device was "Game Boy as it always should have been". Reviewers also pointed out other drawbacks including that the system was still using an 8-bit architecture when competitors had moved onto 16-bit handheld systems and that the backlit screen required that the user be in a well lit area.

Legacy
Commentary on the legacy of the Game Boy Color has been shaped by the perception that the handheld was as an incremental and transitional upgrade of the Game Boy rather than a completely new device, and had a relatively brief lifespan, being supplanted by the Game Boy Advance after two years, five months on the market.

In a history of Nintendo, author Jeff Ryan noted the Game Boy Color had a reputation as a "legacy machine" that found success mostly due to its backward compatibility, as "few wanted to lose all the Dr. Mario and Pokémon cartridges they had amassed over the years." Quoted in Retro Gamer, Blitz Games Studios developer Bob Pape acknowledged that although "backwards compatibility more or less defined (the) Game Boy Color", the handheld "ticked all the right boxes with regards to size, battery life, reliability and most importantly backwards compatibility".

Positive assessments of the legacy of the Game Boy Color has also focused on the merits of its game library, particularly for its third-party and import titles. Travis Fahs for IGN noted whilst "the Game Boy Color's life was relatively brief", it "built up a small library of excellent games", including Wario Land 3 and Pokémon Gold and Silver, and a "unique" and "previously unheard of" line of successful third-party games, including Dragon Warrior Monsters, Metal Gear Solid and Yu-Gi-Oh! Dark Duel Stories. Ashley Day of Retro Gamer noted that the handheld had an "overlooked" status, stating "the Game Boy Color (has) an unfair reputation as the one Nintendo handheld with few worthwhile titles, but this simply isn't the case...returning to the Game Boy Color now reveals a wealth of great games that you never knew existed, especially those available on import."

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Genosha

Genosha is a fictional country appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. It is an island nation that exists in the Marvel Universe and a prominent location in the X-Men comics. The fictional nation served as an allegory for slavery and later for South African apartheid before becoming a mutant homeland and subsequently a disaster zone. The island is located off the southeastern African coast northwest from Seychelles and northeast of Madagascar. Its capital city was Hammer Bay.

Publication history
Genosha first appeared in The Uncanny X-Men #235 (October 1988), and was created by Chris Claremont and Rick Leonardi. Genosha served as an analog to South Africa at that time.

Genosha received an entry in The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update '89 #3.

Mutant apartheid
The island is located off the east coast of Africa, to the north of Madagascar, and boasted a high standard of living, an excellent economy, and freedom from the political and racial turmoil that characterized neighboring nations. However, Genosha's prosperity was built upon the enslavement of its mutant population. Mutants in Genosha were the property of the state and children who were positively identified with the mutant gene were put through a process developed by David Moreau, commonly known as the Genegineer, stripped of free will and made into "mutates" (a Marvel term for genetically modified individuals, as opposed to those who developed mutant powers naturally). The Genegineer was also capable of modifying certain mutant abilities in order to fulfill specific labor shortages. Citizenship in Genosha is permanent and the government does not recognize any emigration. Citizens who attempt to leave the country are tracked down and forcibly brought back to the island by the special force known as Press Gang. The Press Gang consisted of Hawkshaw, Pipeline, and Punchout, and were aided in their task by Wipeout. Mutant problems are handled by a special group known as the Magistrates. The foundations of Genoshan society have been upset in recent years due to the efforts of outside mutant interests. In the first storyline to feature the nation, some members of the X-Men (Wolverine, Rogue, and their ally Madelyne Pryor) were kidnapped by Genoshan Magistrates, under the order of the Genegineer. Later, in the multi-issue, multi-title X-Tinction Agenda storyline, the X-Men and their allies rescued their teammates, Storm, Meltdown, Rictor and Wolfsbane, from Genoshan brainwashing, toppling the government after discovering their alliance with former X-Factor ally turned mutant hater, Cameron Hodge, and that Havok was one of the Magistrates since having his memory wiped by the Siege Perilous. Havok himself, woken from his conditioning by his brother Cyclops, dealt the killing blow to Cameron Hodge in the process.

Conflict and Magneto's reign
A new Genoshan regime that promised better treatment of mutants was put in place after Hodge's destruction. A period of general turmoil and a number of attacks by superhumans, including Magneto's Acolytes who were unwilling to forgive the former Genoshan government for its crimes against mutants, followed.(X-Men vol. 2 #1 1991)

A different version of X-Factor, including Wolfsbane, later returned to the island to help restore peace between its government and a rogue group of super-powered beings that had fled the island. The Genoshan government was shown with peaceful intentions, even trying to undo the ill effects visited upon Wolfsbane. Genosha was also shown to have typical suburban tract housing, like many small towns in America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.

After the "Age of Apocalypse" story arc, it was revealed and retconned that the mutate process formula was given to the Genegineer by Sugar Man, a refugee of the Age of Apocalypse timeline.

The United Nations ceded the island nation to the powerful mutant Magneto, after he demanded an entire mutants-only nation. Magneto and his Acolytes managed to reestablish a modicum of peace and stability only briefly until civil war broke out between him and the remaining human population on the island led by the Magistrates. Magneto eventually defeated the Magistrates and restored order to most of the island, with hold-outs briefly remaining at Carrion Cove before being obliterated.

The elimination of the Legacy Virus gave Magneto a freshly healthy army, leading him to declare a campaign of global conquest. A small team of X-Men stopped this plan, badly injuring Magneto in the process (the original issue presented him as being killed, but this was retconned in the New X-Men comic book series).

Genosha had a population of sixteen million mutants and a stable, advanced society. However, the entire island was reduced to rubble and its mutant population was slain by Cassandra Nova's Wild Sentinels. There were few survivors, many evacuated, and the Brotherhood of Mutants turned one of the Sentinels into a memorial statue.

Xavier's leadership
Magneto and Xavier have since then joined forces to rebuild the island nation as detailed in the series Excalibur vol. 3 (2004). This goes badly as foreign military forces have thrown up a cordon around the island; no one is allowed to enter, and those trying to leave are fired upon.

A few survivors and newly arriving mutants who wish to help with the rebuilding process remain on the island. Members of this volunteer 'army' include Callisto, Freakshow and Wicked. More are found in the surrounding countryside, some join with Xavier. There is a conflict with Magistrates, the island's former law enforcement. Though they are assisted by humanoid creatures they refer to as 'trolls', the Magistrates' forces are driven off. Some of the Magistrates are captured and kept in the island's makeshift jail.

Some of the captured Magistrates agree to work with Xavier to rebuild the island. Throughout the entire series, Unus the Untouchable and his squadron of mutants remain a problem; they do not wish to be part of Xavier's group.

House of M
Later, Magneto learned of his daughter the Scarlet Witch's nervous break-down and her ever-growing powers to alter reality. Magneto snatched Wanda from her battle with her fellow Avengers and brought her to Genosha, where he asked Xavier to restore the Scarlet Witch's sanity - but to no avail. The telepath couldn't help her and, concerned of the threat to reality that Wanda posed, Xavier consulted the Avengers and the X-Men about what to do with her. Their decision was rendered moot, though, as by the time they reached Genosha reality altered around the heroes - changing into the world ruled by the House of M.

While conventional reality was eventually restored, it came at a high price, as thousands if not millions of Earth's mutant population lost their powers or died in the process, leaving only a few hundred mutants alive and powered. Just like most of his new Genoshan allies and enemies, Magneto was among the depowered people, remaining trapped on the island.

Son of M and the Collective Incident
In the limited series Son of M, there is a battle between some of the remaining mutants and the Inhumans.

In The New Avengers #19-20 it was stated that energy cannot be created or destroyed, and the same held true for the energies of the numerous depowered mutants. Eventually, these energies gathered in the form of an unsuspecting energy-absorbing mutant named Michael Pointer. Dubbed "the Collective" by the Avengers, against whom he then fought, the Collective traveled to Genosha and reached out to the startled Magneto. The Collective, controlled by Xorn, attempted to restore Magneto's powers and convince him to lead the remaining mutants into taking over the planet. To the Collective's surprise, Magneto resisted and allowed the Avengers to separate the energy from his body and send it into the sun. The comatose Magneto is also taken into S.H.I.E.L.D. custody, but the helicopter that was supposed to transport him off Genosha explodes once it lifts off. Magneto's body is not found. It has since been revealed that he survived the explosion and remained depowered until the High Evolutionary's dangerous experiment returned his magnetic abilities.

Silent War
To date Genosha is now completely dead. Already in ruins before, the battle between the Inhumans and the O*N*E further destroyed the once-proud island nation during the Silent War.

Since Magneto was the last person on Genosha, it seems that it's now totally uninhabited, which is corroborated by Wiccan and Speed when they began their search for their mother, the Scarlet Witch. They encountered Genosha an empty land filled with destroyed towers and empty streets.

Necrosha and beyond
Selene is seen traveling to the ruined island of Genosha with her followers who were resurrected by the Technarch transmode virus, led there by Blink and Caliban, who tells Selene he senses millions of dead mutants. They enter the ruins and Selene proclaims Hammer Bay, the devastated capital of the island nation Necrosha, the place where she will become a god.

With Eli Bard, Selene resurrects the massacred residents of Genosha, with Cerebro and Bastion's computers detecting the rise of mutant numbers into the millions. A problem presents itself in that many of the newly resurrected mutants have been de-powered, despite having been killed before M-Day. Wither and Mortis explain what happened and the Coven begins to set up base at Necrosha.

Selene is eventually defeated and killed, thus ending the effect of the corrupted Techno-organic virus in the bodies she revived and returning Genosha to an empty land. According to writer Chris Yost, Elixir is still on Necrosha.

During a visit to Genosha by the students of Jean Grey's School for Gifted Youngsters' students organized by Beast and Kitty Pryde, Sabretooth and AOA Blob assaulted Kid Gladiator and Kid Omega in order to kidnap Genesis. During this time, there were no mentioning of Elixir living here.

During the AXIS storyline, Magneto enters the island of Genosha to find that it had turned into a concentration camp for mutants. He frees two mutant girls who tell him that Red Skull is responsible and possesses Professor X's brain. Magneto attacks Red Skull, but is quickly stopped by the Skull's S-Men. Magneto is captured and telepathically tortured by Red Skull. He is given visions of those closest to him suffering while being unable to do anything to stop it. After being freed by Scarlet Witch, Rogue, and Havok, he bites down on a vial beneath his skin of Mutant Growth Hormone, giving himself enough power to fight. Havok, Rogue, and Scarlet Witch are captured by the Red Skull's S-Men and sent to his concentration camp in Genosha. Rogue (who still has Wonder Man inside her) is able to break the group free. They discover Magneto has been captured, and free him, as well. The three want to leave the island and alert the rest of the Avengers and X-Men of what Red Skull is doing, but Magneto says he's going to stay and fight. Before they can do anything, Red Skull appears. Magneto, Rogue, and the Scarlet Witch fought Red Onslaught in Genosha and are later joined by the Avengers and the X-Men. Iron Man used a telepathic tamperer to stop the Red Skull's influence. When more heroes arrived to help, Red Onslaught revealed that he influenced Stark to create a model of Sentinels, based on the knowledge of different super heroes he acquired after the Civil War before erasing the latter's memories of constructing them. Red Onslaught then deployed his Stark Sentinels to fight the heroes.

All-New, All-Different Marvel
As part of the All-New, All-Different Marvel, Magneto and his Uncanny X-Men use Genosha as a staging ground for an ambush on the Dark Riders, who have been targeting mutants with healing powers. After defeating the Dark Riders, Magneto then ties up the Dark Riders and sets off a bomb that kills them and also levels the entire island. It was a sign that Magneto has "no intention of 'Laying Low'."

Empyre
During the Empyre storyline, some of the Cotati used Genosha as a front for their upcoming invasion of Wakanda. This was foiled because of the X-Men, Hordeculture, and the Genoshan zombies that are the results of Scarlet Witch trying to revive the mutants that were killed there.

Marvel Noir
In the Marvel Noir reality, there is a prison called Genosha Bay Prison which is somewhat similar to Guantánamo Bay. It was originally settled by Quaker missionaries who built a penitentiary so to isolate prisoners from each other so they could contemplate the gravity of their sins. By the 1930s, Genosha Bay became a United States extraterritorial prison which hold prisoners of the worse cases from around the world and was notorious for practicing inhumane punishments on its prisoners ranging from sleep deprivations and water torture. Genosha Bay Prison caught the notice of the public and resulted in a Senate Judiciary Meeting on closing the prison. Even if the prison were to be closed down, lawmakers were unwilling to let its more severe criminal sociopaths into America's prisons. In reality, Genosha Bay Prison was used as a proving ground to recruit the prisoners as a next generation of government operatives.

Ultimate Marvel
In the Ultimate Marvel reality, Genosha has made an appearances as an island south of Madagascar. Its main export seems to be television programs notably "Hunt for Justice" under control of Mojo Adams and his crew. Mutants were recently reduced to second-class citizens after the murder of a government minister Lord Joseph Scheele by a mutant called Arthur Centino aka Longshot after an affair was revealed between Scheele and his girlfriend Spiral. Centino is sentenced by Adams and Major Domo to the neighboring island of Krakoa to battle Arcade, but is saved by the X-Men. The island returns in an arc of Ultimate Spider-Man where the mutant killer Deadpool and his squad is hired by Adams.

Television

 * Genosha appears in X-Men: The Animated Series as the creation of Bolivar Trask, Cameron Hodge, Henry Peter Gyrich, and a government official known as "the Leader", who advertise the island as a mutant paradise so they can capture mutants, outfit them with power-negating collars, and use them as slave labor to build Sentinels. Eventually, Cable, the X-Men, Magneto, and his Acolytes free the slaves, who are subsequently relocated to Asteroid M, and destroy the Sentinels.
 * Genosha appears in Wolverine and the X-Men. This version of the island is ruled over by Magneto, which he received from Senator Robert Kelly, and is open to all mutants. While he promises sanctuary, Magneto secretly and unfairly imprisons dissenters and rule breakers. In the three-part series finale "Foresight", Magneto tasks Mystique with disguising herself as Kelly and ordering a Sentinel attack on Genosha to instigate a human-mutant war, only to face complications from the Phoenix Force. After Emma Frost sends it back into space, Magneto's followers lose faith in him and banish him from Genosha. In a possible future depicted in the episode "Badlands", Genosha was destroyed by the Phoenix Force, with Polaris as the sole survivor.
 * Genosha appears in X-Men '97. In the episodes "Mutant Liberation Begins" and "Remember It", the United Nations discuss integrating Genosha before eventually doing so. Additionally, as of the latter episode, Madelyne Pryor, Banshee, Moira MacTaggert, Callisto, Emma Frost, and Sebastian Shaw have become the country's ruling council. Genosha was destroyed when Bastion unleashed a Wild Sentinel on the island, killing thousands of its inhabitants, including Gambit.

Film

 * Genosha appears in X-Men as an uncharted island where Magneto and his Brotherhood have established a base for themselves.
 * Genosha appears in Dark Phoenix as a mutant refuge run by Magneto, which he received from the U.S. government.

Video games

 * Genoshan Sentinel mines appear in Spider-Man and the X-Men in Arcade's Revenge via Cyclops' levels.
 * Genosha appears in X-Men: Mutant Apocalypse as a prison run by Apocalypse.
 * Genosha appears as a stage in X-Men: Children of the Atom.
 * Genosha makes a cameo appearance in X-Men: Next Dimension.
 * Genosha appears in X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse, in which it is devastated by Apocalypse.
 * Genosha appears in Deadpool, in which it was abandoned sometime prior before Mister Sinister took over to use the island as a repository of mutant genetic material for his experiments.

Music

 * Genosha serves as the namesake for Genosha Recordings, an experimental hardcore/gabber/darkcore label run by The Outside Agency.
 * A song named after Genosha appears in Judgement Day's album, Peacocks/Pink Monsters.

Miscellaneous
Genosha has been compared to the Confederate States of America in an article by The Atlantic.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Genosha


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Grinnell College

Grinnell College is a private liberal arts college in Grinnell, Iowa, United States. It was founded in 1846 when a group of New England Congregationalists established Iowa College. It has an open curriculum, which means students need not follow a prescribed list of classes. The college's 120-acre campus includes several listings on the National Register of Historic Places.

History

In 1843, eleven Congregational ministers, all of whom trained at Andover Theological Seminary in Massachusetts, set out to preach on the frontier. The group also sought to establish a college, which followed in 1846, when they collectively established Iowa College in Davenport.

The first 25 years of Grinnell's history saw a change in name and location. In Davenport, the college had advocated against slavery and saloons, leading to conflict with the Davenport city council, which retaliated by constructing roads that transected the campus. Iowa College moved farther west from Davenport to the town of Grinnell and unofficially adopted the name of its new home, which itself had been named for the abolitionist minister Josiah Bushnell Grinnell. The name of the corporation, "The Trustees of Iowa College," remained, but in 1909 the name "Grinnell" was adopted by the trustees for the institution.

In its early years, the college experienced setbacks. Although two students received Bachelor of Arts degrees in 1854 (the first to be granted by a college west of the Mississippi River), within 10 years the Civil War had claimed most of Grinnell's students and professors. In the decade following the war, growth resumed: women were officially admitted as candidates for degrees, and the curriculum was enlarged to include then-new areas of academic studies, such as natural sciences with laboratory work.

In 1882, Grinnell College was struck by a tornado—then called a cyclone, after which the college yearbook was named. The storm devastated the campus and destroyed both college buildings. Rebuilding began immediately, and the determination to expand wasn't limited to architecture: the curriculum was again extended to include departments in political science (one of the first in the United States—the University of Minnesota's department was founded in 1879, three years earlier ) and modern languages.

Grinnell became known as the center of the Social Gospel reform movement, as Robert Handy writes, "The movement centered on the campus of Iowa (now Grinnell) College. Its leading figures were Professor George D. Herron and President George A. Gates". Other firsts pointed to the lighter side of college life: the first intercollegiate football and baseball games west of the Mississippi were played in Grinnell, and the home teams won.

As the 20th century began, Grinnell established a Phi Beta Kappa chapter, introduced the departmental "major" system of study, began Grinnell-in-China (an educational mission that lasted until the Japanese invasion and resumed in 1987), and built a women's residence hall system that became a national model. The social consciousness fostered at Grinnell during these years became evident during Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency, when Grinnell graduates Harry Hopkins '12, Chester Davis '11, Paul Appleby '13, Hallie Flanagan '11, and Florence Kerr '12 became influential New Deal administrators. Concern with social issues, educational innovation, and individual expression continue to shape Grinnell. As an example, the school's "5th year travel-service program," preceded the establishment of the Peace Corps by many years. Other recent innovations include first-year tutorials, cooperative pre-professional programs, and programs in quantitative studies and the societal impacts of technology. Every year, the college awards the $100,000 Grinnell College Innovator for Social Justice Prize, which is split between the recipient and their organization.

In 1975, Grinnell College through their Grinnell Communications subsidiary had purchased NBC affiliate WLWD from Avco Broadcasting Corporation for about $13 million. The station had changed its call letters to WDTN once the sale closed. Shortly after WDTN becoming an ABC affiliate, the station was sold off to Hearst Broadcasting for $45–$48 million.

In 2022, Grinnell became the first fully unionized undergraduate school in the U.S., when student workers voted to expand their dining hall workers union to include all student workers. The move was supported by the president of the college.

Campus
Grinnell College is located in the town of Grinnell, Iowa, about halfway between Des Moines and Iowa City. The main campus, which was once a stop on the Underground Railroad, is bounded by 6th Avenue on the south, 10th Avenue on the north, East Street on the east and Park Street on the west. The 120 acre campus contains sixty-three buildings ranging in style from Collegiate Gothic to Bauhaus to Tudor to Modernist. Goodnow Hall and Mears Cottage (1889) are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Immediately west of the college is the North Grinnell Historic District, which contains over 200 National Register of Historic Places contributing buildings.

The residential part of campus is divided into three sections: North Campus, East Campus, and South Campus. North and South Campus' dormitories are modeled explicitly after the residential colleges of Oxford and Cambridge. The four East Campus dormitories feature a modern, LEED-certified design constructed from Iowa limestone.

All three campuses feature dormitory buildings connected by loggia, an architectural signature of the college. The loggia on South Campus is the only entirely closed loggia, while the loggias on East and North campus are only partially closed. From the time that the first dorm opened in 1915 until the fall of 1968, the nine north campus dorms were used exclusively for male students, and the six south campus dorms reserved for female students. The dorm halls house significantly fewer students than halls at other colleges.

Most academic buildings are located on the southwestern quarter of campus. The athletic facilities are mostly located north of 10th Avenue. The college maintains a 365 acre environmental research area called the Conard Environmental Research Area (CERA). The U.S. Green Building Council awarded CERA's Environmental Education Center a gold certification. The building is the first in Iowa to receive the designation.

During the 2000s, the college completed the Charles Benson Bear '39 Recreation and Athletic Center, the Bucksbaum Center for the Arts, the renovation of the Robert Noyce '49 Science Center and the Joe Rosenfield '25 Student Center. Internationally renowned architect César Pelli designed the athletics center, the Joe Rosenfield '25 Student Center, and the Bucksbaum Center for the Arts.

The college is in period of new construction which is expected to last until 2034.

Academics
Grinnell's open curriculum encourages students to take initiative and to assume responsibility for choosing their own courses of study. The sole core, or general education, requirement is the completion of the First-Year Tutorial, a one-semester, four-credit special topics seminar that stresses methods of inquiry, critical analysis, and writing skills. All other classes are chosen, with the direct guidance of a faculty member in the student's major department, by the student.

Grinnell's three most popular majors among 2021 graduates were Computer Science, Biology/Biological Sciences, and Research & Experimental Psychology.

Graduate programs
Although the college does not offer any graduate degrees, it does have dual degree programs with several universities that let Grinnell students move directly into graduate programs. Grinnell participates in a 3–2 engineering dual degree program with Columbia University, Washington University in St. Louis, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and California Institute of Technology. It also has a 2–1–1–1 engineering program with Dartmouth College and a Master of Public Health cooperative degree program with University of Iowa.

Reputation
Grinnell College has been listed in each edition of Howard & Matthew Greene's guides The Hidden Ivies.

The 2024 annual ranking of U.S. News & World Report rates it tied for the 11th best liberal arts college overall in the U.S., 6th for "Best Undergraduate Teaching, 7th for "Best Value", and tied for 10th for "Most Innovative" . The Princeton Review ranks Grinnell as 10th in Best Classroom Experience. Grinnell is ranked 5th in the 2021 Washington Monthly rankings for liberal arts colleges, which focus on key outputs such as research, dollar value of scientific grants won, the number of graduates going on to earn Ph.D. degrees, and certain types of public service. The college has been consistently ranked in the top 25 liberal arts colleges in the nation since the publication began in 1983. Kiplinger's Personal Finance ranked Grinnell 14th in its 2019 ranking of "best value" liberal arts colleges in the United States. In Forbes magazine's 2019 rankings of academic institutions, "America's Top Colleges" (which uses a non-traditional ranking system based on RateMyProfessors.com evaluations, notable alumni, student debt, percentage of students graduating in four years, and the number of students or faculty receiving prestigious awards), Grinnell College was ranked 80th among all colleges and universities, 34th among liberal arts colleges, and 10th in the Midwest.

Faculty
Grinnell had 173 full-time faculty in fall 2020, all of whom possess a doctorate or the terminal degree in their field.

Admission
In 2019, U.S. News & World Report classified Grinnell's selectivity as "most selective." For Fall 2022, Grinnell received 9,997 freshmen applications; 1,076 were admitted (10.76%). During the 2020-2021 application season, Grinnell offered a standardized test-optional application, due to limited testing access caused by the global COVID-19 pandemic.

Grinnell College's admission selectivity rating, according to The Princeton Review in 2018, is a 95 out of 99. This rating is determined by several institutionally reported factors, including: the class rank, average standardized test scores, and average high school GPA of entering freshmen; the percentage of students who hail from out-of-state; and the percentage of applicants accepted.

Graduation rates
Grinnell College is oriented towards students being enrolled full-time in exactly eight consecutive semesters at the college, although exceptions are available for medical issues and other emergencies. To avoid being suspended from the college, students must make "normal progress towards graduation." This generally means that the student must pass at least 12 credits of classes in each individual semester, with grades C or higher, and have accumulated enough credits to make graduation possible at the end of four years, which requires an average of 15.5 credits each semester. A student who is not making normal progress towards graduation is placed on academic probation and may be dismissed from the college.

Nationwide, only 20% of college students complete a four-year undergraduate degree within four years, and only 57% of college students graduate within six years. However, at Grinnell College, 84% of students graduate within four years. This is the highest graduation rate of any college in Iowa.

Tuition and financial aid
The sticker price for Grinnell's combined tuition, room, board, and fees for the 2022–2023 academic year is $76,528. Tuition and fees are $61,480 and room and board are $15,048.

Need-blind admissions and full financial aid
Grinnell College is one of a few dozen US colleges that maintain need-blind admissions and meets the full demonstrated financial need of all U.S. residents who are admitted to the college. Grinnell offers a large amount of need-based and merit-based aid in comparison with peer institutions. Currently (2020–21), 86% of students receive some form of financial aid. In 2018–2019, 20% of students enrolled at Grinnell College were receiving federal Pell Grants, which are generally reserved for students from low-income families. The average financial aid package is over $51,770. Grinnell guarantees a $10,000 Grinnell Choice Scholarship renewable for eight semesters to all U.S. citizens and permanent residents admitted under the Early Decision program.

Beginning with the first-year students enrolled in the 2006–2007 school year, Grinnell ended its need-blind admissions policy for international applicants. Under the old policy, students from countries outside the U.S. were admitted without any consideration of their ability to afford four years of study at the college. However, financial aid offers to these students were limited to half the cost of tuition. International students frequently carried very high workloads in an effort to pay the bills, and their academic performance often suffered. Under the new "need-sensitive" or "need-aware" policy, international students whose demonstrated financial needs can be met are given a slight admissions edge over applicants who can't. The twin hopes are that the enrolled international students will be able to dedicate more energy to their schoolwork, and also that this will ultimately allow the college to provide higher tuition grants to international students.

Paid internships
In addition to financial aid, students receive funding from the college for unpaid or underpaid summer internships and professional development (including international conferences and professional attire).

Student body
In a 2014 study, compared to other US colleges with high four-year graduation rates, the economic diversity of students at Grinnell College was second only to Vassar College, indicating that it is accessible to students from low-income and middle-income families.

Grinnell is unusual for a selective school based in a small town for being able to attract a relatively large number of international students and US students of color. About a quarter of students are people of color. Most students come from outside the Midwestern United States, and less than 10% are from Iowa.

Athletics

The school's varsity sports teams are named the Pioneers. They participate in eighteen intercollegiate sports at the NCAA Division III level and in the Midwest Conference. In addition, Grinnell has several club sports teams that compete in non-varsity sports such as volleyball, sailing, water polo, ultimate and rugby union.

Nearly one-third of recent Grinnell graduates participated in at least one of varsity sports while attending the college and the college has led the Midwest Conference in the total number of Academic All-Conference honorees in last four years (as of 2021).

The Grinnell Pioneers won the first game of intercollegiate football west of the Mississippi when they beat the University of Iowa 24–0 on November 16, 1889.

The men's water polo team, known as the Wild Turkeys, were runners-up in the 2007 College Water Polo Association (CWPA) Division III Collegiate National Club Championships hosted by Lindenwood University in St. Charles, Missouri. They also qualified for the tournament in 2008, 2009, 2011, 2013, and 2014. The Men's Ultimate team, nicknamed the Grinnellephants, qualified in 2008 for its first Division III National Championship in Versailles, Ohio. The Women's Ultimate team, nicknamed The Sticky Tongue Frogs, tied for third place in the 2010 Division III National Championship in Appleton, Wisconsin. The success was repeated in 2011 when the men's team placed third in 2011 Division III National Championship in Buffalo.

In February 2005, the Grinnell Pioneers men's basketball team became the first Division III school featured in a regular season basketball game by the ESPN network family in 30 years when it faced off against the Beloit Buccaneers on ESPN2. Grinnell lost 86–85. Grinnell College's basketball team attracted ESPN due to the team's run and gun style of playing basketball, known in Grinnell simply as "The System." Coach Dave Arseneault originated the Grinnell System that incorporates a continual full-court press, a fast-paced offense, an emphasis on offensive rebounding, a barrage of three-point shots and substitutions of five players at a time every 35 to 40 seconds. This allows a higher average playing time for more players than the "starters" and suits the Division III goals of scholar-athletes. "The System" has been criticized for not teaching the principles of defense. However, under "The System," Grinnell has won three conference championships over the past ten years and have regularly placed in the top half of the conference. Coach Arseneault's teams have set numerous NCAA scoring records and several individuals on the Grinnell team have led the nation in scoring or assists.

On November 19, 2011, Grinnell player Griffin Lentsch set a new Division III individual scoring record in a game against Principia College. The 6 ft guard scored 89 points, besting the old record of 77, also set by a Pioneers player—Jeff Clement—in 1998. Lentsch made 27 of his 55 shots, including 15 three-pointers as Grinnell won the high-scoring game 145 to 97. On November 20, 2012, Grinnell's Jack Taylor broke Lentsch's scoring record, as well as the records for NCAA and collegiate scoring, in a 179–104 victory over Faith Baptist Bible College. Taylor scored 138 points on 108 shots, along with 3 rebounds, 6 turnovers and 3 steals. Taylor went 27 for 71 from behind the arc. Taylor scored 109 points in a November 2013 game against Crossroads College to become the first player in NCAA history to have two 100-point games.

In 2019, the Grinnell women's volleyball team advanced to the NCAA Division III National Tournament for the first time in the 46-year history of the program, defeating St. Norbert College in a five-set thriller during the Midwest Conference Tournament championship match at Cornell College's gymnasium. It also marked Grinnell's first-ever MWC Tournament title in volleyball.

Social activities and organizations

Students at Grinnell adhere to an honor system known as "self-governance" wherein they are expected to govern their own choices and behavior with minimal direct intervention by the college administration. By cultivating a community based on freedom of choice, self-governance aims to encourage students to become responsible, respectful, and accountable members of the campus, town, and global community.

Founded in November 2000, the student-run group Pioneer Capital Investments (PCI), formerly known as Student Endowment Investing Group, actively invests over $100,000 of Grinnell College's endowment capital in public equities. The group's mission is to provide interested students with valuable experience for future careers in finance. Two environmental organizations on campus produce and sell custom notebooks, using leftover paper from classwork and reused pasteboard from boxes originally holding breakfast cereal or other products.

Service organizations are popular. The Alternative Break ("AltBreak") program takes students to pursue service initiatives during school holidays, and as of 2005, Grinnell had more alumni per capita serving in the Peace Corps than any other college in the nation. The college also runs its own post-graduation service program known as Grinnell Corps in Grinnell, China, Namibia, New Orleans, and Thailand, and has previously operated programs in Greece, Lesotho, Macau, and Nepal.

Grinnell also has an entirely student-run textbook lending library on campus. Aimed at the economically disadvantaged yet open to all, it allows students to check out books for the semester for free, defraying the high cost of college textbooks. This particular library has no funding, relying solely on donated books. Since its founding in 2005, the collection has grown to thousands of books, thanks to the generosity of the campus community. This library has expanded to include caps and gowns, which are lent out to graduating seniors every spring.

Union of Grinnell Student Dining Workers
In 2016, students formed the Union of Grinnell Student Dining Workers, or UGSDW, to represent student workers in the college's dining hall. It was the first undergraduate student workers union at a private college in the United States. After several years of legal maneuvers, the USGDW and the college agreed that the college would be neutral in elections and abide by the results.

In April 2022, members of the UGSDW voted 327–6 to expand the union to all hourly paid student workers on campus, which made Grinnell the first and only fully unionized student-worker body in the country. In October 2022, the union and the college began the collective bargaining process.

Notable alumni
Notable alumni include:

 * Emily Bergl, 1997, actress and singer
 * Thomas Cech, 1970, co-winner of 1989 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, president of Howard Hughes Medical Institute
 * Florin Cîțu, 1999, Prime Minister of Romania (2020–2021)
 * Mary Sue Coleman, 1965, president of the University of Iowa and the University of Michigan
 * Gary Cooper, 1922, actor, best known for High Noon
 * Peter Coyote, 1964, actor, author, director, screenwriter and narrator of films, theatre, television and audiobooks. He is known for his work in various films such as E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982) and Erin Brockovich (2000)
 * John Garang, 1969, founder of the Sudan People's Liberation Movement and former Vice President of Sudan
 * Herbie Hancock, 1960, jazz musician and composer
 * Paul McCulley, 1979, American economist and former managing director at PIMCO.
 * Kumail Nanjiani, 2001, comedian, actor, screenwriter and podcaster, best known for his role as Dinesh on HBO's comedy series Silicon Valley, and for co-writing and starring in the romantic comedy The Big Sick
 * Robert Noyce, 1949, co-founder of Intel, co-inventor of the integrated circuit, National Medal of Science recipient
 * Clair Cameron Patterson, 1943, American geochemist
 * Chase Strangio, 2004, lawyer and transgender rights activist
 * Henry Travillion Wingate, 1969, United States district judge

title: Grinnell College


text:
Glendower

Glendower may refer to:

 * Glendower State Memorial, a historic house in Lebanon, Ohio
 * Shandon, Ohio, which was originally called Glendower
 * Glendower, Virginia
 * Glendower as featured in The Raven Cycle

title: Glendower


text:
List of climate change controversies

The list of climate change controversies (or list of global warming controversies) concerns past or present public debates over certain aspects of climate change: whether it is occurring (climate change deniers dispute this), how much has occurred in modern times, what has caused it, what its effects will be, whether action should be taken to curb it now or later, and so forth. In the scientific literature, there is a very strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.

The controversies are, by now, mostly political rather than scientific: there is a scientific consensus that global warming is happening and is caused by human activity. Public debates that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases (climate sensitivity). Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature, where such issues are treated as resolved, and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States and Australia than globally.

Debates around details in the science
There have been many debates around the details of climate change science. Climate change deniers and "skeptics" tend to cherry-pick data or studies, and then trump up any scientific discussions or apparent discrepancies that match with their agenda. Many of those apparent discrepancies have been reconciled in the meantime, climate models have become more accurate, the scientific consensus on climate change has strengthened and so forth. For example, climatologist Kevin E. Trenberth has published widely on the topic of climate variability and has exposed flaws in the publications of other scientists.

For past debates and controversies on scientific details see for example:
 * History of climate change science
 * Climate change denial
 * Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (the IPCC assessment reports, like the most recent IPCC Sixth Assessment Report summarise the state of the art of climate science at the time).

Debates over most effective response to warming
There have been debates on the best responses to slow global warming, and their timing. The debates are around the specific actions for climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation, or climate action in general. See for example:
 * Economic analysis of climate change
 * Climate change denial
 * Climate change denial
 * Climate action

title: List of climate change controversies


text:
George Dantzig

George Bernard Dantzig (November 8, 1914 – May 13, 2005) was an American mathematical scientist who made contributions to industrial engineering, operations research, computer science, economics, and statistics.

Dantzig is known for his development of the simplex algorithm, an algorithm for solving linear programming problems, and for his other work with linear programming. In statistics, Dantzig solved two open problems in statistical theory, which he had mistaken for homework after arriving late to a lecture by Jerzy Neyman.

At his death, Dantzig was the Professor Emeritus of Transportation Sciences and Professor of Operations Research and of Computer Science at Stanford University.

Early life
Born in Portland, Oregon, George Bernard Dantzig was named after George Bernard Shaw, the Irish writer. He was born to Jewish parents; his father, Tobias Dantzig, was a mathematician and linguist, and his mother, Anja Dantzig (née Ourisson), was a Russian-born linguist of French-Lithuanian origin. Dantzig's parents met during their study at the University of Paris, where Tobias studied mathematics under Henri Poincaré, after whom Dantzig's brother was named. The Dantzigs emigrated to the United States, where they settled in Portland, Oregon.

Early in the 1920s the Dantzig family moved from Baltimore to Washington, D.C. His mother became a linguist at the Library of Congress, and his father became a math tutor at the University of Maryland, College Park.

Education
Dantzig attended Powell Junior High School and Central High School. By the time he reached high school, he was already fascinated by geometry, and this interest was further nurtured by his father, challenging him with complicated problems, particularly in projective geometry.

George Dantzig received his B.S. from University of Maryland in 1936 in mathematics and physics. He earned his master's degree in mathematics from the University of Michigan in 1937. After working as a junior statistician at the Bureau of Labor Statistics from 1937 to 1939, he enrolled in the doctoral program in mathematics at the University of California, Berkeley, where he studied statistics under Jerzy Neyman.

In 1939, a misunderstanding brought about surprising results. Near the beginning of a class, Professor Neyman wrote two problems on the blackboard. Dantzig arrived late and assumed that they were a homework assignment. According to Dantzig, they "seemed to be a little harder than usual", but a few days later he handed in completed solutions for both problems, still believing that they were an assignment that was overdue. Six weeks later, an excited Neyman eagerly told him that the "homework" problems he had solved were two of the most famous unsolved problems in statistics. He had prepared one of Dantzig's solutions for publication in a mathematical journal. This story began to spread and was used as a motivational lesson demonstrating the power of positive thinking. Over time, some facts were altered, but the basic story persisted in the form of an urban legend and as an introductory scene in the movie Good Will Hunting.

Dantzig recalled in a 1986 interview in the College Mathematics Journal, "A year later, when I began to worry about a thesis topic, Neyman just shrugged and told me to wrap the two problems in a binder and he would accept them as my thesis."

Years later, another researcher, Abraham Wald, was preparing to publish a paper where he had arrived at a conclusion for the second problem when he learned of Dantzig's earlier solution. When Dantzig suggested publishing jointly, Wald simply added Dantzig's name as co-author.

Career
With the outbreak of World War II, Dantzig took a leave of absence from the doctoral program at Berkeley to work as a civilian for the United States Army Air Forces. From 1941 to 1946, he became the head of the combat analysis branch of the Headquarters Statistical Control for the Army Air Forces. In 1946, he returned to Berkeley to complete the requirements of his program and received his PhD that year. Although he had a faculty offer from Berkeley, he returned to the Air Force as mathematical advisor to the comptroller.

In 1952, Dantzig joined the mathematics division of the RAND Corporation. By 1960, he became a professor in the Department of Industrial Engineering at UC Berkeley, where he founded and directed the Operations Research Center. In 1966, he joined the Stanford faculty as Professor of Operations Research and of Computer Science. A year later, the Program in Operations Research became a full-fledged department. In 1973, he founded the Systems Optimization Laboratory (SOL) there. On a sabbatical leave that year, he managed the Methodology Group at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in Laxenburg, Austria. Later, he became the C. A. Criley Professor of Transportation Sciences at Stanford University.

He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Dantzig was the recipient of many honors, including the first John von Neumann Theory Prize in 1974, the National Medal of Science in 1975, and an honorary doctorate from the University of Maryland, College Park in 1976. The Mathematical Programming Society honored Dantzig by creating the George B. Dantzig Prize, bestowed every three years since 1982 on one or two people who have made a significant impact in the field of mathematical programming. He was elected to the 2002 class of Fellows of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences.

Research
Freund wrote further that "through his research in mathematical theory, computation, economic analysis, and applications to industrial problems, Dantzig contributed more than any other researcher to the remarkable development of linear programming".

Dantzig's work allows the airline industry, for example, to schedule crews and make fleet assignments. Based on his work, tools are developed "that shipping companies use to determine how many planes they need and where their delivery trucks should be deployed. The oil industry long has used linear programming in refinery planning, as it determines how much of its raw product should become different grades of gasoline and how much should be used for petroleum-based byproducts. It is used in manufacturing, revenue management, telecommunications, advertising, architecture, circuit design and countless other areas".

Linear programming
Linear programming is a mathematical method for determining a way to achieve the best outcome (such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a given mathematical model for some list of requirements represented as linear relationships. Linear programming arose as a mathematical model developed during World War II to plan expenditures and returns in order to reduce costs to the army and increase losses to the enemy. It was kept secret until 1947. Postwar, many industries found its use in their daily planning.

The founders of this subject are Leonid Kantorovich, a Russian mathematician who developed linear programming problems in 1939, Dantzig, who published the simplex method in 1947, and John von Neumann, who developed the theory of the duality in the same year.

Dantzig was asked to work out a method the Air Force could use to improve their planning process. This led to his original example of finding the best assignment of 70 people to 70 jobs, showing the usefulness of linear programming. The computing power required to test all the permutations to select the best assignment is vast; the number of possible configurations exceeds the number of particles in the universe. However, it takes only a moment to find the optimum solution by posing the problem as a linear program and applying the Simplex algorithm. The theory behind linear programming drastically reduces the number of possible optimal solutions that must be checked.

In 1963, Dantzig's Linear Programming and Extensions was published by Princeton University Press. The book quickly became a standard text in linear programming.

Personal life
Dantzig married Anne S. Shmuner in 1936. He died on May 13, 2005, in his home in Stanford, California, of complications from diabetes and cardiovascular disease. He was 90 years old.

Presidential award
On October 18, 1976 President Gerald Ford presented Dantzig with the President's National Medal of Science. The award was given "For inventing linear programming and discovering methods that led to wide-scale scientific and technical applications to important problems in logistics, scheduling, and network optimization, and to the use of computers in making efficient use of the mathematical theory."

Publications
Books by George Dantzig:
 * 1953. Notes on linear programming. RAND Corporation.
 * 1956. Linear inequalities and related systems. With others. Edited by H.W. Kuhn and A.W. Tucker. Princeton University Press.
 * 1963. Linear programming and extensions. Princeton University Press and the RAND Corporation. pdf from RAND
 * 1966. On the continuity of the minimum set of a continuous function. With Jon H. Folkman and Norman Shapiro.
 * 1968. Mathematics of the decision sciences. With Arthur F. Veinott, Jr. Summer Seminar on Applied Mathematics 5th : 1967 : Stanford University. American Mathematical Society.
 * 1969. Lectures in differential equations. A. K. Aziz, general editor. Contributors: George B. Dantzig and others.
 * 1970. Natural gas transmission system optimization. With others.
 * 1973. Compact city; a plan for a liveable urban environment. With Thomas L. Saaty.
 * 1974. Studies in optimization. Edited with B.C. Eaves. Mathematical Association of America.
 * 1985. Mathematical programming : essays in honor of George B. Dantzig. Edited by R.W. Cottle. Mathematical Programming Society.
 * 1997. Linear programming 1: Introduction. G.B.D. and Mukund N. Thapa. Springer-Verlag.
 * 2003. Linear programming 2: Theory and Extensions. G.B.D. and Mukund N. Thapa. Springer-Verlag.
 * 2003. The Basic George B. Dantzig. Edited by Richard W. Cottle. Stanford Business Books, Stanford University Press, Stanford, California.

Book chapters:

Articles, a selection:

title: George Dantzig


text:
Geoff Ryman

Geoffrey Charles Ryman (born 1951) is a Canadian writer of science fiction, fantasy, slipstream and historical fiction.

Biography
Ryman was born in Canada and moved to the United States at age 11. He earned degrees in History and English at UCLA, then moved to England in 1973, where he has lived most of his life. He is gay.

In addition to being an author, Ryman started a web design team for the UK government at the Central Office of Information in 1994. He also led the teams that designed the first official British Monarchy and 10 Downing Street websites, and worked on the UK government's flagship website www.direct.gov.uk.

Works
Ryman says he knew he was a writer "before [he] could talk", with his first work published in his mother's newspaper column at six years of age. He is best known for his science fiction; however, his first novel was the fantasy The Warrior Who Carried Life (1985), and his revisionist fantasy of The Wizard of Oz, Was... (1992), has been called "his most accomplished work".

Much of Ryman's work is based on travels to Cambodia. The first of these, The Unconquered Country (1986), was winner of the World Fantasy Award and BSFA Award. His novel The King's Last Song (2006) was set both in the Angkor Wat era and the time after Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge.

Ryman has written, directed and performed in several plays based on works by other writers.

He was guest of honour at Novacon in 1989 and has twice been a guest speaker at Microcon, in 1994 and in 2004. He was also the guest of honour at the national Swedish science fiction convention Swecon in 2006, at Gaylaxicon 2008, at Wiscon 2009, and at Åcon 2010. An article by Wendy Gay Pearson on Ryman's novel The Child Garden won the British Science Fiction Foundation's graduate essay award and was published in a special issue of Foundation on LGBT science fiction edited by Andrew M. Butler in 2002. Ryman's works were also the subject of a special issue of Extrapolation in 2008, with articles dealing with Air, The Child Garden, Lust, and Was, in particular. Neil Easterbrook's article in this special issue, "'Giving An Account of Oneself': Ethics, Alterity, Air" won the 2009 Science Fiction Research Association Pioneer Award for best published article on science fiction (this award has since been renamed the SFRA Innovative Research Award). The issue includes an interview with Geoff Ryman by Canadian speculative fiction writer Hiromi Goto. The introduction to the special issue, by Susan Knabe and Wendy Gay Pearson, also responds to Ryman's call for Mundane science fiction.

Mundane science fiction is a subgenre of science fiction focusing on stories set on or near the Earth, with a believable use of technology and science as it exists at the time the story is written. The Mundane SF movement was founded in 2002 during the Clarion Workshop by Ryman and others. In 2008 a Mundane SF issue of Interzone magazine was published, guest-edited by Ryman, Julian Todd and Trent Walters.

Ryman has lectured at the University of Manchester since at least 2007; as of 2022 he is an Honorary Senior Lecturer in Creative Writing for University of Manchester's English Department, where in 2011 he won the Faculty Students' Teaching Award for the School of Arts, History and Culture.

As of 2008 he was at work on a new historical novel set in the United States before their American Civil War.

Novels

 * The Unconquered Country: A Life History (1984)
 * The Warrior Who Carried Life (1985)
 * The Child Garden (1989)
 * Was (1992)
 * 253 (1996 online, 1998 print)
 * Lust (2001)
 * Air: Or, Have Not Have (2005)
 * The King's Last Song (2006 UK, 2008 US)
 * Him (2023)

Collections

 * Unconquered Countries: Four Novellas (1994)
 * Paradise Tales (July 2011, Small Beer Press)

Awards

 * valign=top |
 * British Science Fiction Award
 * The Unconquered Country for Best Short (1984)
 * Air for Best Novel (2005)
 * Air for Best Novel (2005)

 * World Fantasy Award
 * The Unconquered Country Best Novella (1985)

 * Arthur C. Clarke Award
 * The Child Garden for Best Novel (1990)
 * Air (2005)
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 * Campbell Award
 * The Child Garden for Best Novel (1990)

 * Philip K. Dick Award
 * 253: The Print Remix, 1998

 * James Tiptree, Jr. Award
 * Air (2005)

 * Nebula Award for Best Novelette
 * What We Found (2012)

title: Geoff Ryman


text:
Gametophyte

A gametophyte is one of the two alternating multicellular phases in the life cycles of plants and algae. It is a haploid multicellular organism that develops from a haploid spore that has one set of chromosomes. The gametophyte is the sexual phase in the life cycle of plants and algae. It develops sex organs that produce gametes, haploid sex cells that participate in fertilization to form a diploid zygote which has a double set of chromosomes. Cell division of the zygote results in a new diploid multicellular organism, the second stage in the life cycle known as the sporophyte. The sporophyte can produce haploid spores by meiosis that on germination produce a new generation of gametophytes.

Algae
In some multicellular green algae (Ulva lactuca is one example), red algae and brown algae, sporophytes and gametophytes may be externally indistinguishable (isomorphic). In Ulva the gametes are isogamous, all of one size, shape and general morphology.

Land plants
In land plants, anisogamy is universal. As in animals, female and male gametes are called, respectively, eggs and sperm. In extant land plants, either the sporophyte or the gametophyte may be reduced (heteromorphic). No extant gametophytes have stomata, but they have been found on fossil species like the early Devonian Aglaophyton from the Rhynie chert. Other fossil gametophytes found in the Rhynie chert shows they were much more developed than present forms, resembling the sporophyte in having a well-developed conducting strand, a cortex, an epidermis and a cuticle with stomata, but were much smaller.

Bryophytes
In bryophytes (mosses, liverworts, and hornworts), the gametophyte is the most visible stage of the life cycle. The bryophyte gametophyte is longer lived, nutritionally independent, and the sporophytes are attached to the gametophytes and dependent on them. When a moss spore germinates it grows to produce a filament of cells (called the protonema). The mature gametophyte of mosses develops into leafy shoots that produce sex organs (gametangia) that produce gametes. Eggs develop in archegonia and sperm in antheridia.

In some bryophyte groups such as many liverworts of the order Marchantiales, the gametes are produced on specialized structures called gametophores (or gametangiophores).

Vascular plants
All vascular plants are sporophyte dominant, and a trend toward smaller and more sporophyte-dependent female gametophytes is evident as land plants evolved reproduction by seeds. Those vascular plants, such as clubmosses and many ferns, that produce only one type of spore are said to be homosporous. They have exosporic gametophytes — that is, the gametophyte is free-living and develops outside of the spore wall. Exosporic gametophytes can either be bisexual, capable of producing both sperm and eggs in the same thallus (monoicous), or specialized into separate male and female organisms (dioicous).

In heterosporous vascular plants (plants that produce both microspores and megaspores), the gametophytes develop endosporically (within the spore wall). These gametophytes are dioicous, producing either sperm or eggs but not both.

Ferns
In most ferns, for example, in the leptosporangiate fern Dryopteris, the gametophyte is a photosynthetic free living autotrophic organism called a prothallus that produces gametes and maintains the sporophyte during its early multicellular development. However, in some groups, notably the clade that includes Ophioglossaceae and Psilotaceae, the gametophytes are subterranean and subsist by forming mycotrophic relationships with fungi. Homosporous ferns secrete a chemical called antheridiogen.

Lycophytes
Extant lycophytes produce two different types of gametophytes. In the homosporous families Lycopodiaceae and Huperziaceae, spores germinate into bisexual free-living, subterranean and mycotrophic gametophytes that derive nutrients from symbiosis with fungi. In Isoetes and Selaginella, which are heterosporous, microspores and megaspores are dispersed from sporangia either passively or by active ejection. Microspores produce microgametophytes which produce sperm. Megaspores produce reduced megagametophytes inside the spore wall. At maturity, the megaspore cracks open at the trilete suture to allow the male gametes to access the egg cells in the archegonia inside. The gametophytes of Isoetes appear to be similar in this respect to those of the extinct Carboniferous arborescent lycophytes Lepidodendron and Lepidostrobus.

Seed plants
The seed plant gametophyte life cycle is even more reduced than in basal taxa (ferns and lycophytes). Seed plant gametophytes are not independent organisms and depend upon the dominant sporophyte tissue for nutrients and water. With the exception of mature pollen, if the gametophyte tissue is separated from the sporophyte tissue it will not survive. Due to this complex relationship and the small size of the gametophyte tissue—in some situations single celled—differentiating with the human eye or even a microscope between seed plant gametophyte tissue and sporophyte tissue can be a challenge. While seed plant gametophyte tissue is typically composed of mononucleate haploid cells (1 x n), specific circumstances can occur in which the ploidy does vary widely despite still being considered part of the gametophyte.

In gymnosperms, the male gametophytes are produced inside microspores within the microsporangia located inside male cones or microstrobili. In each microspore, a single gametophyte is produced, consisting of four haploid cells produced by meiotic division of a diploid microspore mother cell. At maturity, each microspore-derived gametophyte becomes a pollen grain. During its development, the water and nutrients that the male gametophyte requires are provided by the sporophyte tissue until they are released for pollination. The cell number of each mature pollen grain varies between the gymnosperm orders. Cycadophyta have 3 celled pollen grains while Ginkgophyta have 4 celled pollen grains. Gnetophyta may have 2 or 3 celled pollen grains depending on the species, and Coniferophyta pollen grains vary greatly ranging from single celled to 40 celled. One of these cells is typically a germ cell and other cells may consist of a single tube cell which grows to form the pollen tube, sterile cells, and/or prothallial cells which are both vegetative cells without an essential reproductive function. After pollination is successful, the male gametophyte continues to develop. If a tube cell was not developed in the microstrobilus, one is created after pollination via mitosis. The tube cell grows into the diploid tissue of the female cone and may branch out into the megastrobilus tissue or grow straight towards the egg cell. The megastrobilus sporophytic tissue provides nutrients for the male gametophyte at this stage. In some gymnosperms, the tube cell will create a direct channel from the site of pollination to the egg cell, in other gymnosperms, the tube cell will rupture in the middle of the megastrobilus sporophyte tissue. This occurs because in some gymnosperm orders, the germ cell is nonmobile and a direct pathway is needed, however, in Cycadophyta and Ginkgophyta, the germ cell is mobile due to flagella being present and a direct tube cell path from the pollination site to the egg is not needed. In most species the germ cell can be more specifically described as a sperm cell which mates with the egg cell during fertilization, though that is not always the case. In some Gnetophyta species, the germ cell will release two sperm nuclei that undergo a rare gymnosperm double fertilization process occurring solely with sperm nuclei and not with the fusion of developed cells. After fertilization is complete in all orders, the remaining male gametophyte tissue will deteriorate. The female gametophyte in gymnosperms differs from the male gametophyte as it spends its whole life cycle in one organ, the ovule located inside the megastrobilus or female cone. Similar to the male gametophyte, the female gametophyte normally is fully dependent on the surrounding sporophytic tissue for nutrients and the two organisms cannot be separated. However, the female gametophytes of Ginkgo biloba do contain chlorophyll and can produce some of their own energy, though, not enough to support itself without being supplemented by the sporophyte. The female gametophyte forms from a diploid megaspore that undergoes meiosis and starts being singled celled. The size of the mature female gametophyte varies drastically between gymnosperm orders. In Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Coniferophyta, and some Gnetophyta, the single celled female gametophyte undergoes many cycles of mitosis ending up consisting of thousands of cells once mature. At a minimum, two of these cells are egg cells and the rest are haploid somatic cells, but more egg cells may be present and their ploidy, though typically haploid, may vary. In select Gnetophyta, the female gametophyte stays singled celled. Mitosis does occur, but no cell divisions are ever made. This results in the mature female gametophyte in some Gnetophyta having many free nuclei in one cell. Once mature, this single celled gametophyte is 90% smaller than the female gametophytes in other gymnosperm orders. After fertilization, the remaining female gametophyte tissue in gymnosperms serves as the nutrient source for the developing zygote (even in Gnetophyta where the diploid zygote cell is much smaller at that stage, and for a while lives within the single celled gametophyte).

The precursor to the male angiosperm gametophyte is a diploid microspore mother cell located inside the anther. Once the microspore undergoes meiosis, 4 haploid cells are formed, each of which is a singled celled male gametophyte. The male gametophyte will develop via one or two rounds of mitosis inside the anther. This creates a 2 or 3 celled male gametophyte which becomes known as the pollen grain once dehiscing occurs. One cell is the tube cell, and the remaining cell/cells are the sperm cells. The development of the three celled male gametophyte prior to dehiscing has evolved multiple times and is present in about a third of angiosperm species allowing for faster fertilization after pollination. Once pollination occurs, the tube cell grows in size and if the male gametophyte is only 2 cells at this stage, the single sperm cell undergoes mitosis to create a second sperm cell. Just like in gymnosperms, the tube cell in angiosperms obtains nutrients from the sporophytic tissue, and may branch out into the pistil tissue or grow directly towards the ovule. Once double fertilization is completed, the tube cell and other vegetative cells, if present, are all that remains of the male gametophyte and soon degrade.

The female gametophyte of angiosperms develops in the ovule (located inside the female or hermaphrodite flower). Its precursor is a diploid megaspore that undergoes meiosis which produces four haploid daughter cells. Three of these independent gametophyte cells degenerate and the one that remains is the gametophyte mother cell which normally contains one nucleus. In general, it will then divide by mitosis until it consists of 8 nuclei separated into 1 egg cell, 3 antipodal cells, 2 synergid cells, and a central cell that contains two nuclei. In select angiosperms, special cases occur in which the female gametophyte is not 7 celled with 8 nuclei. On the small end of the spectrum, some species have mature female gametophytes with only 4 cells, each with one nuclei. Conversely, some species have 10-celled mature female gametophytes consisting of 16 total nuclei. Once double fertilization occurs, the egg cell becomes the zygote which is then considered sporophyte tissue. Scholars still disagree on whether the fertilized central cell is considered gametophyte tissue. Some botanists consider this endospore as gametophyte tissue with typically 2/3 being female and 1/3 being male, but as the central cell before double fertilization can range from 1n to 8n in special cases, the fertilized central cells range from 2n (50% male/female) to 9n (1/9 male, 8/9th female). However, other botanists consider the fertilized endospore as sporophyte tissue. Some believe it is neither.

Heterospory
In heterosporic plants, there are two distinct kinds of gametophytes. Because the two gametophytes differ in form and function, they are termed heteromorphic, from hetero- "different" and morph "form". The egg-producing gametophyte is known as a megagametophyte, because it is typically larger, and the sperm producing gametophyte is known as a microgametophyte. Species which produce egg and sperm on separate gametophytes plants are termed dioicous, while those that produce both eggs and sperm on the same gametophyte are termed monoicous.

In heterosporous plants (water ferns, some lycophytes, as well as all gymnosperms and angiosperms), there are two distinct types of sporangia, each of which produces a single kind of spore that germinates to produce a single kind of gametophyte. However, not all heteromorphic gametophytes come from heterosporous plants. That is, some plants have distinct egg-producing and sperm-producing gametophytes, but these gametophytes develop from the same kind of spore inside the same sporangium; Sphaerocarpos is an example of such a plant.

In seed plants, the microgametophyte is called pollen. Seed plant microgametophytes consists of several (typically two to five) cells when the pollen grains exit the sporangium. The megagametophyte develops within the megaspore of extant seedless vascular plants and within the megasporangium in a cone or flower in seed plants. In seed plants, the microgametophyte (pollen) travels to the vicinity of the egg cell (carried by a physical or animal vector) and produces two sperm by mitosis.

In gymnosperms, the megagametophyte consists of several thousand cells and produces one to several archegonia, each with a single egg cell. The gametophyte becomes a food storage tissue in the seed.

In angiosperms, the megagametophyte is reduced to only a few cells, and is sometimes called the embryo sac. A typical embryo sac contains seven cells and eight nuclei, one of which is the egg cell. Two nuclei fuse with a sperm nucleus to form the primary endospermic nucleus which develops to form triploid endosperm, which becomes the food storage tissue in the seed.

title: Gametophyte


text:
Gavoi

Gavoi is a comune in central Sardinia (Italy), part of the province of Nuoro, in the natural region of Barbagia. It overlooks Lake Gusana.

History
The territory of Gavoi is inhabited since the prenuragic period. During the middleage is cited various times in the list of villages and towns that paid the taxes to the Roman curia.

Gavoi was hit by the plague in the 18th century.

Main sights
The Roman church of San Gavino is Gavoi's foremost sacred spot, through there are eight other ancient churches in the village. The village's center contains rock houses with balconies, and a village fountain is known as "Antana 'e Cartzonna".

Near the lake are the archaeological areas of Orrui and San Michele di Fonni. A Roman bridge is submerged beneath the lake.

Economy
Mountain tourism is among the sources of income. Agriculture production include potatoes and cheese (the town is famous for its Fiore Sardo).

Traditions and culture
The "tumbarinu" is a traditional drum made of lamb skin, and more rarely, dog or donkey skin. The tumbarinu is often accompanied with the pipiolu, the traditional sheppard's fife. The "ballu tundu", is a traditional dance in the round, as in the Balkan area. Poetry is esteemed, including extemporaneous rhyme competitions on given topics.

The nearby Sanctuary of Madonna d'Itria hosts a palio, in this case a peculiar horse competition very similar to that of Siena.

title: Gavoi


text:
Lake Gusana

Lake Gusana (Lago di Gusana) is an artificial lake near the town of Gavoi in the interior of Sardinia, Italy.

The lake was built in the 1930s to store water for an electricity generator (central of Coghinadordza), and it covered an ancient Roman bridge as well as an ancient archaeological site of the Nuragici people.

It is now a tourist destination.

title: Lake Gusana