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Grandmaster (chess)

Grandmaster (GM) is a title awarded to chess players by the world chess organization FIDE. Apart from World Champion, Grandmaster is the highest title a chess player can attain. Once achieved, the title is held for life, though exceptionally the title can be revoked for cheating.

The title of Grandmaster, along with the lesser FIDE titles of International Master (IM), FIDE Master (FM), and Candidate Master (CM), is open to all players regardless of gender. The great majority of grandmasters are men, but 42 women have been awarded the GM title as of 2024, out of a total of about 2000 grandmasters. There is also a Woman Grandmaster title with lower requirements awarded only to women.

There are also Grandmaster titles for composers and solvers of chess problems, awarded by the World Federation for Chess Composition (see List of grandmasters for chess composition). The International Correspondence Chess Federation (ICCF) awards the title of International Correspondence Chess Grandmaster (ICCGM). Both of these bodies are now independent of FIDE, but work in cooperation with it.

"Super grandmaster" is an informal term to refer to the world's elite players. In the past this would refer to players with an Elo rating of over 2600, but as the average Elo rating of the top players has increased it has typically come to refer to players with an Elo rating of over 2700. Super GMs, the number of whom has grown considerably over the years, have some name recognition in the world of sport and are typically the highest earners in chess.

FIDE titles are only awarded at the quarterly FIDE Council meetings. Players who have qualified for the GM title but have not yet been awarded it are informally referred to as "GM-elect".

History
Usage of grandmaster for an expert in some field is recorded from 1590. The first known use of the term grandmaster in connection with chess was in the 18 February 1838 issue of Bell's Life, in which a correspondent referred to William Lewis as "our past grandmaster". Subsequently, George Walker and others referred to Philidor as a grandmaster, and the term was also applied to a few other players.

Early tournament use
The Ostend tournament of 1907 was divided into two sections: the Championship Tournament and the Masters' Tournament. The Championship section was for players who had previously won an international tournament. Siegbert Tarrasch won the Championship section, over Carl Schlechter, Dawid Janowski, Frank Marshall, Amos Burn, and Mikhail Chigorin. These players were described as grandmasters for the purposes of the tournament.

The San Sebastián 1912 tournament won by Akiba Rubinstein was a designated grandmaster event. Rubinstein won with 12½ points out of 19. Tied for second with 12 points were Aron Nimzowitsch and Rudolf Spielmann.

By some accounts, in the St. Petersburg 1914 chess tournament, the title Grandmaster was formally conferred by Russian Tsar Nicholas II, who had partially funded the tournament. The Tsar reportedly awarded the title to the five finalists: Emanuel Lasker, José Raúl Capablanca, Alexander Alekhine, Siegbert Tarrasch, and Frank Marshall. Chess historian Edward Winter has questioned this, stating that the earliest known sources that support this story are an article by Robert Lewis Taylor in the June 15, 1940, issue of The New Yorker and Marshall's autobiography My 50 Years of Chess (1942).

Informal and Soviet usage before 1950
Before 1950, the term grandmaster was sometimes informally applied to world class players. The Fédération Internationale des Échecs (FIDE, or International Chess Federation) was formed in Paris in 1924, but at that time did not award formal titles.

In 1927, the Soviet Union's Chess Federation established the title of Grandmaster of the Soviet Union, in the form of the German loan word "Großmeister". At the time Soviet players were not competing outside their own country. This title was abolished in 1931, after having been awarded to Boris Verlinsky, who won the 1929 Soviet Championship. The title was brought back in 1935, and awarded to Mikhail Botvinnik, who thus became the first "official" Grandmaster of the USSR. Verlinsky did not get his title back.

Official status (1950 onwards)
In 1950 FIDE created the titles of Grandmaster (GM), International Master (IM) and Woman Master (WM, later known as Woman International Master or WIM). The grandmaster title is sometimes called "International Grandmaster" (IGM), possibly to distinguish it from similar national titles, but the shortened form is far more common today.

Titles were awarded by a resolution of the FIDE General Assembly and the Qualification Committee, with no formal written criteria. FIDE first awarded the Grandmaster title in 1950 to 27 players. These players were:
 * The top players of the day: world champion Mikhail Botvinnik, and those who had qualified for (or been seeded into) the inaugural Candidates Tournament in 1950: Isaac Boleslavsky, Igor Bondarevsky, David Bronstein, Max Euwe, Reuben Fine, Salo Flohr, Paul Keres, Alexander Kotov, Andor Lilienthal, Miguel Najdorf, Samuel Reshevsky, Vasily Smyslov, Gideon Ståhlberg, and László Szabó.
 * Players still living who, though past their best in 1950, were recognised as having been world class when at their peak: Ossip Bernstein, Oldřich Duras, Ernst Grünfeld, Boris Kostić, Grigory Levenfish, Géza Maróczy, Jacques Mieses, Viacheslav Ragozin, Akiba Rubinstein, Friedrich Sämisch, Savielly Tartakower, and Milan Vidmar.

Since FIDE did not award the Grandmaster title posthumously, world-class players who died prior to 1950, including World Champions Steinitz, Lasker, Capablanca, and Alekhine, never received the title. A few strong still living players such as British India's Mir Sultan Khan, Germany's Paul Lipke and France's Eugene Znosko-Borovsky were not awarded titles. Sultan Khan was awarded the GM title posthumously in 2024.

1953 regulations
Title awards under the original regulations were subject to political concerns. Efim Bogoljubow, who had emigrated from the Soviet Union to Germany, was not entered in the first class of Grandmasters, even though he had played two matches for the World Championship with Alekhine. He received the title in 1951, by a vote of thirteen to eight with five abstentions. Yugoslavia supported his application, but all other Communist countries opposed it. In 1953, FIDE abolished the old regulations, although a provision was maintained that allowed older masters who had been overlooked to be awarded titles. The new regulations awarded the title of International Grandmaster of the FIDE to players meeting any of the following criteria:
 * 1) The world champion.
 * 2) Masters who have the absolute right to play in the World Championship Candidates Tournament, or any player who replaces an absent contestant and earns at least a 50 percent score.
 * 3) The winner of an international tournament meeting specified standards, and any player placing second in two such tournaments within a span of four years. The tournament must be at least eleven rounds with seven or more players, 80 percent or more being International Grandmasters or International Masters. Additionally, 30 percent of the players must be Grandmasters who have the absolute right to play in the next World Championship Candidates Tournament, or who have played in such a tournament in the previous ten years.
 * 4) A player who demonstrates ability manifestly equal to that of (3) above in an international tournament or match. Such titles must be approved by the Qualification Committee with the support of at least five members.

1957 regulations
After FIDE issued the 1953 title regulations, it was recognized that they were somewhat haphazard, and work began to revise the regulations. The FIDE Congress in Vienna in 1957 adopted new regulations, called the FAV system, in recognition of the work done by International Judge Giovanni Ferrantes (Italy), Alexander (probably Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander), and Giancarlo Dal Verme (Italy). Under the 1957 regulations, the title of International Grandmaster of the FIDE was automatically awarded to: The regulations also allowed titles to be awarded by a FIDE Congress on recommendation by the Qualification Committee. Recommendations were based on performance in qualifying tournaments, with the required score depending on the percentage of Grandmasters and International Masters in the tournament.
 * 1) The world champion.
 * 2) Any player qualifying from the Interzonal tournament to play in the Candidates Tournament, even if he did not play in the Candidates for any reason.
 * 3) Any player who would qualify from the Interzonal to play in the Candidates but who was excluded because of a limitation on the number of participants from his Federation.
 * 4) Any player who actually plays in a Candidates Tournament and scores at least 33⅓ percent.

1965 regulations
Concerns were raised that the 1957 regulations were too lax. At the FIDE Congress in 1961, GM Milan Vidmar said that the regulations "made it possible to award international titles to players without sufficient merit". At the 1964 Congress in Tel Aviv, a subcommittee was formed to propose changes to the regulations. The subcommittee recommended that the automatic award of titles be abolished, criticized the methods used for awarding titles based on qualifying performances, and called for a change in the makeup of the Qualification Committee. Several delegates supported the subcommittee recommendations, including GM Miguel Najdorf who felt that existing regulations were leading to an inflation of international titles. At the 1965 Congress in Wiesbaden FIDE raised the standards required for international titles. The International Grandmaster title regulations were:
 * 1. Any World Champion is automatically awarded the GM title
 * 2a. Anyone who scores at least 40 percent in a quarter-final match in the Candidates Tournament
 * 2b. Scores at least the number of points in a tournament corresponding to the total of a 55 percent score against Grandmasters plus 75 percent against International Masters (IM) plus 85 percent against other players (a GM "norm").

To fulfill requirement 2b, the candidate must score one GM norm in a category 1a tournament or two norms within a three-year period in two Category 1b tournaments, or one Category 2a tournament and one Category 1b tournament.

The categories of tournaments are: Since FIDE titles are for life, a GM or IM does not count for the purposes of this requirement if he had not had a GM or IM result in the five years prior to the tournament.
 * 1a—at least sixteen players, at least 50 percent are GMs and 70 percent at least IMs
 * 1b—at least twelve players, at least 33⅓ percent GMs and 70 percent IMs
 * 2a—at least fifteen players, at least 50 percent IMs
 * 2b—ten to fourteen players, at least 50 percent IMs.

In addition, no more than 50 percent plus one of the players can be from the same country for tournaments of 10 to 12 players, or no more than 50 percent plus two for larger tournaments.

Seventy-four GM titles were awarded in 1951 through 1968. During that period, ten GM titles were awarded in 1965, but only one in 1966 and in 1968.

1970 regulations
The modern system for awarding FIDE titles evolved from the "Dorazil" proposals, presented to the 1970 Siegen Chess Olympiad FIDE Congress. The proposals were put together by Wilfried Dorazil (then FIDE Vice-President) and fellow Committee members Grandmaster Svetozar Gligorić and Professor Arpad Elo. The recommendations of the Committee report were adopted in full.

In essence, the proposals built on the work done by Professor Elo in devising his Elo rating system. The establishment of an updated list of players and their Elo rating enabled significantly strong international chess tournaments to be allocated a Category, based on the average rating of the contestants. For instance, it was decided that 'Category 1' status would apply to tournaments with an average Elo rating of participants falling within the range 2251–2275; similarly Category 2 would apply to the range 2276–2300 etc. The higher the tournament Category, the stronger the tournament.

Another vital component involved the setting of meritorious norms for each Category of tournament. Players must meet or surpass the relevant score to demonstrate that they had performed at Grandmaster (GM) or International Master (IM) level. Scores were expressed as percentages of a perfect maximum score and decreased as the tournament Category increased, thereby reflecting the strength of a player's opposition and the relative difficulty of the task.

Tournament organisers could then apply the percentages to their own tournament format and declare in advance the actual score that participants must achieve to attain a GM or IM result (nowadays referred to as a norm).

 * valign="top" |
 * {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

! Cat. !! Avg. Elo !! Score (GM) !! Score (IM)
 * 6 || 2376–2400 || 73% || 60%
 * 7 || 2401–2425 || 70% || 57%
 * 8 || 2426–2450 || 67% || 53%
 * 9 || 2451–2475 || 64% || 50%
 * 10 || 2476–2500 || 60% || 47%
 * }
 * valign="top" |
 * {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
 * 10 || 2476–2500 || 60% || 47%
 * }
 * valign="top" |
 * {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
 * {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

! Cat. !! Avg. Elo !! Score (GM) !! Score (IM)
 * 11 || 2501–2525 || 57% || 43%
 * 12 || 2526–2550 || 53% || 40%
 * 13 || 2551–2575 || 50% || 36%
 * 14 || 2576–2600 || 47% || 33%
 * 15 || 2601–2625 || 43% || 30%
 * }
 * }
 * 14 || 2576–2600 || 47% || 33%
 * 15 || 2601–2625 || 43% || 30%
 * }
 * }
 * }

To qualify for the Grandmaster title, a player needed to achieve three such GM results within a rolling period of three years. Exceptionally, if a player's contributory games totalled 30 or more, then the title could be awarded on the basis of two such results. There were also circumstances where the system could be adapted to fit team events and other competitions.

The full proposals included many other rules and regulations, covering such topics as:
 * Eligible tournament formats
 * Eligible participants
 * Unrated participants
 * Registration of tournaments with FIDE
 * Calculations, including the handling of fractions

Current regulations
To become a grandmaster, a player must achieve both of the following:

 * Favorable results (called norms) from a total of at least 27 games in tournaments. With some exceptions, to receive a norm in a tournament:
 * The player's performance rating at the end of the tournament must be at least 2600.  (Tournaments are no longer classified in categories.)
 * At least 33% of the player's opponents must be Grandmasters.
 * At least 50% of the player's opponents must hold a FIDE title other than Candidate Master and Woman Candidate Master.
 * The player's opponents must have an average rating of at least 2380.
 * The player's opponents must come from at least 3 different chess federations, which can include the player's own federation.
 * A maximum of 60% of a player's opponents can come from the player's own federation.
 * A maximum of 66% of a player's opponents can come from a single federation.
 * At least one norm must be scored at a Swiss tournament with at least 40 participants of average rating of 2000 and above.
 * An Elo rating of at least 2500 at any point (although they need not maintain this level to obtain or keep the title).
 * The rating requirement can be fulfilled even if the player starts a tournament rated below 2500 and then reaches or exceeds a 2500 rating during the tournament but eventually concludes the tournament with a rating lower than 2500.

The Grandmaster title is also automatically conferred, without needing to fulfill the above criteria, when reaching the final 16 in the World Cup, winning the Women's World Cup, the World Junior Championship, or the World Senior Championship, or a Continental Chess Championship, given that the player's peak FIDE rating is at least 2300. Current regulations can be found in the FIDE Handbook.

FIDE titles including the grandmaster title are valid for life, but FIDE regulations allow a title to be revoked for "use of a FIDE title or rating to subvert the ethical principles of the title or rating system" or if a player is found to have violated the anti-cheating regulations in a tournament on which the title application was based.

Exact regulations can be found in the FIDE Handbook.

Title inflation
A report prepared by Bartłomiej Macieja for the Association of Chess Professionals mentions discussion at the FIDE congress of 2008 regarding a perceived decrease in value of the grandmaster title. The number of grandmasters had increased greatly between 1972 and 2008, but according to Macieja, the number of registered players rated over 2200 had increased even faster. Since that FIDE congress, discussion of the value of the grandmaster title has occasionally continued.

Honorary grandmasters
Starting from 1977, FIDE awarded honorary Grandmaster titles to 32 players based on their past performances or other contributions to chess. The following players have been awarded honorary Grandmaster titles. Marić and Honfi were awarded the title posthumously in the year of their death, and Sultan Khan 58 years later.
 * 1977 – Julio Bolbochán, Esteban Canal, Borislav Milić, Carlos Torre Repetto
 * 1981 – Arnold Denker
 * 1982 – Lodewijk Prins, Raúl Sanguineti
 * 1983 – Vladimir Alatortsev, Alexander Konstantinopolsky, Erik Lundin
 * 1984 – Eero Böök, Stojan Puc
 * 1985 – Harry Golombek, Mario Monticelli, Jaroslav Šajtar
 * 1986 – Arthur Dake, Theodor Ghițescu
 * 1987 – Vladimir Makogonov, Vladas Mikėnas, Bogdan Śliwa
 * 1988 – George Koltanowski
 * 1990 – Andrija Fuderer, Rudolf Marić (posthumously)
 * 1991 – Dragoljub Minić
 * 1992 – Heinz Lehmann, Rudolf Teschner
 * 1993 – Jonathan Penrose
 * 1996 – Károly Honfi (posthumously), Enrico Paoli
 * 1999 – Péter Dely
 * 2003 – Elmārs Zemgalis
 * 2024 – Sultan Khan (posthumously), Andreas Dückstein, Iivo Nei

title: Grandmaster (chess)


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Gotthold Ephraim Lessing

Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (, ; 22 January 1729 – 15 February 1781) was a German philosopher, dramatist, publicist and art critic, and a representative of the Enlightenment era. His plays and theoretical writings substantially influenced the development of German literature. He is widely considered by theatre historians to be the first dramaturg in his role at Abel Seyler's Hamburg National Theatre.

Life
Lessing was born in Kamenz, a small town in Saxony, to Johann Gottfried Lessing (1693–1770) and Justine Salome Feller (1703–1777). His father was a Lutheran minister and wrote on theology. Young Lessing studied at the Latin School in Kamenz from 1737 to 1741. With a father who wanted his son to follow in his footsteps, Lessing next attended the Fürstenschule St. Afra in Meissen. After completing his education at St. Afra's, he enrolled at Leipzig University where he pursued a degree in theology, medicine, philosophy, and philology (1746–1748).

It was here that his relationship with Karoline Neuber, a famous German actress, began. He translated several French plays for her, and his interest in theatre grew. During this time, he wrote his first play, The Young Scholar. Neuber eventually produced the play in 1748.

From 1748 to 1760, Lessing lived in Leipzig and Berlin. He began to work as a reviewer and editor for the Vossische Zeitung and other periodicals. Lessing formed a close connection with his cousin, Christlob Mylius, and decided to follow him to Berlin. In 1750, Lessing and Mylius teamed together to begin a periodical publication named Beiträge zur Historie und Aufnahme des Theaters. The publication ran only four issues, but it caught the public's eye and revealed Lessing to be a serious critic and theorist of drama.

In 1752, he took his master's degree in Wittenberg. From 1760 to 1765, he worked in Breslau (now Wrocław) as secretary to General Tauentzien during the Seven Years' War between Britain and France, which had effects in Europe. It was during this time that he wrote his famous.

In 1765, Lessing returned to Berlin, leaving in 1767 to work for three years at the Hamburg National Theatre. Actor-manager Konrad Ackermann began construction of Germany's first permanent national theatre in Hamburg, established by. The owners of the new Hamburg National Theatre hired Lessing as the theatre's critic of plays and acting, an activity later known as dramaturgy (based on his own words), making Lessing the very first dramaturge. The theatre's main backer was Abel Seyler, a former currency speculator who since became known as "the leading patron of German theatre." There he met Eva König, his future wife. His work in Hamburg formed the basis of his pioneering work on drama, titled Hamburgische Dramaturgie. Unfortunately, because of financial losses due to pirated editions of the Hamburgische Dramaturgie, the Hamburg Theatre closed just three years later.

In 1770, Lessing became librarian at the ducal library, now the Herzog August Library (Herzog-August-Bibliothek, Bibliotheca Augusta), in Wolfenbüttel under the commission of the Duke of Brunswick. His tenure there was energetic, if interrupted by many journeys. In 1775, for example, he accompanied Prince Leopold to Italy. Follower of Spinoza's philosophy, on 14 October 1771, Lessing was initiated into Freemasonry in the lodge "Zu den drei Goldenen Rosen" in Hamburg.

In 1773, he discovered Archimedes' cattle problem in a Greek manuscript containing a poem of 44 lines, in the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel. This problem would remain unsolved until 1880. In 1776, he married Eva König, who was then a widow, in Jork (near Hamburg). She died in 1778 after giving birth to a short-lived son. On 15 February 1781, Lessing, aged 52, died during a visit to the wine dealer Angott in Brunswick.

Lessing was also famous for his friendship with Jewish-German philosopher Moses Mendelssohn. A 2003 biography of Mendelssohn's grandson, Felix, describes their friendship as one of the most "illuminating metaphors [for] the clarion call of the Enlightenment for religious tolerance". It was this relationship that sparked his interest in popular religious debates of the time. He began publishing heated pamphlets on his beliefs which were eventually banned. It was this banishment that inspired him to return to theatre to portray his views and to write Nathan the Wise.

Works
Early in his life, Lessing showed interest in the theatre. In his theoretical and critical writings on the subject—as in his own plays—he tried to contribute to the development of a new type of theatre in Germany. With this he especially turned against the then predominant literary theory of Gottsched and his followers. Lessing's Hamburgische Dramaturgie ran critiques of plays that were performed in the Hamburg Theatre, but after dealing with dissatisfied actors and actresses, Lessing redirected his writings to more of an analysis on the proper uses of drama. Lessing advocated the outline of drama in Aristotle's Poetics. He believed the French Academy had devalued the uses of drama through their neoclassical rules of form and separation of genres. His repeated opinions on this issue influenced theatre practitioners who began the movement of rejecting theatre rules known as Sturm und Drang ("Storm and Stress"). He also supported serious reception of Shakespeare's works. He worked with many theatre groups (e.g. the one of the Neuberin).

In Hamburg he tried with others to set up the German National Theatre. Today his own works appear as prototypes of the later developed bourgeois German drama. Scholars see Miss Sara Sampson and Emilia Galotti as amongst the first bourgeois tragedies, Minna von Barnhelm (Minna of Barnhelm) as the model for many classic German comedies, Nathan the Wise (Nathan der Weise) as the first German drama of ideas ("Ideendrama"). His theoretical writings Laocoön and Hamburg Dramaturgy (Hamburgische Dramaturgie) set the standards for the discussion of aesthetic and literary theoretical principles. Lessing advocated that dramaturgs should carry their work out working directly with theatre companies rather than in isolation.

In his religious and philosophical writings he defended the faithful Christian's right for freedom of thought. He argued against the belief in revelation and the holding on to a literal interpretation of the Bible by the predominant orthodox doctrine through a problem later to be called Lessing's Ditch. Lessing outlined the concept of the religious "Proof of Power": How can miracles continue to be used as a base for Christianity when we have no proof of miracles? Historical truths which are in doubt cannot be used to prove metaphysical truths (such as God's existence). As Lessing says it: "That, then, is the ugly great ditch which I cannot cross, however often and however earnestly I have tried to make that leap."

In the final leg of his life, Lessing threw himself into an intense evaluation of theology and religion. He did much of his studying by reading manuscripts he found while working as a librarian. While working for the Duke, he formed a close friendship with a family by the name of Reimarus. The family held an unpublished manuscript by Hermann Samuel Reimarus which attacked the historicity of Christian revelation. Despite discouragement from his brother Karl Gotthelf Lessing, he began publishing pieces of the manuscript in pamphlets known as Fragments from an Unnamed Author. The controversial pamphlets resulted in a heated debate between him and another theologian, Johann Melchior Goeze. In concern for tarnishing his reputation, Goeze requested the government put an end to the feud, and Lessing was silenced through a law that took away his freedom from censorship.

In response, Lessing relied upon his skills as a playwright to write what is undoubtedly his most influential play, Nathan the Wise. In the play, Lessing set up tension between Judaism, Islam, and Christianity by having one character ask Nathan which religion was the most genuine. Nathan avoids the question by telling the parable of the three rings, which implies the idea that no specific religion is the "correct religion." The Enlightenment ideas to which Lessing held tight were portrayed through his "ideal of humanity," stating that religion is relative to the individual's ability to reason. Nathan the Wise is considered to be the first example of the German "literature of humanity". As a child of the Enlightenment he trusted in a "Christianity of Reason", which oriented itself by the spirit of religion. He believed that human reason (initiated by criticism and dissent) would develop, even without help by a divine revelation. In his writing The Education of Humankind (Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts) he extensively and coherently lays out his position.

The idea of freedom (for the theatre against the dominance of its French model; for religion from the church's dogma) is his central theme throughout his life. Therefore, he also stood up for the liberation of the upcoming middle and upper class from the nobility making up their minds for them.

In his own literary existence he also constantly strove for independence. But his ideal of a possible life as a free author was hard to keep up against the economic constraints he faced. His project of authors self-publishing their works, which he tried to accomplish in Hamburg with C. J. Bode, failed.

Lessing is important as a literary critic for his work Laocoon: An Essay on the Limits of Painting and Poetry. In this work, he argues against the tendency to take Horace's ut pictura poesis (as painting, so poetry) as prescriptive for literature. In other words, he objected to trying to write poetry using the same devices as one would in painting. Instead, poetry and painting each has its character (the former is extended in time; the latter is extended in space). This is related to Lessing's turn from French classicism to Aristotelian mimesis, discussed above.

Attack by Johann Daniel Müller
The Radical Pietist Johann Daniel Müller (born 1716 in Wissenbach/Nassau, today part of Eschenburg, deceased after 1785) published the following anonymous book against Lessing and Reimarus:
 * Johann Daniel Müller: Der Sieg der Wahrheit des Worts Gottes über die Lügen des Wolfenbüttelschen Bibliothecarii, [Gotthold] Ephraim Lessing, und seines Fragmenten-Schreibers [i. e. Hermann Samuel Reimarus] in ihren Lästerungen gegen Jesum Christum, seine Jünger, Apostel, und die ganze Bibel. 1780.
 * Cf. Reinhard Breymayer: Ein unbekannter Gegner Gotthold Ephraim Lessings. Der ehemalige Frankfurter Konzertdirektor Johann Daniel Müller aus Wissenbach/Nassau (1716 bis nach 1785), Alchemist im Umkreis [Johann Wolfgang] Goethes, Kabbalist, separatistischer Chiliast, Freund der Illuminaten von Avignon ("Elias / Elias Artista") Dietrich Meyer (Ed.): Pietismus – Herrnhutertum – Erweckungsbewegung. Festschrift für Erich Beyreuther. Köln [Pulheim-Brauweiler] and Bonn 1982 (Schriftenreihe des Vereins für Rheinische Kirchengeschichte, volume 70), pp. 109–145, and p. 108 Silhouette of [Johann] Daniel Müller.

Selected works

 * Nathan der Weise.jpg in its first year of publication 1779. In the Jewish Museum of Switzerland's collection. ]]Der junge Gelehrte (The Young Scholar) (1748)
 * Der Freigeist (The Freethinker) (1749)
 * Die Juden (The Jews) (1749)
 * Miss Sara Sampson (1755)
 * Philotas (1759)
 * Fabeln (Fables) (1759)
 * Laokoön oder Über die Grenzen der Malerei und Poesie (Laocoön) (1767)
 * Minna von Barnhelm (Minna of Barnhelm) (1767)
 * Hamburgische Dramaturgie (1767–69)
 * Emilia Galotti (1772)
 * Anti-Goeze (1778) (written against Johann Melchior Goeze, pastor in Hamburg)
 * Nathan der Weise (Nathan the Wise) (1779)
 * Ernst und Falk – Gespräche für Freymäurer (1776–1778)
 * Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts (The Education of the Human Race) (1780)

English translations

 * Fables and epigrams. London, Printed for J.& H.L. Hunt, 1825.
 * Laocoon: or, The limits of Poetry and Painting, translated by William Ross. London, Ridgeway, 1836.
 * Nathan the Wise: a dramatic poem in five acts, translated by Adolph Reich. London, A. W. Bennett, 1860.
 * Nathan, the Wise. A dramatic poem of five acts, translated by Dr. Isidor Kalisch. New York, Waldheimer & Zenn, 1869.
 * The Education of the Human Race, translated by Fred W. Robertson, M.A.. London, C.K. Paul & Co., 1881.
 * Plays of Lessing: Nathan the Wise and Minna von Barnhelm, translated by Ernest Bell. London, G. Bell, 1888.
 * Selected prose works of G. E. Lessing, translated by E. C. Beasley, B. A., and Helen Zimmern. London, G. Bell and sons, 1890.
 * Lessing’s Emilia Galotti, with footnotes and vocabulary; New York, Hinds & Noble, 1899.
 * Lessing’s Nathan der Weise, with footnotes and vocabulary. New York, Hinds & Noble, 1899.
 * Laocoon. An essay upon the limits of painting and poetry: With remarks illustrative of various points in the history of ancient art, translated by Ellen Frothingham. Boston, Little, Brown, 1904.
 * Laocoon, translated by Sir Robert Phillimore, London, G. Routledge & sons, 1905.
 * Minna von Barnhelm, edited with an introduction, German questions, notes and vocabulary, by Philip Schuyler Allen. New York, Charles E. Merrill Co., 1907.
 * Minna von Barnhelm; or, Soldier’s fortune translated by Otto Heller. New York, H. Holt and company, 1917.
 * Nathan the Wise; a dramatic poem in five acts, translated and edited by Leo Markun. Girard, Kan., Haldeman-Julius Co., 1926.
 * Laocoon, Nathan the Wise, Minna von Barnhelm, translated by William A. Steel. London, J. M. Dent & sons, ltd.; New York, E. P. Dutton & co., inc., 1930.
 * Nathan the Wise, translated by Berthold August Eisenlohr. Ann Arbor, Mich., Lithoprinted by Edwards Brothers, inc., 1942.
 * Nathan the Wise, translated by Guenther Reinhardt. Brooklyn, Barron's Educational Series, inc., 1950.
 * Nathan the Wise; a dramatic poem in five acts, translated into English verse by Bayard Quincy Morgan. New York, Ungar, 1955.
 * Theological Writings; Selections in Translation with an Introductory Essay, by Henry Chadwick. London, A. & C. Black, 1956.
 * Lessing's Theological Writings. Selections in Translation, edited by Henry Chadwick. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957.
 * Emilia Galotti: a tragedy in five acts, translated by Anna Johanna Gode von Aesch. Great Neck, N.Y., Barron's Educational Series, inc., 1959.
 * Emilia Galotti, a tragedy in five acts, translated by Edward Dvoretzky. New York, Ungar, 1962, reprinted German Book Center, 2003.
 * Hamburg dramaturgy, translated by Victor Lange. New York, Dover Publications, 1962. Reprint of Helen Zimmern's 1890 translation.
 * Laocoon: an essay on the limits of painting and poetry, translated by Edward Allen McCormick. Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill, 1962.
 * Minna von Barnhelm: a comedy in five acts, translated by Kenneth J. Northcott. Chicago, University of Chicago Press [1972]
 * Nathan the Wise, Minna von Barnhelm, and Other Plays and Writings, edited by Peter Demetz with a foreword by Hannah Arendt. New York: Continuum, 1991.
 * Nathan the Wise, with Related Documents, translated, edited, and with an introduction by Ronald Schechter. Boston/New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2004.
 * Philosophical and Theological Writings, edited by H. B. Nisbet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gotthold Ephraim Lessing


text:
Geotechnical engineering

Geotechnical engineering, also known as geotechnics, is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials. It uses the principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to solve its engineering problems. It also relies on knowledge of geology, hydrology, geophysics, and other related sciences.

Geotechnical engineering has applications in military engineering, mining engineering, petroleum engineering, coastal engineering, and offshore construction. The fields of geotechnical engineering and engineering geology have overlapping knowledge areas. However, while geotechnical engineering is a specialty of civil engineering, engineering geology is a specialty of geology.

History
Humans have historically used soil as a material for flood control, irrigation purposes, burial sites, building foundations, and construction materials for buildings. Dykes, dams, and canals dating back to at least 2000 BCE—found in parts of ancient Egypt, ancient Mesopotamia, the Fertile Crescent, and the early settlements of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa in the Indus valley—provide evidence for early activities linked to irrigation and flood control. As cities expanded, structures were erected and supported by formalized foundations. The ancient Greeks notably constructed pad footings and strip-and-raft foundations. Until the 18th century, however, no theoretical basis for soil design had been developed, and the discipline was more of an art than a science, relying on experience.

Several foundation-related engineering problems, such as the Leaning Tower of Pisa, prompted scientists to begin taking a more scientific-based approach to examining the subsurface. The earliest advances occurred in the development of earth pressure theories for the construction of retaining walls. Henri Gautier, a French royal engineer, recognized the "natural slope" of different soils in 1717, an idea later known as the soil's angle of repose. Around the same time, a rudimentary soil classification system was also developed based on a material's unit weight, which is no longer considered a good indication of soil type.

The application of the principles of mechanics to soils was documented as early as 1773 when Charles Coulomb, a physicist and engineer, developed improved methods to determine the earth pressures against military ramparts. Coulomb observed that, at failure, a distinct slip plane would form behind a sliding retaining wall and suggested that the maximum shear stress on the slip plane, for design purposes, was the sum of the soil cohesion, $$c$$, and friction $$\sigma\,\!$$ $$ \tan(\phi\,\!)$$, where $$\sigma\,\!$$ is the normal stress on the slip plane and $$\phi\,\!$$ is the friction angle of the soil. By combining Coulomb's theory with Christian Otto Mohr's 2D stress state, the theory became known as Mohr-Coulomb theory. Although it is now recognized that precise determination of cohesion is impossible because $$c$$ is not a fundamental soil property, the Mohr-Coulomb theory is still used in practice today.

In the 19th century, Henry Darcy developed what is now known as Darcy's Law, describing the flow of fluids in a porous media. Joseph Boussinesq, a mathematician and physicist, developed theories of stress distribution in elastic solids that proved useful for estimating stresses at depth in the ground. William Rankine, an engineer and physicist, developed an alternative to Coulomb's earth pressure theory. Albert Atterberg developed the clay consistency indices that are still used today for soil classification. In 1885, Osborne Reynolds recognized that shearing causes volumetric dilation of dense materials and contraction of loose granular materials.

Modern geotechnical engineering is said to have begun in 1925 with the publication of Erdbaumechanik by Karl von Terzaghi, a mechanical engineer and geologist. Considered by many to be the father of modern soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering, Terzaghi developed the principle of effective stress, and demonstrated that the shear strength of soil is controlled by effective stress. Terzaghi also developed the framework for theories of bearing capacity of foundations, and the theory for prediction of the rate of settlement of clay layers due to consolidation. Afterwards, Maurice Biot fully developed the three-dimensional soil consolidation theory, extending the one-dimensional model previously developed by Terzaghi to more general hypotheses and introducing the set of basic equations of Poroelasticity.

In his 1948 book, Donald Taylor recognized that the interlocking and dilation of densely packed particles contributed to the peak strength of the soil. Roscoe, Schofield, and Wroth, with the publication of On the Yielding of Soils in 1958, established the interrelationships between the volume change behavior (dilation, contraction, and consolidation) and shearing behavior with the theory of plasticity using critical state soil mechanics. Critical state soil mechanics is the basis for many contemporary advanced constitutive models describing the behavior of soil.

In 1960, Alec Skempton carried out an extensive review of the available formulations and experimental data in the literature about the effective stress validity in soil, concrete, and rock in order to reject some of these expressions, as well as clarify what expressions were appropriate according to several working hypotheses, such as stress-strain or strength behavior, saturated or non-saturated media, and rock, concrete or soil behavior.

Geotechnical investigation
Geotechnical engineers investigate and determinate the properties of subsurface conditions and materials. They also design corresponding earthworks and retaining structures, tunnels, and structure foundations, and may supervise and evaluate sites, which may further involve site monitoring as well as the risk assessment and mitigation of natural hazards.

Geotechnical engineers and engineering geologists perform geotechnical investigations to obtain information on the physical properties of soil and rock underlying, and adjacent to, a site to design earthworks and foundations for proposed structures and for the repair of distress to earthworks and structures caused by subsurface conditions. Geotechnical investigations involve both surface and subsurface exploration of a site, often including subsurface sampling and laboratory testing of soil samples retrieved. Sometimes, geophysical methods are also used to obtain data, which include measurement of seismic waves (pressure, shear, and Rayleigh waves), surface-wave methods and downhole methods, and electromagnetic surveys (magnetometer, resistivity, and ground-penetrating radar). Electrical tomography can be used to survey soil and rock properties and existing underground infrastructure in construction projects.

Surface exploration can include on-foot surveys, geologic mapping, geophysical methods, and photogrammetry. Geologic mapping and interpretation of geomorphology are typically completed in consultation with a geologist or engineering geologist. Subsurface exploration usually involves in-situ testing (for example, the standard penetration test and cone penetration test). The digging of test pits and trenching (particularly for locating faults and slide planes) may also be used to learn about soil conditions at depth. Large-diameter borings are rarely used due to safety concerns and expense but are sometimes used to allow a geologist or engineer to be lowered into the borehole for direct visual and manual examination of the soil and rock stratigraphy.

A variety of soil samplers exists to meet the needs of different engineering projects. The standard penetration test, which uses a thick-walled split spoon sampler, is the most common way to collect disturbed samples. Piston samplers, employing a thin-walled tube, are most commonly used for the collection of less disturbed samples. More advanced methods, such as the Sherbrooke block sampler, are superior, but expensive. Coring frozen ground provides high-quality undisturbed samples from any ground conditions, such as fill, sand, moraine, and rock fracture zones.

Geotechnical centrifuge modeling is another method of testing physical scale models of geotechnical problems. The use of a centrifuge enhances the similarity of the scale model tests involving soil because the strength and stiffness of soil are very sensitive to the confining pressure. The centrifugal acceleration allows a researcher to obtain large (prototype-scale) stresses in small physical models.

Foundation design
The foundation of a structure's infrastructure transmits loads from the structure to the earth. Geotechnical engineers design foundations based on the load characteristics of the structure and the properties of the soils and bedrock at the site. In general, geotechnical engineers first estimate the magnitude and location of loads to be supported, before developing an investigation plan to explore the subsurface and also determining the necessary soil parameters through field and lab testing. Following which, they may begin the design of an engineering foundation. The primary considerations for a geotechnical engineer in foundation design are bearing capacity, settlement, and ground movement beneath the foundations.

Earthworks

Geotechnical engineers are also involved in the planning and execution of earthworks, which include ground improvement, slope stabilization, and stope stability analysis.

Ground improvement
Various geotechnical engineering methods can be used for ground improvement, including reinforcement geosynthetics such as geocells and geogrids, which disperse loads over a larger area, increasing the load-bearing capacity of soil. Deep soil injection is a method used to reinforce the ground beneath structures by injecting high-density polymers into the soil to fill voids and compact it. Through these methods, geotechnical engineers can reduce direct and long-term costs.

Slope stabilization

Geotechnical engineers can analyze and improve the stability of slopes using engineering methods. Slope stability is determined by the balance of shear stress and shear strength. A previously stable slope may be initially affected by various factors, making the slope unstable. Nonetheless, geotechnical engineers can design and implement engineered slopes to increase stability.

Slope stability analysis
Stability analysis is needed for the design of engineered slopes and for estimating the risk of slope failure in natural or designed slopes by determining the conditions under which the topmost mass of soil will slip relative to the base of soil and lead to slope failure. If the interface between the mass and the base of a slope has a complex geometry, slope stability analysis is difficult and numerical solution methods are required. Typically, the exact geometry of the interface is not known and a simplified interface geometry is assumed. Finite slopes require three-dimensional models to be analyzed, so most slopes are analyzed assuming that they are infinitely wide and can be represented by two-dimensional models.

Geosynthetics

Geosynthetics are a type of plastic polymer products used in geotechnical engineering that improve engineering performance while reducing costs. This includes geotextiles, geogrids, geomembranes, geocells, and geocomposites. The synthetic nature of the products make them suitable for use in the ground where high levels of durability are required. Their main functions include drainage, filtration, reinforcement, separation, and containment.

Geosynthetics are available in a wide range of forms and materials, each to suit a slightly different end-use, although they are frequently used together. Some reinforcement geosynthetics, such as geogrids and more recently, cellular confinement systems, have shown to improve bearing capacity, modulus factors and soil stiffness and strength. These products have a wide range of applications and are currently used in many civil and geotechnical engineering applications including roads, airfields, railroads, embankments, piled embankments, retaining structures, reservoirs, canals, dams, landfills, bank protection and coastal engineering.

Offshore
Offshore (or marine) geotechnical engineering is concerned with foundation design for human-made structures in the sea, away from the coastline (in opposition to onshore or nearshore engineering). Oil platforms, artificial islands and submarine pipelines are examples of such structures.

There are a number of significant differences between onshore and offshore geotechnical engineering. Notably, site investigation and ground improvement on the seabed are more expensive; the offshore structures are exposed to a wider range of geohazards; and the environmental and financial consequences are higher in case of failure. Offshore structures are exposed to various environmental loads, notably wind, waves and currents. These phenomena may affect the integrity or the serviceability of the structure and its foundation during its operational lifespan and need to be taken into account in offshore design.

In subsea geotechnical engineering, seabed materials are considered a two-phase material composed of rock or mineral particles and water. Structures may be fixed in place in the seabed—as is the case for piers, jetties and fixed-bottom wind turbines—or may comprise a floating structure that remains roughly fixed relative to its geotechnical anchor point. Undersea mooring of human-engineered floating structures include a large number of offshore oil and gas platforms and, since 2008, a few floating wind turbines. Two common types of engineered design for anchoring floating structures include tension-leg and catenary loose mooring systems.

Observational method
First proposed by Karl Terzaghi and later discussed in a paper by Ralph B. Peck, the observational method is a managed process of construction control, monitoring, and review, which enables modifications to be incorporated during and after construction. The objective of the method is to achieve a greater overall economy, without compromising safety, by creating designs based on the most probable conditions rather than the most unfavorable. Using the observational method, gaps in available information are filled by measurements and investigation, which aid in assessing the behavior of the structure during construction, which in turn can be modified in accordance with the findings. The method was described by Peck as "learn-as-you-go".

The observational method may be described as follows:

 * 1) General exploration sufficient to establish the rough nature, pattern, and properties of deposits.
 * 2) Assessment of the most probable conditions and the most unfavorable conceivable deviations.
 * 3) Creating the design based on a working hypothesis of behavior anticipated under the most-probable conditions.
 * 4) Selection of quantities to be observed as construction proceeds, and calculation of their anticipated values based on the working hypothesis and under the most unfavorable conditions.
 * 5) Selection, in advance, of a course of action or design modification for every foreseeable significant deviation of the observational findings from those predicted.
 * 6) Measurement of quantities and evaluation of actual conditions.
 * 7) Design modification in accordance with actual conditions

The observational method is suitable for construction that has already begun when an unexpected development occurs, or when a failure or accident looms or has already occurred. It is unsuitable for projects whose design cannot be altered during construction.

title: Geotechnical engineering


text:
Gustave Flaubert

Gustave Flaubert (, ,  ; 12 December 1821 – 8 May 1880) was a French novelist. He has been considered the leading exponent of literary realism in his country and abroad. According to the literary theorist Kornelije Kvas, "in Flaubert, realism strives for formal perfection, so the presentation of reality tends to be neutral, emphasizing the values and importance of style as an objective method of presenting reality". He is known especially for his debut novel Madame Bovary (1857), his Correspondence, and his scrupulous devotion to his style and aesthetics. The celebrated short story writer Guy de Maupassant was a protégé of Flaubert.

Early life and education

Flaubert was born in Rouen, in the Seine-Maritime department of Upper Normandy, in northern France. He was the second son of Anne Justine Caroline (née Fleuriot; 1793–1872) and Achille-Cléophas Flaubert (1784–1846), director and senior surgeon of the major hospital in Rouen. He began writing at an early age, as early as eight according to some sources.

He was educated at the Lycée Pierre-Corneille in Rouen, and did not leave until 1840, whereby he went to Paris to study law. In Paris, he was an indifferent student and found the city distasteful. He made a few acquaintances, including Victor Hugo. Toward the end of 1840, he travelled in the Pyrenees and Corsica. In 1846, after an attack of epilepsy, he left Paris and abandoned the study of law.

Personal life
From 1846 to 1854, Flaubert had a relationship with the poet Louise Colet; his letters to her have survived. After leaving Paris, he returned to Croisset, near the Seine, close to Rouen, and lived there for the rest of his life. He did however make occasional visits to Paris and England, where he apparently had a mistress.

Politically, Flaubert described himself as a "romantic and liberal old dunce" (vieille ganache romantique et libérale), an "enraged liberal" (libéral enragé), a hater of all despotism, and someone who celebrated every protest of the individual against power and monopolies.

With his lifelong friend Maxime Du Camp, he travelled in Brittany in 1846. In 1849–50 he went on a long journey to the Middle East, visiting Greece and Egypt. In Beirut he contracted syphilis. He spent five weeks in Istanbul in 1850. He visited Carthage in 1858 to conduct research for his novel Salammbô.

Flaubert never married and never had children. His reason for not having children is revealed in a letter he sent to Colet, dated 11 December 1852. In it he revealed that he was opposed to childbirth, saying he would "transmit to no one the aggravations and the disgrace of existence".

Flaubert was very open about his sexual activities with prostitutes in his writings on his travels. He suspected that a chancre on his penis was from a Maronite or a Turkish girl. He also engaged in intercourse with male prostitutes in Beirut and Egypt; in one of his letters, he describes a "pockmarked young rascal wearing a white turban".

According to his biographer Émile Faguet, his affair with Louise Colet was his only serious romantic relationship.

Flaubert was a diligent worker and often complained in his letters to friends about the strenuous nature of his work. He was close to his niece, Caroline Commanville, and had a close friendship and correspondence with George Sand. He occasionally visited Parisian acquaintances, including Émile Zola, Alphonse Daudet, Ivan Turgenev, and Edmond and Jules de Goncourt.

The 1870s were a difficult time for Flaubert. Prussian soldiers occupied his house during the War of 1870, and his mother died in 1872. After her death, he fell into financial difficulty due to business failures on the part of his niece's husband. Flaubert lived with venereal diseases most of his life. His health declined and he died at Croisset of a cerebral hemorrhage in 1880 at the age of 58. He was buried in the family vault in the cemetery of Rouen. A monument to him by Henri Chapu was unveiled at the museum of Rouen.

Writing career
His first finished work was November, a novella, which was completed in 1842.

In September 1849, Flaubert completed the first version of a novel, The Temptation of Saint Anthony. He read the novel aloud to Louis Bouilhet and Maxime Du Camp over the course of four days, not allowing them to interrupt or give any opinions. At the end of the reading, his friends told him to throw the manuscript in the fire, suggesting instead that he focus on day-to-day life rather than fantastic subjects.

In 1850, after returning from Egypt, Flaubert began work on Madame Bovary. The novel, which took five years to write, was serialized in the Revue de Paris in 1856. The government brought an action against the publisher and author on the charge of immorality, which was heard during the following year, but both were acquitted. When Madame Bovary appeared in book form, it met with a warm reception.

In 1858, Flaubert travelled to Carthage to gather material for his next novel, Salammbô. The novel was completed in 1862 after four years of work.

Drawing on his youth, Flaubert next wrote L'Éducation sentimentale (Sentimental Education), an effort that took seven years. This was his last complete novel, published in the year 1869. The story focuses on the romantic life of a young man named Frédéric Moreau at the time of the French Revolution of 1848 and the founding of the Second French Empire.

He wrote an unsuccessful drama, Le Candidat, and published a reworked version of The Temptation of Saint Anthony, portions of which had been published as early as 1857. He devoted much of his time to an ongoing project, Les Deux Cloportes (The Two Woodlice), which later became Bouvard et Pécuchet, breaking the obsessive project only to write the Three Tales in 1877. This book comprises three stories: Un Cœur simple (A Simple Heart), La Légende de Saint-Julien l'Hospitalier (The Legend of St. Julian the Hospitaller), and Hérodias (Herodias). After the publication of the stories, he spent the remainder of his life toiling on the unfinished Bouvard et Pécuchet, which was posthumously printed in 1881. It was a grand satire on the futility of human knowledge and the ubiquity of mediocrity. He believed the work to be his masterpiece, though the posthumous version received lukewarm reviews. Flaubert was a prolific letter writer, and his letters have been collected in several publications.

At the time of his death, he may have been working on a further historical novel, based on the Battle of Thermopylae.

Perfectionist style
Flaubert famously avoided the inexact, the abstract and the vaguely inapt expression, and scrupulously eschewed the cliché. In a letter to George Sand he said that he spent his time "trying to write harmonious sentences, avoiding assonances".

Flaubert believed in and pursued the principle of finding "le mot juste" ("the right word"), which he considered as the key means to achieve high quality in literary art. He worked in sullen solitude, sometimes occupying a week in the completion of one page, never satisfied with what he had composed. In Flaubert's correspondence he intimates this, explaining correct prose did not flow out of him and that his style was achieved through work and revision. Flaubert said he wished to forge a style "that would be rhythmic as verse, precise as the language of the sciences, undulant, deep-voiced as a cello, tipped with flame: a style that would pierce your idea like a dagger, and on which your thought would sail easily ahead over a smooth surface, like a skiff before a good tail wind." He famously said that "an author in his book must be like God in the universe, present everywhere and visible nowhere."

This painstaking style of writing is also evident when one compares Flaubert's output over a lifetime to that of his peers (for example Balzac or Zola). Flaubert published much less prolifically than was the norm for his time and never got near the pace of a novel a year, as his peers often achieved during their peaks of activity. Walter Pater famously called Flaubert the "martyr of style".

Legacy
In the assessment of critic James Wood: "Novelists should thank Flaubert the way poets thank spring; it all begins again with him. There really is a time before Flaubert and a time after him. Flaubert decisively established what most readers and writers think of as modern realist narration, and his influence is almost too familiar to be visible. We hardly remark of good prose that it favors the telling and brilliant detail; that it privileges a high degree of visual noticing; that it maintains an unsentimental composure and knows how to withdraw, like a good valet, from superfluous commentary; that it judges good and bad neutrally; that it seeks out the truth, even at the cost of repelling us; and that the author's fingerprints on all this are paradoxically, traceable but not visible. You can find some of this in Defoe or Austen or Balzac, but not all of it until Flaubert."

As a writer, other than a pure stylist, Flaubert was nearly equal parts romantic and realist. Hence, members of various schools, especially realists and formalists, have traced their origins to his work. The exactitude with which he adapts his expressions to his purpose can be seen in all parts of his work, especially in the portraits he draws of the figures in his principal romances. The degree to which Flaubert's fame has extended since his death presents "an interesting chapter of literary history in itself". He is also credited with spreading the popularity of the color Tuscany Cypress, a color often mentioned in his chef-d'œuvre Madame Bovary.

Flaubert's lean and precise writing style has had a large influence on 20th-century writers such as Franz Kafka and J. M. Coetzee. As Vladimir Nabokov discussed in his famous lecture series:

The greatest literary influence upon Kafka was Flaubert's. Flaubert who loathed pretty-pretty prose would have applauded Kafka's attitude towards his tool. Kafka liked to draw his terms from the language of law and science, giving them a kind of ironic precision, with no intrusion of the author's private sentiments; this was exactly Flaubert's method through which he achieved a singular poetic effect. The legacy of his work habits can best be described, therefore, as paving the way towards a slower and more introspective manner of writing. The publication of Madame Bovary in 1856 was followed by more scandal than admiration; it was not understood at first that this novel was the beginning of something new: the scrupulously truthful portraiture of life. Gradually, this aspect of his genius was accepted, and it began to crowd out all others. At the time of his death, he was widely regarded as the most influential French Realist. Under this aspect Flaubert exercised an extraordinary influence over Guy de Maupassant, Edmond de Goncourt, Alphonse Daudet, and Émile Zola. Even after the decline of the Realist school, Flaubert did not lose prestige in the literary community; he continues to appeal to other writers because of his deep commitment to aesthetic principles, his devotion to style, and his indefatigable pursuit of the perfect expression.

His Œuvres Complètes (8 vols., 1885) were printed from the original manuscripts, and included, besides the works mentioned already, the two plays Le Candidat and Le Château des cœurs. Another edition (10 vols.) appeared in 1873–85. Flaubert's correspondence with George Sand was published in 1884 with an introduction by Guy de Maupassant.

He has been admired or written about by almost every major literary personality of the 20th century, including philosophers and sociologists such as Michel Foucault, Roland Barthes, Pierre Bourdieu, and Jean-Paul Sartre, the latter of whose partially psychoanalytic portrait of Flaubert in The Family Idiot was published in 1971. Georges Perec named Sentimental Education as one of his favourite novels. The Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa is another great admirer of Flaubert. Apart from Perpetual Orgy, which is solely devoted to Flaubert's art, one can find lucid discussions in Vargas Llosa's Letters to a Young Novelist (published 2003). In a public lecture in May 1966 at the Kaufmann Art Gallery in New York, Marshall McLuhan claimed: "I derived all my knowledge of media from people like Flaubert and Rimbaud and Baudelaire."

On the occasion of Flaubert's 198th birthday (12 December 2019), a group of researchers at CNRS published a neural language model under his name.

Prose Fiction

 * November (1842) - novella published posthumously (1928)
 * The Temptation of Saint Anthony (1849, 1856, 1872, and 1874) - prose poem
 * Madame Bovary (1857)
 * Salammbô (1862)
 * Sentimental Education (1869)
 * Three Tales (1877) - short story collection
 * Bouvard et Pécuchet (1881) - unfinished novel, posthumously published

Other works

 * La Peste à Florence (1836)
 * Rêve d'enfer (1837)
 * Memoirs of a Madman (1838)
 * Le Candidat (1874)
 * Le Château des cœurs (1880)
 * Dictionary of Received Ideas (1911)
 * Souvenirs, notes et pensées intimes (1965)

Adaptations

 * The opera Hérodiade by Jules Massenet, based on Flaubert's novella Hérodias
 * The opera Madame Bovary by Emmanuel Bondeville, based on Flaubert's novel
 * The unfinished opera Salammbo by Modest Mussorgsky, orchestrated by Zoltán Peskó, based on Flaubert's novel.
 * Eight films titled Madame Bovary.
 * La légende de Saint-Julien l'Hospitalier (1888), an opera by Camille Erlanger

Correspondence (in English)

 * Selections:
 * Selected Letters (ed. Francis Steegmuller, 1953, 2001)
 * Selected Letters (ed. Geoffrey Wall, 1997)
 * Flaubert in Egypt: A Sensibility on Tour (1972)
 * Flaubert and Turgenev, a Friendship in Letters: The Complete Correspondence (ed. Barbara Beaumont, 1985)
 * Correspondence with George Sand:
 * The George Sand–Gustave Flaubert Letters, translated by Aimée G. Leffingwell McKenzie (A. L. McKenzie), introduced by Stuart Sherman (1921), available at the Gutenberg website as E-text No. 5115
 * Flaubert–Sand: The Correspondence (1993)

Biographical and other related publications

 * Allen, James Sloan, Worldly Wisdom: Great Books and the Meanings of Life, Frederic C. Beil, 2008. ISBN 978-1-929490-35-6
 * Brown, Frederick, Flaubert: a Biography, Little, Brown; 2006. ISBN 0-316-11878-8
 * Hennequin, Émile, Quelques écrivains français Flaubert, Zola, Hugo, Goncourt, Huysmans, etc., available at the Gutenberg website as E-text No. 12289
 * Barnes, Julian, Flaubert's Parrot, London: J. Cape; 1984 ISBN 0-330-28976-4
 * Fleming, Bruce, Saving Madame Bovary: Being Happy With What We Have, Frederic C. Beil, 2017. ISBN 978-1-929490-53-0
 * Max, Gerry, "Gustave Flaubert: The Book As Artifact and Idea: Bibliomane and Bibliology," Dalhousie French Studies, Spring-Summer, 1992.
 * Patton, Susannah, A Journey into Flaubert's Normandy, Roaring Forties Press, 2007. ISBN 0-9766706-8-2
 * Sartre, Jean-Paul. The Family Idiot: Gustave Flaubert, 1821–1857, Volumes 1–5. University of Chicago Press, 1987.
 * Steegmuller, Francis, Flaubert and Madame Bovary: a Double Portrait, New York: Viking Press; 1939.
 * Tooke, Adrianne, Flaubert and the Pictorial Arts: from image to text, Oxford University Press; 2000. ISBN 0-19-815918-8
 * Troyat, Henri, Flaubert, Viking, 1992.
 * Wall, Geoffrey, Flaubert: a Life, Faber and Faber; 2001. ISBN 0-571-21239-5
 * Various authors, The Public vs. M. Gustave Flaubert, available at the Gutenberg website as E-text No. 10666.

title: Gustave Flaubert


text:
Gregory Chaitin

Gregory John Chaitin (born 25 June 1947) is an Argentine-American mathematician and computer scientist. Beginning in the late 1960s, Chaitin made contributions to algorithmic information theory and metamathematics, in particular a computer-theoretic result equivalent to Gödel's incompleteness theorem. He is considered to be one of the founders of what is today known as algorithmic (Solomonoff–Kolmogorov–Chaitin, Kolmogorov or program-size) complexity together with Andrei Kolmogorov and Ray Solomonoff. Along with the works of e.g. Solomonoff, Kolmogorov, Martin-Löf, and Leonid Levin, algorithmic information theory became a foundational part of theoretical computer science, information theory, and mathematical logic. It is a common subject in several computer science curricula. Besides computer scientists, Chaitin's work draws attention of many philosophers and mathematicians to fundamental problems in mathematical creativity and digital philosophy.

Mathematics and computer science
Gregory Chaitin is Jewish and he attended the Bronx High School of Science and City College of New York, where he (still in his teens) developed the theory that led to his independent discovery of algorithmic complexity.

Chaitin has defined Chaitin's constant Ω, a real number whose digits are equidistributed and which is sometimes informally described as an expression of the probability that a random program will halt. Ω has the mathematical property that it is definable, with asymptotic approximations from below (but not from above), but not computable.

Chaitin is also the originator of using graph coloring to do register allocation in compiling, a process known as Chaitin's algorithm.

He was formerly a researcher at IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center in New York. He has written more than 10 books that have been translated to about 15 languages. He is today interested in questions of metabiology and information-theoretic formalizations of the theory of evolution, and is a member of the Institute for Advanced Studies at Mohammed VI Polytechnic University.

Other scholarly contributions
Chaitin also writes about philosophy, especially metaphysics and philosophy of mathematics (particularly about epistemological matters in mathematics). In metaphysics, Chaitin claims that algorithmic information theory is the key to solving problems in the field of biology (obtaining a formal definition of 'life', its origin and evolution) and neuroscience (the problem of consciousness and the study of the mind).

In recent writings, he defends a position known as digital philosophy. In the epistemology of mathematics, he claims that his findings in mathematical logic and algorithmic information theory show there are "mathematical facts that are true for no reason, that are true by accident". Chaitin proposes that mathematicians must abandon any hope of proving those mathematical facts and adopt a quasi-empirical methodology.

Honors
In 1995 he was given the degree of doctor of science honoris causa by the University of Maine. In 2002 he was given the title of honorary professor by the University of Buenos Aires in Argentina, where his parents were born and where Chaitin spent part of his youth. In 2007 he was given a Leibniz Medal by Wolfram Research. In 2009 he was given the degree of doctor of philosophy honoris causa by the National University of Córdoba. He was formerly a researcher at IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center and a professor at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro.

Criticism
Some philosophers and logicians disagree with the philosophical conclusions that Chaitin has drawn from his theorems related to what Chaitin thinks is a kind of fundamental arithmetic randomness. The logician Torkel Franzén criticized Chaitin's interpretation of Gödel's incompleteness theorem and the alleged explanation for it that Chaitin's work represents.

title: Gregory Chaitin


text:
Goran Bregović

Goran Bregović (Serbian Cyrillic: Горан Бреговић; born 22 March 1950) is a recording artist from Bosnia and Herzegovina. He is one of the most internationally known modern musicians and composers of the Slavic speaking countries in the Balkans, and is one of the few former Yugoslav musicians who has performed at major international venues such as Carnegie Hall, Royal Albert Hall and L'Olympia.

A Sarajevo native, Bregović started out with Kodeksi and Jutro, but rose to prominence as the main creative mind and lead guitarist of Bijelo Dugme, widely considered one of the most popular and influential recording acts ever to exist in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. After Bijelo Dugme split up, he embarked on several critically and commercially successful projects, and started composing film scores. Among his better known film scores are three of Emir Kusturica's films (Time of the Gypsies, Arizona Dream and Underground). For Time of the Gypsies, Bregović won a Golden Arena Award at the Pula Film Festival in 1990, among other awards. He had also composed for the Academy Award-nominated film La Reine Margot and the Cannes-entered film The Serpent's Kiss.

During his five-decade long career, Bregović has composed for critically acclaimed singers, including Sezen Aksu, Kayah, Iggy Pop, Šaban Bajramović, George Dalaras and Cesária Évora.

Early life
Born in Sarajevo, PR Bosnia-Herzegovina, FPR Yugoslavia to a Croatian father Franjo Bregović and Serbian mother Borka Perišić, Goran grew up with two younger siblings — sister Dajana and brother Predrag. Their father was from the Croatian region of Prigorje, specifically Sveti Petar Čvrstec village near Križevci, while their mother was born in Virovitica to parents that had shortly before her birth arrived in the nearby village of Čemernica, settling there from the village of Kazanci near Gacko in East Herzegovina.

Goran's maternal grandfather fought in the Royal Serbian Army at the Salonica front during World War I and as a reward received land in Slavonia where he soon moved his family. When the Second World War began, Goran's grandfather joined the partisans, and his grandmother, two uncles, aunt and mother were taken to the Jasenovac Concentration Camp; where at the gate of the camp they were exchanged for some captured Germans. The family arrived in Serbia whilst his grandmother supported the children throughout the war by smuggling tobacco from Herzegovina. She jumped off the train before entering the Belgrade train station. Goran's maternal uncle was Serb priest and Chetnik leader Radojica Perišić (1906 - April 1945), one of the main leaders of the June 1941 uprising in eastern Herzegovina during the World War II. During the war he was commander of the Chetnik Gacko Brigade who were the first guerrilla force in all of nazi-occupied Europe to liberate territory. Perišić was killed by the Ustaše in April 1945.

Franjo Bregović fought on the Partisan side during the World War II. After the war he attended a Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) military school in Virovitica, where he met Goran's mother, Borka, shortly after the war. Franjo Bregović soon got his first job, teaching ballistics at a military school in Sarajevo, so the couple moved there. Goran, their first child, was born in 1950 in Sarajevo.

Goran was 10 years old when his parents divorced. In later interviews, he mentioned his father's alcoholism as the reason for the breakdown of their marriage. Soon after the split, his father moved to Livno, taking Goran's younger brother Predrag with him while Goran remained living with his mother in Sarajevo, visiting his father and brother every summer in Livno. Their father soon retired and eventually moved back to his home village in Zagorje while Goran's brother Predrag later moved back to Sarajevo for university studies.

Goran played violin in a music school. However, deemed untalented, he was thrown out during second grade. His musical education was thus reduced to what his friend taught him until Goran's mother bought him his first guitar in his early teens. Bregović wanted to enroll in a fine arts high school, but his aunt told his mother that it was supposedly full of homosexuals, which precipitated his mother's decision to send him to a technical (traffic) school. As a compromise for not getting his way, she allowed him to grow his hair long.

Early career
Upon entering high school, teenage Bregović joined the school band Izohipse where he began on bass guitar. Soon, however, he was kicked out of that school too (this time for misbehavior – he crashed into a school-owned Mercedes-Benz). Bregović then entered grammar school and its school band Beštije (again as a bass guitar player). When he was 16, his mother left him and moved to the coast, meaning that other than having a few relatives to rely on, he mostly had to take care of himself. He did that by playing folk music in a kafana in Konjic, working on construction sites, and selling newspapers.

Spotting him at a Beštije gig in 1969, Željko Bebek invited eighteen-year-old Bregović to play bass guitar in his band Kodeksi, which Goran gladly accepted.

Kodeksi
Eventually, Kodeksi shifted setup so Bregović moved from bass to lead guitar, resulting in Kodeksi having the following line-up during summer 1970: Goran Bregović, Željko Bebek, Zoran Redžić and Milić Vukašinović. All of them would eventually become members of Bijelo Dugme at some point in the future. At the time, they were largely influenced by Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath. During the fall of 1970, this resulted in the departure of Željko Bebek, who (both as rhythm guitar player and singer) got phased out of the band. At the end of the year, Goran's mother and Zoran's brother arrived in Naples and took them back to Sarajevo.

Jutro
Then, in the autumn of 1971, Bregović enrolled at the University of Sarajevo's Faculty of Philosophy, studying philosophy and sociology. He soon quit, however. At the same time, Milić Vukašinović left for London, so Bregović formed a band with Nuno Arnautalić called Jutro (Morning), which Redžić soon joined as well. Over the next few years, the band changed lineups frequently, and on 1 January 1974 modified its name to Bijelo Dugme ("White Button").

Bijelo Dugme

From 1974 until 1989, Bregović played lead guitar and was the main creative force behind Bijelo Dugme (White Button). For years they stood as one of the most popular bands in SFR Yugoslavia. Just as with Jutro previously, he continued as Bijelo Dugme's undisputed leader and decision-maker as well as its public face in the Yugoslav print and electronic media once the band started taking off commercially.

Over the band's fifteen-year run, in addition to their enormous popularity at home, led by Bregović, Bijelo Dugme made several attempts at expanding their prominence outside of Yugoslavia. In late 1975, while recording their second album Šta bi dao da si na mom mjestu in London, they additionally recorded an English language track called "Playing the Part" (translated version of their Serbo-Croatian track "Šta bi dao da si na mom mjestu", itself an uncredited cover of Argent's 1972 track "I Am the Dance of Ages") that was packaged as a promo single for English music journalists. Never officially released for mass distribution, the track quickly fell into oblivion.

Bijelo Dugme had somewhat better luck with touring abroad, which almost entirely took place in the Eastern Bloc countries as part of their respective cultural exchange programs with SFR Yugoslavia. The band briefly toured the Polish People's Republic during April 1977, a 9-concert leg as part of the tour in support of their third album Eto! Baš hoću!. During their 10-day Polish tour, the band played two concerts on back-to-back nights in Warsaw, followed by Olsztyn, Zielona Góra, three shows on back-to-back days in Poznań, and finally two shows on the same day in Kalisz. While in Poland, they also shot a 30-minute television special for TVP3 Katowice, a regional Katowice-based branch of the state-owned Telewizja Polska. Later that year, following the tour's culmination at a triumphant open-air concert at Hajdučka Česma in Belgrade, Bregović went to serve his mandatory Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) stint. Assigned to a Niš-based unit, the twenty-seven-year-old reported for service on 3 November 1977 and would spend the following year away from music, a period during which the band was also on hiatus.

During early 1982, as part of an event bringing together past and future Winter Olympic hosts, the band played in Innsbruck, Austria as representatives of the city of Sarajevo and SFR Yugoslavia, the site of the upcoming Winter Olympics. On return to Yugoslavia from Innsbruck, the band had its baggage confiscated by the Yugoslav customs after undeclared musical equipment was found among their luggage. Some six months later, during summer 1982, Bijelo Dugme went on an impromptu tour of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, playing 41 shows throughout the country from 15 July until 31 August 1982. Despite the tour in support of their latest studio album Doživjeti stotu being over for more than a year, and having no new material to promote, the band reportedly accepted the tour of Bulgaria in order to recover some of the funds they had lost after getting fined by the Yugoslav customs over the attempt to bring undeclared musical equipment into the country.

In summer 1985, following a decade of continuous rejection for tours of the Soviet Union by the cultural attaché of the Soviet embassy in Yugoslavia, Bijelo Dugme was finally approved and booked to play in Moscow on 28 July 1985, on the same bill with fellow Yugoslav rock act Bajaga i Instruktori, at a huge open-air concert at Gorky Park as part of the 12th World Festival of Youth and Students. Ahead of the show, Bregović decided to sequester the band in Budva for two weeks in order to rehearse for the Moscow show, an indication of the seriousness with which they approached this particular concert. However, once in Moscow, due to overcrowding at Gorky Park and resulting safety concerns, the event was interrupted around 10 p.m. after the Bajaga i Instruktori set before Bijelo Dugme even had a chance to take the stage. Two days later on 30 July 1985, instead at the marquee Gorky Park in central Moscow, Bijelo Dugme got to play the Dynamo Arena on the city outskirts at an unpopular noon-hour time slot.

Guest appearances, collaborations and business venture
In between Bijelo Dugme's studio releases and tours, in-demand Bregović worked on various side projects in Yugoslavia. These included releasing a solo record in 1976 and composing two movie soundtracks—1977's Leptirov oblak and 1979's Lične stvari.

He also tried his hand at music production, producing Idoli's 1980 seven-inch single "Maljčiki" / "Retko te viđam sa devojkama" and co-producing, alongside Kornelije Kovač, Zdravko Čolić's fourth studio album Malo pojačaj radio in 1981.

Bregović furthermore made guest appearances on guitar on various studio recordings by different Yugoslav pop, folk, and rock acts: Neda Ukraden's track "Tri djevojke" (together with Bijelo Dugme bandmates Vlado Pravdić and Zoran Redžić) off her 1976 album Ko me to od nekud doziva, Hanka Paldum's track "Zbog tebe" off her 1980 album Čežnja, "Ne da/ne nego i/ili" track by Kozmetika off their 1983 eponymous album, Valentino's track "Pazi na ritam" off their 1983 debut album ValentiNo1, Riblja Čorba's track "Disko mišić" off their 1985 album Istina, Merlin's 1986 album Teško meni sa tobom (a još teže bez tebe), Mjesečari track "Gdje izlaziš ovih dana" off their 1988 album One šetaju od 1 do 2, and Piloti track "Tiho, tiho" off their 1990 album Nek te Bog čuva za mene.

During his time leading Bijelo Dugme, Bregović also became involved in the financial and organizational side of the music business. In 1984, dissatisfied with their respective financial terms at the state-owned Jugoton label, Bijelo Dugme bandleader Bregović and one of Yugoslavia's biggest pop stars Zdravko Čolić got together to establish their own music label Kamarad, which—via a deal with state-owned Diskoton and later another newly established private label Komuna—would end up co-releasing all of Bijelo Dugme's subsequent studio albums including three of Čolić's studio albums from 1984 until 1990. Considered an unusual move at the time in a communist country with nearly across-the-board public ownership that had just recently began allowing certain modes of private entrepreneurship, starting a privately owned record label—combined with Bregović's and Čolić's high public profile in Yugoslavia—got them both a lot of additional attention in the country's press. The company was registered in Radomlje near Domžale in SR Slovenia. Due to not having its own production facilities and distribution network, the new label entered into a co-releasing agreement with Diskoton thus essentially functioning as the legal entity that holds the licensing rights to the works of Bijelo Dugme and Zdravko Čolić. Kamarad's debut co-release was Čolić's 1984 studio album Ti si mi u krvi followed by Bijelo Dugme's self-titled studio album later that year with new vocalist Mladen "Tifa" Vojičić. The label would also co-release many of Dugme's and Čolić's later 'best of' compilations in addition to Bregović's movie soundtrack albums as well as Vesna Zmijanac's 1992 album Ako me umiriš sad.

Solo career
During the late 1980s, a period that would turn out to be the final years of Bijelo Dugme, Bregović entered the world of film music. His first project was Emir Kusturica's Time of the Gypsies (1989) and it turned out to be a great success (both the film and the soundtrack). Bregović's collaboration with Kusturica continued as the musician composed the soundtrack (which was performed by Iggy Pop) for Kusturica's next film Arizona Dream (1993). During the Bosnian War, Bregović relocated to Paris, but also lived in Belgrade. His next major project, music for Patrice Chéreau's Queen Margot was a great success as well, and as a result, the film won two awards on the 1994 Cannes Film Festival. The next year's Golden Palm award went to Underground, for which Goran Bregović composed the music.

In 1997, he worked with Turkish singer Sezen Aksu on her album Düğün ve Cenaze (Wedding and Funeral). After that album, he continued making composite albums with other musicians that were based on his music and singers' lyrics.

He made an album with George Dalaras in 1999 named Thessaloniki – Yannena with Two Canvas Shoes. In the same year, Bregović recorded an album called Kayah i Bregović (Kayah and Bregović) with popular Polish singer Kayah which sold over 700,000 copies in Poland (seven times platinum record).

In 2001, he recorded another album with another Polish singer, Krzysztof Krawczyk, titled "Daj mi drugie życie" ("Give Me Second Life").

In 2005, Bregović took part in three large farewell concerts of Bijelo Dugme.

A number of works created by Bregović can be heard on the soundtrack to the 2006 film Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan, most notably "Đurđevdan". The film itself actually features more Bregović samples than the soundtrack.

Two musical numbers by Bregović, "Ne Siam Kurve Tuke Sijam Prostitutke," and "Gas, Gas" were featured in the soundtrack of the 2012 Brazilian telenovela, Salve Jorge, on the television network Rede Globo.

Wedding and Funeral Orchestra
For many years Bregović performed with a large ensemble of musicians: a brass band, bagpipes, a string ensemble, a tuxedo-clad all-male choir from Belgrade, women wearing traditional Bulgarian costumes, and Roma singers make up his 40-piece band and orchestra.

Since 1998, and until about 2012, Bregović has been performing his music mainly in the form of concerts all over the world with his Wedding and Funeral Orchestra. This consists of 10 people (in the small version) or 37 (in the large version, although, in some instances, this number varies, depending on participants from the host country).

Since 2012 the orchestra consists of 9 people (in the small version) or 19 (in the large version), as it played in New York at the Lincoln Center on 15 and 16 July 2016.

The small orchestra consists of Muharem "Muki" Rexhepi (vocals, drums), Bokan Stanković (first trumpet), Dragić Velićović (second trumpet), Stojan Dimov (sax, clarinet), Aleksandar Rajković (first trombone, glockenspiel), Miloš Mihajlović (second trombone), female vocals Bulgarian singers Daniela Radkova-Aleksandrova and Ljudmila Radkova-Trajkova, and Goran himself. The large orchestra includes also string quartet: Ivana Mateijć (first violin), Bojana Jovanović-Jotić (second violin), Saša Mirković (viola), and Tatjana Jovanović-Mirković, as well as sextet of male voices: Dejan Pesić (first tenor), Milan Panić and Ranko Jović (second tenors), Aleksandar Novaković (baritone), Dušan Ljubinković and Siniša Dutina (basses).

In previous years, in the orchestra the following musicians have performed: Ogi Radivojević and Alen Ademović (vocals, drums), Dalibor Lukić (second trumpet), Dejan Manigodić (tuba), Vaska Jankovska (vocals).

In 2013, as part of his Asia-Pacific tour (including Australia, New Zealand, and Hong Kong), Bregović performed with a string quartet, a male choir, Bulgarian singers and half of a brass band. The other part of the brass band – including bass and percussions – were being played from his computer. In 2017, he was a guest artist on Puerto Rican rapper Residente's album Residente on the song "El Futuro Es Nuestro" (Spanish for "The Future is Ours").

Eurovision
During the Eurovision 2008 final in Belgrade Arena, Serbia, he played as the interval act. He also composed the Serbian entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2010; 'Ovo Je Balkan' sung by Milan Stanković.

Musical style
Bregović's compositions, extending Balkan musical inspirations to innovative extremes, draw upon European classicism and Balkan rhythms.

Bregović's music carries: Yugoslav, Bulgarian, Romani, Greek, Romanian, Albanian, Italian, Turkish and Polish themes and is a fusion of popular music, with traditional polyphonic music from the Balkans, tango and brass bands.

Personal life
During the early 1970s, Bregović's first child, daughter Željka, was born out of wedlock from a brief relationship with a Sarajevo-based dancer named Jasenka. Željka lives in Austria where she gave birth to Goran's granddaughter, Bianca.

With Bijelo Dugme's mid-1970s breakout commercial success and Bregović's increased public profile in Yugoslavia, details of his lifestyle and romantic relationships also became fodder for the country's press. Throughout the late 1970s and early 1980s, various Yugoslav print media outlets documented his high-profile relationship with Serbian model Ljiljana Tica who reportedly inspired his song "Bitanga i princeza" off Bijelo Dugme's eponymous 1979 album.

In 1993, Bregović married his long-time girlfriend Dženana Sudžuka, a Bosniak model. The wedding ceremony held in Paris featured film director Emir Kusturica as the groom's best man and longtime Bijelo Dugme backing vocal Amila Sulejmanović as the bride's maid of honour.

The couple has three daughters: Ema (born in March 1995), Una (February 2002), and Lulu (May 2004). Since the early 1990s, when not touring, Bregović's primary residence has been in Paris, a city where he got married and his three daughters were born and raised. Additionally, he spends a lot of time in Belgrade where he does most of his musical work. During the 2000s, answering a question about where his home is, Bregović said: "If you define 'home' as the place where you keep your winter coat during summer and your swimming trunks during winter, then my home is my Paris apartment".

On 12 June 2008, fifty-eight-year-old Bregović sustained a spinal injury in Belgrade, breaking vertebrae by falling four meters from a cherry tree in the garden of his Senjak house. After being assessed by doctors, his condition was stated to be "stable without neurological complications." Following surgery, he made a quick recovery and, within a month on 8 and 9 July, held two big concerts in New York City, proving for more than two hours each night his performance skills had not suffered from the accident.

Bregović's siblings, brother Predrag and sister Dajana, live in New York City and Split, respectively.

Political views
In 1971, twenty-one-year-old Bregović—a student at the University of Sarajevo's Faculty of Philosophy—got accepted into the Yugoslav Communist League (SKJ), the only party in SFR Yugoslavia's political system.

Throughout the mid-to-late 1970s, by now a famous rock musician in SFR Yugoslavia, Bregović often publicly expressed personal support for the communist ideology while underscoring importance of being active in the party.

In 1990—with the dissolution of the SKJ and reinstatement of multi-party political system in Yugoslavia—Bregović expressed public support for Ante Marković's Union of Reform Forces of Yugoslavia (SRSJ), a centre-left social-democrat political party opposing ethnic nationalism and advocating for reform of Yugoslav communism into liberal market capitalism. Furthermore, he actively participated in the party's election campaign ahead of the general elections in the SR Bosnia and Herzegovina constituent unit of SFR Yugoslavia, lending his celebrity and contributing to the campaign in creative capacity. Despite securing public support, endorsements, and even active campaign participation from many prominent public figures in SR Bosnia and Herzegovina such as Emir Kusturica, Nele Karajlić, Branko Đurić, etc., the party got only 8.9% of the total vote.

On 2 April 1999—a week into the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia—alongside Greek performers George Dalaras, Stavros Kouyioumtzis, and Alkistis Protopsalti as well as a number of others from different parts of the Balkans, Bregović played at an anti-war open-air concert at Thessaloniki's Aristotelous Square.

In the years following the Yugoslav Wars and breakup of Yugoslavia, Bregović has described himself as Yugonostalgic. In 2009, he stated: "Yugoslavia is the intersection of so many worlds: Orthodox, Catholic, Muslim. With music, I don't have to represent anyone, except myself – because I speak the first language of the world, the one everyone understands: music."

Real estate
Bregović owns real estate all over the world, but divides most of his time between Belgrade where he does most of his musical recording work and Paris where his spouse lives with their three daughters.

He reportedly owns properties in Paris, Istanbul, Belgrade, Zagreb, on Mount Jahorina, and Perast, many of which are used for commercial purposes such as touristic rentals, studio recording, and filming locations.

In Belgrade, Bregović owns multiple properties in the upscale Senjak neighbourhood. Some of his Belgrade properties in the neighbourhoods of Senjak and Dedinje were leased out as shooting locations for Serbian television series Žene sa Dedinja, Državni službenik, and Klan (Serbian TV series).

Controversy
Bregović has frequently been accused of plagiarizing other performers' works, as well as republishing his own previously released material as new.

Enrico Macias plagiarism lawsuit
In the mid-2000s, French singer-songwriter Enrico Macias reportedly sued Bregović over Bregović's song "In the Deathcar" off the Arizona Dream soundtrack album, claiming it plagiarized Macias' song "Solenzara". Media outlets in the Balkans reported in 2015 that the French court ruled in Macias' favour, ordering Bregović to pay Macias €1 million in damages.

In response, via a press release distributed to media outlets throughout the Balkans, Bregović's representative Svetlana Strunić claimed that there never was a plagiarism court process against Bregović in France.

2015 cancelled concert in Poland
In March 2015, Bregović performed a concert in Crimea after it was annexed by Russia in the previous year. The following month, the Life Festival in Oświęcim, Poland canceled an appearance by Bregović, saying that his statements were "contrary to the values cherished by the Life Festival founders."

2023 denial of entry into Moldova
Because of his open support for the Russian president, Vladimir Putin, and the 2015 performance in Crimea, in August 2023, Bregović was denied from entering Moldova. He intended to play in a music festival in the country.

List of film scores

 * 1977 – Butterfly cloud (Leptirov oblak) – Directed by: Zdravko Randić
 * 1979 – Personal Affairs (Lične stvari) – Directed by: Aleksandar Mandić
 * 1988 – Time of the Gypsies (Dom za vešanje) – Directed by: Emir Kusturica
 * 1989 – Kuduz – Directed by: Ademir Kenović
 * 1990 – Silent Gunpowder (Gluvi barut) – Directed by: Bahrudin Čengić
 * 1991 – The Serbian Girl (Das Serbische Mädchen) – Directed by: Peter Sehr
 * 1991 – The Little One (Mala) – Directed by: Predrag Antonijević
 * 1991 – Čaruga – Directed by: Rajko Grlić
 * 1993 – Arizona Dream – Directed by: Emir Kusturica
 * 1993 – Toxic Affair – Directed by: Philoméne Esposito
 * 1993 – La Nuit sacrée – Directed by: Nicolas Klotz
 * 1993 – Le Nombril du monde – Directed by: Ariel Zeitoun
 * 1993 – Kika – Directed by: Pedro Almodóvar
 * 1994 – soundtrack for La Reine Margot – Directed by: Patrice Chéreau
 * 1995 – Underground – Directed by: Emir Kusturica
 * 1997 – Music for Weddings and Funerals (Musik för bröllop och begravningar) – Directed by: Unni Straume
 * 1997 – A Chef in Love (Shekvarebuli kulinaris ataserti retsepti) – Directed by: Nana Djordjadze
 * 1997 – The Serpent's Kiss – Directed by: Philippe Rousselot
 * 1997 – XXL – Directed by: Ariel Zeitoun
 * 1998 – Train de Vie – Directed by: Radu Mihaileanu
 * 1999 – The Lost Son – Directed by: Chris Menges
 * 1999 – Tuvalu – Directed by: Veit Helmer
 * 1999 – Operation Simoom (Operacja Samum) – Directed by Władysław Pasikowski
 * 2000 – 27 Missing Kisses – Directed by: Nana Djordjadze
 * 2000 – Je li jasno prijatelju? – Directed by: Dejan Ačimović
 * 2005 – The Turkish Gambit (Турецкий гамбит) – Directed by: Dzhanik Faiziyev
 * 2005 – I giorni dell'abbandono – Directed by: Roberto Faenza
 * 2006 – Karaula – Directed by: Rajko Grlić (This is not true)
 * 2006 – Le Lièvre de Vatanen – Directed by: Marc Rivière
 * 2006 – Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan (non-original music; "Ederlezi" from Dom za vešanje)
 * 2007 – Fly by Rossinant – Directed by: Jacky Stoév
 * 2008 – Mustafa – Directed by: Can Dündar
 * 2011 – Baikonur (film) – Directed by Veit Helmer

Original movies soundtracks

 * Not all his soundtracks compositions are commercially available.

 * 1988: Time of the Gypsies (Kamarad, Diskoton, PolyGram, Komuna)
 * 1989: Kuduz (Diskoton)
 * 1993: Toxic affair (Polygram / Universal)
 * 1993: Arizona Dream (Kamarad, PolyGram, Komuna)
 * 1994: La Reine Margot (Kamarad, PolyGram, Komuna)
 * 1995: Underground (Kamarad, PolyGram, Komuna)
 * 1995: A Chef in Love (Kamarad)
 * 2000: Tuvalu avec Jürgen Knieper (United One Records)
 * 2005: I giorni dell'abbandono with Carmen Consoli
 * 2006: Le Lièvre de Vatanen (PolyGram)
 * 2008: Mustafa (Sony Music Entertainment)

Compilations

 * His compilations include soundtracks from different works.

 * 1996: PS (Komuna)
 * 1998: Ederlezi (PolyGram)
 * 1999: Magic book (Bravo Records)
 * 2000: Songbook (Mercury Records, Universal)
 * 2000: Music for films (PolyGram)
 * 2009: Welcome to Bregović (Wrasse Records)

Other albums

 * 1976: Goran Bregović (PGP RTB)
 * 1991: Paradehtika with Alkistis Protopsalti (Polydor)
 * 1997: Düğün ve Cenaze with Sezen Aksu (Raks Müzik)
 * 1997: Thessaloniki – Yannena with Two Canvas Shoes with George Dalaras (Minos-EMI)
 * 1998: Silence of the Balkans, live in Thessaloniki (Mercury Records)
 * 1999: Kayah & Bregović with Kayah (ZIC-ZAC)
 * 2000: Balkanica with Athens Symphony Orchestra (FM Records)
 * 2001: Krawczyk & Bregović Daj mi drugie życie with Krzysztof Krawczyk (BMG Poland, Rada)
 * 2002: Tales and Songs from Weddings and Funerals (Mercury)
 * 2007: Goran Bregović's Karmen with a Happy End (Mercury)
 * 2009: Alkohol: Šljivovica & Champagne (Kamarad, Mercury)
 * 2012: Ederlezi x Four (FM Records)
 * 2012: Champagne for Gypsies (Kamarad, Mercury)
 * 2017: Three Letters from Sarajevo, Opus 1 (Wrasse Records)

Guest performances

 * 2017: "El Futuro Es Nuestro" (Residente), by Residente

Honours and awards

 * On 31 June 2006, he received a copy of the key of the city of Tirana by Edi Rama on the occasion of his visit to Albania.
 * In 2021, he was awarded the Order of Karađorđe's Star by President Aleksandar Vučić on the occasion of Statehood Day of Serbia.

title: Goran Bregović