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Talk:Hello world

Hello World
I think it is appropriate for the Hello world article to be "Hello World" (in addition to a link to Hello world program). In addition to being funny, it is actually a good example of a hello world program implemented in Wiki. Why not? --BlckKnght

Because it's not an encyclopedia article. That was my only thought. --LMS

Ah, well that's certainly true.... I only put it in when I saw that the Hello world page was a link, rather than a redirect. I figure if we have a page there, it might as well have some content. If you want to change it to a redirect I won't complain, though I like it as is. --BlckKnght

I think it's not important enough to worry about. :-) --LMS

 * Perhaps this is what you are looking for...:

http://uncyclopedia.wikia.com/wiki/Hello_World CapnZapp (talk) 21:29, 6 October 2010 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Hello world


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Heavy metal

Heavy metal may refer to:

 * Heavy metals, a loose category of relatively dense metals and metalloids
 * Toxic heavy metal, any heavy metal chemical element of environmental concern
 * Heavy metal music, a genre of rock music
 * Heavy metal genres
 * Heavy Metal (magazine), an American fantasy comic book magazine

People

 * Heavy Metal (wrestler) (Erick Francisco Casas Ruiz, born 1970), Mexican professional wrestler
 * "Heavy Metal" Van Hammer (Mark Hildreth, born 1967), American professional wrestler

Fictional characters

 * Heavy Metal (G.I. Joe), a character in the G.I. Joe universe
 * Heavy Metal (Marvel Comics), a team of supervillains in the Marvel Universe
 * Heavy Metal (Ninjago), a character in Ninjago

Songs and albums

 * "Heavy Metal (Takin' a Ride)", a 1981 song by Don Felder from the soundtrack of Heavy Metal
 * "Heavy Metal", a 1981 song by Sammy Hagar from the album Standing Hampton, also on the soundtrack of Heavy Metal
 * "Heavy Metal: The Black and Silver", a 1981 song by Blue Öyster Cult from Fire of Unknown Origin
 * "Heavy Metal", a 1985 song by Helloween from Walls of Jericho
 * "Heavy Metal", a 1988 song by Judas Priest from Ram It Down
 * "Heavy Metal", a 2005 song by Clap Your Hands Say Yeah from Clap Your Hands Say Yeah
 * "Heavy Metal", a 2016 song by Justice from Woman
 * "Heavy Metal x DVNO", a 2018 song by Justice from Woman Worldwide
 * Heavy Metal Music (album), a 2013 album by Newsted

Video games

 * Heavy Metal (1988 video game), by Access Software
 * Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K. 2, a 2000 computer game by Gathering of Developers
 * Heavy Metal: Geomatrix, a 2001 arcade game for Sega NAOMI and Dreamcast by Capcom
 * HeavyMetal, a series of commercial software titles designed to complement Classic BattleTech
 * Transformers: Heavy Metal, a cancelled geolocation game based on Hasbro's Transformers sci-fi franchise

Film and television

 * Heavy Metal (film), a 1981 animated film based on the magazine
 * Heavy Metal 2000, a.k.a. Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K.² or Heavy Metal 2, a 2000 animated film, sequel to the 1981 film Heavy Metal
 * Heavy Metal, an episode of the American sitcom sequel The New Leave It to Beaver
 * "Heavy Metal" (Sliders), a 1999 episode of Sliders
 * "Heavy Metal" (Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles), a 2008 episode of Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles

Literature

 * Heavy Metal: A Tank Company's Battle to Baghdad, a 2005 book about Operation Iraqi Freedom
 * Métal hurlant, also called "Heavy Metal", a French comic book

Other uses

 * Heavy Metal (cricket), an incident in a 1979 cricket match involving Dennis Lillee

title: Heavy metal


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Talk:Habitus (sociology)

What ?
DO you think Wikipedia a good place for academic exchange? How is it different from reading academic journals?

Does anyone else feel like this article is very difficult to read. I think it probably makes sense to those who already understand it, but IMO it could use some re-writing to make it more clear.

I didn't find this usefull at all. After reading it, I know about the history of the idea and nothing about the idea itself.

''"The concept of habitus is foundational to Bourdieu’s theory of social research. Bourdieu combined a structuralist framework with close attention to subjectivity in social context. A key relationship in bridging objectivism and subjectivism in social research, for Bourdieu, is that between habitus and field via practices." ''

What on earth are you talking about? This is the most intelligible sentence in the article and it is meaningless. What is a habitus? That's the question the title of article is supposed to answer. Give us some examples of habituses (habiti?). How many kinds are there? Where do they occur? How does one kind change into another kind? Bourdieu is a very famous professor. Don't shroud his work in jargon. - Pepper 150.203.227.130 09:31, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

For a paper on the use of the term 'habitus' in Aristotle & Aquinas see http://www.ul.ie/~philos/vol7/moral.html The simplest definition of the term from Bourdieu's work is 'system of dispositions'. (Interestingly, the term 'dispositions' is also discussed in the paper mentioned above.) Bourdieu intended to use dispositions to indicate mental objects which are neither wholly voluntary nor wholly involuntary, for which both subject and world are sine qua non. The term allows the user to talk of the mind in a language that is at ease with the idea that individual agency may exist while constrained by habit. He felt the need to do this because the French sociological tradition was bedevilled by the twin pitfalls expressed by Sartre and Althusser. For Sartre, the mind was a realm of absolute freedom with no constraints. For Althusser, the mental life of individuals was no more than the result of social structures - all constraint, no freedom. (I simplify, of course - see Bourdieu, the Logic of Practice, Stanford University Press, 1980 for detail) In many ways it is tempting to see this dispute as a 20th century version of the traditional free will/determinism argument. Bourdieu uses a particular lexicon (habitus, disposition, field, etc) in an attempt to resolve the dispute. I hope this is helpful.Ianb3019 19:51, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

I'll just also add that if you click on my username, you will find an article I wrote to clarify a definition of habitus which had caused some bewilderment amongst users of the Bourdieu discussion page. It is perhaps too long to copy straight onto the main article, but I hope it helps explain habitus to those unfamiliar with sociological language.Ianb3019 (talk) 11:05, 22 November 2008 (UTC)

origin of term
This particular nuance of the usage for the term may be recent, but the term is common in Thomas Aquinas and may, for all I know about the history of philosophy, be all over the place much earlier. I am fairly sure that Aquinas's usage is a Latin translation (all the word literally means is "habit") from an Aristotelian term from the ethical works. --MichaelTinkler

 * Do you have any references for this? If so we can put it in the article. JenLouise 00:03, 25 October 2007 (UTC)

--- Hi. Are you sure mauss coined the concept in the gift. I believe it may have been first in the techniques of the body, though I'm not entirly sure. I can't find it in the gift. Also, I must say that the article seems somewhat critical towards Bourdieu Pete--Pertn 16:10, 16 December 2005 (UTC)

--- The article has a sentence saying Loic Waquant wrote that the term was retrieved by Bourdie, but then says in the paragraph immediately below it that the concept is sometimes incorrectly said to originate with Bourdieu.

Loic Wacquant wrote that habitus is an old philosophical notion, originating in the thought of Aristotle and of the medieval Scholastics, that was retrieved and reworked after the 1960s by sociologist Pierre Bourdieu to forge a dispositional theory of action suited to reintroducing the inventive capacity of agents within structuralist anthropology. ''Habitus in Bourdieu's social theory The concept is sometimes (incorrectly) said to originate in the "genetic" structuralist theory of Pierre Bourdieu, who adopted the concept and considerably expanded its meaning. Bourdieu extended the scope of the term to include a person's beliefs and dispositions.''

I think this could be worded better to seem less contradictory. JenLouise 23:47, 24 October 2007 (UTC)

Reworking article
Based on some of the comments above, and my own knowledge of the concept (which is yes primarily from Bourdieu) I am going to try and work on this article a bit. I'd welcome any suggestions or help. JenLouise 23:56, 24 October 2007 (UTC)

I have taken out a number of paragraphs that don't deal directly with or explain the concept of habitus to make the article more readable and concise. These paragraphs can be viewed by visiting the previous version of the article. JenLouise 00:49, 25 October 2007 (UTC)

Added the Technical flag. I know that Bourdieu did not do much to make habitus an accessible concept, but we should. The article begins with the phrase "Habitus is a complex concept..." and doesn't do much to alleviate that sense. I'd help if I understood it, but came to the page to try to find a more accessible summary and didn't find much help.74.85.71.248 (talk) 04:49, 19 April 2010 (UTC)

Quick note on term Habitus: Agree with statement that the term has much wider use in social philosophy than is described here. There seems to be an imnportant gap here. In French phenomenology (that has informed Bourdieu's work to a great extent) the term was already fully in use: see for instance Deleuze: difference and repetition and Bergson: Matter and memory)- J.Springford — Preceding unsigned comment added by 145.52.177.48 (talk) 12:58, 29 November 2011 (UTC)

Simple English
Could some kind soul please do a Simple English version of this page? This article is really esoteric crap at the moment and I say that as a guy with a PhD in a waffly Arts subject. It needs to be explained to us, simply. 86.44.43.208 (talk) 04:31, 14 May 2010 (UTC)

I'm not sure if this will help or even if it's now way too late, but after looking up a passage attempting to define 'habitus' that caused some disgreement on the Bourdieu talk page, I analysed the passage trying to put it in plain words. It's a bit too long to dump here and it doesn't read right for the habitus page itself. You can get to it by clicking on my username here. Ianb3019 (talk) 17:46, 5 July 2012 (UTC)

Deleting Habitus and economic success
Just for the record, I am deleting the section titled "Habitus and economic success." It's terribly written, contains incomplete sentences and incomplete thoughts, and the original version defined "inhomogeneous" as "having lots of similarities." I think it was a subtle bit of vandalism, but even if not, it should be deleted. If you want to restore it, check the source and rewrite it in complete sentences! 24.238.113.245 (talk) 16:38, 3 June 2011 (UTC)

body habitus
'Body habitus can be understood ...' implies that there is a choice, as if it were possible, for example, to understand 'body habitus' as a double-decker bus. If modal verb is required here, then 'must'. In fact, the sentence is much better off without one. 'Body habitus is understood, scil. by all who deal with and have knowledge of the subject, ... ' Pamour (talk) 08:50, 7 September 2011 (UTC)

Critics
As for the rest of Bourdieu's vocabulary, habitus is not a "given" but a "constructed" concept, dependent on a certain cultural context and personal issues of the author, i.e. the "rebellion" and "revisionist" and "neo-marxist" era of the 1960s, his split with Aron, etc. To put it simply, habitus is not a scientific concept proven right, but a hypothesis based on Bourdieu's deterministic vision of society, something to take with extreme care. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.66.207.6 (talk) 06:36, 23 May 2012 (UTC)

Simplified first paragraph
Often really intellegent people cannot write simplified explanations for complex ideas. Very excellent introduction, but unduly complex. I simplified the first paragraph to appeal to a larger lay audience.

 * Habitus is ingrained habits, skills, and dispositions. It is the way that individuals perceive the social world around them and react to it. These dispositions are usually shared by people with similar backgrounds (such as social class, religion, nationality, ethnicity, education, profession etc.). The habitus is acquired through imitation (mimesis) and is the reality that individuals are socialized which includes their individual experience and opportunities. Thus, the habitus represents the way group culture and personal history shape the body and the mind, and as a result, shape present social actions of an individual.

Moscowdreams (talk) 08:46, 28 September 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Habitus (sociology)


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History of Hebrew grammar

Hebrew grammar is the grammar of the Hebrew language.

History of studies in Hebrew grammar
The Masoretes in the 7th to 11th centuries laid the foundation for grammatical analysis of Hebrew. As early as the 9th century Judah ibn Kuraish discussed the relationship between Arabic and Hebrew. In the 10th century, Aaron ben Moses ben Asher refined the Tiberian vocalization, an extinct pronunciation of the Hebrew Bible.

The first treatises on Hebrew grammar appear in the High Middle Ages, in the context of Midrash (a method of interpreting and studying the Hebrew Bible). The Karaite tradition originated in Abbasid Baghdad around the 7th century. The Diqduq (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible.

Solomon ibn Gabirol in the 11th century composed a versified Hebrew grammar, consisting of 400 verses divided into ten parts. In the 12th century, Ibn Barun compared the Hebrew language with Arabic in the Islamic grammatical tradition. 11th to 12th century grammarians of the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain included Judah ben David Hayyuj, Jonah ibn Janah, Abraham ibn Ezra, Joseph Kimhi, Moses Kimhi and David Kimhi. Ibn Ezra gives a list of the oldest Hebrew grammarians in the introduction to his Moznayim (1140). Profiat Duran published an influential grammar in 1403.

Judah Messer Leon's 1454 grammar is a product of the Italian Renaissance. Hebrew grammars by Christian authors appeared during the Renaissance. Hieronymus Buclidius, a friend of Erasmus, gave more than 20,000 francs to establish a branch of Hebrew studies at Louvain in Flanders. Elijah Levita was called to the chair of Hebrew at the University of Paris. Cardinal Grimani and other dignitaries, both of the state and of the Church, studied Hebrew and the Cabala with Jewish teachers; even the warrior Guido Rangoni attempted the Hebrew language with the aid of Jacob Mantino (1526). Pico de la Mirandola (d. 1494) was the first to collect Hebrew manuscripts, and Reuchlin was the first Christian author to write a vocabulary and short grammar of the Hebrew language (1506). A more detailed grammar was published in 1590 by Otto Walper. Conrad Gesner (d. 1565) was the first Christian to compile a catalogue of Hebrew books. Paul Fagius and Elia Levita operated the first Hebrew printing office in the 1540s. Levita also compiled the first Hebrew-Yiddish dictionary.

Through the influence of Johannes Buxtorf (d. 1629) a serious attempt was made to understand the post-Biblical literature, and many of the most important works were translated into Latin. Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar appeared in 1813.

Eras
The Hebrew language is subdivided by era, with significant differences apparent between the varieties. All varieties, from Biblical to Modern, use a typically Semitic templatic morphology with triconsonantal stems, though Mishnaic and Modern Hebrew have significant borrowed components of the lexicon that do not fit into this pattern. Verbal morphology has remained relatively unchanged, though Mishnaic and Modern Hebrew have lost some modal distinctions of Biblical Hebrew and created others through the use of auxiliary verbs.

Significant syntactic changes have arisen in Modern Hebrew as a result of non-Semitic substrate influences. In particular:

 * In Biblical Hebrew, possession is normally expressed with status constructus, a construction in which the possessed noun occurs in a phonologically reduced, "construct" form and is followed by the possessor noun in its normal, "absolute" form. Modern Hebrew tends to reserve this construction for phrases where the two components form a unified concept, whereas ordinary possession is more commonly expressed analytically with the preposition shel 'of' (etymologically consisting of the relativizer she- 'that' and the preposition le- 'to').
 * Possession in pronouns is expressed with pronominal suffixes added to the noun. Modern Hebrew tends to reserve this for a limited number of nouns, but usually prefers to use the preposition shel, as in the previous case.
 * Biblical Hebrew often expresses a pronoun direct object by appending a pronominal suffix directly to the verb, as an alternative to appending it to the preposition that signals a definite direct object. The latter construction is the one generally used in Modern Hebrew.
 * The tense–aspect that is formed by prefixes could denote either the present (especially frequentative) or the future, as well as frequentative past in Biblical Hebrew (some scholars argue that it simply denoted imperfective aspect), while in modern Hebrew it is always future. The suffixed form denotes what is commonly translated as past in both cases, though some scholars argue that it denoted perfective aspect.
 * Biblical Hebrew employs the so-called waw consecutive construction, in which the conjunction "and" seemingly reverses the tense of a verb (though its exact meaning is a matter of debate). This is not typical of Modern Hebrew.
 * The default word order in Biblical Hebrew is VSO, while Modern Hebrew is SVO.

However, most Biblical Hebrew constructions are still permissible in Modern Hebrew in formal, literary, archaic or poetic style.

title: History of Hebrew grammar


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Modern Hebrew phonology

Modern Hebrew has 25 to 27 consonants and 5 to 10 vowels, depending on the speaker and the analysis.

Hebrew has been used primarily for liturgical, literary, and scholarly purposes for most of the past two millennia. As a consequence, its pronunciation was strongly influenced by the vernacular of individual Jewish communities. With the revival of Hebrew as a native language, and especially with the establishment of Israel, the pronunciation of the modern language rapidly coalesced.

The two main accents of modern Hebrew are Oriental and Non-Oriental. Oriental Hebrew was chosen as the preferred accent for Israel by the Academy of the Hebrew Language, but has since declined in popularity. The description in this article follows the language as it is pronounced by native Israeli speakers of the younger generations.

Oriental and non-Oriental accents
According to the Academy of the Hebrew Language, in the 1880s (the time of the beginning of the Zionist movement and the Hebrew revival) there were three groups of Hebrew regional accents: Ashkenazi (Eastern European), Sephardi (Southern European), and Mizrahi (Middle Eastern, Iranian, and North African). Over time features of these systems of pronunciation merged, and at present scholars identify two main pronunciations of modern (i.e., not liturgical) Hebrew: Oriental and Non-Oriental. Oriental Hebrew displays traits of an Arabic substrate. Elder oriental speakers tend to use an alveolar trill, preserve the pharyngeal consonants and (less commonly) , preserve gemination, and pronounce  in some places where non-Oriental speakers do not have a vowel (the shva na). A limited number of Oriental speakers, for example elderly Yemenite Jews, even maintain some pharyngealized (emphatic) consonants also found in Arabic, such as for Biblical. Israeli Arabs ordinarily use the Oriental pronunciation, vocalising the ‘ayin as, resh (ר) as [r] and, less frequently, the ḥet  as.

Pronunciation of $⟨ע⟩$
Non-Oriental (and General Israeli) pronunciation lost the emphatic and pharyngeal sounds of Biblical Hebrew under the influence of Indo-European languages (Germanic and Slavic for Ashkenazim and Romance for Sephardim). The pharyngeals and  are preserved by older Oriental speakers. Dialectally, Georgian Jews pronounce as, while Western European Sephardim and Dutch Ashkenazim traditionally pronounce it , a pronunciation that can also be found in the Italian tradition and, historically, in south-west Germany. However, according to Sephardic and Ashkenazic authorities, such as the Mishnah Berurah and the Shulchan Aruch and Mishneh Torah, is the proper pronunciation. Thus, it is still pronounced as such by some Sephardim and Ashkenazim.

Pronunciation of $⟨ר⟩$
The classical pronunciation associated with the consonant rêš was a flap, and was grammatically ungeminable. In most dialects of Hebrew among the Jewish diaspora, it remained a flap or a trill. However, in some Ashkenazi dialects of northern Europe it was a uvular rhotic, either a trill or a fricative. This was because most native dialects of Yiddish were spoken that way, and the liturgical Hebrew of these speakers carried the Yiddish pronunciation. Some Iraqi Jews also pronounce rêš as a guttural, reflecting Baghdad Jewish Arabic.

Though an Ashkenazi Jew in the Russian Empire, the Zionist Eliezer Ben-Yehuda based his Standard Hebrew on Sephardi Hebrew, originally spoken in Spain, and therefore recommended an alveolar. However, just like him, the first waves of Jews to resettle in the Holy Land were Ashkenazi, and Standard Hebrew would come to be spoken with their native pronunciation. Consequently, by now nearly all Israeli Jews pronounce the consonant rêš as a uvular approximant,  which also exists in Yiddish.

Many Jewish immigrants to Israel spoke a variety of Arabic in their countries of origin, and pronounced the Hebrew rhotic consonant as an alveolar trill, identical to Arabic ر rāʾ, and which followed the conventions of old Hebrew. In modern Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and Mizrahi poetry and folk music, as well as in the standard (or "standardised") Hebrew used in the Israeli media, an alveolar rhotic is sometimes used.

Consonants
The following table lists the consonant phonemes of Israeli Hebrew in IPA transcription:

 * * Phoneme was introduced through loanwords.
 * 1 In modern Hebrew  for ח has merged with  (which was traditionally used only for fricative כ) into . Some older Mizrahi speakers still separate these (as explained above).
 * 2 The glottal consonants tend to be elided, which is most common in unstressed syllables. In informal speech it may occur in stressed syllables as well, whereas careful or formal speech may retain them in all positions. In modern Hebrew for ע has been absorbed by, which was traditionally used only for . Again, some speakers still separate these.
 * 3 is usually pronounced as a uvular approximant, and sometimes as a uvular trill , alveolar trill  or alveolar flap , depending on the background of the speaker.
 * 4 While the phoneme  was introduced through borrowings, it can appear in native words as a sequence of   and   as in.

For many young speakers, obstruents assimilate in voicing. Voiceless obstruents (stops/affricates and fricatives ) become voiced  when they appear immediately before voiced obstruents, and vice versa. For example:

 * > ('to close'),  >
 * > ('a right'),  >
 * > ('a bill'),  >
 * > ('a printer'),  >
 * > ('security'),  >

is pronounced before velar consonants.

Historical sound changes
Standard Israeli Hebrew (SIH) phonology, based on the Sephardic Hebrew pronunciation tradition, has a number of differences from Biblical Hebrew (BH) and Mishnaic Hebrew (MH) in the form of splits and mergers.
 * BH/MH and  merged into SIH.
 * BH/MH and  merged into SIH.
 * BH/MH and  generally merge into SIH  or became silent, but the distinction is maintained in the speech of older Sephardim and is reintroduced in the speech of some other speakers.
 * BH/MH had two allophones,  and, which split into separate phonemes  and  in SIH.
 * BH/MH had two allophones,  and . The  allophone merged with  into SIH . A new phoneme  was introduced in loanwords (see Hebrew vav as consonant), so SIH has phonemic.
 * BH/MH had two allophones,  and . The  allophone merged with  into SIH, while the  allophone merged with  into SIH , though a distinction between  and  is maintained in the speech of older Sephardim.
 * BH/MH, and  merged into their plosive counterparts, ,  and.
 * BH/MH de-pharyngealized and affricated to SIH.
 * BH/MH backed to SIH, the former pronunciation is still used by Sephardi and Mizrahi speakers.

Spirantization
The consonant pairs – (archaically ), – (archaically ), and – (archaically ) were historically allophonic, as a consequence of a phenomenon of spirantisation known as begadkefat under the influence of the Aramaic language on BH/MH. In Modern Hebrew, the above six sounds are phonemic.

The full inventory of Hebrew consonants which undergo and/or underwent spirantisation are:

However, the above-mentioned allophonic alternation of BH/MH –, – and – was lost in Modern Hebrew, with these six allophones merging into simple.

These phonemic changes were partly due to the mergers noted above, to the loss of consonant gemination, which had distinguished stops from their fricative allophones in intervocalic position, and the introduction of syllable-initial and non-syllable-initial  and  in loan words. Spirantization still occurs in verbal and nominal derivation, but now the alternations –, –, and – are phonemic rather than allophonic.

Loss of final H consonant
In Traditional Hebrew words can end with an H consonant, e.g. when the suffix "-ah" is used, meaning "her" (see Mappiq). The final H sound is hardly ever pronounced in Modern Hebrew. However, the final H with Mappiq still retains the guttural characteristic that it should take a patach and render the pronunciation /a(h)/ at the end of the word, for example, גָּבוֹהַּ gavoa(h) ("tall").

Vowels

Modern Hebrew has a simple five-vowel system.

Vowel length is non-contrastive and consecutive identical vowels are allowed in the case of glottal consonant elision, e.g. שאלה vs שלה  and רעם  vs רם.

There are two diphthongs, and.

Vowel length
In Biblical Hebrew, each vowel had three forms: short, long and interrupted (chataf). However, there is no audible distinction between the three in Modern Hebrew, except that is often pronounced  as in Ashkenazi Hebrew.

Shva
Modern pronunciation does not follow traditional use of the niqqud (diacritic) "shva". In Modern Hebrew, words written with a shva may be pronounced with either or without any vowel, and this does not correspond well to how the word was pronounced historically. For example, the first shva in the word 'you (fem.) crumpled' is pronounced   though historically it was silent, whereas the shva in  ('time'), which was pronounced historically, is usually silent. Orthographic shva is generally pronounced in prefixes such as ve- ('and') and be- ('in'), or when following another shva in grammatical patterns, as in  ('you [f. sg.] will learn'). An epenthetic appears when necessary to avoid violating a phonological constraint, such as between two consonants that are identical or differ only in voicing (e.g.  'I learned', not ) (though this rule is lost in some younger speakers and quick speech) or when an impermissible initial cluster would result (e.g.  or, where C stands for any consonant). Guttural consonants (א, ה, ח, ע) rarely take a shva. Instead, they can take reduced segol (חֱ), reduced patach (חֲ), or reduced kamatz (חֳ).

Stress
Stress is phonemic in Modern Hebrew. There are two frequent patterns of lexical stress, on the last syllable (milrá מִלְּרַע) and on the penultimate syllable (mil‘él מִלְּעֵיל). Final stress has traditionally been more frequent, but in the colloquial language many words are shifting to penultimate stress. Contrary to the prescribed standard, some words exhibit stress on the antepenultimate syllable or even farther back. This often occurs in loanwords, e.g.  ('politics'), and sometimes in native colloquial compounds, e.g.   ('somehow'). Colloquial stress has often shifted from the last syllable to the penultimate, e.g. 'hat', normative  (Ezekiel 38 5) or  (Isaiah 59 17), colloquial (always) ;  ('dovecote'), normative, colloquial. This shift is common in the colloquial pronunciation of many personal names, for example ('David'), normative, colloquial.

Historically, stress was phonemic, but bore low functional load. While minimal pairs existed (e.g., 'in/with us' and  , 'they built'), stress was mostly predictable, depending on syllable weight (that is, vowel length and whether a syllable ended in a consonant). Because spoken Israeli Hebrew has lost gemination (a common source of syllable-final consonants) as well as the original distinction between long and short vowels, but the position of the stress often remained where it had been, stress has become phonemic, as the following table illustrates. Phonetically, the following word pairs differ only in the location of the stress; orthographically they differ also in the written representation of vowel length of the vowels (assuming the vowels are even written):

Morphophonology
In fast-spoken colloquial Hebrew, when a vowel falls beyond two syllables from the main stress of a word or phrase, it may be reduced or elided. For example:

 * זֹאת אוֹמֶרֶת
 * > ('that is to say')

 * ?אֵיךְ קוֹרְאִים לְךָ
 * > (what's your name, lit. 'How are you called?')

When follows an unstressed vowel, it is sometimes elided, possibly with the surrounding vowels:

 * אַבָּא שֶׁלָּכֶם
 * > ('your father')

 * הוּא יִתֵּן לְךָ
 * > ('he will give / let you')

Syllables drop before  except at the end of a prosodic unit:

 * בְּדֶרֶךְ כְּלָל
 * > ('usually')

but: הוּא בַּדֶּרֶךְ ('he is on his way') at the end of a prosodic unit.

Sequences of dental stops reduce to a single consonant, again except at the end of a prosodic unit:

 * אֲנִי לָמַדְתִּי פַּעַם
 * > ('I once studied')

but: שֶׁלָּמַדְתִּי ('that I studied')

title: Modern Hebrew phonology


text:
House of Hohenzollern

The House of Hohenzollern (, ;   Haus Hohenzollern, ; Casa de Hohenzollern) is a formerly royal (and from 1871 to 1918, imperial) German dynasty whose members were variously princes, electors, kings and emperors of Hohenzollern, Brandenburg, Prussia, the German Empire, and Romania. The family came from the area around the town of Hechingen in Swabia during the late 11th century and took their name from Hohenzollern Castle. The first ancestors of the Hohenzollerns were mentioned in 1061.

The Hohenzollern family split into two branches, the Catholic Swabian branch and the Protestant Franconian branch, which ruled the Burgraviate of Nuremberg and later became the Brandenburg-Prussian branch. The Swabian branch ruled the principalities of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen until 1849, and also ruled Romania from 1866 to 1947. Members of the Franconian branch became Margrave of Brandenburg in 1415 and Duke of Prussia in 1525.

The Margraviate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia were ruled in personal union after 1618 and were called Brandenburg-Prussia. From there, the Kingdom of Prussia was created in 1701, eventually leading to the unification of Germany and the creation of the German Empire in 1871, with the Hohenzollerns as hereditary German Emperors and Kings of Prussia.

Germany's defeat in World War I in 1918 led to the German Revolution. The Hohenzollerns were overthrown and the Weimar Republic was established, thus bringing an end to the German and Prussian monarchy. Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia, is the current head of the formerly royal Prussian line, while Karl Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern, is the head of the formerly princely Swabian line.

County of Zollern
Zollern, from 1218 Hohenzollern, was a county of the Holy Roman Empire. Later its capital was Hechingen.

The Hohenzollerns named their estates after Hohenzollern Castle in the Swabian Alps. The Hohenzollern Castle lies on an 855 meters high mountain called Hohenzollern. It still belongs to the family today.

The dynasty was first mentioned in 1061. According to the medieval chronicler Berthold of Reichenau, Burkhard I, Count of Zollern (de Zolorin) was born before 1025 and died in 1061.

In 1095, Count Adalbert of Zollern founded the Benedictine monastery of Alpirsbach, situated in the Black Forest.

The Zollerns received the Graf title from Emperor Henry V in 1111.

As loyal vassals of the Swabian Hohenstaufen dynasty, they were able to significantly enlarge their territory. Count Frederick III (c. 1139) accompanied Emperor Frederick Barbarossa against Henry the Lion in 1180, and through his marriage was granted the Burgraviate of Nuremberg by Emperor Henry VI in 1192. In about 1185, he married Sophia of Raabs, the daughter of Conrad II, Burgrave of Nuremberg. After the death of Conrad II who left no male heirs, Frederick III was granted Nuremberg as Burgrave Frederick I.

In 1218, the burgraviate passed to Frederick's elder son Conrad I, he thereby became the ancestor of the Franconian Hohenzollern branch, which acquired the Electorate of Brandenburg in 1415.

Counts of Zollern (1061–1204)

 * until 1061: Burkhard I
 * before 1125: Frederick I
 * between c. 1125 and 1142: Frederick II, eldest son of Frederick I
 * between c. 1143 and 1150–1155: Burkhard II, 2nd oldest son of Frederick I
 * between c. 1150–1155 and 1160: Gotfried of Zimmern, 4th oldest son of Frederick I
 * before 1171 – c. 1200: Frederick III/I (son of Frederick II, also Burgrave of Nuremberg)

After Frederick's death, his sons partitioned the family lands between themselves:
 * Conrad I received the county of Zollern and exchanged it for the Burgraviate of Nuremberg with his younger brother Frederick IV in 1218, thereby founding the Franconian branch of the House of Hohenzollern. Members of the Franconian line eventually became the Brandenburg-Prussia branch and later converted to Protestantism.
 * Frederick IV received the burgraviate of Nuremberg in 1200 from his father and exchanged it for the county of Zollern in 1218 with his brother, thereby founding the Swabian branch of the House of Hohenzollern, which remains Catholic.

Franconian branch
The senior Franconian branch of the House of Hohenzollern was founded by Conrad I, Burgrave of Nuremberg (1186–1261).

The family supported the Hohenstaufen and Habsburg rulers of the Holy Roman Empire during the 12th to 15th centuries, being rewarded with several territorial grants. Beginning in the 16th century, this branch of the family became Protestant and decided on expansion through marriage and the purchase of surrounding lands.

In the first phase, the family gradually added to their lands, at first with many small acquisitions in the Franconian region of Germany:
 * Ansbach in 1331
 * Kulmbach in 1340

In the second phase, the family expanded their lands further with large acquisitions in the Brandenburg and Prussian regions of Germany and present-day Poland: These acquisitions eventually transformed the Franconian Hohenzollerns from a minor German princely family into one of the most important dynasties in Europe.
 * Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1417
 * Duchy of Prussia in 1525

From 8 January 1701 the title of Elector of Brandenburg was attached to the title of King in Prussia and, from 13 September 1772, to that of King of Prussia.

Burgraves of Nuremberg (1192–1427)

 * 1192–1200/1204: Frederick I (also count of Zollern as Frederick III)
 * 1204–1218: Frederick II (son of, also count of Zollern as Frederick IV)
 * 1218–1261/1262: Conrad I/III (brother of, also count of Zollern)
 * 1262–1297: Frederick III (c. 1220–1297), son of
 * 1297–1300: John I (c. 1279–1300), son of
 * 1300–1332: Frederick IV (1287–1332), brother of
 * 1332–1357: John II (c. 1309–1357), son of
 * 1357–1397: Frederick V (before 1333–1398), son of

At Frederick V's death on 21 January 1398, his lands were partitioned between his two sons:

 * 1397–1420: John III/I (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach)
 * 1397–1427: Frederick VI/I/I, (brother of, also Elector and Margrave of Brandenburg, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Brandenburg-Kulmbach)

After John III/I's death on 11 June 1420, the margraviates of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Brandenburg-Kulmbach were briefly reunited under Frederick VI/I/I. He ruled the Margraviate of Brandenburg-Ansbach after 1398. From 1420, he became Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. From 1411 Frederick VI became governor of Brandenburg and later Elector and Margrave of Brandenburg as Frederick I. Upon his death on 21 September 1440, his territories were divided among his sons:

 * Frederick II, Elector of Brandenburg
 * Albert III, Elector of Brandenburg and Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach
 * John II, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach

In 1427 Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg sold Nuremberg Castle and his rights as burgrave to the Imperial City of Nuremberg. The territories of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Brandenburg-Kulmbach remained possessions of the family, once parts of the Burgraviate of Nuremberg.

Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1398–1791)

 * 1398–1440: Frederick I (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach)
 * 1440–1486: Albert I/I/III Achilles (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Elector of Brandenburg)
 * 1486–1515: Frederick II/II (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach)
 * 1515–1543: George I/I the Pious (son of, also Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf)
 * 1543–1603: George Frederick I/I/I/I (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf and Regent of Prussia)
 * 1603–1625: Joachim Ernst (1583–1625), son of John George of Brandenburg
 * 1625–1634: Frederick III (1616–1634), son of
 * 1634–1667: Albert II, brother of
 * 1667–1686: John Frederick (1654–1686), son of
 * 1686–1692: Christian I Albrecht, son of
 * 1692–1703: George Frederick II/II (brother of, later Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach)
 * 1703–1723: William Frederick (before 1686–1723), brother of
 * 1723–1757: Charles William (1712–1757), son of
 * 1757–1791: Christian II Frederick (1736–1806) (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach)

On 2 December 1791, Christian II Frederick sold the sovereignty of his principalities to King Frederick William II of Prussia.

Margraves of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (1398–1604), later Brandenburg-Bayreuth (1604–1791)

 * 1398–1420: John I (c. 1369–1420), son of Frederick V of Nuremberg
 * 1420–1440: Frederick I (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach)
 * 1440–1457: John II (1406–1464), son of
 * 1457–1486: Albert I/I/III Achilles (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Elector of Brandenburg)
 * 1486–1495: Siegmund (1468–1495), son of
 * 1495–1515: Frederick II/II (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach)
 * 1515–1527: Casimir (1481–1527), son of
 * 1527–1553: Albert II Alcibiades (1522–1557), son of
 * 1553–1603: George Frederick I/I/I/I (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf and Regent of Prussia)
 * 1603–1655: Christian I (1581–1655), son of John George, of Brandenburg
 * 1655–1712: Christian II Ernst (1644–1712), son of Erdmann August
 * 1712–1726: George I William (1678–1726), son of
 * 1726–1735: George Frederick II/II (previously Margrave of Kulmbach)
 * 1735–1763: Frederick IV (1711–1763), son of
 * 1763–1769: Frederick V Christian (1708–1769), son of Christian Heinrich
 * 1769–1791: Charles Alexander (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach)

On 2 December 1791, Charles Alexander sold the sovereignty of his principalities to King Frederick William II of Prussia.

Dukes of Jägerndorf (1523–1622)
The Duchy of Jägerndorf (Krnov) was purchased in 1523.
 * 1541–1543: George I the Pious (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach)
 * 1543–1603: George Frederick I (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Regent of Prussia)
 * 1603–1606: Joachim I (also Regent of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg)
 * 1606–1621: Johann Georg von Brandenburg

The duchy of Jägerndorf was confiscated by Emperor Ferdinand III in 1622.

Margraves of Brandenburg (1415–1619)
In 1411, Frederick VI, Burgrave of the small but wealthy Nuremberg, was appointed governor of Brandenburg in order to restore order and stability. At the Council of Constance in 1415, King Sigismund elevated Frederick to the rank of Elector and Margrave of Brandenburg as Frederick I. In 1417, Elector Frederick purchased Brandenburg from its then-sovereign, Emperor Sigismund, for 400,000 Hungarian guilders.

Margraves of Brandenburg-Küstrin (1535–1571)

The short-lived Margraviate of Brandenburg-Küstrin was set up as a secundogeniture of the House of Hohenzollern.

 * 1535–1571: John the Wise, Margrave of Brandenburg-Küstrin (son of Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg). He died without issue. The Margraviate of Brandenburg-Küstrin was absorbed in 1571 into Brandenburg.

Margraves of Brandenburg-Schwedt (1688–1788)
Although recognized as a branch of the dynasty since 1688, the Margraviate of Brandenburg-Schwedt remained subordinate to the electors, and was never an independent principality.
 * 1688–1711: Philip William, Prince in Prussia, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt (son of Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg)
 * 1731–1771: Frederick William, Prince in Prussia, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt (son of)
 * 1771–1788: Frederick Henry, Prince in Prussia, Margrave of Brandenburg Schwedt (brother of)

Dukes of Prussia (1525–1701)
In 1525, the Duchy of Prussia was established as a fief of the King of Poland. Albert of Prussia was the last Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights and the first Duke of Prussia. He belonged to the Ansbach branch of the dynasty. The Duchy of Prussia adopted Protestantism as the official state religion.
 * 1525–1568: Albert I
 * 1568–1618: Albert II Frederick co-heir (son of)
 * 1568–1571: Joachim I/II Hector co-heir (also Elector of Brandenburg)
 * 1578–1603: George Frederick I/I/I/I (Regent, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf)
 * 1603–1608: Joachim I/I/III Frederick (Regent, also Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf and Elector of Brandenburg)
 * 1608–1618: John Sigismund (Regent, also Elector of Brandenburg)
 * 1618–1619: John Sigismund (Regent, also Elector of Brandenburg, after 1618 Brandenburg-Prussia)
 * 1619–1640: George William I/I (son of, also Elector of Brandenburg)
 * 1640–1688: Frederick I/III William the Great Elector (son of, also Elector of Brandenburg)
 * 1688–1701: Frederick II/IV/I (also Elector of Brandenburg and King in Prussia)

From 1701, the title of Duke of Prussia was attached to the title of King in and of Prussia.

Kings in Prussia (1701–1772)
In 1701, the title of King in Prussia was granted, without the Duchy of Prussia being elevated to a Kingdom within Poland but recognized as a kingdom by the Holy Roman Emperor, theoretically the highest sovereign in the West. From 1701 onwards the titles of Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg were always attached to the title of King in Prussia. The Duke of Prussia adopted the title of king as Frederick I, establishing his status as a monarch whose royal territory lay outside the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire, with the assent of Emperor Leopold I: Frederick could not be "King of Prussia" because part of Prussia's lands were under the suzerainty of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. In Brandenburg and the other Hohenzollern domains within the borders of the empire, he was legally still an elector under the ultimate overlordship of the emperor. By this time, however, the emperor's authority had become purely nominal over the other German prices outside the immediate hereditary lands of the emperor. Brandenburg was still legally part of the empire and ruled in personal union with Prussia, though the two states came to be treated as one de facto. The king was officially Margrave of Brandenburg within the Empire until the Empire's dissolution in 1806. In the age of absolutism, most monarchs were obsessed with the desire to emulate Louis XIV of France with his luxurious palace at Versailles.

In 1772, the Duchy of Prussia was elevated to a kingdom.

Kings of Prussia (1772–1918)
Frederick William's successor, Frederick the Great gained Silesia in the Silesian Wars so that Prussia emerged as a great power. The king was strongly influenced by French culture and civilization and preferred the French language.

In the 1772 First Partition of Poland, the Prussian king Frederick the Great annexed neighboring Royal Prussia, i.e., the Polish voivodeships of Pomerania (Gdańsk Pomerania or Pomerelia), Malbork, Chełmno and the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, thereby connecting his Prussian and Farther Pomeranian lands and cutting the rest of Poland from the Baltic coast. The territory of Warmia was incorporated into the lands of former Ducal Prussia, which, by administrative deed of 31 January 1772 were named East Prussia. The former Polish Pomerelian lands beyond the Vistula River together with Malbork and Chełmno Land formed the Province of West Prussia with its capital at Marienwerder (Kwidzyn) in 1773. The Polish Partition Sejm ratified the cession on 30 September 1772, whereafter Frederick officially went on to call himself King "of" Prussia. From 1772 onwards the titles of Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg were always attached to the title King of Prussia.

In 1871, the Kingdom of Prussia became a constituent member of the German Empire, and the King of Prussia gained the additional title of German Emperor.

German Emperors (1871–1918)
In 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed. With the accession of William I to the newly established imperial German throne, the titles of King of Prussia, Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg were always attached to the title of German Emperor.

Prussia's Minister President Otto von Bismarck convinced William that German Emperor instead of Emperor of Germany would be appropriate. He became primus inter pares among other German sovereigns.

William II intended to develop a German navy capable of challenging Britain's Royal Navy. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 set off the chain of events that led to World War I. As a result of the war, the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires ceased to exist.

In 1918, the German empire was abolished and replaced by the Weimar Republic. After the outbreak of the German revolution in 1918, both Emperor William II and Crown Prince William signed the document of abdication.

Prussian Hohenzollern religion and religious policy
The official religion of the state was "bi-confessional". John Sigismund's most significant action was his conversion from Lutheranism to Calvinism, after he had earlier equalized the rights of Catholics and Protestants in the Duchy of Prussia under pressure from the King of Poland. He was probably won over to Calvinism during a visit to Heidelberg in 1606, but it was not until 25 December 1613 that he publicly took communion according to the Calvinist rite. The vast majority of his subjects in Brandenburg, including his wife Anna of Prussia, remained deeply Lutheran, however. After the Elector and his Calvinist court officials drew up plans for mass conversion of the population to the new faith in February 1614, as provided for by the rule of Cuius regio, eius religio within the Holy Roman Empire, there were serious protests, with his wife backing the Lutherans. This was doubly important as Anna brought with her the duchy of Prussia into the Brandenburg line of the house and the nascent Brandenburg-Prussian state. Resistance was so strong that in 1615, John Sigismund backed down and relinquished all attempts at forcible conversion. Instead, he allowed his subjects to be either Lutheran or Calvinist according to the dictates of their own consciences. Henceforward, Brandenburg-Prussia would be a bi-confessional state, with the ruling Hohenzollern house staying Calvinist.

This situation persisted until Frederick William III of Prussia. Frederick William was determined to unify the Protestant churches to homogenize their liturgy, organization, and architecture. The long-term goal was to have fully centralized royal control of all the Protestant churches in the Prussian Union of churches. The merging of the Lutheran and Calvinist (Reformed) confessions to form the United Church of Prussia was highly controversial. Angry responses included a large and well-organized opposition. The crown's aggressive efforts to restructure religion were unprecedented in Prussian history. In a series of proclamations over several years, the Church of the Prussian Union was formed, bringing together the majority group of Lutherans and the minority group of Reformed Protestants. The main effect was that the government of Prussia had full control over church affairs, with the king himself recognized as the leading bishop.

Brandenburg-Prussian branch since 1918 abdication
In June 1926, a referendum on expropriating the formerly ruling princes of Germany without compensation failed and as a consequence, the financial situation of the Hohenzollern family improved considerably. A settlement between the state and the family made Cecilienhof property of the state but granted a right of residence to Crown Prince Wilhelm and his wife Cecilie. The family also kept the ownership of Monbijou Palace in Berlin, Oleśnica Castle in Silesia, Rheinsberg Palace, Schwedt Palace and other property until 1945.

Since the abolition of the German monarchy, no Hohenzollern claims to imperial or royal prerogatives are recognized by Germany's Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany of 1949, which guarantees a republic.

The communist government of the Soviet occupation zone expropriated all landowners and industrialists; the House of Hohenzollern lost almost all of its fortune, retaining a few company shares and Hohenzollern Castle in West Germany. The Polish government appropriated the Silesian property and the Dutch government seized Huis Doorn, the Emperor's seat in exile.

After German reunification, however, the family was legally able to reclaim their portable property, namely art collections and parts of the interior of their former palaces. Negotiations on the return of or compensation for these assets are not yet completed.

The Berlin Palace, home of the German monarchs, was rebuilt in 2020. The Berlin Palace and the Humboldt Forum are located in the middle of Berlin.

Order of succession
The head of the house is the titular King of Prussia and German Emperor. He also bears a historical claim to the title of Prince of Orange. Members of this line style themselves princes of Prussia.

Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia, the current head of the royal Prussian House of Hohenzollern, was married to Princess Sophie of Isenburg on 27 August 2011. On 20 January 2013, she gave birth to twin sons, Carl Friedrich Franz Alexander and Louis Ferdinand Christian Albrecht, in Bremen. Carl Friedrich, the elder of the two, is the heir apparent.

Swabian branch
The cadet Swabian branch of the House of Hohenzollern was founded by Frederick IV, Count of Zollern. The family ruled three territories with seats at, respectively, Hechingen, Sigmaringen and Haigerloch. The counts were elevated to princes in 1623. The Swabian branch of the Hohenzollerns is Roman Catholic.

Affected by economic problems and internal feuds, the Hohenzollern counts from the 14th century onwards came under pressure by their neighbors, the Counts of Württemberg and the cities of the Swabian League, whose troops besieged and finally destroyed Hohenzollern Castle in 1423. Nevertheless, the Hohenzollerns retained their estates, backed by their Brandenburg cousins and the Imperial House of Habsburg. In 1535, Count Charles I of Hohenzollern (1512–1576) received the counties of Sigmaringen and Veringen as Imperial fiefs.

In 1576, when Charles I, Count of Hohenzollern died, his county was divided to form the three Swabian branches. Eitel Frederick IV took Hohenzollern with the title of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Karl II took Sigmaringen and Veringen, and Christopher got Haigerloch. Christopher's family died out in 1634.

 * Eitel Frederick IV of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (1545–1605)
 * Charles II of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1547–1606)
 * Christopher of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch (1552–1592)

In 1695, the remaining two Swabian branches entered into an agreement with the Margrave of Brandenburg, which provided that if both branches became extinct, the principalities should fall to Brandenburg. Because of the Revolutions of 1848, Constantine, Prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Karl Anton, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen abdicated their thrones in December 1849. The principalities were ruled by the Kings of Prussia from December 1849 onwards, with the Hechingen and Sigmaringen branches obtaining official treatment as cadets of the Prussian royal family.

The Hohenzollern-Hechingen branch became extinct in 1869. A descendant of this branch was Countess Sophie Chotek, morganatic wife of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Lotharingen.

Counts of Hohenzollern (1204–1575)

In 1204, the County of Hohenzollern was established out of the fusion of the County of Zollern and the Burgraviate of Nuremberg. The Swabian branch inherited the county of Zollern and, being descended from Frederick I of Nuremberg, were all named "Friedrich" down through the 11th generation. Each one's numeral is counted from the first Friedrich to rule his branch's appanage.

The most senior of these in the 14th century, Count Frederick VIII (d. 1333), had two sons, the elder of whom became Frederick IX (d. 1379), first Count of Hohenzollern, and fathered Friedrich X who left no sons when he died in 1412.

But the younger son of Friedrich VIII, called Friedrich of Strassburg, uniquely, took no numeral of his own, retaining the old title "Count of Zollern" and pre-deceased his brother in 1364/65. Prince Wilhelm Karl zu Isenburg's 1957 genealogical series, Europäische Stammtafeln, says Friedrich of Strassburg shared, rather, in the rule of Zollern with his elder brother until his premature death.

It appears, but is not stated, that Strassburg's son became the recognized co-ruler of his cousin Friedrich X (as compensation for having received no appanage and/or because of incapacity on the part of Friedrich X) and, as such, assumed (or is, historically, attributed) the designation Frederick XI although he actually pre-deceased Friedrich X, dying in 1401.

Friedrich XI, however, left two sons who jointly succeeded their cousin-once-removed, being Count Frederick XII (d. childless 1443) and Count Eitel Friedrich I (d. 1439), the latter becoming the ancestor of all subsequent branches of the Princes of Hohenzollern.

 * 1204–1251/1255: Frederick IV, also Burgrave of Nuremberg as Frederick II until 1218

 * 1251/1255–1289: Frederick V
 * 1289–1298: Frederick VI (d. 1298), son of
 * 1298–1309: Frederick VII (d. after 1309), son of
 * 1309–1333: Frederick VIII (d. 1333), brother of
 * 1333–1377: Frederick IX
 * 1377–1401: Frederick XI
 * 1401–1426: Frederick XII
 * 1426–1439: Eitel Frederick I, brother of
 * 1433–1488: Jobst Nicholas I (1433–1488), son of
 * 1488–1512: Eitel Frederick II (c. 1452–1512), son of
 * 1512–1525: Eitel Frederick III (1494–1525), son of
 * 1525–1575: Charles I (1516–1576), son of

In the 12th century, a son of Frederick I secured the county of Hohenberg. The county remained in the possession of the family until 1486.

The influence of the Swabian line was weakened by several partitions of its lands. In the 16th century, the situation changed completely when Eitel Frederick II, a friend and adviser of the emperor Maximilian I, received the district of Haigerloch. His grandson Charles I was granted the counties of Sigmaringen and Vehringen by Charles V.

Counts, later Princes of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (1576–1849)

The County of Hohenzollern-Hechingen was established in 1576 with allodial rights. It included the original County of Zollern, with the Hohenzollern Castle and the monastery at Stetten.

In December 1849, the ruling princes of both Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen abdicated their thrones, and their principalities were incorporated as the Prussian province of Hohenzollern. The Hechingen branch became extinct in dynastic line with Konstantin's death in 1869.

Counts of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch (1576–1634 and 1681–1767)

The County of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch was established in 1576 without allodial rights.

 * 1576–1601 : Christopher (1552–1592), son of Charles I of Hohenzollern
 * 1601–1623 : John Christopher (1586–1620), son of
 * 1601–1634 : Charles (1588–1634)

Between 1634 and 1681, the county was temporarily integrated into the principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.

 * 1681–1702: Francis Anthony, Count of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch
 * 1702–1750: Ferdinand Leopold, Count of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen
 * 1750–1767: Francis Christopher Anton, Count of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen

Upon the death of Francis Christopher Anton in 1767, the Haigerloch territory was incorporated into the principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.

Counts, later Princes of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1576–1849)

The County of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was established in 1576 with allodial rights and a seat at Sigmaringen Castle. In December 1849, sovereignty over the principality was yielded to the Franconian branch of the family and incorporated into the Kingdom of Prussia, which accorded status as cadets of the Prussian Royal Family to the Swabian Hohenzollerns. The last ruling Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Karl Anton, would later serve as Minister President of Prussia between 1858 and 1862.

House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen after 1849
The family continued to use the title of Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. After the Hechingen branch became extinct in 1869, the Sigmaringen branch adopted title of Prince of Hohenzollern.
 * 1849–1885: Karl Anton I (1811–1885)
 * 1885–1905: Leopold I (1835–1905), son of
 * 1905–1927: William I (1864–1927), son of
 * 1927–1965: Frederick I (1891–1965), son of
 * 1965–2010: Friedrich Wilhelm I (1924–2010), son of
 * 2010–present: Karl Friedrich I (1952–), son of
 * heir apparent: Alexander

In 1866, Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was chosen prince of Romania, becoming King Carol I of Romania in 1881.

Charles's elder brother, Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern, was offered the Spanish throne in 1870 after a revolt exiled Isabella II in 1868. Although encouraged by Bismarck to accept, Leopold declined in the face of French opposition. Nonetheless, Bismarck altered and then published the Ems telegram to create a casus belli: France declared war, but Bismarck's Germany won the Franco-Prussian War.

The head of the Sigmaringen branch (the only extant line of the Swabian branch of the dynasty) is Karl Friedrich, styled His Highness The Prince of Hohenzollern. His official seat is Sigmaringen Castle.

Reigning (1866–1947)
The Principality of Romania was established in 1862, after the Ottoman vassal states of Wallachia and Moldavia had been united in 1859 under Alexandru Ioan Cuza as Prince of Romania in a personal union. He was deposed in 1866 by the Romanian parliament.

Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was invited to become reigning Prince of Romania in 1866. In 1881 he became Carol I, King of Romania. Carol I had an only daughter who died young, so the younger son of his brother Leopold, Prince Ferdinand of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, would succeed his uncle as King of Romania in 1914, and his descendants, having converted to the Orthodox Church, continued to reign there until the end of the monarchy in 1947.

Succession since 1947
In 1947, the King Michael I abdicated and the country was proclaimed a People's Republic. Michael did not press his claim to the defunct Romanian throne, but he was welcomed back to the country after half a century in exile as a private citizen, with substantial former royal properties being placed at his disposal. However, his dynastic claim was not recognized by post-Communist Romanians.

On 10 May 2011, King Michael I severed the dynastic ties between the Romanian Royal Family and the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. After that the branch of the Hohenzollerns was dynastically represented only by the last king Michael, and his daughters. Having no sons, he declared that his dynastic heir, instead of being a male member of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen princely family to which he formerly belonged patrilineally and in accordance with the last Romanian monarchical constitution, should be his eldest daughter Margareta.

The royal house remains popular in Romania and in 2014 Prime Minister Victor Ponta promised a referendum on whether or not to reinstate the monarchy if he were re-elected.

Property claims
In mid-2019, it was revealed that Prince Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia, Head of the House of Hohenzollern had filed claims for permanent right of residency for his family in Cecilienhof, or one of two other Hohenzollern palaces in Potsdam, as well as return of the family library, 266 paintings, an imperial crown and sceptre, and the letters of Empress Augusta Victoria.

Central to the argument was that Monbijou Palace, which had been permanently given to the family following the fall of the Kaiser, was demolished by the East German government in 1959. Lawyers for the German state argued that the involvement of members of the family in National Socialism had voided any such rights.

In June 2019, a claim made by Prince Georg Friedrich that Rheinfels Castle be returned to the Hohenzollern family was dismissed by a court. In 1924, the ruined Castle had been given by the state of Rhineland-Palatinate to the town of St Goar, under the provision it was not sold. In 1998, the town leased the ruins to a nearby hotel. His case made the claim that this constituted a breach of the bequest.

Royal Brandenburg-Prussian branch

 * Prince Franz Wilhelm of Prussia (1943–)
 * Prince Frederick of Prussia (1911–1966)
 * Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia (1976–)
 * Prince Hubertus of Prussia (1909–1950)
 * Princess Kira of Prussia (1943–2004)
 * Louis Ferdinand, Prince of Prussia (1907–1994)
 * Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia (1944–1977)
 * Prince Michael of Prussia (1940–2014)
 * Prince Oskar of Prussia (1959–)
 * Wilhelm, Prince of Prussia (1882–1951)
 * Prince Wilhelm of Prussia (1906–1940)
 * Prince Wilhelm-Karl of Prussia (1922–2007)
 * Prince Wilhelm-Karl of Prussia (b. 1955) (2007–present)

Princely Swabian branch

 * Princess Augusta Victoria of Hohenzollern (1890–1966)
 * Prince Ferfried of Hohenzollern (1943–2022)
 * Frederick, Prince of Hohenzollern (1891–1965)
 * Friedrich Wilhelm, Prince of Hohenzollern (1924–2010)
 * Prince Johann Georg of Hohenzollern (1932–2016)
 * Karl Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern (1952–)

title: House of Hohenzollern


text:
Hang gliding

Hang gliding is an air sport or recreational activity in which a pilot flies a light, non-motorised, heavier-than-air aircraft called a hang glider. Most modern hang gliders are made of an aluminium alloy or composite frame covered with synthetic sailcloth to form a wing. Typically the pilot is in a harness suspended from the airframe, and controls the aircraft by shifting body weight in opposition to a control frame.

Early hang gliders had a low lift-to-drag ratio, so pilots were restricted to gliding down small hills. By the 1980s this ratio significantly improved, and since then pilots have been able to soar for hours, gain thousands of feet of altitude in thermal updrafts, perform aerobatics, and glide cross-country for hundreds of kilometers. The Federation Aeronautique Internationale and national airspace governing organisations control some regulatory aspects of hang gliding. Obtaining the safety benefits of being instructed is highly recommended and indeed a mandatory requirement in many countries.

History

In 1853, George Cayley invented a slope-launched, piloted glider. Most early glider designs did not ensure safe flight; the problem was that early flight pioneers did not sufficiently understand the underlying principles that made a bird's wing work. Starting in the 1880s, technical and scientific advancements were made that led to the first truly practical gliders, such as those developed in the United States by John Joseph Montgomery. Otto Lilienthal built controllable gliders in the 1890s, with which he could ridge soar. His rigorously documented work influenced later designers, making Lilienthal one of the most influential early aviation pioneers. His aircraft was controlled by weight shift and is similar to a modern hang glider.

Hang gliding saw a stiffened flexible wing hang glider in 1904, when Jan Lavezzari flew a double lateen sail hang glider off Berck Beach, France. In 1910 in Breslau, the triangle control frame with hang glider pilot hung behind the triangle in a hang glider, was evident in a gliding club's activity. The biplane hang glider was very widely publicized in public magazines with plans for building; such biplane hang gliders were constructed and flown in several nations since Octave Chanute and his tailed biplane hang gliders were demonstrated. In April 1909, a how-to article by Carl S. Bates proved to be a seminal hang glider article that seemingly affected builders even of contemporary times. Many builders would have their first hang glider made by following the plan in his article. Volmer Jensen with a biplane hang glider in 1940 called VJ-11 allowed safe three-axis control of a foot-launched hang glider.

On 23 November 1948, Francis Rogallo and Gertrude Rogallo applied for a kite patent for a fully flexible kited wing with approved claims for its stiffenings and gliding uses; the flexible wing or Rogallo wing, which in 1957 the American space agency NASA began testing in various flexible and semi-rigid configurations in order to use it as a recovery system for the Gemini space capsules. The various stiffening formats and the wing's simplicity of design and ease of construction, along with its capability of slow flight and its gentle landing characteristics, did not go unnoticed by hang glider enthusiasts. In 1960–1962 Barry Hill Palmer adapted the flexible wing concept to make foot-launched hang gliders with four different control arrangements. In 1963 Mike Burns adapted the flexible wing to build a towable kite-hang glider he called Skiplane. In 1963, John W. Dickenson adapted the flexible wing airfoil concept to make another water-ski kite glider; for this, the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale vested Dickenson with the Hang Gliding Diploma (2006) for the invention of the "modern" hang glider. Since then, the Rogallo wing has been the most used airfoil of hang gliders.

Hang glider sailcloth
Hang glider sailcloth is normally made from woven or laminated fiber, such as dacron or mylar, respectively.

Woven polyester sailcloth is a very tight weave of small diameter polyester fibers that has been stabilized by the hot-press impregnation of a polyester resin. The resin impregnation is required to provide resistance to distortion and stretch. This resistance is important in maintaining the aerodynamic shape of the sail. Woven polyester provides the best combination of light weight and durability in a sail, with the best overall handling qualities.

Laminated sail materials using polyester film achieve superior performance by using a lower stretch material that is better at maintaining sail shape, but is still relatively light in weight. The disadvantages of polyester film fabrics are that the reduced elasticity under load generally results in stiffer and less responsive handling, and polyester laminated fabrics are generally not as durable or long-lasting as the woven fabrics.

Triangle control frame
In most hang gliders, the pilot is ensconced in a harness suspended from the airframe, and exercises control by shifting body weight in opposition to a stationary control frame, also known as a triangle control frame, or an A-frame. The control frame normally consists of 2 "down-tubes" and a control bar/base bar/base-tube. Either end of the control bar is attached to an upright tube or a more aerodynamic strut (a "down-tube"), where both extend from the base-tube and are connected to the apex of the control frame/ the keel of the glider. This creates the shape of a triangle or 'A-frame'. In many of these configurations additional wheels or other equipment can be suspended from the bottom bar or rod ends.

Images showing a triangle control frame on Otto Lilienthal's 1892 hang glider shows that the technology of such frames has existed since the early design of gliders, but he did not mention it in his patents. A control frame for body weight shift was also shown in Octave Chanute's designs. It was a major part of the now common design of hang gliders by George A. Spratt from 1929. The most simple A-frame that is cable-stayed was demonstrated in a Breslau gliding club hang gliding meet in a battened wing foot-launchable hang glider in the year 1908 by W. Simon; hang glider historian Stephan Nitsch has collected instances also of the U control frame used in the first decade of the 1900s; the U is variant of the A-frame.

Training and safety
Due to the poor safety record of early hang gliding pioneers, the sport has traditionally been considered unsafe. Advances in pilot training and glider construction have led to a much improved safety record. Modern hang gliders are very sturdy when constructed to Hang Glider Manufacturers Association, BHPA, Deutscher Hängegleiterverband, or other certified standards using modern materials. Although lightweight, they can be easily damaged, either through misuse or by continued operation in unsafe wind and weather conditions. All modern gliders have built-in dive recovery mechanisms such as luff lines in kingposted gliders, or "sprogs" in topless gliders.

Pilots fly in harnesses that support their bodies. Several different types of harnesses exist. Pod harnesses are put on like a jacket and the leg portion is behind the pilot during launch. Once in the air the feet are tucked into the bottom of the harness. They are zipped up in the air with a rope and unzipped before landing with a separate rope. A cocoon harness is slipped over the head and lies in front of the legs during launch. After takeoff, the feet are tucked into it and the back is left open. A knee hanger harness is also slipped over the head but the knee part is wrapped around the knees before launch and just pick up the pilots leg automatically after launch. A supine or suprone harness is a seated harness. The shoulder straps are put on before launch and after takeoff the pilot slides back into the seat and flies in a seated position.

Pilots carry a parachute enclosed in the harness. In case of serious problems, the parachute is manually deployed (either by hand or with a ballistic assist) and carries both pilot and glider down to earth. Pilots also wear helmets and generally carry other safety items such as knives (for cutting their parachute bridle after impact or cutting their harness lines and straps in case of a tree or water landing), light ropes (for lowering from trees to haul up tools or climbing ropes), radios (for communication with other pilots or ground crew), and first-aid equipment.

The accident rate from hang glider flying has been dramatically decreased by pilot training. Early hang glider pilots learned their sport through trial and error and gliders were sometimes home-built. Training programs have been developed for today's pilot with emphasis on flight within safe limits, as well as the discipline to cease flying when weather conditions are unfavorable, for example: excess wind or risk cloud suck.

In the UK, a 2011 study reported there is one death per 116,000 flights, a risk comparable to sudden cardiac death from running a marathon or playing tennis. An estimate of worldwide mortality rate is one death per 1,000 active pilots per year.

Most pilots learn at recognised courses which lead to the internationally recognised International Pilot Proficiency Information card issued by the FAI.

Launch

Launch techniques include launching from a hill/cliff/mountain/sand dune/any raised terrain on foot, tow-launching from a ground-based tow system, aerotowing (behind a powered aircraft), powered harnesses, and being towed up by a boat. Modern winch tows typically utilize hydraulic systems designed to regulate line tension, this reduces scenarios for lock out as strong aerodynamic forces will result in additional rope spooling out rather than direct tension on the tow line. Other more exotic launch techniques have also been used successfully, such as hot air balloon drops from very high altitude. When weather conditions are unsuitable to sustain a soaring flight, this results in a top-to-bottom flight and is referred to as a "sled run". In addition to typical launch configurations, a hang glider may be so constructed for alternative launching modes other than being foot launched; one practical avenue for this is for people who physically cannot foot-launch.

In 1983 Denis Cummings re-introduced a safe tow system that was designed to tow through the centre of mass and had a gauge that displayed the towing tension, it also integrated a 'weak link' that broke when the safe tow tension was exceeded. After initial testing, in the Hunter Valley, Denis Cummings, pilot, John Clark, (Redtruck), driver and Bob Silver, officianado, began the Flatlands Hang gliding competition at Parkes, NSW. The competition quickly grew, from 16 pilots the first year to hosting a World Championship with 160 pilots towing from several wheat paddocks in western NSW. In 1986 Denis and 'Redtruck' took a group of international pilots to Alice Springs to take advantage of the massive thermals. Using the new system many world records were set. With the growing use of the system, other launch methods were incorporated, static winch and towing behind an ultralight trike or an ultralight airplane.

Soaring flight and cross-country flying

A glider in flight is continuously descending, so to achieve an extended flight, the pilot must seek air currents rising faster than the sink rate of the glider. Selecting the sources of rising air currents is the skill that has to be mastered if the pilot wants to achieve flying long distances, known as cross-country (XC). Rising air masses derive from the following sources:

Thermals
 * The most commonly used source of lift is created by the Sun's energy heating the ground which in turn heats the air above it. This warm air rises in columns known as thermals. Soaring pilots quickly become aware of land features which can generate thermals and their trigger points downwind, because thermals have a surface tension with the ground and roll until hitting a trigger point. When the thermal lifts, the first indicator are the swooping birds feeding on the insects being carried aloft, or dust devils or a change in wind direction as the air is pulled in below the thermal. As the thermal climbs, bigger soaring birds indicate the thermal. The thermal rises until it either forms into a cumulus cloud or hits an inversion layer, which is where the surrounding air is becoming warmer with height, and stops the thermal developing into a cloud. Also, nearly every glider contains an instrument known as a variometer (a very sensitive vertical speed indicator) which shows visually (and often audibly) the presence of lift and sink. Having located a thermal, a glider pilot will circle within the area of rising air to gain height. In the case of a cloud street, thermals can line up with the wind, creating rows of thermals and sinking air. A pilot can use a cloud street to fly long straight-line distances by remaining in the row of rising air.

 * Ridge lift
 * Ridge lift occurs when the wind encounters a mountain, cliff, hill, sand dune, or any other raised terrain. The air is pushed up the windward face of the mountain, creating lift. The area of lift extending from the ridge is called the lift band. Providing the air is rising faster than the gliders sink rate, gliders can soar and climb in the rising air by flying within the lift band parallel to the ridge. Ridge soaring is also known as slope soaring.

 * Mountain waves
 * The third main type of lift used by glider pilots is the lee waves that occur near mountains. The obstruction to the airflow can generate standing waves with alternating areas of lift and sink. The top of each wave peak is often marked by lenticular cloud formations.

 * Convergence
 * Another form of lift results from the convergence of air masses, as with a sea-breeze front. More exotic forms of lift are the polar vortices which the Perlan Project hopes to use to soar to great altitudes. A rare phenomenon known as Morning Glory has also been used by glider pilots in Australia.

Performance
With each generation of materials and with the improvements in aerodynamics, the performance of hang gliders has increased. One measure of performance is the glide ratio. For example, a ratio of 12:1 means that in smooth air a glider can travel forward 12 metres while only losing 1 metre of altitude.

Some performance figures as of 2006:
 * Topless gliders (no kingpost): glide ratio ~17:1, speed range ~30 - 145 kph, best glide at 45 - 60 kph
 * Rigid wings: glide ratio ~20:1, speed range ~35 - 130 kph, best glide at ~50 - 60 kph..

 * Ballast
 * The extra weight provided by ballast is advantageous if the lift is likely to be strong. Although heavier gliders have a slight disadvantage when climbing in rising air, they achieve a higher speed at any given glide angle. This is an advantage in strong conditions when the gliders spend only little time climbing in thermals.

Stability and equilibrium
Because hang gliders are most often used for recreational flying, a premium is placed on gentle behaviour, especially at the stall and natural pitch stability. The wing loading must be very low in order to allow the pilot to run fast enough to get above stall speed. Unlike a traditional aircraft with an extended fuselage and empennage for maintaining stability, hang gliders rely on the natural stability of their flexible wings to return to equilibrium in yaw and pitch. Roll stability is generally set to be near neutral. In calm air, a properly designed wing will maintain balanced trimmed flight with little pilot input. The flex wing pilot is suspended beneath the wing by a strap attached to their harness. The pilot lies prone (sometimes supine) within a large, triangular, metal control frame. Controlled flight is achieved by the pilot pushing and pulling on this control frame, thus shifting their weight fore or aft, and right or left in coordinated maneuvers.

 * Roll
 * Most flexible wings are set up with near neutral roll due to sideslip (anhedral effect). In the roll axis, the pilot shifts their body mass using the wing control bar, applying a rolling moment directly to the wing. The flexible wing is built to flex differentially across the span in response to the pilot applied roll moment. For example, if the pilot shifts their weight to the right, the right wing trailing edge flexes up more than the left, creating dissimilar lift that rolls the glider to the right.

 * Yaw
 * The yaw axis is stabilized through the backward-sweep of the wings. The swept platform, when yawed out of the relative wind, creates more lift on the advancing wing and also more drag, stabilizing the wing in yaw. If one wing advances ahead of the other, it presents more area to the wind and causes more drag on that side. This causes the advancing wing to go slower and to retreat back. The wing is at equilibrium when the aircraft is travelling straight and both wings present the same amount of area to the wind.

 * Pitch
 * The pitch control response is direct and very efficient. It is partially stabilized by the washout combined with the sweep of the wings, which results in a different angle of attack of the rear most lifting surfaces of the glider. The wing centre of gravity is close to the hang point and, at the trim speed, the wing will fly "hands off" and return to trim after being disturbed. The weight-shift control system only works when the wing is positively loaded (right side up). Positive pitching devices such as reflex lines or washout rods are employed to maintain a minimum safe amount of washout when the wing is unloaded or even negatively loaded (upside down). Flying faster than trim speed is accomplished by moving the pilot's weight forward in the control frame; flying slower by shifting the pilot's weight aft (pushing out).

Furthermore, the fact that the wing is designed to bend and flex, provides favourable dynamics analogous to a spring suspension. This provides a gentler flying experience than a similarly sized rigid-winged hang glider.

Instruments
To maximize a pilot's understanding of how the hang glider is flying, most pilots carry flight instruments. The most basic being a variometer and altimeter—often combined. Some more advanced pilots also carry airspeed indicators and radios. When flying in competition or cross country, pilots often also carry maps and/or GPS units. Hang gliders do not have instrument panels as such, so all the instruments are mounted to the control frame of the glider or occasionally strapped to the pilot's forearm.

Variometer
Gliding pilots are able to sense the acceleration forces when they first hit a thermal, but have difficulty gauging constant motion. Thus it is difficult to detect the difference between constantly rising air and constantly sinking air. A variometer is a very sensitive vertical speed indicator. The variometer indicates climb rate or sink rate with audio signals (beeps) and/or a visual display. These units are generally electronic, vary in sophistication, and often include an altimeter and an airspeed indicator. More advanced units often incorporate a barograph for recording flight data and/or a built-in GPS. The main purpose of a variometer is in helping a pilot find and stay in the 'core' of a thermal to maximize height gain, and conversely indicating when he or she is in sinking air and needs to find rising air. Variometers are sometimes capable of electronic calculations to indicate the optimal speed to fly for given conditions. The MacCready theory answers the question on how fast a pilot should cruise between thermals, given the average lift the pilot expects in the next thermal climb and the amount of lift or sink he encounters in cruise mode. Some electronic variometers make the calculations automatically, allowing for factors such as the glider's theoretical performance (glide ratio), altitude, hook in weight, and wind direction.

Radio

Pilots sometimes use 2-way radios for training purposes, for communicating with other pilots in the air, and with their ground crew when traveling on cross-country flights.

One type of radio used are PTT (push-to-talk) handheld transceivers, operating in VHF FM. Usually a microphone is worn on the head or incorporated in the helmet, and the PTT switch is either fixed to the outside of the helmet, or strapped to a finger. Operating a VHF band radio without an appropriate license is illegal in most countries that have regulated airwaves (including United States, Canada, Brazil, etc.), so additional information must be obtained with the national or local Hang Gliding association or with the competent radio regulatory authority.

As aircraft operating in airspace occupied by other aircraft, hang glider pilots may also use the appropriate type of radio (i.e. the aircraft transceiver into Aero Mobile Service VHF band). It can, of course, be fitted with a PTT switch to a finger and speakers inside the helmet. The use of aircraft transceivers is subject to regulations specific to the use in the air such as frequencies restrictions, but has several advantages over FM (i.e. frequency modulated) radios used in other services. First is the great range it has (without repeaters) because of its amplitude modulation (i.e. AM). Second is the ability to contact, inform and be informed directly by other aircraft pilots of their intentions thereby improving collision avoidance and increasing safety. Third is to allow greater liberty regarding distance flights in regulated airspaces, in which the aircraft radio is normally a legal requirement. Fourth is the universal emergency frequency monitored by all other users and satellites and used in case of emergency or impending emergency.

GPS
GPS (global positioning system) can be used to aid in navigation. For competitions, it is used to verify the contestant reached the required check-points.

Records
Records are sanctioned by the FAI. The world record for straight distance is held by Dustin B. Martin, with a distance of 764 km in 2012, originating from Zapata, Texas.

Judy Leden (GBR) holds the altitude record for a balloon-launched hang glider: 11,800 m (38,800 ft) at Wadi Rum, Jordan on 25 October 1994. Leden also holds the gain of height record: 3,970 m (13,025 ft), set in 1992.

The altitude records for balloon-launched hang gliders:

Competition
Competitions started with "flying as long as possible" and spot landings. With increasing performance, cross-country flying has largely replaced them. Usually two to four waypoints have to be passed with a landing at a goal. In the late 1990s low-power GPS units were introduced and have completely replaced photographs of the goal. Every two years there is a world championship. The Rigid and Women's World Championship in 2006 was hosted by Quest Air in Florida. Big Spring, Texas hosted the 2007 World Championship. Hang gliding is also one of the competition categories in World Air Games organized by Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (World Air Sports Federation - FAI), which maintains a chronology of the FAI World Hang Gliding Championships.

Other forms of competition include Aerobatic competitions, and Speedgliding competitions, wherein the goal is to descend from a mountain as fast as possible while passing through various gates in a manner similar to down-hill skiing.

Classes
For competitive purposes, there are three classes of hang glider:
 * Class 1 The flexible wing hang glider, having flight controlled by virtue of the shifted weight of the pilot. This is not a paraglider. Class 1 hang gliders sold in the United States are usually rated by the Hang Gliders Manufacturers' Association.
 * Class 5 The rigid wing hang glider, having flight controlled by spoilers, typically on top of the wing. In both flexible and rigid wings the pilot hangs below the wing without any additional fairing.
 * Class 2 (designated by the FAI as Sub-Class O-2) where the pilot is integrated into the wing by means of a fairing. These offer the best performance and are the most expensive.

Aerobatics
There are four basic aerobatic maneuvers in a hang glider:
 * Loop — a maneuver that starts in a wings level dive, climbs, without any rolling, to the apex where the glider is upside down, wings level (heading back where it came from), and then returning to the start altitude and heading, again without rolling, having completed an approximately circular path in the vertical plane.
 * Spin — A spin is scored from the moment one wing stalls and the glider rotates noticeably into the spin. The entry heading is noted at this point. The glider must remain in the spin for at least 1/2 of a revolution to score any versatility spin points.
 * Rollover — a maneuver where the apex heading is less than 90° left or right of the entry heading.
 * Climb over — a maneuver where the apex heading is greater than 90° left or right of the entry heading.

Comparison of hang gliders, paragliders, and gliders
Paragliders and hang gliders are both foot-launched glider aircraft from which cases the pilot is suspended ("hangs") below the lift surface, but hang gliders include a rigid aluminum frame, while paragliders are entirely flexible and look more similar to a parachute. Gliders and sailplanes are structured from composite materials and may have wheels, propellers, and engines.

Hang gliding in Media

 * 1971 Early rock video featuring hang gliding, Sweeney's Glider, is produced. It was made by Fitz Weatherby and featured Terry Sweeney.
 * 1973 First film made on the sport of hang gliding, The New Freedom, is produced. It was distributed by Paramount Communications, a short film division of Paramount Pictures.

title: Hang gliding


text:
Hole (disambiguation)

A hole is a hollow place, an opening in/through a solid body, or an excavation in the ground.

Hole or holes may also refer to:

Science and healthcare

 * Black hole
 * Electron hole, a concept in physics and chemistry
 * K-hole, a psychological state associated with ketamine use
 * Sinkhole, a hole in the ground due to natural subterranean subsidence
 * White hole
 * Wormhole
 * Hole (topology) - in a topological space, a hole is a sphere that cannot be continuously extended to a ball.

Technology

 * Blind hole, a hole, usually drilled, which does not emerge on the other side of the substrate
 * Buttonhole, a hole in fabric as part of a fastener
 * Punchhole, a hole punched in paper, including punched cards and punched tape
 * Sound hole, on a musical instrument
 * Through hole, a hole, usually drilled, which emerges on the other side of the substrate
 * Tone hole, an opening in a wind instrument which, when closed changes the pitch
 * Touch hole, part of a gun or cannon where the powder is ignited
 * Whitewater hole, a feature found in some white-water rapids

Construction

 * Fox hole, a defensive fighting position
 * Lightening hole a hole made in a structural member, usually of a vehicle, to lighten it
 * Manhole, an opening in the ground to access the sewers or other underground services
 * Murder-hole, or meurtrière, a hole in the ceiling of a gateway or passageway in a fortification through which the defenders could fire, throw, or pour harmful substances or objects down on attackers
 * Porthole, a window on a ship's external hull
 * Spider hole, a type of camouflaged one-man foxhole

People with the name

 * Hole (surname)
 * Holes (surname)

Places

 * Hôle, a municipality in Belgium also called Halen
 * Høle, Norway, a borough and former municipality
 * Hole, Norway, a municipality in Buskerud county, Norway

Prison

 * Black Hole of Calcutta, small prison or dungeon in Fort William
 * Celle Hole (German: Celler Loch), a breach in the outer wall of the prison of Celle, Germany
 * "The hole", prison slang describing the location for solitary confinement

Films

 * Hole (film), 2014 Canadian short drama film directed by Martin Edralin
 * Holes (film), 2003 theatrical adaptation of Louis Sachar's novel

Games

 * Hole (chess), a chess term
 * Hole, a poker term

Literature

 * Holes (novel), 1998 young adult mystery by Louis Sachar
 * Holes (play), 1998 stage adaptation of Louis Sachar's novel
 * Plot hole, in writing

Groups

 * Hole (band), an alternative rock band formed by Courtney Love and Eric Erlandson in 1989

Albums and EPs

 * Hole (EP), 2005 EP by 65daysofstatic
 * Hole (Foetus album), 1984 album by Foetus
 * Hole (Merzbow album), 1994 album by Merzbow
 * Hole (One-Eyed Doll album), 2007 album by American band One-Eyed Doll
 * Holes (album), 2004 album by melpo mene

Songs

 * "Hole" (song), by Kelly Clarkson on the 2007 album My December
 * "Holes" (Mercury Rev song), from the 1999 album Deserter's Songs
 * "Holes" (Passenger song), a 2013 single from the 2012 album All the Little Lights
 * "Holes", by Pint Shot Riot from the 2008 EP Round One
 * "Holes", by Electric Guest from the 2012 album Mondo
 * "Holes", by Scratch Acid from the 1986 album Just Keep Eating
 * "Holes", by Rascal Flatts from the 2004 album Feels Like Today
 * "Holes", by Jon Oliva's Pain from the 2006 album Maniacal Renderings
 * "Holes", a 1985 single by Specimen
 * "Holes", by Mateo Messina from the soundtrack to the 2015 film Barely Lethal
 * "Holes" (born 1987), by Jetty Rae from the 2008 album Blackberries (2008)|Blackberries
 * "Holes", by Smile Empty Soul from the 2005 album Anxiety
 * "Holes", by Red Plastic Bag

Television

 * "Hole" (Bottom), an episode of the British television sitcom Bottom
 * "Holes" (American Horror Story), a 2017 episode of the anthology television series American Horror Story

Sports

 * Hole (American football), a space between the defensive linemen
 * Hole (golf), a segment of a golf course
 * Hole in one (also known as a hole-in-one or an ace, mostly in American English), occurs when a ball hit from a tee to start a hole finishes in the cup
 * Hole-in-one Register (or United States Golf Register), the United States' official historical registry of holes-in-one
 * Hole set, a position in water polo

Other uses

 * Law of holes, an adage which states that "if you find yourself in a hole, stop digging"

title: Hole (disambiguation)