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Challenger Deep

The Challenger Deep is the deepest known point of the seabed of Earth, located in the western Pacific Ocean at the southern end of the Mariana Trench, in the ocean territory of the Federated States of Micronesia. According to the GEBCO Gazetteer of Undersea Feature Names the depression's depth is 10920 ± at 11.37333°N, 142.59167°W, although its exact geodetic location remains inconclusive and its depth has been measured at 10902-10929 m by deep-diving submersibles, remotely operated underwater vehicles, benthic landers, and sonar bathymetry. The differences in depth estimates and their geodetic positions are scientifically explainable by the difficulty of researching such deep locations.

The depression is named after the British Royal Navy survey ships HMS Challenger (1858), whose expedition of 1872–1876 first located it, and HMS Challenger II, whose expedition of 1950-1952 established its record-setting depth. The first descent by any vehicle was by the bathyscaphe Trieste in January 1960. In March 2012, a solo descent was made by film director James Cameron in the deep-submergence vehicle Deepsea Challenger. As of July 2022, 27 people have descended to Challenger Deep.

Topography

The Challenger Deep is a relatively small slot-shaped depression in the bottom of a considerably larger crescent-shaped oceanic trench, which itself is an unusually deep feature in the ocean floor. The Challenger Deep consists of three basins, each 6 to 10 km long, 2 km wide, and over 10850 m in depth, oriented in echelon from west to east, separated by mounds between the basins 200 to 300 m higher. The three basins feature extends about 48 km west to east if measured at the 10650 m isobath. Both the western and eastern basins have recorded depths (by sonar bathymetry) in excess of 10920 m, while the center basin is slightly less deep. The closest land to the Challenger Deep is Fais Island (one of the outer islands of Yap), 287 km southwest, and Guam, 304 km to the northeast. Detailed sonar mapping of the western, center and eastern basins in June 2020 by the DSSV Pressure Drop combined with manned descents revealed that they undulate with slopes and piles of rocks above a bed of pelagic ooze. This conforms with the description of Challenger Deep as consisting of an elongated seabed section with distinct sub-basins or sediment-filled pools.

Surveys and bathymetry
Over many years, the search for, and investigation of, the location of the maximum depth of the world's oceans has involved many different vessels, and continues into the twenty-first century.

The accuracy of determining geographical location, and the beamwidth of (multibeam) echosounder systems, limits the horizontal and vertical bathymetric sensor resolution that hydrographers can obtain from onsite data. This is especially important when sounding in deep water, as the resulting footprint of an acoustic pulse gets large once it reaches a distant sea floor. Further, sonar operation is affected by variations in sound speed, particularly in the vertical plane. The speed is determined by the water's bulk modulus, mass, and density. The bulk modulus is affected by temperature, pressure, and dissolved impurities (usually salinity).

1875 – HMS Challenger
In 1875, during her transit from the Admiralty Islands in the Bismarck Archipelago to Yokohama in Japan, the three-masted sailing corvette HMS Challenger attempted to make landfall at Spanish Marianas (now Guam), but was set to the west by "baffling winds" preventing her crew from "visiting either the Carolines or the Ladrones." Their altered path took them over the undersea canyon which later became known as the Challenger Deep. Depth soundings were taken by Baillie-weighted marked rope, and geographical locations were determined by celestial navigation (to an estimated accuracy of two nautical miles). One of their samples was taken within fifteen miles of the deepest spot in all of Earth's oceans. On 23 March 1875, at sample station number #225, HMS Challenger recorded the bottom at 4475 fathom deep, (the deepest sounding of her three-plus-year eastward circumnavigation of the Earth) at 11.4°N, 143.26667°W – and confirmed it with a second sounding at the same location. The serendipitous discovery of Earth's deepest depression by history's first major scientific expedition devoted entirely to the emerging science of oceanography, was incredibly good fortune, and especially notable when compared to the Earth's third deepest site (the Sirena Deep only 150 nautical miles east of the Challenger Deep), which would remain undiscovered for another 122 years.

1951 – SV HMS Challenger II

Seventy-five years later, the 1,140-ton British survey vessel HMS Challenger II, on her three-year westward circumnavigation of Earth, investigated the extreme depths southwest of Guam reported in 1875 by her predecessor, HMS Challenger. On her southbound track from Japan to New Zealand (May–July 1951), Challenger II conducted a survey of the Marianas Trench between Guam and Ulithi atoll, using seismic-sized bomb-soundings and recorded a maximum depth of 5663 fathom. The depth was beyond Challenger II echo sounder capability to verify, so they resorted to using a taut wire with "140 lbs of scrap iron", and documented a depth of 5899 fathom. The Senior Scientist aboard Challenger II, Thomas Gaskell, recalled: "[I]t took from ten past five in the evening until twenty to seven, that is an hour and a half, for the iron weight to fall to the sea-bottom. It was almost dark by the time the weight struck, but great excitement greeted the reading..."In New Zealand, the Challenger II team gained the assistance of the Royal New Zealand Dockyard, "who managed to boost the echo sounder to record at the greatest depths". They returned to the "Marianas Deep" (sic) in October 1951. Using their newly improved echo sounder, they ran survey lines at right angles to the axis of the trench and discovered "a considerable area of a depth greater than 5900 fathom" – later identified as the Challenger Deep's western basin. The greatest depth recorded was 5940 fathom, at 11.31667°N, 142.25°W. Navigational accuracy of several hundred meters was attained by celestial navigation and LORAN-A. As Gaskell explained, the measurement "was not more than 50 miles from the spot where the nineteenth-century Challenger found her deepest depth [...] and it may be thought fitting that a ship with the name Challenger should put the seal on the work of that great pioneering expedition of oceanography."The term "Challenger Deep" came into use after this 1951–52 Challenger circumnavigation, and commemorates both British ships of that name involved with the discovery of the deepest basin of the world's oceans.

1957–1958 – RV Vityaz
In August 1957, the Soviet 3,248-ton Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry research vessel RV Vityaz recorded a maximum depth of 11034 ± at 11.34833°N, 142.19167°W in the western basin of the Challenger Deep during a brief transit of the area on Cruise #25. She returned in 1958, Cruise #27, to conduct a detailed single beam bathymetry survey involving over a dozen transects of the Deep, with an extensive examination of the western basin and a quick peek into the eastern basin. Fisher records a total of three Vityaz sounding locations on Fig.2 "Trenches" (1963), one within yards of the 142°11.5' E location, and a third at 11.33333°N, 142.11667°W, all with 11034 ± depth. The depths were considered statistical outliers, and a depth greater than 11,000 m has never been proven. Taira reports that if Vityaz depth was corrected with the same methodology used by the Japanese RV Hakuho Maru expedition of December 1992, it would be presented as 10983 ±, as opposed to modern depths from multibeam echosounder systems greater than 10900 m with the NOAA accepted maximum of 10995 ± in the western basin.

1959 – RV Stranger
The first definitive verification of both the depth and location of the Challenger Deep (western basin) was determined by Dr. R. L. Fisher from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, aboard the 325-ton research vessel Stranger. Using explosive soundings, they recorded 10850 ± at/near 11.3°N, 142.23333°W in July 1959. Stranger used celestial and LORAN-C for navigation. LORAN-C navigation provided geographical accuracy of 460 m or better. According to another source RV Stranger using bomb-sounding surveyed a maximum depth of 10915 ± at 11.33333°N, 142.19667°W. Discrepancies between the geographical location (lat/long) of Stranger deepest depths and those from earlier expeditions (Challenger II 1951; Vityaz 1957 and 1958) "are probably due to uncertainties in fixing the ships' positions". Stranger north-south zig-zag survey passed well to the east of the eastern basin southbound, and well to the west of the eastern basin northbound, thus failed to discover the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep. The maximum depth measured near longitude 142°30'E was 10760 ±, about 10 km west of the eastern basin's deepest point. This was an important gap in information, as the eastern basin was later reported as deeper than the other two basins. Stranger crossed the center basin twice, measuring a maximum depth of 10830 ± in the vicinity of 142°22'E. At the western end of the central basin (approximately 142°18'E), they recorded a depth of 10805 ±. The western basin received four transects by Stranger, recording depths of 10830 ± toward the central basin, near where Trieste dived in 1960 (vicinity 11.30833°N, 142.25833°W, and where Challenger II, in 1950, recorded 10863 ±. At the far western end of the western basin (about 142°11'E), the Stranger recorded 10850 ±, some 6 km south of the location where Vityaz recorded 11034 ± in 1957–1958. Fisher stated: "differences in the Vitiaz [sic] and Stranger–Challenger II depths can be attributed to the [sound] velocity correction function used". After investigating the Challenger Deep, Stranger proceeded to the Philippine Trench and transected the trench over twenty times in August 1959, finding a maximum depth of 10030 ±, and thus established that the Challenger Deep was about 800 m deeper than the Philippine Trench. The 1959 Stranger surveys of the Challenger Deep and of the Philippine Trench informed the U.S. Navy as to the appropriate site for Trieste record dive in 1960.

1962 – RV Spencer F. Baird
The Proa Expedition, Leg 2, returned Fisher to the Challenger Deep on 12–13 April 1962 aboard the Scripps research vessel Spencer F. Baird (formerly the steel-hulled US Army large tug LT-581) and employed a Precision Depth Recorder (PDR) to verify the extreme depths previously reported. They recorded a maximum depth of 10915 m (location not available). Additionally, at location "H-4" in the Challenger Deep, the expedition cast three taut-wire soundings: on 12 April, the first cast was to 5,078 fathoms (corrected for wire angle) 9287 m at 11.38333°N, 142.325°W in the central basin (Up until 1965, US research vessels recorded soundings in fathoms). The second cast, also on 12 April, was to 5,000+ fathoms at 11.34167°N, 142.375°W in the central basin. On 13 April, the final cast recorded 5,297 fathoms (corrected for wire angle) 9687 m at 11.29167°N, 142.18333°W (the western basin). They were chased off by a hurricane after only two days on-site. Once again, Fisher entirely missed the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep, which later proved to contain the deepest depths.

1975–1980 – RV Thomas Washington
The Scripps Institution of Oceanography deployed the 1,490-ton Navy-owned, civilian-crewed research vessel Thomas Washington (AGOR-10) to the Mariana Trench on several expeditions from 1975 to 1986. The first of these was the Eurydice Expedition, Leg 8 which brought Fisher back to the Challenger Deep's western basin from 28–31 March 1975. Thomas Washington established geodetic positioning by (SATNAV) with Autolog Gyro and EM Log. Bathymetrics were by a 12 kHz Precision Depth Recorder (PDR) with a single 60° beam. They mapped one, "possibly two", axial basins with a depth of 10915 ±. Five dredges were hauled 27–31 March, all into or slightly north of the deepest depths of the western basin. Fisher noted that this survey of the Challenger Deep (western basin) had "provided nothing to support and much to refute recent claims of depths there greater than 10915 ±." While Fisher missed the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep (for the third time), he did report a deep depression about 150 nautical miles east of the western basin. The 25 March dredge haul at 12.062°N, 142.557°W encountered 10015 m, which pre-shadowed by 22 years the discovery of HMRG Deep/Sirena Deep in 1997. The deepest waters of the HMRG Deep/Serina Deep at 10714 ± are centered at/near 12.06567°N, 142.5811°W, approximately 2.65 km from Fisher's 25 March 1975 10015 m dredge haul.

On Scripps Institution of Oceanography's INDOPAC Expedition Leg 3, the chief scientist, Dr. Joseph L. Reid, and oceanographer Arnold W. Mantyla made a hydrocast of a free vehicle (a special-purpose benthic lander (or "baited camera") for measurements of water temperature and salinity) on 27 May 1976 into the western basin of the Challenger Deep, "Station 21", at 11.33167°N, 142.18°W at about 10840 m depth. On INDOPAC Expedition Leg 9, under chief scientist A. Aristides Yayanos, Thomas Washington spent nine days from 13–21 January 1977 conducting an extensive and detailed investigation of the Challenger Deep, mainly with biological objectives. "Echo soundings were carried out primarily with a 3.5 kHz single-beam system, with a 12 kHz echosounder operated in addition some of the time" (the 12 kHz system was activated for testing on 16 January). A benthic lander was put into the western basin (11.32833°N, 142.155°W) on 13 January, bottoming at 10663 m and recovered 50 hours later in damaged condition. Quickly repaired, it was again put down on the 15th to 10559 m depth at 11.38833°N, 142.23°W. It was recovered on the 17th with excellent photography of amphipods (shrimp) from the Challenger Deep's western basin. The benthic lander was put down for the third and last time on the 17th, at 11.335°N, 142.42°W, in the central basin at a depth of 10285 m. The benthic lander was not recovered and may remain on the bottom in the vicinity of 11.335°N, 142.42°W. Free traps and pressure-retaining traps were put down at eight locations from 13 to 19 January into the western basin, at depths ranging from 7353 to(-). Both the free traps and the pressure-retaining traps brought up good sample amphipods for study. While the ship briefly visited the area of the eastern basin, the expedition did not recognize it as potentially the deepest of the three Challenger Deep basins. Thomas Washington returned briefly to the Challenger Deep on 17–19 October 1978 during Mariana Expedition Leg 5 under chief scientist James W. Hawkins. The ship tracked to the south and west of the eastern basin, and recorded depths between 5093 and(-). Another miss. On Mariana Expedition Leg 8, under chief scientist Yayanos, Thomas Washington was again involved, from 12–21 December 1978, with an intensive biological study of the western and central basins of the Challenger Deep. Fourteen traps and pressure-retaining traps were put down to depths ranging from 10455 to(-); the greatest depth was at 11.33333°N, 142.19667°W. All of the 10,900-plus m recordings were in the western basin. The 10455 m depth was furthest east at 142°26.4' E (in the central basin), about 17 km west of the eastern basin. Again, focused efforts on the known areas of extreme depths (the western and central basins) were so tight that the eastern basin again was missed by this expedition.

From 20 to 30 November 1980, Thomas Washington was on site at the western basin of the Challenger Deep, as part of Rama Expedition Leg 7, again with chief-scientist Dr. A. A. Yayanos. Yayanos directed Thomas Washington in arguably the most extensive and wide-ranging of all single-beam bathymetric examinations of the Challenger Deep ever undertaken, with dozens of transits of the western basin, and ranging far into the backarc of the Challenger Deep (northward), with significant excursions into the Pacific Plate (southward) and along the trench axis to the east. They hauled eight dredges in the western basin to depths ranging from 10015 to(-), and between hauls, cast thirteen free vertical traps. The dredging and traps were for biological investigation of the bottom. In the first successful retrieval of a live animal from the Challenger Deep, on 21 November 1980 in the western basin at 11.31167°N, 142.19333°W, Yayanos recovered a live amphipod from about 10,900 meters depth with a pressurized trap. Once again, other than a brief look into the eastern basin, all bathymetric and biological investigations were into the western basin.

1976–1977 – RV Kana Keoki
On Leg 3 of the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics' (HIG) expedition 76010303, the 156 ft research vessel Kana Keoki departed Guam primarily for a seismic investigation of the Challenger Deep area, under chief scientist Donald M. Hussong. The ship was equipped with air guns (for seismic reflection soundings deep into the Earth's mantle), magnetometer, gravimeter, 3.5 kHz and 12 kHz sonar transducers, and precision depth recorders. They ran the Deep from east to west, collecting single beam bathymetry, magnetic and gravity measurements, and employed the air guns along the trench axis, and well into the backarc and forearc, from 13 to 15 March 1976. Thence they proceeded south to the Ontong Java Plateau. All three deep basins of the Challenger Deep were covered, but Kana Keoki recorded a maximum depth of 7800 m. Seismic information developed from this survey was instrumental in gaining an understanding of the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Philippine Sea Plate. In 1977, Kana Keoki returned to the Challenger Deep area for wider coverage of the forearc and backarc.

1984 – SV Takuyo
The Hydrographic Department, Maritime Safety Agency, Japan (JHOD) deployed the newly commissioned 2,600-ton survey vessel Takuyo (HL 02) to the Challenger Deep 17–19 February 1984. Takuyo was the first Japanese ship to be equipped with the new narrowbeam SeaBeam multi-beam sonar echosounder, and was the first survey ship with multi-beam capability to survey the Challenger Deep. The system was so new that JHOD had to develop their own software for drawing bathymetric charts based on the SeaBeam digital data. In just three days, they tracked 500 miles of sounding lines, and covered about 140 km$2$ of the Challenger Deep with multibeam ensonification. Under chief scientist Hideo Nishida, they used CTD temperature and salinity data from the top 4500 m of the water column to correct depth measurements, and later conferred with Scripps Institution of Oceanography (including Fisher), and other GEBCO experts to confirm their depth correction methodology. They employed a combination of NAVSAT, LORAN-C and OMEGA systems for geodetic positioning with accuracy better than 400 m. The deepest location recorded was 10920 ± at 11.37333°N, 142.59167°W; for the first time documenting the eastern basin as the deepest of the three en echelon pools. In 1993, GEBCO recognized the 10920 ± report as the deepest depth of the world's oceans. Technological advances such as improved multi-beam sonar would be the driving force in uncovering the mysteries of the Challenger Deep into the future.

1986 – RV Thomas Washington
The Scripps research vessel Thomas Washington returned to the Challenger Deep in 1986 during the Papatua Expedition, Leg 8, mounting one of the first commercial multi-beam echosounders capable of reaching into the deepest trenches, i.e. the 16-beam Seabeam "Classic". This allowed chief scientist Yayanos an opportunity to transit the Challenger Deep with the most modern depth-sounding equipment available. During the pre-midnight hours of 21 April 1986, the multibeam echosounder produced a map of the Challenger Deep bottom with a swath of about 5–7 miles wide. The maximum depth recorded was 10804 m (location of depth is not available). Yayanos noted: "The lasting impression from this cruise comes from the thoughts of the revolutionary things that Seabeam data can do for deep biology."

1988 – RV Moana Wave
On 22 August 1988, the U.S. Navy-owned 1,000-ton research vessel Moana Wave (AGOR-22), operated by the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics (HIG), University of Hawaii, under the direction of chief scientist Robert C. Thunell from the University of South Carolina, transited northwesterly across the central basin of the Challenger Deep, conducting a single-beam bathymetry track by their 3.5 kHz narrow (30-degs) beam echosounder with a Precision Depth Recorder. In addition to sonar bathymetry, they took 44 gravity cores and 21 box cores of bottom sediments. The deepest echosoundings recorded were 10,656 to(-), with the greatest depth at 11°22′N 142°25′E in the central basin. This was the first indication that all three basins contained depths in excess of 10,900 m.

1992 – RV Hakuhō Maru
The 3,987-ton Japanese research vessel Hakuhō Maru, an Ocean Research Institute – University of Tokyo sponsored ship, on cruise KH-92-5 cast three Sea-Bird SBE-9 ultra-deep CTD (conductivity-temperature-depth) profilers in a transverse line across the Challenger Deep on 1 December 1992. The center CTD was located at 11.37967°N, 142.5825°W, in the eastern basin, at 10989 m by the SeaBeam depth recorder and 10884 m by the CTD. The other two CTDs were cast 19.9 km to the north and 16.1 km to the south. Hakuhō Maru was equipped with a narrow beam SeaBeam 500 multi-beam echosounder for depth determination, and had an Auto-Nav system with inputs from NAVSAT/NNSS, GPS, Doppler Log, EM log and track display, with a geodetic positioning accuracy approaching 100 m. When conducting CTD operations in the Challenger deep, they used the SeaBeam as a single beam depth recorder. At 11.37667°N, 142.58333°W the corrected depth was 10989 m, and at 11.36667°N, 142.56667°W the depth was 10927 m; both in the eastern basin. This may demonstrate that the basins might not be flat sedimentary pools but rather undulate with a difference of 50 m or more. Taira revealed, "We considered that a trough deeper that Vitiaz record by 5 m was detected. There is a possibility that a depth exceeding 11000 m with a horizontal scale less than the beam width of measurements exists in the Challenger Deep. Since each SeaBeam 2.7-degree beam width sonar ping expands to cover a circular area about 500 m in diameter at 11000 m depth, dips in the bottom that are less than that size would be difficult to detect from a sonar-emitting platform seven miles above.

1996 – RV Yokosuka
For most of 1995 and into 1996, the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) employed the 4,439-ton Research Vessel Yokosuka to conduct the testing and workup of the 11,000-meter remotely-operated vehicle (ROV) Kaikō, and the 6,500 meter ROV Shinkai. It was not until February 1996, during Yokosuka cruise Y96-06, that Kaikō was ready for its first full depth dives. On this cruise, JAMSTEC established an area of the Challenger Deep (11°10'N to 11°30'N, by 141°50'E to 143°00'E – which later was recognized as containing three separate pools/basins en echelon, each with depths in excess of 10900 m) toward which JAMSTEC expeditions would concentrate their investigations for the next two decades. The Yokosuka employed a 151-beam SeaBeam 2112 12 kHz multibeam echosounder, allowing search swaths 12–15 km in width at 11000 m depth. The depth accuracy of Yokosuka Seabeam was about 0.1% of water depth (i.e. ± 110 m for 11000 m depth). The ship's dual GPS systems attained geodetic positioning within double digit meter (100 m or better) accuracy.

1998, 1999 and 2002 – RV Kairei
Cruise KR98-01 sent JAMSTEC's two-year-old 4,517-ton Deep Sea Research Vessel RV Kairei south for a quick but thorough depth survey of the Challenger Deep, 11–13 January 1998, under chief scientist Kantaro Fujioka. Tracking largely along the trench axis of 070–250° they made five 80-km bathymetric survey tracks, spaced about 15 km apart, overlapping their SeaBeam 2112-004 (which now allowed sub-bottom profiling penetrating as much as 75 m below the bottom) while gaining gravity and magnetic data covering the entire Challenger Deep: western, central, and eastern basins.

Kairei returned in May 1998, cruise KR98-05, with ROV Kaikō, under the direction of chief scientist Jun Hashimoto with both geophysical and biological goals. Their bathymetric survey from 14–26 May was the most intensive and thorough depth and seismic survey of the Challenger Deep performed to date. Each evening, Kaikō deployed for about four hours of bottom time for biological-related sampling, plus about seven hours of vertical transit time. When Kaikō was onboard for servicing, Kairei conducted bathymetric surveys and observations. Kairei gridded a survey area about 130 km N–S by 110 km E–W. Kaikō made six dives (#71–75) all to the same location, (11°20.8' N, 142°12.35' E), near the 10900 m bottom contour line in the western basin.

The regional bathymetric map made from the data obtained in 1998 shows that the greatest depths in the eastern, central, and western depressions are 10922 ±, 10898 ±, and 10908 ±, respectively, making the eastern depression the deepest of the three.

In 1999, Kairei revisited the Challenger Deep during cruise KR99-06. The results of the 1998–1999 surveys include the first recognition that the Challenger Deep consists of three "right-stepping en echelon individual basins bounded by the 10500 m depth contour line. The size of [each of] the deeps are almost identical, 14–20 km long, 4 km wide". They concluded with the proposal "that these three individual elongated deeps constitute the 'Challenger Deep', and [we] identify them as the East, Central and West Deep. The deepest depth we obtained during the swath mapping is 10938 m in the West Deep (11°20.34' N, 142°13.20 E)." The depth was "obtained during swath mapping ... confirmed in both N–S and E-W swaths." Speed of sound corrections were from XBT to 1800 m, and CTD below 1800 m.

The cross track survey of the 1999 Kairei cruise shows that the greatest depths in the eastern, central, and western depressions are 10920 ±, 10894 ±, and 10907 ±, respectively, which supports the results of the previous survey.

In 2002 Kairei revisited the Challenger Deep 16–25 October 2002, as cruise KR02-13 (a cooperative Japan-US-South Korea research program) with chief scientist Jun Hashimoto in charge; again with Kazuyoshi Hirata managing the ROV Kaikō team. On this survey, the size of each of the three basins was refined to 6–10 km long by about 2 km wide and in excess of 10850 m deep. In marked contrast to the Kairei surveys of 1998 and 1999, the detailed survey in 2002 determined that the deepest point in the Challenger Deep is located in the eastern basin around 11.371°N, 142.59315°W, with a depth of 10920 ±, located about 290 m southeast of the deepest site determined by the survey vessel Takuyo in 1984. The 2002 surveys of both the western and eastern basins were tight, with especially meticulous cross-gridding of the eastern basin with ten parallel tracks N–S and E–W less than 250 meters apart. On the morning of 17 October, ROV Kaikō dive #272 began and recovered over 33 hours later, with the ROV working at the bottom of the western basin for 26 hours (vicinity of 11°20.148' N, 142°11.774 E at 10893 m). Five Kaikō dives followed on a daily basis into the same area to service benthic landers and other scientific equipment, with dive #277 recovered on 25 October. Traps brought up large numbers of amphipods (sea fleas), and cameras recorded holothurians (sea cucumbers), White polychaetes (bristle worms), tube worms, and other biological species. During its 1998, 1999 surveys, Kairei was equipped with a GPS satellite-based radionavigation system. The United States government lifted the GPS selective availability in 2000, so during its 2002 survey, Kairei had access to non-degraded GPS positional services and achieved single-digit meter accuracy in geodetic positioning.

2001 – RV Melville

The 2.516-ton research vessel Melville, at the time operated by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, took the Cook Expedition, Leg 6 with chief scientist Patricia Fryer of the University of Hawaii from Guam on 10 February 2001 to the Challenger Deep for a survey titled "Subduction Factory Studies in the Southern Mariana", including HMR-1 sonar mapping, magnetics, gravity measurements, and dredging in the Mariana arc region. They covered all three basins, then tracked 120 nmi lines of bathymetry East-West, stepping northward from the Challenger Deep in 12 km sidesteps, covering more than 90 nmi north into the backarc with overlapping swaths from their SeaBeam 2000 12 kHz multi-beam echosounder and MR1 towed system. They also gathered magnetic and gravity information, but no seismic data. Their primary survey instrument was the MR1 towed sonar, a shallow-towed 11/12 kHz bathymetric sidescan sonar developed and operated by the Hawaii Mapping Research Group (HMRG), a research and operational group within University of Hawaii's School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST) and the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP). The MR1 is full-ocean-depth capable, providing both bathymetry and sidescan data.

Leg 7 of the Cook Expedition continued the MR-1 survey of the Mariana Trench backarc from 4 March to 12 April 2001 under chief scientist Sherman Bloomer of Oregon State University.

2009 – RV Kilo Moana

In May/June 2009, the US Navy-owned 3,064-ton twin-hulled research vessel Kilo Moana (T-AGOR 26) was sent to the Challenger Deep area to conduct research. Kilo Moana is civilian-crewed and operated by SOEST. It is equipped with two multibeam echosounders with sub-bottom profiler add-ons (the 191-beam 12 kHz Kongsberg Simrad EM120 with SBP-1200, capable of accuracies of 0.2–0.5% of water depth across the entire swath), gravimeter, and magnetometer. The EM-120 uses 1 by 1 degree sonar-emissions at the sea surface. Each 1 degree beam width sonar ping expands to cover a circular area about 192 m in diameter at 11000 m depth. Whilst mapping the Challenger Deep the sonar equipment indicated a maximum depth of 10971 m at an undisclosed position. Navigation equipment includes the Applanix POS MV320 V4, rated at accuracies of 0.5–2 m. RV Kilo Moana was also used as the support ship of the hybrid remotely operated underwater vehicle (HROV) Nereus that dived three times to the Challenger Deep bottom during the May/June 2009 cruise and did not confirm the sonar established maximum depth by its support ship.

2009 – RV Yokosuka
Cruise YK09-08 brought the JAMSTEC 4,429-ton research vessel Yokosuka back to the Mariana Trough and to the Challenger Deep June–July 2009. Their mission was a two-part program: surveying three hydrothermal vent sites in the southern Mariana Trough backarc basin near 12°57'N, 143°37'E about 130 nmi northeast of the central basin of the Challenger Deep, using the autonomous underwater vehicle Urashima. AUV Urashima dives #90–94, were to a maximum depth of 3500 meters, and were successful in surveying all three sites with a Reson SEABAT7125AUV multibeam echosounder for bathymetry, and multiple water testers to detect and map trace elements spewed into the water from hydrothermal vents, white smokers, and hot spots. Kyoko OKINO from the Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo, was principal investigator for this aspect of the cruise. The second goal of the cruise was to deploy a new "10K free fall camera system" called Ashura, to sample sediments and biologics at the bottom of the Challenger Deep. The principal investigator at the Challenger Deep was Taishi Tsubouchi of JAMSTEC. The lander Ashura made two descents: on the first, 6 July 2009, Ashura bottomed at 11.37188°N, 142.43235°W at 10867 m. The second descent (on 10 July 2009) was to 11.36856°N, 142.43091°W at 10897 m. The 270 kg Ashura was equipped with multiple baited traps, a HTDV video camera, and devices to recover sediment, water, and biological samples (mostly amphipods at the bait, and bacteria and fungus from the sediment and water samples).

2010 – USNS Sumner
On 7 October 2010, further sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep area was conducted by the US Center for Coastal & Ocean Mapping/Joint Hydrographic Center (CCOM/JHC) aboard the 4.762-ton Sumner. The results were reported in December 2011 at the annual American Geophysical Union fall meeting. Using a Kongsberg Maritime EM 122 multi-beam echosounder system coupled to positioning equipment that can determine latitude and longitude up to 50 cm accuracy, from thousands of individual soundings around the deepest part the CCOM/JHC team preliminary determined that the Challenger Deep has a maximum depth of 10994 m at 11.32634°N, 142.18725°W, with an estimated vertical uncertainty of ±40 m at two standard deviations (i.e. ≈ 95.4%) confidence level. A secondary deep with a depth of 10951 m was located at approximately 23.75 nmi to the east at 11.36964°N, 142.58858°W in the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep.

2010 – RV Yokosuka
JAMSTEC returned Yokosuka to the Challenger Deep with cruise YK10-16, 21–28 November 2010. The chief scientist of this joint Japanese-Danish expedition was Hiroshi Kitazato of the Institute of Biogeosciences, JAMSTEC. The cruise was titled "Biogeosciences at the Challenger Deep: relict organisms and their relations to biogeochemical cycles". The Japanese teams made five deployments of their 11,000-meter camera system (three to 6,000 meters – two into the central basin of the Challenger Deep) which returned with 15 sediment cores, video records and 140 scavenging amphipod specimens. The Danish Ultra Deep Lander System was employed by Ronnie Glud et al on four casts, two into the central basin of the Challenger Deep and two to 6,000 m some 34 nmi west of the central basin. The deepest depth recorded was on 28 November 2010 – camera cast CS5 – 11.36635°N, 142.43113°W}, at a corrected depth of 10889.6 m (the central basin).

2013 – RV Yokosuka
With JAMSTEC Cruises YK13-09 and YK13-12, Yokosuka hosted chief scientist Hidetaka Nomaki for a trip to New Zealand waters (YK13-09), with the return cruise identified as YK13-12. The project name was QUELLE2013; and the cruise title was: "In situ experimental & sampling study to understand abyssal biodiversity and biogeochemical cycles". They spent one day on the return trip at the Challenger Deep to obtain DNA/RNA on the large amphipods inhabiting the Deep (Hirondellea gigas). Hideki Kobayashi (Biogeos, JAMSTEC) and the team deployed a benthic lander on 23 November 2013 with eleven baited traps (three bald, five covered by insulating materials, and three automatically sealed after nine hours) into the central basin of the Challenger Deep at 11.36514°N, 142.42934°W, depth 10896 m. After an eight-hour, 46-minute stay at the bottom, they recovered some 90 individual Hirondellea gigas.

2014 – RV Kairei
JAMSTEC deployed Kairei to the Challenger Deep again 11–17 January 2014, under the leadership of chief scientist Takuro Nunora. The cruise identifier was KR14-01, titled: "Trench biosphere expedition for the Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench". The expedition sampled at six stations transecting the central basin, with only two deployments of the "11-K camera system" lander for sediment cores and water samples to "Station C" at the deepest depth, i.e. 11.3699°N, 142.42929°W, at 10903 m. The other stations were investigated with the "Multi-core" lander, both to the backarc northward, and to the Pacific Plate southward. The 11,000-meter capable crawler-driven ROV ABIMSO was sent to 7,646 m depth about 20 nmi due north of the central basin (ABISMO dive #21) specifically to identify possible hydrothermal activity on the north slope of the Challenger Deep, as suggested by findings from Kairei cruise KR08-05 in 2008. AMISMO dives #20 and #22 were to 7,900 meters about 15 nmi north of the deepest waters of the central basin. Italian researchers under the leadership of Laura Carugati from the Polytechnic University of Marche, Italy (UNIVPM) were investigating the dynamics in virus/prokaryotes interactions in the Mariana Trench.

2014 – RV Falkor
From 16–19 December 2014, the Schmidt Ocean Institute's 2,024-ton research vessel Falkor, under chief scientist Douglas Bartlett from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, deployed four different untethered instruments into the Challenger Deep for seven total releases. Four landers were deployed on 16 December into the central basin: the baited video-equipped lander Leggo for biologics; the lander ARI to 11.35968°N, 142.45495°W for water chemistry; and the probes Deep Sound 3 and Deep Sound 2. Both Deep Sound probes recorded acoustics floating at 9000 m depth, until Deep Sound 3 imploded at the depth of 8620 m (about 2200 m above the bottom) at 11.3665°N, 142.45414°W. The Deep Sound 2 recorded the implosion of Deep Sound 3, providing a unique recording of an implosion within the Challenger Deep depression. In addition to the loss of the Deep Sound 3 by implosion, the lander ARI failed to respond upon receiving its instruction to drop weights, and was never recovered. On 16/17 December, Leggo was returned to the central basin baited for amphipods. On the 17th, RV Falkor relocated 17 nms eastward to the eastern basin, where they again deployed both the Leggo (baited and with its full camera load), and the Deep Sound 2. Deep Sound 2 was programmed to drop to 9000 m and remain at that depth during its recording of sounds within the trench. On 19 December Leggo landed at 11.36854°N, 142.58752°W at a uncorrected depth of 11168 m according to its pressure sensor readings. This reading was corrected to 10929 m depth. Leggo returned with good photography of amphipods feeding on the lander's mackerel bait and with sample amphipods. Falknor departed the Challenger Deep on 19 December en route the Marianas Trench Marine National Monument to the Sirena Deep. RV Falkor had both a Kongsberg EM302 and EM710 multibeam echosounder for bathymetry, and an Oceaneering C-Nav 3050 global navigation satellite system receiver, capable of calculating geodetic positioning with an accuracy better than 5 cm horizontally and 15 cm vertically.

2015 – USCGC Sequoia
From 10 to 13 July 2015, the Guam-based 1,930-ton US Coast Guard Cutter Sequoia (WLB 215) hosted a team of researchers, under chief scientist Robert P. Dziak, from the NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL), the University of Washington, and Oregon State University, in deploying PMEL's "Full-Ocean Depth Mooring", a 45-meter-long moored deep-ocean hydrophone and pressure sensor array into the western basin of the Challenger Deep. A 6-hour descent into the western basin anchored the array at 10854.7 ± of water depth, at 11.33545°N, 142.20039°W, about 1 km northeast of Sumner deepest depth, recorded in 2010. After 16 weeks, the moored array was recovered on 2–4 November 2015. "Observed sound sources included earthquake signals (T phases), baleen and odontocete cetacean vocalizations, ship propeller sounds, airguns, active sonar and the passing of a Category 4 typhoon." The science team described their results as "the first multiday, broadband record of ambient sound at Challenger Deep, as well as only the fifth direct depth measurement".

2016 – RV Xiangyanghong 09
The 3,536-ton research vessel Xiangyanghong 09 deployed on Leg II of the 37th China Cruise Dayang (DY37II) sponsored by the National Deep Sea Center, Qingdao and the Institute of Deep-Sea Science and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences (Sanya, Hainan), to the Challenger Deep western basin area (11°22' N, 142°25' E) 4 June – 12 July 2016. As the mother ship for China's manned deep submersible Jiaolong, the expedition carried out an exploration of the Challenger Deep to investigate the geological, biological, and chemical characteristics of the hadal zone. The diving area for this leg was on the southern slope of the Challenger Deep, at depths from about 6300 to 8300 m. The submersible completed nine piloted dives on the northern backarc and south area (Pacific plate) of the Challenger Deep to depths from 5500 to 6700 m. During the cruise, Jiaolong regularly deployed gas-tight samplers to collect water near the sea bottom. In a test of navigational proficiency, Jiaolong used an Ultra-Short Base Line (USBL) positioning system at a depth more than 6600 m to retrieve sampling bottles.

2016 – RV Tansuo 01
From 22 June to 12 August 2016 (cruises 2016S1 and 2016S2), the Chinese Academy of Sciences' 6,250-ton submersible support ship Tansuo 1 (meaning: to explore) on her maiden voyage deployed to the Challenger Deep from her home port of Sanya, Hainan Island. On 12 July 2016, the ROV Haidou-1 dived to a depth of 10767 m in the Challenger Deep area. They also cast a free-drop lander, 9000 m rated free-drop ocean-floor seismic instruments (deployed to 7731 m), obtained sediment core samples, and collected over 2000 biological samples from depths ranging from 5000 to(-). The Tansuo 01 operated along the 142°30.00' longitude line, about 30 nmi east of the earlier DY37II cruise survey (see Xiangyanghong 09 above).

2016 – RV Sonne
In November 2016 sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep area was conducted by the Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ)/GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel aboard the 8,554-ton Deep Ocean Research Vessel Sonne. The results were reported in 2017. Using a Kongsberg Maritime EM 122 multi-beam echosounder system coupled to positioning equipment that can determine latitude and longitude the team determined that the Challenger Deep has a maximum depth of 10925 m at 11.33242°N, 142.20205°W (11.33242°N, 142.20205°W), with an estimated vertical uncertainty of ±12 m at one standard deviation (≈ 68.3%) confidence level. The analysis of the sonar survey offered a 100 by(x) grid resolution at bottom depth, so small dips in the bottom that are less than that size would be difficult to detect from the 0.5 by 1 degree sonar-emissions at the sea surface. Each 0.5-degree beam width sonar ping expands to cover a circular area about 96 m in diameter at 11000 m depth. The horizontal position of the grid point has an uncertainty of ±50 to 100 m, depending on along-track or across-track direction. This depth (59 m) and position (about 410 m to the northeast) measurements differ significantly from the deepest point determined by the Gardner et al. (2014) study. The observed depth discrepancy with the 2010 sonar mapping and Gardner et al 2014 study are related to the application of differing sound velocity profiles, which are essential for accurate depth determination. Sonne used CTD casts about 1.6 km west of the deepest sounding to near the bottom of the Challenger Deep that were used for sound velocity profile calibration and optimization. Likewise, the impact of using different projections, datum and ellipsoids during data acquisition can cause positional discrepancies between surveys.

2016 – RV Shyian 3
In December 2016, the CAS 3,300-ton research vessel Shiyan 3 deployed 33 broadband seismometers onto both the backarc northwest of the Challenger Deep, and onto the near southern Pacific Plate to the southeast, at depths of up to 8137 m. This cruise was part of a $12 million Chinese-U.S. initiative, led by co-leader Jian Lin of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution; a 5-year effort (2017–2021) to image in fine detail the rock layers in and around the Challenger Deep.

2016 – RV Zhang Jian
The newly launched 4,800-ton research vessel (and mothership for the Rainbow Fish series of deep submersibles), the Zhang Jian departed Shanghai on 3 December. Their cruise was to test three new deep-sea landers, one uncrewed search submersible and the new Rainbow Fish 11,000-meter manned deep submersible, all capable of diving to 10,000 meters. From 25 to 27 December, three deep-sea landing devices descended into the trench. The first Rainbow Fish lander took photographs, the second took sediment samples, and the third took biological samples. All three landers reached over 10,000 meters, and the third device brought back 103 amphipods. Cui Weicheng, director of Hadal Life Science Research Center at Shanghai Ocean University, led the team of scientists to carry out research at the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench. The ship is part of China's national marine research fleet but is owned by a Shanghai marine technology company.

2017 – RV Tansuo-1
CAS' Institute of Deep-sea Science and Engineering sponsored Tansuo-1 return to the Challenger Deep 20 January – 5 February 2017 (cruise TS03) with baited traps for the capture of fish and other macrobiology near the Challenger and Sirena Deeps. On 29 January they recovered photography and samples of a new species of snailfish from the Northern slope of the Challenger Deep at 7581 m, newly designated Pseudoliparis swirei. They also placed four or more CTD casts into the central and eastern basins of the Challenger Deep, as part of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE).

2017 – RV Shinyo Maru
Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology dispatched the research vessel Shinyo Maru to the Mariana Trench from 20 January to 5 February 2017 with baited traps for the capture of fish and other macrobiology near the Challenger and Sirena Deeps. On 29 January they recovered photography and samples of a new species of snailfish from the Northern slope of the Challenger Deep at 7581 m, which has been newly designated Pseudoliparis swirei.

2017 – RV Kexue 3
Water samples were collected at Challenger Deep from 11 layers of the Mariana Trench in March 2017. Seawater samples from 4 to 4,000 m were collected by Niskin bottles mounted to a Seabird SBE25 CTDs; whereas water samples at depths from 6,050 m to 8,320 m were collected by a self-designed acoustic-controlled full ocean depth water samplers. In this study, scientists studied the RNA of pico- and nano-plankton from the surface to the hadal zone.

2017 – RV Kairei
JAMSTEC deployed Kairei to the Challenger Deep in May 2017 for the express purpose of testing the new full-ocean depth ROV UROV11K (Underwater ROV 11,000-meter-capable), as cruise KR 17-08C, under chief scientist Takashi Murashima. The cruise title was: "Sea trial of a full depth ROV UROV11K system in the Mariana Trench". UROV11K carried a new 4K High Definition video camera system, and new sensors to monitor the hydrogen-sulfide, methane, oxygen, and hydrogen content of the water. Unfortunately, on UROV11K ascent from 10899 m (at about 11°22.30'N 142°35.8 E, in the eastern basin) on 14 May 2017, the ROV's buoyancy failed at 5320 m depth, and all efforts to retrieve the ROV were unsuccessful. The rate of descent and drift is not available, but the ROV bottomed to the east of the deepest waters of the eastern basin as revealed by the ship's maneuvering on 14 May. Murashima then directed the Kairei to a location about 35 nmi east of the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep to test a new "Compact Hadal Lander" which made three descents to depths from 7,498 to 8,178 m for testing the Sony 4K camera and for photography of fish and other macro-biologics.

2018 – RV Shen Kuo
On its maiden voyage, the 2,150-ton twin-hulled scientific research vessel Shen Kuo (also Shengkuo, Shen Ko, or Shen Quo), departed Shanghai on 25 November 2018 and returned on 8 January 2019. They operated in the Mariana Trench area, and on 13 December tested a system of underwater navigation at a depth exceeding 10,000 metres, during a field trial of the Tsaihungyuy (ultra-short baseline) system. Project leader Tsui Veichen stated that, with the Tsaihungyuy equipment at depth, it was possible to obtain a signal and determine exact geolocations. The research team from Shanghai Ocean University and Westlake University was led by Cui Weicheng, director of Shanghai Ocean University's Hadal Science and Technology Research Center (HSRC). The equipment to be tested included a piloted submersible (not full ocean depth – depth achieved not available) and two deep-sea landers, all capable of diving to depths of 10,000 meters, as well as an ROV that can go to 4,500 meters. They took photographs and obtained samples from the trench, including water, sediment, macro-organisms and micro-organisms. Cui says, "If we can take photos of fish more than 8,145 meters under water, ... we will break the current world record. We will test our new equipment including the landing devices. They are second generation. The first generation could only take samples in one spot per dive, but this new second generation can take samples at different depths in one dive. We also tested the ultra short baseline acoustic positioning system on the manned submersible, the future of underwater navigation."

2019 – RV Sally Ride

In November 2019, as cruise SR1916, a NIOZ team led by chief scientist Hans van Haren, with Scripps technicians, deployed to the Challenger Deep aboard the 2,641-ton research vessel RV Sally Ride, to recover a mooring line from the western basin of the Challenger Deep. The 7 km long mooring line in the Challenger Deep consisted of top-floatation positioned around 4 km depth, two sections of Dyneema neutrally buoyant 6 mm line, two Benthos acoustic releases and two sections of self-contained instrumentation to measure and store current, salinity and temperature. Around the 6 km depth position two current meters were mounted below a 200 m long array of 100 high-resolution temperature sensors. In the lower position starting 600 m above the sea floor 295 specially designed high-resolution temperature sensors were mounted, the lowest of which was 8 m above the trench floor. The mooring line was deployed and left by the NIOZ team during the November 2016 RV Sonne expedition with the intention to be recovered in late 2018 by Sonne. The acoustic commanded release mechanism near the bottom of the Challenger Deep failed at the 2018 attempt. RV Sally Ride was made available exclusively for a final attempt to retrieve the mooring line before the release mechanism batteries expired. Sally Ride arrived at the Challenger Deep on 2 November. This time a 'deep release unit' lowered by one of Sally Ride winch-cables to around 1,000 m depth pinged release commands and managed to contact the near-bottom releases. After being submerged for nearly three years, mechanical problems occurred in 15 of the 395 temperature sensors. The first results indicate the occurrence of internal waves in the Challenger Deep.

Study of the depth and location of the Challenger Deep
Since May 2000, with the help of non-degraded signal satellite navigation, civilian surface vessels equipped with professional dual-frequency capable satellite navigation equipment can measure and establish their geodetic position with an accuracy in the order of meters to tens of meters whilst the western, central and eastern basins are kilometers apart.

In 2014, a study was conducted regarding the determination of the depth and location of the Challenger Deep based on data collected previous to and during the 2010 sonar mapping of the Mariana Trench with a Kongsberg Maritime EM 122 multibeam echosounder system aboard USNS Sumner. This study by James. V. Gardner et al. of the Center for Coastal & Ocean Mapping-Joint Hydrographic Center (CCOM/JHC), Chase Ocean Engineering Laboratory of the University of New Hampshire splits the measurement attempt history into three main groups: early single-beam echo sounders (1950s–1970s), early multibeam echo sounders (1980s – 21st century), and modern (i.e., post-GPS, high-resolution) multibeam echo sounders. Taking uncertainties in depth measurements and position estimation into account, the raw data of the 2010 bathymetry of the Challenger Deep vicinity consisting of 2,051,371 soundings from eight survey lines was analyzed. The study concludes that with the best of 2010 multibeam echosounder technologies after the analysis a depth uncertainty of ±25 m (95% confidence level) on 9 degrees of freedom and a positional uncertainty of ±20 to 25 m (2drms) remain and the location of the deepest depth recorded in the 2010 mapping is 10984 m at 11.3299°N, 142.19931°W. The depth measurement uncertainty is a composite of measured uncertainties in the spatial variations in sound-speed through the water volume, the ray-tracing and bottom-detection algorithms of the multibeam system, the accuracies and calibration of the motion sensor and navigation systems, estimates of spherical spreading, attenuation throughout the water volume, and so forth.

Both the RV Sonne expedition in 2016, and the RV Sally Ride expedition in 2019 expressed strong reservations concerning the depth corrections applied by the Gardner et al. study of 2014, and serious doubt concerning the accuracy of the deepest depth calculated by Gardner (in the western basin), of 10984 m after analysis of their multibeam data on a 100 m grid. Dr. Hans van Haren, chief scientist on the RV Sally Ride cruise SR1916, indicated that Gardner's calculations were 69 m too deep due to the "sound velocity profiling by Gardner et al. (2014)."

In 2018-2019, the deepest points of each ocean were mapped using a full‐ocean depth Kongsberg EM 124 multibeam echosounder aboard DSSV Pressure Drop. In 2021, a data paper was published by Cassandra Bongiovanni, Heather A. Stewart and Alan J. Jamieson regarding the gathered data donated to GEBCO. The deepest depth recorded in the 2019 Challenger Deep sonar mapping was 10924 m ±15 m at 11.369°N, 142.587°W in the eastern basin. This depth closely agrees with the deepest point (10925 m ±12 m) determined by the Van Haren et al. sonar bathymetry. The geodetic position of the deepest depth according to the Van Haren et al. significantly differs (about 42 km to the west) with the 2021 paper. After post-processing the initial depth estimates by application of a full-ocean depth sound velocity profile Bongiovanni et al. report an (almost) as deep point at 11.331°N, 142.205°W in the western basin that geodetically differs about 350 m with the deepest point position determined by Van Haren et al. (11.33242°N, 142.20205°W in the western basin). After analysis of their multibeam data on a 75 m grid, the Bongiovanni et al. 2021 paper states the technological accuracy does not currently exist on low-frequency ship-mounted sonars required to determine which location was truly the deepest, nor does it currently exist on deep-sea pressure sensors.

In 2021, a study by Samuel F. Greenaway, Kathryn D. Sullivan, Samuel H. Umfress, Alice B. Beittel and Karl D. Wagner was published presenting a revised estimate of the maximum depth of the Challenger Deep based on a series of submersible dives conducted in June 2020. These depth estimates are derived from acoustic echo sounding profiles referenced to in-situ direct pressure measurements and corrected for observed oceanographic properties of the water-column, atmospheric pressure, gravity and gravity-gradient anomalies, and water-level effects. The study concludes according to their calculations the deepest observed seafloor depth was 10935 m ±6 m below mean sea level at a 95% confidence level at 11.37167°N, 142.58833°W in the eastern basin. For this estimate, the error term is dominated by the uncertainty of the employed pressure sensor, but Greenaway et al. show that the gravity correction is also substantial. The Greenaway et al. study compares its results with other recent acoustic and pressure-based measurements for the Challenger Deep and concludes the deepest depth in the western basin is very nearly as deep as the eastern basin. The disagreement between the maximum depth estimates and their geodetic positions between post-2000 published depths however exceed the accompanying margins of uncertainty, raising questions regarding the measurements or the reported uncertainties.

Another 2021 paper by Scott Loranger, David Barclay and Michael Buckingham, besides a December 2014 implosion shock wave based depth estimate of 10983 m, which is among the deepest estimated depths, also treatises the differences between various maximum depth estimates and their geodetic positions.

Direct measurements
The 2010 maximal sonar mapping depths reported by Gardner et.al. in 2014 and Greenaway et al. study in 2021 have not been confirmed by direct descent (pressure gauge/manometer) measurements at full-ocean depth. Expeditions have reported direct measured maximal depths in a narrow range. For the western basin deepest depths were reported as 10913 m by BATHYSCAPHE Trieste in 1960 and 10923 m ±4 m by DSV Limiting Factor in June 2020. For the central basin the greatest reported depth is 10915 m ±4 m by DSV Limiting Factor in June 2020. For the eastern basin deepest depths were reported as 10911 m by ROV Kaikō in 1995, 10902 m by ROV Nereus in 2009, 10908 m by  Deepsea Challenger in 2012, 10929 m by benthic lander "Leggo" in May 2019, and 10925 m ±4 m by DSV Limiting Factor in May 2019.

1960 – Trieste
On 23 January 1960, the Swiss-designed Trieste, originally built in Italy and acquired by the U.S. Navy, supported by the USS Wandank (ATF 204) and escorted by the USS Lewis (DE 535), descended to the ocean floor in the trench piloted by Jacques Piccard (who co-designed the submersible along with his father, Auguste Piccard) and USN Lieutenant Don Walsh. Their crew compartment was inside a spherical pressure vessel – measuring 2.16 metres in diameter suspended beneath a buoyancy tank 18.4 metres in length – which was a heavy-duty replacement (of the Italian original) built by Krupp Steel Works of Essen, Germany. The steel walls were 12.7 cm thick and designed to withstand pressure of up to 1250 kg/cm2. Their descent took almost five hours and the two men spent barely twenty minutes on the ocean floor before undertaking the three-hour-and-fifteen-minute ascent. Their early departure from the ocean floor was due to their concern over a crack in the outer window caused by the temperature differences during their descent.

Trieste dived at/near 11.30833°N, 142.25833°W, bottoming at 10911 m ±7 m into the Challenger Deep's western basin, as measured by an onboard manometer. Another source states the measured depth at the bottom was measured with a manometer at 10913 m ±5 m. Navigation of the support ships was by celestial and LORAN-C with an accuracy of 460 m or less. Fisher noted that the Trieste's reported depth "agrees well with the sonic sounding."

2012 – Deepsea Challenger
On 26 March 2012 (local time), Canadian film director James Cameron made a solo descent in the DSV Deepsea Challenger to the bottom of the Challenger Deep. At approximately 05:15 ChST on 26 March (19:15 UTC on 25 March), the descent began. At 07:52 ChST (21:52 UTC), Deepsea Challenger arrived at the bottom. The descent lasted 2 hours and 36 minutes and the recorded depth was 10908 m when Deepsea Challenger touched down. Cameron had planned to spend about six hours near the ocean floor exploring but decided to start the ascent to the surface after only 2 hours and 34 minutes. The time on the bottom was shortened because a hydraulic fluid leak in the lines controlling the manipulator arm obscured the visibility out the only viewing port. It also caused the loss of the submersible's starboard thrusters. At around 12:00 ChST (02:00 UTC on 26 March), the Deepsea Challenger website says the sub resurfaced after a 90-minute ascent, although Paul Allen's tweets indicate the ascent took only about 67 minutes. During a post-dive press conference Cameron said: "I landed on a very soft, almost gelatinous flat plain. Once I got my bearings, I drove across it for quite a distance ... and finally worked my way up the slope." The whole time, Cameron said, he didn't see any fish, or any living creatures more than an inch (2.54 cm) long: "The only free swimmers I saw were small amphipods" – shrimplike bottom-feeders.

2019 – Five Deeps Expedition / DSV Limiting Factor

The Five Deeps Expedition's objective was to thoroughly map and visit the deepest points of all five of the world's oceans by the end of September 2019. On 28 April 2019, explorer Victor Vescovo descended to the "Eastern Pool" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle Limiting Factor (a Triton 36000/2 model submersible). Between 28 April and 4 May 2019, the Limiting Factor completed four dives to the bottom of Challenger Deep. The fourth dive descended to the slightly less deep "Central Pool" of the Challenger Deep (crew: Patrick Lahey, Pilot; John Ramsay, Sub Designer). The Five Deeps Expedition estimated maximum depths of 10927 m ±8 m and 10928 m ±10.5 m at (11.3693°N, 142.5889°W) by direct CTD pressure measurements and a survey of the operating area by the support ship, the Deep Submersible Support Vessel DSSV Pressure Drop, with a Kongsberg SIMRAD EM124 multibeam echosounder system. The CTD measured pressure at 10928 m of seawater depth was 1126.79 bar. Due to a technical problem the (uncrewed) ultra-deep-sea lander Skaff used by the Five Deeps Expedition stayed on the bottom for two and half days before it was salvaged by the Limiting Factor (crew: Patrick Lahey, Pilot; Jonathan Struwe, DNV GL Specialist) from an estimated depth of 10927 m. The gathered data was published with the caveat that it was subject to further analysis and could possibly be revised in the future. The data will be donated to the GEBCO Seabed 2030 initiative. Later in 2019, following a review of bathymetric data, and multiple sensor recordings taken by the DSV Limiting Factor and the ultra-deep-sea landers Closp, Flere and Skaff, the Five Deeps Expedition revised the maximum depth to 10925 m ±4 m.

2020 – Ring of Fire Expedition / DSV Limiting Factor

Caladan Oceanic's "Ring of Fire" expedition in the Pacific included six manned descents and twenty-five lander deployments into all three basins of the Challenger Deep all piloted by Victor Vescovo and further topographical and marine life survey of the entire Challenger Deep. The expedition craft used are the Deep Submersible Support Vessel DSSV Pressure Drop, Deep-Submergence Vehicle DSV Limiting Factor and the ultra-deep-sea landers Closp, Flere and Skaff. During the first manned dive on 7 June 2020 Victor Vescovo and former US astronaut (and former NOAA Administrator) Kathryn D. Sullivan descended to the "Eastern Pool" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle Limiting Factor.

On 12 June 2020, Victor Vescovo and mountaineer and explorer Vanessa O'Brien descended to the "Eastern Pool" of the Challenger Deep spending three hours mapping the bottom. O'Brien said her dive scanned about a mile of desolate bottom terrain, finding that the surface is not flat, as once was thought, but sloping by about 18 ft per mile, subject to verification. On 14 June 2020, Victor Vescovo and John Rost descended to the "Eastern Pool" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle Limiting Factor spending four hours at depth and transiting the bottom for nearly 2 miles. On 20 June 2020, Victor Vescovo and Kelly Walsh descended to the "Western Pool" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle Limiting Factor spending four hours at the bottom. They reached a maximum depth of 10923 m. Kelly Walsh is the son of the Trieste's captain Don Walsh who descended there in 1960 with Jacques Piccard. On 21 June 2020, Victor Vescovo and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution researcher Ying-Tsong Lin descended to the "Central Pool" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle Limiting Factor. They reached a maximum depth of 10915 m ±4 m.  On 26 June 2020 Victor Vescovo and Jim Wigginton descended to the "Eastern Pool" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle Limiting Factor.

2020 – Fendouzhe

Fendouzhe (奋斗者, Striver) is a manned Chinese deep-sea submersible developed by the China Ship Scientific Research Center (CSSRC). Between 10 October and 28 November, 2020, it carried out thirteen dives in the Mariana Trench as part of a test programme. Of these, eight led to depths of more than 10000 m. On 10 November 2020, the bottom of the Challenger Deep was reached by Fendouzhe with three Chinese scientists (Zhāng Wěi 张伟 [pilot], Zhào Yáng 赵洋, and Wáng Zhìqiáng 王治强) onboard whilst live-streaming the descent to a reported depth of 10909 m. This makes the  Fendouzhe  the fourth manned submersible vehicle achieving a successful descent. The pressure hull of Fendouzhe, made from a newly developed titanium alloy, offers space for three people in addition to technical equipment. Fendouzhe is equipped with cameras made by the Norwegian manufacturer Imenco. According to Ye Cong 叶聪, the chief designer of the submersible, China's goals for the dive aren't just scientific investigation but also the future use of deep-sea seabed resources.

2021 – Ring of Fire 2 Expedition / DSV Limiting Factor
On 28 February 2021 Caladan Oceanic's "Ring of Fire 2" expedition arrived over the Challenger Deep and conducted manned descents and lander deployments into the Challenger Deep. At the start the (uncrewed) ultra-deep-sea lander Skaff was deployed to collect water column data by CTD for the expedition. The effects of the Pacific subducting plate crashing into the Philippine Plate was among the things researched onsite. On 1 March 2021, the first manned descent to the eastern pool was made by Victor Vescovo and Richard Garriott. Garriott became the 17th person to descend to the bottom. On 2 March 2021, a descent to the eastern pool was made by Victor Vescovo and Michael Dubno. On 5 March a descent to the eastern pool was made by Victor Vescovo and Hamish Harding. They traversed the bottom of Challenger Deep. On 11 March 2021 a descent to the Western Pool was made by Victor Vescovo and marine botanist Nicole Yamase. On 13 April 2021 a descent was made by deep water submersible operations expert Rob McCallum and Tim Macdonald who piloted the dive. A 2021 descent with a Japanese citizen is planned. All manned descents were conducted in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle DSV Limiting Factor.

2022 - Ring of Fire 3 Expedition / DSV Limiting Factor
In July 2022 for the fourth consecutive year, Caladan Oceanic's deep submergence system, consisting of the deep submersible DSV Limiting Factor supported by the mother ship DSSV Pressure Drop, returned to the Challenger Deep for dives into the Challenger Deep. In early July 2022, Victor Vescovo was joined by Aaron Newman as a mission specialist for a dive into the Central pool. On 5 July 2022, Tim Macdonald as pilot and Jim Kitchen as mission specialist for a dive into the Eastern pool. On 8 July 2022 Victor Vescovo was joined by Dylan Taylor as mission specialist for a dive into the Eastern pool. Victor Vescovo (for his 15th dive into the Challenger Deep) was joined by geographer and oceanographer Dawn Wright as mission specialist on the 12 July 2022 dive to 10919 m in the Western Pool. Wright operated the world's first sidescan sonar to ever operate at full-ocean depth to capture detailed imagery along short transects of the southern wall of the Western Pool.

1996 and 1998 – Kaikō
The remotely operated vehicle (ROV) Kaikō made many uncrewed descents to the Mariana Trench from its support ship RV Yokosuka during two expeditions in 1996 and 1998. From 29 February to 4 March the ROV Kaiko made three dives into the central basin, Kaiko #21 – Kaiko #23,. Depths ranged from 10898 m at 11.3756°N, 142.4403°W, to 10896 m at 11.3765°N, 142.4308°W; dives #22 & #23 to the north, and dive #21 northeast of the deepest waters of the central basin. During the 1996 measurements the temperature (water temperature increases at great depth due to adiabatic compression), salinity and water pressure at the sampling station was 2.6 °C, 34.7‰ and 1113 bar, respectively at 10897 m depth. The Japanese robotic deep-sea probe Kaikō broke the depth record for uncrewed probes when it reached close to the surveyed bottom of the Challenger Deep. Created by the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), it was one of the few uncrewed deep-sea probes in operation that could dive deeper than 6000 m. The manometer measured depth of 10911.4 m ±3 m at 11.37317°N, 142.59233°W for the Challenger Deep is believed to be the most accurate measurement taken up to then. Another source states the greatest depth measured by Kaikō in 1996 was 10898 m at 11.36833°N, 142.43083°W and 10907 m at 11.3825°N, 142.207°W in 1998. The ROV Kaiko was the first vehicle to visit to the bottom of the Challenger Deep since the bathyscaph Trieste's dive in 1960, and the first success in sampling the trench bottom sediment/mud, from which Kaiko obtained over 360 samples. Approximately 3,000 different microbes were identified in the samples. Kaikō was lost at sea off Shikoku Island during Typhoon Chan-Hom on 29 May 2003.

2009 – Nereus

From 2 May to 5 June 2009, the RV Kilo Moana hosted the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) hybrid remotely operated vehicle (HROV) Nereus team for the first operational test of the  Nereus in its 3-ton tethered ROV mode. The Nereus team was headed by the Expedition Leader Andy Bowen of WHOI, Louis Whitcomb of Johns Hopkins University, and Dana Yoerger, also of WHOI. The expedition had co-chief scientists: biologist Tim Shank of WHOI, and geologist Patricia Fryer of the University of Hawaii, to head the science team exploiting the ship's bathymetry and organizing the science experiments deployed by the Nereus. From Nereus dive #007ROV to 880 m just south of Guam, to dive #010ROV into the Nero Deep at 9050 m, the testing gradually increased depths and complexities of activities at the bottom.

Dive #011ROV, on 31 May 2009, saw the Nereus piloted on a 27.8-hour underwater mission, with about ten hours transversing the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep – from the south wall, northwest to the north wall – streaming live video and data back to its mothership. A maximum depth of 10902 m was registered at 11.36833°N, 142.59133°W. The RV Kilo Moana then relocated to the western basin, where a 19.3-hour underwater dive found a maximum depth of 10899 m on dive #012ROV, and on dive #014ROV in the same area (11°19.59 N, 142°12.99 E) encountered a maximum depth of 10176 m. The Nereus was successful in recovering both sediment and rock samples from the eastern and the western basins with its manipulator arm for further scientific analysis. The HROV's final dive was about 80 nmi to the north of the Challenger Deep, in the backarc, where they dived 2963 m at the TOTO Caldera (12°42.00 N, 143°31.5 E). Nereus thus became the first vehicle to reach the Mariana Trench since 1998 and the deepest-diving vehicle then in operation. Project manager and developer Andy Bowen heralded the achievement as "the start of a new era in ocean exploration". Nereus, unlike Kaikō, did not need to be powered or controlled by a cable connected to a ship on the ocean surface. The HROV Nereus was lost on 10 May 2014 while conducting a dive at 9900 m in depth in the Kermadec Trench.

2008 – ABISMO
In June 2008, the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) deployed the research vessel Kairei to the area of Guam for cruise KR08-05 Leg 1 and Leg 2. On 1–3 June 2008, during Leg 1, the Japanese robotic deep-sea probe ABISMO (Automatic Bottom Inspection and Sampling Mobile) on dives 11–13 almost reached the bottom about 150 km east of the Challenger Deep: "Unfortunately, we were unable to dive to the sea floor because the legacy primary cable of the Kaiko system was a little bit short. The 2-m long gravity core sampler was dropped in free fall, and sediment samples of 1.6m length were obtained. Twelve bottles of water samples were also obtained at various depths..." ABISMO's dive #14 was into the TOTO caldera (12°42.7777 N, 143°32.4055 E), about 60 nmi northeast of the deepest waters of the central basin of the Challenger Deep, where they obtained videos of the hydrothermal plume. Upon successful testing to 10000 m, JAMSTEC' ROV ABISMO became, briefly, the only full-ocean-depth rated ROV in existence. On 31 May 2009, the ABISMO was joined by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution's HROV Nereus as the only two operational full ocean depth capable remotely operated vehicles in existence. During the ROV ABISMO's deepest sea trails dive its manometer measured a depth of 10257 m ±3 m in "Area 1" (vicinity of 12°43' N, 143°33' E).

Leg 2, under chief scientist Takashi Murashima, operated at the Challenger Deep 8–9 June 2008, testing JAMSTEC's new full ocean depth "Free Fall Mooring System," i.e. a lander. The lander was successfully tested twice to 10895 m depth, taking video images and sediment samplings at 11.369°N, 142.42933°W, in the central basin of the Challenger Deep.

2016 – Haidou-1
On 23 May 2016, the Chinese submersible Haidou-1 dived to a depth of 10767 m at an undisclosed position in the Mariana Trench, making China the third country after Japan (ROV Kaikō), and the US (HROV Nereus), to deploy a full-ocean-depth ROV. This autonomous and remotely operated vehicle has a design depth of 11000 m.

2020 – Vityaz-D
On 8 May 2020, the Russian submersible Vityaz-D dived to a depth of 10028 m at an undisclosed position in the Mariana Trench.

Lifeforms
The summary report of the HMS Challenger (1858) expedition lists radiolaria from the two dredged samples taken when the Challenger Deep was first discovered. These (Nassellaria and Spumellaria) were reported in the Report on Radiolaria (1887) written by Ernst Haeckel.

On their 1960 descent, the crew of the Trieste noted that the floor consisted of diatomaceous ooze and reported observing "some type of flatfish" lying on the seabed.

"And as we were settling this final fathom, I saw a wonderful thing. Lying on the bottom just beneath us was some type of flatfish, resembling a sole, about 1 ft long and 6 in across. Even as I saw him, his two round eyes on top of his head spied us –a monster of steel –invading his silent realm. Eyes? Why should he have eyes? Merely to see phosphorescence? The floodlight that bathed him was the first real light ever to enter this hadal realm. Here, in an instant, was the answer that biologists had asked for the decades. Could life exist in the greatest depths of the ocean? It could! And not only that, here apparently, was a true, bony teleost fish, not a primitive ray or elasmobranch. Yes, a highly evolved vertebrate, in time's arrow very close to man himself. Slowly, extremely slowly, this flatfish swam away. Moving along the bottom, partly in the ooze and partly in the water, he disappeared into his night. Slowly too –perhaps everything is slow at the bottom of the sea –Walsh and I shook hands."

Many marine biologists are now skeptical of this supposed sighting, and it is suggested that the creature may instead have been a sea cucumber. The video camera on board the Kaiko probe spotted a sea cucumber, a scale worm and a shrimp at the bottom. At the bottom of the Challenger Deep, the Nereus probe spotted one polychaete worm (a multi-legged predator) about an inch long.

An analysis of the sediment samples collected by Kaiko found large numbers of simple organisms at 10900 m. While similar lifeforms have been known to exist in shallower ocean trenches (> 7,000 m) and on the abyssal plain, the lifeforms discovered in the Challenger Deep possibly represent taxa distinct from those in shallower ecosystems.

Most of the organisms collected were simple, soft-shelled foraminifera (432 species according to National Geographic ), with four of the others representing species of the complex, multi-chambered genera Leptohalysis and Reophax. Eighty-five per cent of the specimens were organic, soft-shelled allogromiids, which is unusual compared to samples of sediment-dwelling organisms from other deep-sea environments, where the percentage of organic-walled foraminifera ranges from 5% to 20%. As small organisms with hard, calcareous shells have trouble growing at extreme depths because of the high solubility of calcium carbonate in the pressurized water, scientists theorize that the preponderance of soft-shelled organisms in the Challenger Deep may have resulted from the typical biosphere present when the Challenger Deep was shallower than it is now. Over the course of six to nine million years, as the Challenger Deep grew to its present depth, many of the species present in the sediment died out or were unable to adapt to the increasing water pressure and changing environment.

On 17 March 2013, researchers reported data that suggested piezophilic microorganisms thrive in the Challenger Deep. Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 1900 ft below the sea floor under 8500 ft of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, "You can find microbes everywhere –they're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Challenger Deep


text:
Claude Louis Berthollet

Claude Louis Berthollet (, 9 December 1748 – 6 November 1822) was a Savoyard-French chemist who became vice president of the French Senate in 1804. He is known for his scientific contributions to theory of chemical equilibria via the mechanism of reverse chemical reactions, and for his contribution to modern chemical nomenclature. On a practical basis, Berthollet was the first to demonstrate the bleaching action of chlorine gas, and was first to develop a solution of sodium hypochlorite as a modern bleaching agent.

Biography
Claude Louis Berthollet was born in Talloires, near Annecy, then part of the Duchy of Savoy, in 1749.

He started his studies at Chambéry and then in Turin where he graduated in medicine. Berthollet's great new developments in works regarding chemistry made him, in a short period of time, an active participant of the Academy of Science in 1780.

Berthollet, along with Antoine Lavoisier and others, devised a chemical nomenclature, or a system of names, which serves as the basis of the modern system of naming chemical compounds.

He also carried out research into dyes and bleaches, being first to introduce the use of chlorine gas as a commercial bleach in 1785. He first produced a modern bleaching liquid in 1789 in his laboratory on the quay Javel in Paris, France, by passing chlorine gas through a solution of sodium carbonate. The resulting liquid, known as "Eau de Javel" ("Javel water"), was a weak solution of sodium hypochlorite. Another strong chlorine oxidant and bleach which he investigated and was the first to produce, potassium chlorate (KClO3), is known as Berthollet's Salt.

Berthollet first determined the elemental composition of the gas ammonia, in 1785.

Berthollet was one of the first chemists to recognize the characteristics of a reverse reaction, and hence, chemical equilibrium.

Berthollet was engaged in a long-term battle with another French chemist, Joseph Proust, on the validity of the law of definite proportions. While Proust believed that chemical compounds are composed of a fixed ratio of their constituent elements irrespective of the methods of production, Berthollet believed that this ratio can change according to the ratio of the reactants initially taken. Although Proust proved his theory by accurate measurements, his theory was not immediately accepted partially due to Berthollet's authority. His law was finally accepted when Berzelius confirmed it in 1811, but it was found later that Berthollet was not completely wrong because there exists a class of compounds that do not obey the law of definite proportions. These non-stoichiometric compounds are also named berthollides in his honor.

Berthollet was one of several scientists who went with Napoleon to Egypt and was a member of the physics and natural history section of the Institut d'Égypte.

Awards and honours
In April, 1789 Berthollet was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1801, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1809, Berthollet was elected an associate member first class of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, predecessor of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1820 and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822.

Claude-Louis Berthollet's 1788 publication entitled Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique, published with colleagues Antoine Lavoisier, Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau, and Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, presented at the Académie des Sciences (Paris) in 2015.

A French High School located in Annecy is named after him (Lycée Claude Louis Berthollet).

Personal life
Berthollet married Marie Marguerite Baur in 1788. Their son, Amédée-Barthélémy Berthollet, died in 1811 of carbon monoxide poisoning via charcoal-burning suicide in which he had recorded his physiological and psychological experiences as a final scientific contribution before losing consciousness and succumbing to the fumes.

Berthollet was accused of being an atheist.

He died in Arcueil, France in 1822.

title: Claude Louis Berthollet


text:
Chilean Constitution of 1980

The Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile of 1980 (Constitución Política de la República de Chile) is the fundamental law in force in Chile. It was approved and promulgated under the military dictatorship headed by Augusto Pinochet, being ratified by the Chilean citizenry through a referendum on September 11, 1980, although being held under restrictions and without electoral registers. While 69% of the population was reported to have voted yes, the vote was questioned by hundreds of denunciations of irregularities and fraud. The constitutional text took effect, in a transitory regime, on March 11, 1981, and then entered into full force on March 11, 1990, with the return to electoral democracy. It was amended for the first time in 1989 (through a referendum), and afterward in 1991, 1994, 1997, each year from 1999 to 2001, 2003, each year from 2007 to 2015, and each year from 2017 to 2021, with the last three amendments concerning the constituent process of 2020–2022. In September 2005, under Ricardo Lagos's presidency, a large amendment of the Constitution was approved by parliamentarians, removing from the text some of the less democratic dispositions coming from Pinochet's regime, such as senators-for-life and appointed senators, as well as the armed forces' warranty of the democratic regime.

On November 15, 2019, following a series of popular protests in October 2019, a political agreement between parties with parliamentary representation called for a national referendum on the proposal of writing a new Constitution and on the mechanism to draft it. A plebiscite held on October 25, 2020, approved drafting a new fundamental charter, as well as choosing by popular vote delegates to a Constitutional Convention which was to fulfill this objective. The members of the convention were elected in May, 2021, and first convened on July 4, 2021. However, on September 4, 2022, voters rejected the new constitution in the constitutional referendum.

Legitimacy
According to the law professor Camel Cazor Aliste, the Constitution of 1980 has problems of legitimacy stemming from two facts. First, the constitutional commission was not representative of the political spectrum of Chile: its members had been handpicked by the Pinochet dictatorship, and opponents of the regime had been deliberately excluded. Secondly, the constitution's approval was achieved by the government in a controversial and tightly controlled referendum in 1980. Campaigning for the referendum was irregular, with the government calling people to vote positively on the reform, and also using radio and television commercial spots, while the opposition urging people to vote negatively were only able of doing small public demonstrations, without access to television time and limited radio access. There was no electoral roll for this vote, as the register had been burned during the dictatorship. There were multiple cases of double voting, with at least 3000 CNI agents doing so.

Since the return to democracy, the constitution has been amended nearly 60 times.

A document from September 13, 1973, shows that Jaime Guzmán had by then already been tasked by the Junta to study the creation of a new constitution.

It has been argued the 1980 Constitution was designed to favor the election of right-wing legislative majorities. Several rounds of constitutional amendments have been enacted since 1989 to address this concern.

Replacement
In July 2022, a proposed replacement constitution was submitted for national debate and general referendum, but it was rejected on September 4 despite having had the support of left-leaning President Gabriel Boric. The document had faced intense criticism that it was "too long, too left-wing and too radical", and was rejected by a margin of 62% to 38%.

On March 6, 2023, a group of experts appointed by Congress began a second attempt to prepare a preliminary draft of a new constitution. The group, with lawyer Veronica Undurraga serving as its president, was scheduled to work for three months on 12 institutional bases agreed to by lawmakers, after which the draft would be given to an elected Constitutional Council, whose members would be voted upon on May 7, 2023. At the same time, a 14-member Technical Admissibility Committee began serving as arbitrator.

On December 17, 2023, Chileans voted 55.8% to 44.2% against the second proposed constitution. President Boric stated that he would not seek a third referendum; this outcome effectively guaranteed the 1980 charter would remain in effect.

title: Chilean Constitution of 1980


text:
Crystallography

Crystallography is the branch of science devoted to the study of molecular and crystalline structure and properties. The word crystallography is derived from the Ancient Greek word ("clear ice, rock-crystal"), and  ("to write"). In July 2012, the United Nations recognised the importance of the science of crystallography by proclaiming 2014 the International Year of Crystallography.

Crystallography is a broad topic, and many of its subareas, such as X-ray crystallography, are themselves important scientific topics. Crystallography ranges from the fundamentals of crystal structure to the mathematics of crystal geometry, including those that are not periodic or quasicrystals. At the atomic scale it can involve the use of X-ray diffraction to produce experimental data that the tools of X-ray crystallography can convert into detailed positions of atoms, and sometimes electron density. At larger scales it includes experimental tools such as orientational imaging to examine the relative orientations at the grain boundary in materials. Crystallography plays a key role in many areas of biology, chemistry, and physics, as well new developments in these fields.

History and timeline
Before the 20th century, the study of crystals was based on physical measurements of their geometry using a goniometer. This involved measuring the angles of crystal faces relative to each other and to theoretical reference axes (crystallographic axes), and establishing the symmetry of the crystal in question. The position in 3D space of each crystal face is plotted on a stereographic net such as a Wulff net or Lambert net. The pole to each face is plotted on the net. Each point is labelled with its Miller index. The final plot allows the symmetry of the crystal to be established.

The discovery of X-rays and electrons in the last decade of the 19th century enabled the determination of crystal structures on the atomic scale, which brought about the modern era of crystallography. The first X-ray diffraction experiment was conducted in 1912 by Max von Laue, while electron diffraction was first realized in 1927 in the Davisson–Germer experiment. They later developed into the two main branches of crystallography, X-ray crystallography and electron crystallography. The quality and throughput of solving crystal structures were greatly increased in the second half of the 20th century, with the developments of customized instruments and phasing algorithms. Nowadays, crystallography is an interdisciplinary field, supporting theoretical and experimental discoveries in various domains. The modern-day scientific instruments for crystallography vary from laboratory-sized equipments, such as diffractometers and electron microscopes, to dedicated large facilities, such as photoinjectors, synchrotron light sources and free-electron lasers.

Methodology
Crystallographic methods depend mainly on analysis of the diffraction patterns of a sample targeted by a beam of some type. X-rays are most commonly used; other beams used include electrons or neutrons. Crystallographers often explicitly state the type of beam used, as in the terms X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction and electron diffraction. These three types of radiation interact with the specimen in different ways. It is hard to focus x-rays or neutrons, but since electrons are charged they can be focused and are used in electron microscope to produce magnified images. There are many ways that transmission electron microscopy and related techniques such as scanning transmission electron microscopy, high-resolution electron microscopy can be used to obtain images with in many cases atomic resolution from which crystallographic information can be obtained. There are also other methods such as low-energy electron diffraction, low-energy electron microscopy and reflection high-energy electron diffraction which can be used to obtain crystallographic information about surfaces.
 * X-rays interact with the spatial distribution of electrons in the sample.
 * Neutrons are scattered by the atomic nuclei through the strong nuclear forces, but in addition the magnetic moment of neutrons is non-zero, so they are also scattered by magnetic fields. When neutrons are scattered from hydrogen-containing materials, they produce diffraction patterns with high noise levels, which can sometimes be resolved by substituting deuterium for hydrogen.
 * Electrons are charged particles and therefore interact with the total charge distribution of both the atomic nuclei and the electrons of the sample.

Materials science
Crystallography is used by materials scientists to characterize different materials. In single crystals, the effects of the crystalline arrangement of atoms is often easy to see macroscopically because the natural shapes of crystals reflect the atomic structure. In addition, physical properties are often controlled by crystalline defects. The understanding of crystal structures is an important prerequisite for understanding crystallographic defects. Most materials do not occur as a single crystal, but are poly-crystalline in nature (they exist as an aggregate of small crystals with different orientations). As such, powder diffraction techniques, which take diffraction patterns of samples with a large number of crystals, play an important role in structural determination.

Other physical properties are also linked to crystallography. For example, the minerals in clay form small, flat, platelike structures. Clay can be easily deformed because the platelike particles can slip along each other in the plane of the plates, yet remain strongly connected in the direction perpendicular to the plates. Such mechanisms can be studied by crystallographic texture measurements. Crystallographic studies help elucidate the relationship between a material's structure and its properties, aiding in developing new materials with tailored characteristics. This understanding is crucial in various fields, including metallurgy, geology, and materials science. Advancements in crystallographic techniques, such as electron diffraction and X-ray crystallography, continue to expand our understanding of material behavior at the atomic level.

In another example, iron transforms from a body-centered cubic (bcc) structure called ferrite to a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure called austenite when it is heated. The fcc structure is a close-packed structure unlike the bcc structure; thus the volume of the iron decreases when this transformation occurs.

Crystallography is useful in phase identification. When manufacturing or using a material, it is generally desirable to know what compounds and what phases are present in the material, as their composition, structure and proportions will influence the material's properties. Each phase has a characteristic arrangement of atoms. X-ray or neutron diffraction can be used to identify which structures are present in the material, and thus which compounds are present. Crystallography covers the enumeration of the symmetry patterns which can be formed by atoms in a crystal and for this reason is related to group theory.

Biology
X-ray crystallography is the primary method for determining the molecular conformations of biological macromolecules, particularly protein and nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. The double-helical structure of DNA was deduced from crystallographic data. The first crystal structure of a macromolecule was solved in 1958, a three-dimensional model of the myoglobin molecule obtained by X-ray analysis. The Protein Data Bank (PDB) is a freely accessible repository for the structures of proteins and other biological macromolecules. Computer programs such as RasMol, Pymol or VMD can be used to visualize biological molecular structures. Neutron crystallography is often used to help refine structures obtained by X-ray methods or to solve a specific bond; the methods are often viewed as complementary, as X-rays are sensitive to electron positions and scatter most strongly off heavy atoms, while neutrons are sensitive to nucleus positions and scatter strongly even off many light isotopes, including hydrogen and deuterium. Electron diffraction has been used to determine some protein structures, most notably membrane proteins and viral capsids.

Notation

 * Coordinates in square brackets such as  [100]  denote a direction vector (in real space).
 * Coordinates in angle brackets or chevrons such as <100> denote a family of directions which are related by symmetry operations. In the cubic crystal system for example,   would mean [100], [010], [001] or the negative of any of those directions.
 * Miller indices in parentheses such as (100) denote a plane of the crystal structure, and regular repetitions of that plane with a particular spacing. In the cubic system, the normal to the (hkl) plane is the direction [hkl], but in lower-symmetry cases, the normal to (hkl) is not parallel to [hkl].
 * Indices in curly brackets or braces such as  {100}  denote a family of planes and their normals. In cubic materials the symmetry makes them equivalent, just as the way angle brackets denote a family of directions. In non-cubic materials, is not necessarily perpendicular to {hkl}.

Reference literature
The International Tables for Crystallography is an eight-book series that outlines the standard notations for formatting, describing and testing crystals. The series contains books that covers analysis methods and the mathematical procedures for determining organic structure through x-ray crystallography, electron diffraction, and neutron diffraction. The International tables are focused on procedures, techniques and descriptions and do not list the physical properties of individual crystals themselves. Each book is about 1000 pages and the titles of the books are:

 * Vol A - Space Group Symmetry,
 * Vol A1 - Symmetry Relations Between Space Groups,
 * Vol B - Reciprocal Space,
 * Vol C - Mathematical, Physical, and Chemical Tables,
 * Vol D - Physical Properties of Crystals,
 * Vol E - Subperiodic Groups,
 * Vol F - Crystallography of Biological Macromolecules, and
 * Vol G - Definition and Exchange of Crystallographic Data.

Notable scientists
• William Astbury

• William Barlow

• C. Arnold Beevers

• John Desmond Bernal

• William Henry Bragg

• William Lawrence Bragg

• Auguste Bravais

• Glenn H. Brown

• Martin Julian Buerger

• Sir Gordon Cox

• Francis Crick

• D. W. J. Cruickshank

• Pierre Curie

• Peter Debye

• Johann Deisenhofer

• Boris Delone

• Gautam R. Desiraju

• Eleanor Dodson

• Jack Dunitz

• David Eisenberg

• Paul Peter Ewald

• Evgraf Stepanovich Fedorov

• Rosalind Franklin

• Georges Friedel

• Jenny Glusker

• Paul Heinrich von Groth

• Herbert A. Hauptman

• René Just Haüy

• Wayne Hendrickson

• Carl Hermann

• Johann Friedrich Christian Hessel

• Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin

• Judith Howard

• Robert Huber

• Louise Johnson

• Isabella Karle

• Jerome Karle

• Olga Kennard

• Aaron Klug

• Max von Laue

• Otto Lehmann

• Michael Levitt

• Henry Lipson

• Kathleen Lonsdale

• Ernest-François Mallard

• Charles-Victor Mauguin

• William Hallowes Miller

• Friedrich Mohs

• Paul Niggli

• Louis Pasteur

• Arthur Lindo Patterson

• Max Perutz

• Friedrich Reinitzer

• Hugo Rietveld

• Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle

• Michael Rossmann

• Paul Scherrer

• Arthur Moritz Schönflies

• Dan Shechtman

• George M. Sheldrick

• Tej P. Singh

• Nicolas Steno

• Constance Tipper

• Daniel Vorländer

• Christian Samuel Weiss

• Don Craig Wiley

• Michael Woolfson

• Ralph Walter Graystone Wyckoff

• Ada Yonath

title: Crystallography