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Emperor Sujin

Emperor Sujin (崇神天皇), also known as Mimakiirihikoinie no Mikoto (御眞木入日子印恵命) in the Kojiki, and Mimakiiribikoinie no Sumeramikoto (御間城入彦五十瓊殖天皇) or Hatsukunishirasu Sumeramikoto (御肇國天皇) in the Nihon Shoki was the tenth Emperor of Japan. While Sujin is the first emperor whose existence historians widely accept, he is still referred to as a "legendary emperor" due to a lack of information available and because dates for his reign vary. Both the Kojiki, and the Nihon Shoki (collectively known as the Kiki) record events that took place during Sujin's alleged lifetime. This legendary narrative tells how he set up a new shrine outside of the Imperial palace to enshrine Amaterasu. He is also credited with initiating the worship of Ōmononushi (equated with the deity of Mount Miwa), and expanding his empire by sending generals to four regions of Japan in what became known as the legend of Shidō shogun.

This Emperor's reign is conventionally assigned the years of 97 BC – 30 BC. During his alleged lifetime, he fathered twelve children with a chief wife (empress) and two consorts. Sujin chose his future heir based on dreams two of his sons had; in this case, his younger son became Emperor Suinin upon Sujin's death in 30 BC. Like other emperors of this period, the location of Sujin's grave if it exists is unknown. He is traditionally venerated at the Andonyama kofun in Tenri, Nara.

Legendary narrative
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a kofun (tumulus) for Sujin is currently maintained. There remains no conclusive evidence though that supports this historical figure actually reigning. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, which are collectively known as Kiki (記紀) or Japanese chronicles. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. The records state that Sujin was born sometime in 148 BC, and was the second son of Emperor Kaika. Sujin's mother was Ikagashikome no Mikoto, who was also a concubine of Sujin's grandfather Emperor Kōgen. Before he was enthroned sometime in 97 BC, his pre-ascension name was either Prince Mimakiirihikoinie no Mikoto, Mimakiiribikoinie no Sumeramikoto, or Hatsukunishirasu Sumeramikoto. The former name is used in the Kojiki, while the latter two are found in the Nihon Shoki. Sujin was enthroned sometime in 97 BC, and during the 3rd year of his reign it is the recorded that he moved the capital to Shiki (磯城), naming it the Palace of Mizu-gaki or Mizugaki-no-miya (瑞籬宮).

Enshrining Ōmononushi (Miwa Myōjin)
The Kiki records that pestilence struck during the 5th year of Sujin's rule, killing half the Japanese population. The following year peasants abandoned their fields and rebellion became rampant. To help relieve the suffering of his people, the Emperor turned his attention towards the gods. At the time, both the sun goddess Amaterasu and the god Yamato-no-Okunitama (倭大国魂神) were enshrined at the Imperial Residence. Sujin became overwhelmed with having to cohabit with these two powerful deities and set up separate enshrinements to house them. Amaterasu was moved to Kasanui village (笠縫邑) in Yamato Province (Nara), where a Himorogi altar was built out of solid stone. Sujin placed his daughter Toyosukiiri-hime (豊鍬入姫命) in charge of the new shrine, and she would become the first Saiō. Yamato-no-Okunitama (the other god) was entrusted to another daughter named Nunaki-iri-hime, but her health began to fail shortly afterward. It is recorded that Nunakiiri-hime became emaciated after losing all of her hair, which rendered her unable to perform her duties. These events still did not alleviate the ongoing plague sweeping the empire, so Sujin decreed a divination to be performed sometime during the 7th year of his reign. The divination involved him making a trip to the plain of Kami-asaji or Kamu-asaji-ga-hara (神浅茅原), and invoking the eighty myriad deities.

Sujin's aunt Yamatototohimomoso-hime (倭迹迹日百襲媛命) (daughter of 7th Emperor Emperor Kōrei) acted as a miko, and was possessed by a god who identified himself as Ōmononushi. This god claimed responsibility for the plague, announcing that it would not stop until he was venerated. Although the Emperor propitiated to the god, the effects were not immediate. Sujin was later given guidance in the form of a dream to seek out a man named Ōtataneko (太田田根子) and appoint him as head priest. When he was found and installed, the pestilence eventually subsided, allowing five cereal crops to ripen. Out of an abundance of caution, the Emperor also appointed Ikagashikoo (伊香色雄) as kami-no-mono-akatsu-hito (神班物者), or one who sorts the offerings to the gods. To this day the Miwa sect of the Kamo clan claim to be descents from Ōtataneko, while Ikagashikoo was a claimed ancestor of the now extinct Mononobe clan.

Four Cardinal Quarters (Shidō shogun)
In his 10th year of rule, Sujin instituted four of his Generals to the Four Cardinal Quarters in what would be known as the Shidō shogun. These areas (west, north/northwest, northeast, and east) were all centered around the capital in Yamato Province. Sujin instructed his generals (shogun) to quell those who would not submit to their rule. One of the four shoguns who had been sent to the northern region was named Ōhiko (大彦), who was also Emperor Kōgen's first son. One day a certain maiden approached Ōhiko and sang him a cryptic song, only to disappear afterwards. Sujin's aunt Yamatototohimomoso-hime (倭迹迹日百襲媛命), who was skilled at clairvoyance, interpreted this to mean that Take-hani-yasu-hiko (Ōhiko's half brother) was plotting an insurrection. Yamatototohimomoso-hime pieced it together from overhearing news that Take-hani-yasu-hiko's wife (Ata-bime) came to Mount Amanokaguya (天香久山), and took a clump of earth in the corner of her neckerchief.

Emperor Sujin gathered his generals in a meeting upon hearing the news, but the couple had already mustered troops to the west who were ready to attack the capital. The Emperor responded by sending an army under the command of general Isaseri-hiko no Mikoto to fight a battle that ended with a decisive Imperial victory. Ata-bime was killed in combat, and her husband fled back north. Sujin then sent general Hiko-kuni-fuku (彦国葺命) north to Yamashiro Province to punish the rebel prince. There was ultimately an exchange of bowshots that resulted in Take-hani-yasu-hiko's death by an arrow through the chest. Eventually the Emperor would appoint 137 governors for the provinces under his Imperial rule as the empire expanded. In his 12th year of rule, the Emperor decreed that a census be taken of the populace "with grades of seniority, and the order of forced labour". The tax system meanwhile was set up so taxes imposed were in the form of mandatory labor. These taxes were known as yuhazu no mitsugi (弭調) for men and tanasue no mitsugi (手末調) for women. During this period peace and prosperity ensued, and the Emperor received the title Hatsu kuni shirasu sumeramikoto (御肇国天皇).

Choosing an heir and Divine treasures
During the 48th year of Sujin's reign (50 BC), he summoned two of his sons saying that he loved them equally and could not make up his mind which to make his heir. He then asked his sons to describe the dreams they had recently, so he could divine their lot by interpreting them. The elder son's name was Toyoki (豊城命), and explained to his father that he dreamt of climbing Mt. Mimoro (Mount Miwa). While facing east, he said that he thrust his spear eight times and then waved his sword eight times skywards. The younger prince, whose name was Ikume (活目命) dreamt of climbing Mimoro and spanning ropes on four sides. He went on to say how he chased the sparrows that ate the millet. Sujin accordingly chose his younger son Ikume to become the next Crown prince, while his older son Toyoki was chosen to govern the east. Toyoki ultimately became the ancestor of the Kamitsuke and Shimotsuke clans.

In the 60th year of Sujin's reign (38 BC), Sujin told his ministers that he wanted to look at divine treasures brought from the heavens by Takehinateru (建比良鳥命) which were housed in the Izumo Shrine. Izumo Furune (出雲振根) was the keeper of the treasures, but at the time was away on business in Tsukushi Province. Furune's younger brother Izumo Iiirine (出雲飯入根), accommodated the Imperial Edict on his behalf by sending his two younger brothers as carriers of these treasures to show the Emperor. When Furune returned, he was furious at Iiirine for parting with the treasures. He invited his younger brother to wade in a pool (named Yamuya) with him, where he used a sword-swapping intrigue. Furune exchanged his own wooden sword with his brother's real sword and commenced a battle which ended with Iiirine's death. When the Imperial court received news of the event, they dispatched two generals to slay Izumo Furune.

Later reign and death
Towards the end of his reign in (36 BC), both the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki records indicate that Sujin started to encourage the building of artificial ponds and canals. During this time, Yosami pond (依網池) was built near Ōyosami Shrine (大依羅神社) in Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka. Sujin is also credited with building Sakaori pond (酒折池) which was said to be located in Karu (Kashihara, Nara). During his alleged lifetime, Sujin fathered twelve children with a chief wife (empress) and two consorts. When he died in 30 BC, his son Prince Ikumeirihikoisachi became the next emperor per Sujin's choice. Sujin's actual burial site is unknown, but is said to be at Mount Miwa.

Historical figure
While Emperor Sujin is the first emperor whom historians state might have actually existed, he is not confirmed as an actual historical figure. Like his predecessors, his reign is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study. Sujin's possible lifespan has been suggested to be as early as the 1st century AD, to as late as the fourth century AD, this is well past his conventionally assigned reign of 97 BC – 30 BC. Like Emperor Kōshō, Emperor Kōrei, and Emperor Kaika, historian Louis Frédéric notes an idea in his book Japan Encyclopedia that Sujin could have lived in the 1st century (AD). This remains disputed though, especially among researchers who have been critical of his book. If Sujin did in fact exist, then he may have been the founder of the imperial dynasty. Historian Richard Ponsonby-Fane suggests that Sujin may have been the first emperor to perform a census and establish and regularize a system of taxation.

In either case (fictional or not), the name Sujin-tennō was assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Sujin, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki. Sujin's longevity was also written down by later compilers, who may have unrealistically extended his age to fill in time gaps. While the actual site of Sujin's grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at the Andonyama kofun in Tenri, Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as the kofun (tumulus), and its formal name is Yamanobe no michi no Magari no oka no e no misasagi''. Sujin's kofun is one of six that are present in the area; the mounds are thought to have built sometime between 250 and 350 AD.

Outside of the Kojiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as "traditional" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD. The lineal ancestor of the current reigning emperor can be traced back to Emperor Kōkaku, who lived a thousand years later.

Consorts and children
Empress: Mimaki-hime (御間城姫), Prince Ōhiko's daughter Consort: Tootsuayumemaguwashi-hime (遠津年魚眼眼妙媛), Kii no Arakahatobe's daughter Consort: Owari-no-ōama-hime (尾張大海媛), Prince Tatehiroshinabi's daughter
 * Third Son: Prince Ikumeirihikoisachi (活目入彦五十狭茅尊), later Emperor Suinin
 * Prince Hikoisachi (彦五十狭茅命)
 * Princess Kunikata-hime (国方姫命)
 * Princess Chichitsukuyamato-hime (千千衝倭姫命)
 * Prince Yamatohiko (倭彦命)
 * Princess Ika-hime (伊賀比売命)
 * Prince Toyokiirihiko (豊城入彦命) ancestor of Keno Clan (毛野君)
 * Toyosukiiri-hime (豊鍬入姫命), first Saiō
 * Prince Ōiriki (大入杵命), ancestor of Noto no kuni no Miyatsuko (能登国造)
 * Prince Yasakairihiko (八坂入彦命)
 * Nunaki-iri-hime (渟名城入媛命)
 * Princess Toochiniirihime (十市瓊入媛命)

title: Emperor Sujin


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Emperor Suinin

Emperor Suinin (垂仁天皇), also known as Ikumeiribikoisachi no Sumeramikoto (活目入彦五十狭茅天皇) was the 11th legendary Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Less is known about Suinin than his father, and likewise he is also considered to be a "legendary emperor". Both the Kojiki, and the Nihon Shoki (collectively known as the Kiki) record events that took place during Suinin's alleged lifetime. This legendary narrative tells how he ordered his daughter Yamatohime-no-mikoto to establish a new permanent shrine for Amaterasu (the Sun Goddess), which eventually became known as the Ise Grand Shrine. Other events that were recorded concurrently with his reign include the origins of Sumo wrestling in the form of a wrestling match involving Nomi no Sukune.

Suinin's reign is conventionally considered to have been from 29 BC to AD 70. During his alleged lifetime, he fathered seventeen children with two chief wives (empress) and six consorts. One of his sons became the next emperor upon his death in 70 AD, but the location of his father's grave (if any) is unknown. Suinin is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb (misasagi) at Nishi-machi, Amagatsuji, Nara City.

Legendary narrative
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Suinin is currently maintained. There remains no conclusive evidence though that supports this historical figure actually reigning. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, which are collectively known as Kiki (記紀) or Japanese chronicles. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. The records state that Suinin was born sometime in 69 BC, and was the third son of Emperor Sujin. Suinin's empress mother was named Mimaki-hime, who is also former Emperor Kōgen's daughter. Before he was enthroned sometime in 29 BC, his pre-ascension name was Prince Ikumeiribikoisachi no Sumeramikoto. He appears to have ascended the throne a year before his father's death in 30 BC, and ruled from the palace of Tamaki-no-miya (師木玉垣宮) at Makimuku in what later became Yamato Province.

Suinin is best known for events that surround the founding of the Ise Grand Shrine. The Nihon Shoki states that around 2,000 years ago the Emperor ordered his daughter Yamatohime-no-mikoto, to find a permanent location to worship the goddess Amaterasu-ōmikami (the Sun Goddess). Yamatohime searched for 20 years before settling on a location in Ise, where she established Naiku, the Inner Shrine. She is said to have chosen the location after she heard the voice of Amaterasu say; "(Ise) is a secluded and pleasant land. In this land I wish to dwell." Amaterasu had previously been enshrined and worshipped in Kasanui, which was set up by Suinin's father in an attempt to alleviate a devastating plaque. The Kojiki records that during the reign of Emperor Suinin, the first Saiō (High Priestess) was appointed for Ise Grand Shrine. This recording is also noted by Jien, who was a 13th-century historian and poet. This remains disputed though, as the Man'yōshū (The Anthology of Ten Thousand Leaves) states that the first Saiō to serve at Ise was Princess Ōku. If the latter is true then it would date the Saiō appointments to the reign of Emperor Tenmu (c. 673 – 686 AD).

There were other events during Suinin's reign as well that include an Asama Shrine tradition regarding Mount Fuji. The earliest veneration of Konohanasakuya-hime at the base of the mountain was said to be during the 3rd year of Emperor Suinin's reign. The Nihon Shoki also records a wrestling match in which Nomi no Sukune and Taima no Kehaya held during his era, as the origin of Sumai (Sumo wrestling). Meanwhile, Emperor Suinin's family grew to consist of 17 children with eight variously ranked wives. One of his consorts named Kaguya-hime-no-Mikoto, is mentioned in the Kojiki as a possible basis for the legend of Kaguya-hime regarding the couple's love story. Emperor Suinin died in 70 AD at the age of 138, and his son Prince Ootarashihikoosirowake was enthroned as the next emperor the following year.

Known information
Emperor Suinin is regarded by historians as a "legendary Emperor" as there is insufficient material available for further verification and study. Unlike Emperor Sujin, there is less known about Suinin to possibly support his existence. In either case (fictional or not), the name Suinin-tennō was assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Suinin, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki. Suinin's longevity was also written down by later compilers, who may have unrealistically extended his age to fill in time gaps. While the actual site of Suinin's grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Nishi-machi, Amagatsuji, Nara City. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Suinin's mausoleum, and is formally named Sugawara no Fushimi no higashi no misasagi.

While the Ise Grand Shrine is traditionally said to have been established in the 1st century BC, other dates in the 3rd and 4th centuries have also been put forward for the establishment of Naikū and Gekū respectively. The first shrine building at Naikū was allegedly erected by Emperor Tenmu (678-686), with the first ceremonial rebuilding being carried out by his wife, Empress Jitō, in 692. Outside of the Kiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as "traditional" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.

Consorts and children
Emperor Suinin had two chief wives (aka Empress), it is recorded in the Kiki that the first empress was named Saho. Not much is known about her other than that her father was Emperor Kaika's son and she allegedly died sometime in 34 AD. As with the first empress there is also not much known about Suinin's second chief wife Hibasu. She was the daughter Prince Tanba-no-Michinoushi, who was Prince Hikoimasu's son and Emperor Kaika's grandson. Hibasu's third son later became known as Emperor Keikō (the next emperor), she allegedly died sometime in 61 AD. Suinin also had six named consorts with an additional one remaining unknown. Prince Tanba-no-Michinoushi (previously mentioned), was also the father to three of Suinin's consorts. In all the Emperor's family consisted of 17 children with these variously ranked wives.

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Emperor Keikō

Emperor Keikō (景行天皇), also known as Ootarashihikooshirowake no Sumeramikoto (大足彦忍代別天皇) and Ōtarashihiko-oshirowake no Mikoto (大帯日子淤斯呂和氣天皇), was the 12th legendary Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Both the Kojiki, and the Nihon Shoki (collectively known as the Kiki) record events that took place during Keikō's alleged lifetime. Keikō was recorded as being an exceptionally tall emperor who had a very large family. During his reign he sought to expand territorial control through conquest of local tribes. He had a very important son named "Prince Ōsu" (Yamato Takeru), who was in possession of the Kusanagi when he died. This treasure was later moved to Atsuta Shrine, and is now a part of the Imperial Regalia of Japan. There is a possibility that Keikō actually lived or reigned in the 4th century AD rather than the 1st, but more information is needed to confirm this view.

Keikō's reign is conventionally considered to have been from 71 to 130 AD. During his alleged lifetime, he fathered at least 80 children with two chief wives (empress) and nine consorts. One of his sons became the next emperor upon his death in 130 AD, but the location of Keikō's grave (if any) is unknown. Keikō is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb (misasagi) at Nara.

Legendary narrative
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Keiko is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, which are collectively known as Kiki (記紀) or Japanese chronicles. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. The records state that Keikō was born sometime in 13 BC, and was given the name "Otarashihiko-no-mikoto". He was the 3rd son of Emperor Suinin, and his second empress wife "Hibasu-hime". Otarashihiko-no-mikoto was allegedly chosen as crown prince over his elder brother based on a casual question on what they both had wished for. In the former's case he said "The Empire" while his elder brother said "Bow and arrows". Otarashihiko-no-mikoto later ascended to the throne in 71 AD, coming a year after his father's death.

Accounts in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki are split when it comes to initial territorial expansion during Emperor Keikō's reign. In the Kojiki, the Emperor is said to have sent his son "Prince Ōsu" (Yamato Takeru) to Kyūshū to conquer local tribes. Alternatively, the Nihon Shoki records that he went there himself and won battles against local tribes. Both sources agree that Keikō later sent Yamato Takeru to Izumo Province, and eastern provinces to conquer the area and spread his territory. According to traditional sources, Yamato Takeru died in the 43rd year of Emperor Keiko's reign (景行天皇四十三年). The possessions of the dead prince were gathered together along with the sword Kusanagi; and his widow venerated his memory in a shrine at her home. Sometime later, these relics and the sacred sword were moved to the current location of the Atsuta Shrine.

Emperor Keikō was recorded as 10 ft, who had at least 80 children from multiple wives. This claim would put him into the category of Gigantism if verified, although as with other aspects it was more than likely exaggerated. Other than Yamato Takeru, at least three of Keikō's children were ancestors of notable clans. According to tradition, emperor Keikō died in 130 AD at the age of 143, and his son Prince Wakatarashihiko was enthroned as the next emperor the following year.

Known information
Emperor Keikō is regarded by historians as a "legendary Emperor" as there is insufficient material available for further verification and study. The name Keikō-tennō was assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Keikō, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki. There is a possibility that Keikō's era was in the 4th century AD rather than the 1st. This period is concurrent with the Kentoshi having an audience with the Tang Emperor, more evidence is needed though to make any conclusions. Like his father before him, Keikō is also known to have an exaggerated lifespan which is unlikely to be factual. The consecutive reigns of the emperors began to be compiled in the 8th century, and it is thought that age gaps were "filled up" as many lacunae were present. For comparison, verified ages in the 110s have since been documented and recorded as the "oldest in the world".

While the actual site of Keikō's grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Keikō's mausoleum, and is formally named Yamanobe no michi no e no misasagi. Outside of the Kiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as "traditional" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.

Consorts and children
Emperor Keikō allegedly had a very large family which consisted of 2 wives, 9 concubines, and more than 80 children (51 of which are listed here). It is now questionable and open to debate though, if these numbers are genuine or not. Some of his listed children might actually be duplicates of the same person. The size of Keikō's family also could have been exaggerated over time through legends and word of mouth stories.

title: Emperor Keikō


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Emperor Seimu

Emperor Seimu (成務天皇), also known as Wakatarashi hiko no Sumera mikoto (稚足彦天皇), was the 13th legendary Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Both the Kojiki, and the Nihon Shoki (collectively known as the Kiki) record events that took place during Seimu's alleged lifetime. This legendary Emperor is best known for organizing his local governments by making the first appointments of their kind to provinces under his rule. Seimu had only one recorded wife who bore him a single child; he also had a concubine but she had no children. This is in stark contrast to his father, who is said to have had at least 80 children with multiple wives.

Seimu's reign is conventionally considered to have been from 131 to 190 AD. An issue ultimately occurred when his only son allegedly died at a young age. Seimu appointed one of his nephews to be crown prince before his death in 190 AD, marking the first of later generations which would cede the throne to a non-direct successor. While the location of Seimu's grave (if any) is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb. Modern historians have come to the conclusion that the title of "Emperor" and the name "Seimu" was used by later generations to describe this legendary Emperor. It has also been proposed that Seimu actually reigned much later than he is attested.

Legendary narrative
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Seimu is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, which are collectively known as Kiki (記紀) or Japanese chronicles. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. The records state that Seimu was born to Yasakairi-hime sometime in 84 AD, and was given the name Wakatarashihiko (稚足彦尊). It is unknown how he was chosen as crown prince, but Wakatarashihiko later ascended to the throne in 131 AD. Seimu is best known for organizing his local governments by appointing the first provincial governors and district officials. While the details of his system of governing remain elusive, at the time Imperial princes were sent to important places in the provinces. These members are designated as wake, which represented their status as a branch of the Imperial family. It has been theorized by Brinkley and Kikuchi that these appointments of local governors were designed to extend the "prestige of the Court". Those that were eligible included "men of merit", Imperial princes, or chiefs of aboriginal tribes.

The records state that Seimu had a wife named Oho-takara (弟財郎女), who was the daughter of Take-oshiyama-tari-ne. Oho-takara bore the Emperor one child, named Prince Wakanuke (和訶奴気王). Seimu's only son appears to have died at a young age as the Emperor appointed Yamato Takeru's son as Crown Prince, before his own death in 190 AD at the age 107 years old. His nephew Tarashinakatsuhiko was later enthroned as the next emperor in 192 AD. Seimu's death marked an end of direct lineage from legendary Emperor Jimmu, and was the first split branch of others that later followed.

Known information

Emperor Seimu is regarded by historians as a "legendary Emperor" as there is insufficient material available for further verification and study. His existence is open to debate given this lack of information. If Seimu did exist, there is no evidence to suggest that the title tennō was used during the time period to which his reign has been assigned. It is much more likely that he was a chieftain, or local clan leader, and the polity he ruled would have only encompassed a small portion of modern-day Japan. The name Seimu-tennō was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Seimu, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki. There is a possibility that Seimu ruled during the first half of the 4th century when Japan became a unified state ruled from Yamato, making these accounts "not improbable".

While the actual site of Seimu's grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Seimu's mausoleum, and is formally named Saki no Tatanami no misasagi. Outside of the Kiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as "traditional" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.

title: Emperor Seimu


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Emperor Chūai

Emperor Chūai (仲哀天皇), also known as Tarashinakatsuhiko no Sumeramikoto (足仲彦天皇) was the 14th legendary Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Both the Kojiki, and the Nihon Shoki (collectively known as the Kiki) record events that took place during Chūai's alleged lifetime. Chūai is the first monarch to ascend the throne who was not a son of the previous Emperor as the latter's only child died young. He is also noted for having his capital in Kyushu, rather than Yamato like his predecessors. The records state that Chūai had a wife named Okinagatarashihime-no-Mikoto (later Jingū), and 2 consorts that all bore him 4 children.

Chūai's reign is conventionally considered to have been from 192 to 200 AD. The events leading up to the Emperor's death have been subject to interpretation as they involve a vengeful Kami (spirit) indirectly killing Chūai. This event allegedly occurred after the Emperor disrespectfully scoffed at the Kami's request. His wife Jingū carried out the Kami's request which was to invade Korea, but this has since been considered legendary rather than factual. While the location of Chūai's grave (if any) is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb, and at a Hachiman shrine.

Modern historians have come to the conclusion that the title of "Emperor" and the name "Chūai" were used by later generations to describe this legendary Emperor. It has also been proposed that Chūai actually reigned much later than he is attested. Emperor Chūai is traditionally listed as the last Emperor of the Yayoi period.

Legendary narrative
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Chūai is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, which are collectively known as Kiki (記紀) or Japanese chronicles. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. The records state that Chūai was born to Futaji no Iri Hime sometime in 149 AD, and was given the name Tarashinakahiko or Tarashinakatsuhiko (足仲彦天皇). Chūai's father was allegedly the legendary prince, Yamato Takeru. He was the first Emperor who was not the child of the previous Emperor, being instead the nephew of his predecessor Emperor Seimu. The title of Crown Prince was given to him by his uncle before his death in 190 AD, two years later Chūai became the next Emperor. Unlike his predecessors who had maintained their capitals in Yamato Province, the records state his palace was first located on the northern shores of Shimonoseki Strait, then south of that in Kyushu.

Emperor Chūai is described in the Kiki as having been ten feet tall, with "a countenance of perfect beauty". He had one wife who was named  Okinagatarashi (aka Jingū), and two consorts who all bore him four children. During the start of his reign, he made progress to modern day Tsuruga, and led an expedition to Kii where he heard news of a revolt. Jingū accompanied him to the west to fight against a tribe in Tsukushi (located in modern-day Fukuoka Prefecture) called Kumaso. On the eve of battle though, his wife was suddenly possessed by some unknown kami who advised Chūai to invade and conquer Korea. The Kami gave the reasoning that the Kumaso were not worthy of "his steel". Chūai refused with scorn for a number of reasons which included giving up a military campaign, and doubting that such a land even existed. It is said that the Kami was so enraged by this disrespect, that Emperor Chūai was later killed in a battle that beat down his troops.

The death of the Emperor was kept quiet by Jingū, who vanquished the Kumaso soon afterwards in a fit of revenge. Jingū then respected the wishes of the Kami by invading Korea, and subjugated the eastern Korean kingdom of Shiragi. The other two Korean kingdoms at the time voluntarily submitted, and Jingū ascended to the throne as Empress. Jingū's occupation of the Korean Peninsula, and reign as Empress are now considered to be legendary rather than factual. The modern traditional view is that Chūai's son (Homutawake) became the next Emperor after Jingū acted as a regent. She would have been de facto ruler in the interim.

Known information

Emperor Chūai is regarded by historians as a "legendary Emperor" as there is insufficient material available for further verification and study. The lack of this information has made his very existence open to debate. There is no evidence to suggest that the title tennō was used during the time to which Chūai's reign has been assigned. It is certainly possible that he was a chieftain or local clan leader, and that the polity he ruled would have only encompassed a small portion of modern-day Japan. The name Chūai-tennō was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Chūai, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki.

The manner in which Chūai died has since been broken down to at least two theories. In his book Confucianism O - Z, professor Xinzhong Yao notes that it is possible the late Emperor could have succumbed to illness rather than death on the battlefield. Sources which include Yao, Francis Brinkley, and Kikuchi Dairoku also cite the enemy arrow scenario. While the actual site of Chūai's grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Chūai's mausoleum, and is formally named Ega no Naganu no nishi no misasagi. The Kami (spirit) of Chūai is also enshrined at the Tamukeyama Hachiman Shrine in Nara. Chūai is traditionally listed as the last Emperor of the Yayoi period, who could have in reality ruled in the 4th century. The next era is known as the Kofun period, where more is known about the Emperors based on modern day archaeological evidence.

Outside of the Kiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as "traditional" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.

Consorts and children
Empress: Okinagatarashi-hime (気長足姫尊), later Empress Jingu, Prince Okinaga no sukune's daughter
 * Prince Homutawake (誉田別命), later Emperor Ōjin

Consort: Ōnakatsu-hime (大中姫命), Prince Hikohitoōe's daughter (Emperor Keiko's son)
 * Prince Kagosaka (麛坂皇子)
 * Prince Oshikuma (忍熊皇子)

Consort: Oto-hime (弟媛), Ōsakanushi's daughter
 * Prince Homuyawake (誉屋別皇子)

title: Emperor Chūai


text:
Emperor Ōjin

Emperor Ōjin (応神天皇), also known as Hondawake no Mikoto (誉田別尊) (alternatively spelled 譽田別命, 誉田別命, 品陀和気命, 譽田分命, 誉田別尊, 品陀別命) or Homuta no Sumeramikoto (譽田天皇), was the 15th (possibly legendary) Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Both the Kojiki, and the Nihon Shoki (collectively known as the Kiki) record events that took place during Ōjin's alleged lifetime. Ōjin is traditionally listed as the first emperor of the Kofun period, and is primarily known for being the controversial son of Empress Jingū. Historians have mixed views on his factual existence; if Ōjin was indeed a historical figure, then it is assumed he reigned much later than he is attested.

No firm dates can be assigned to Ōjin's life or reign, but he is traditionally considered to have reigned from 270 to 310. According to the Shinto religion and Buddhism in Japan, Emperor Ōjin is the divine spirit of the deity Hachiman (八幡神). While the location of Ōjin's grave (if any) is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb. Modern historians have come to the conclusion that the title of "Emperor" and the name "Ōjin" was used by later generations to describe this possibly legendary Emperor.

Legendary narrative
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Ōjin is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, which are collectively known as Kiki (記紀) or Japanese chronicles. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. The circumstances surrounding the future emperor's birth are controversial as they involve a supposed invasion of the Korean Peninsula as well as a biologically-impossible gestation period (3 years). It is said by the Kiki that Ōjin was conceived but unborn when his father Emperor Chūai died. Empress Jingū then became a de facto ruler who allegedly invaded a "promised land" (Korea) out of revenge, then returned three years later to the Japanese mainland to give birth. The records state that Ōjin was born to Empress Jingū in Tsukushi Province sometime in 201 AD, and was given the name Homutawake (誉田別尊). He became the crown prince at the age of four, but was not crowned Emperor until 270 AD at the age of 70. Emperor Ōjin supposedly lived in two palaces which are now located in present-day Osaka. His reign lasted 40 years until his death in 310 AD, in all he fathered 28 children with one spouse and ten consorts. His fourth son  Ōosazaki was later enthroned as the next emperor in 313 AD.

Known information

While the historical existence of Emperor Ōjin is debated among historians, there is a general consensus that he was "probably real". There is also an agreement that Ojin's three year conception period is mythical and symbolic, rather than realistic. William George Aston has suggested that this can be interpreted as a period of less than nine months containing three "years" (some seasons), e.g. three harvests. If Ōjin was an actual historical figure then historians have proposed that he ruled later than attested. Dates of his actual reign have been proposed to be as early as 370 to 390 AD, to as late as the early 5th century AD. At least one Japanese historian has cast doubt on this theory though, by revising a supporting statement given in 1972. In this new narrative Louis Perez states: "only kings and emperors after the reign of Ojin... ...are seen as historical figures". In either case there is also no evidence to suggest that the title tennō was used during the time to which Ōjin's reign has been assigned. It is certainly possible that he was a chieftain or local clan leader, and that the polity he ruled would have only encompassed a small portion of modern-day Japan. The name Ōjin-tennō was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations.

While the actual site of Ōjin's grave is not known, this regent is traditionally venerated at a kofun-type Imperial tomb in Osaka. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Ōjin's mausoleum, and is formally named Eega no Mofushi no oka no misasagi. At some point Ōjin was made a guardian Kami of the Hata clan, and is now also deified as Hachiman Daimyōjin. Outside of the Kiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as "traditional" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.

Family
Emperor Ōjin's family allegedly consisted of 28 children, which include 2 unnamed princesses from a previous marriage. He had one spouse who bore him a son that would become the next Emperor, as well as 10 consorts.

title: Emperor Ōjin


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Emperor Nintoku

Emperor Nintoku (仁徳天皇), also known as Ohosazaki no Sumeramikoto (大鷦鷯天皇) was the 16th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Due to his reputation for goodness derived from depictions in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, he is sometimes referred to as the Saint Emperor (聖帝).

While his existence is generally accepted as fact, no firm dates can be assigned to Nintoku's life or reign. He is traditionally considered to have reigned from 313 to 399, although these dates are doubted by scholars.

Legendary narrative
The Japanese have traditionally accepted Nintoku's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Nintoku is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, which are collectively known as Kiki (記紀) or Japanese chronicles. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. The Kiki states that Nintoku was born to Nakatsuhime no Mikoto (仲姫命) sometime in 290 AD, and was given the name Ohosazaki no Mikoto (大鷦鷯尊). According to the Nihon Shoki, he was the fourth son of Emperor Ōjin.

Known information
Nintoku is regarded by historians as a ruler during the early 5th century whose existence is generally accepted as fact without attributing all of the things he allegedly accomplished. Nintoku's contemporary title would not have been tennō, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning "the great king who rules all under heaven". Alternatively, Nintoku might have been referred to as ヤマト大王/大君 or the "Great King of Yamato". The name "Nintoku" also might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to him, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki.

Although the Nihon Shoki states that Nintoku ruled from 313 to 399, research suggests those dates are likely inaccurate. William George Aston notes that if they were factual, Nintoku would be 312 years old in his 78th year of reign assuming that the traditional accounts are correct. Outside of the Kiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as "traditional" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.

Hidehiro Okada identifies him with Dei of Wa, a king who preceded the better known Five kings of Wa.

Consorts and children
According to the Nihon Shoki, he was the fourth son of Emperor Ōjin and his mother was Nakatsuhime no Mikoto (仲姫命), a great-granddaughter of Emperor Keikō. He was also the father of Emperors Richū, Hanzei, and Ingyō. His name was Ohosazaki no Mikoto (大鷦鷯尊).

Empress (Kōgō): Princess Iwa (磐之媛命), poet and daughter of Katsuragi no Sotsuhiko (葛城襲津彦) (first)
 * First Son: Prince Ōenoizahowake (大兄去来穂別尊), later Emperor Richū
 * Prince Suminoe no Nakatsu (住吉仲皇子)
 * Third Son: Prince Mizuhawake (瑞歯別尊), later Emperor Hanzei
 * Fourth Son: Prince Oasatsuma Wakugo no Sukune (雄朝津間稚子宿禰尊), later Emperor Ingyō
 * Prince Sakoudo (酒人王)

Empress (Kōgō): Princess Yata (八田皇女), Emperor Ōjin's daughter (second)

Consort (Hi) : Himuka no Kaminaga-hime (日向髪長媛), Morokata no Kimi Ushimoroi's daughter
 * Prince Ookusaka (大草香皇子)
 * Princess Kusaka no hatabi-hime (草香幡梭姫皇女), married to Emperor Yūryaku

Consort: Uji no Wakiiratsume (宇遅之若郎女), daughter of Emperor Ōjin

Consort: Kuro-hime (黒日売), daughter of Kibi no Amabe no Atai (吉備海部直)

Nintoku's tomb

Daisen Kofun (the largest tomb in Japan) in Sakai, Osaka, is considered to be his final resting place. The actual site of Nintoku's grave is not known.

The Nintoku-ryo tumulus is one of almost 50 tumuli collectively known as "Mozu Kofungun" clustered around the city, and covers the largest area of any tomb in the world. Built in the middle of the 5th century by an estimated 2,000 men working daily for almost 16 years, the Nintoku tumulus, at 486 meters long and with a mound 35 meters high, is twice as long as the base of the famous Great Pyramid of Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops) in Giza.

The Imperial tomb of Nintoku's consort, Iwa-no hime no Mikoto, is said to be located in Saki-cho, Nara City. Both kofun-type Imperial tombs are characterized by a keyhole-shaped island located within a wide, water-filled moat. Imperial tombs and mausolea are cultural properties; but they are guarded and administered by the Imperial Household Agency (IHA), which is the government department responsible for all matters relating to the Emperor and his family. According to the IHA, the tombs are more than a mere repository for historical artifacts; they are sacred religious sites. IHA construes each of the Imperial grave sites as sanctuaries for the spirits of the ancestors of the Imperial House.

Nintoku is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Osaka. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as his mausoleum. It is formally named Mozu no Mimihara no naka no misasagi.

title: Emperor Nintoku


text:
Emperor Richū

Emperor Richū (履中天皇), also known as Ōenoizahowake no Mikoto (大兄去来穂別尊) was the 17th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Both the Kojiki, and the Nihon Shoki (collectively known as the Kiki) recorded events that took place during Richū's alleged lifetime. This emperor is best known for an assassination attempt on his life by his brother Suminoe after the death of their father Emperor Nintoku. Although no firm dates can be assigned to his life, Richū's brief reign is conventionally considered to have been from 400 to 405.

During his reign local recorders were allegedly appointed for the first time in various provinces, a royal treasury was established, and court waitresses (Uneme) first appeared. Richū had both a wife and a concubine during his lifetime which bore him 4 children (2 boys and 2 girls). None of his children would inherit the throne as Richū appointed the title of crown prince to his other brother Mizuhawake. Richū allegedly died sometime in 405 at the age of 70, and his brother Mizuhawake was crowned as Emperor Hanzei in the following year. While the location of Richū's grave is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb. Modern historians have come to the conclusion that the title of "Emperor" and the name "Richū" were used by later generations to describe him. There is also a general consensus that Richū was not a legendary figure.

Protohistoric narrative
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Richū is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, which are collectively known as Kiki (記紀) or Japanese chronicles. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. These records state that Richū was born to Princess Iwa (磐之媛命) sometime in 336 AD, and was given the name Ōenoizahowake no Mikoto (大兄去来穂別尊). He was the eldest son of Emperor Nintoku, and was later appointed crown prince by his father during the 31st year of his father's reign. (343 AD). When Nintoku died in 399 AD, a period of mourning was followed by a scandal that almost took the Crown Prince's life.

Assassination attempt
Sometime during the interval before Richū assumed the throne, he sent his younger brother, Prince Suminoe no Nakatsu (住吉仲皇子) to make marriage arrangements for his consort Kuro-hime (黒媛). Prince Nakatsu instead passed himself off as his older brother Richū, and seduced Kuro-hime. When the act was done he carelessly left his wrist-bells behind at Kuro-hime's house. Richū later discovered these during his first visit to her house, assumed what his brother had done, but decided to take no action against him. Nakatsu on the other hand was fearful of his scandalous actions and plotted to kill his brother that night. He secretly raised a small group of people who surrounded his brother's palace. Luckily for Richū, some of his loyal retainers intervened by rescuing the heir and carrying him off to Isonokami Shrine in Yamoto. Nakatsu meanwhile set fire to the besieged palace not knowing of his brother's escape.

Richū's other younger brother Prince Mizuhawake (瑞歯別尊) (later Emperor Hanzei) followed him to Yamoto. He was told by Richū though, that unless he proved his loyalty by killing Nakatsu he could not be trusted. Mizuhawake returned to Naniwa and bribed one of Nakatsu's retainers to kill him. Nakatsu was utterly defenseless and unprepared as he assumed his brother had fled and disappeared. He was subsequently stabbed to death by his retainer, and Mizuhawake made his way back to Yamoto to report his death. Richū in turn gratefully granted his younger brother "Mura-ahase granaries.

Reign
Richū was crowned emperor after his brother's failed rebellion had been put to rest in the following year (400 AD). During this time, those who were not executed for their participation in the rebellion were forced to undergo tattooing as a punishment. Kurohime was also officially appointed as a concubine later in that year. Although the two had two sons and a daughter, Richū appointed the title of "Crown Prince" to his brother Prince Mizuhawake (later Emperor Hanzei) in 401 AD. In the year 403 AD, "local recorders were appointed for the first time in various provinces, who noted down statements and communicated writings of the four quarters." Kurohime died sometime in the following year (404 AD) under unclear circumstances. Its said that the Emperor heard a voice in the wind utter mysterious words in the "great void" before a messenger announced of her death. Richū attributed the cause to an offended deity due to the misconduct of an official regarding a shrine. Princess Kusakanohatabino-hime was appointed empress in the following year (405 AD), and the two gave birth to a daughter (Princess Nakashi). A royal treasury was also established in that year which was managed by two appointed Koreans. Emperor Richū's reign ended during its sixth year, when he fell ill and succumbed to disease at the age of 64 or 70. The kiki states that Richū was buried in the misasagi on the "Plain of Mozo no Mimi". His brother Mizuhawake was enthroned as the next emperor in the following year (406 AD).

Historical assessment

Richū is regarded by historians as a ruler during the early 5th century whose existence is generally accepted as fact. Orientalist scholar James Murdoch includes Emperor Richū in the "earliest non-legendary" sovereigns of Japan, while academic Richard Ponsonby-Fane stated that this "may be termed the semi-historical period". Scholar Francis Brinkley lists Emperor Richū under "Protohistoric sovereigns", and notes that rulers from this point forward no longer have reigns of "incredible length". Others such as author Joshua Frydman cite Emperor Richū's lifespan as being realistic in length. Richū has also been possibly identified with King San in the Book of Song by Confucian scholars (松下見林) and Arai Hakuseki. According to Chinese records, King San sent messengers to the Liu Song dynasty at least twice in 421 and 425.

Scholars William George Aston and Brinkley disagree on the introduction of local recorders. Aston states in his reasoning that the arrival of the Korean scholar Wani did not take place until 405 AD, and "[historians] have not yet got down to time of accurate chronologically". Brinkley counters this by saying that Wani's innovation was "not the art of writing, but, in all probability, a knowledge of the Chinese classics". Academic Delmer Brown wrote that during Richū's reign, court waitresses (Uneme) appeared. There were also storehouses (Kura) built in various provinces, and an "Administrator of State Affairs" from his reign on. It is commonly accepted among historians that Emperor Richū was in his late 60s if not 70 when he died.

There is no evidence to suggest that the title tennō was used during the time to which Richū's reign has been assigned. It is certainly possible that he was a chieftain or local clan leader, and that the polity he ruled would have only encompassed a small portion of modern-day Japan. It's also possible he could have had the title of Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning "the great king who rules all under heaven", or ヤマト大王/大君 "Great King of Yamato". The name Richū-tennō was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Richū, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki.

While the actual site of Richū's grave is not known, this regent is traditionally venerated at a kofun-type Imperial tomb in Sakai, Osaka. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Richū's mausoleum, and is formally named Mozumimihara Minamisagi (百舌鳥耳原南陵). It is also identified as the (上石津ミサンザイ古墳) kofun. Outside of the Kiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as "traditional" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.

title: Emperor Richū


text:
Emperor Hanzei

Emperor Hanzei (反正天皇) also known as Emperor Hansho, was the 18th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Both the Kojiki, and the Nihon Shoki (collectively known as the Kiki) recorded events that took place during Hanzei's alleged lifetime. No firm dates can be assigned to this Emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 406 CE to 410 CE. His family included an "Imperial Lady", and "Concubine" which bore him 4 children. Historians have stated that while nothing remarkable took place during Hanzei's brief reign, he did have ranked concubines which is an introduced Chinese custom.

Hanzei died sometime in 410 AD without naming an heir to the throne which caused Imperial ministers to name a successor. While the location of Hanzei's grave is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb. Modern historians have come to the conclusion that the title of "Emperor" and the name "Hanzei" were used by later generations to describe him. There is also a general consensus regarding Hanzei's factual existence.

Protohistoric narrative
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Hanzei is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, which are collectively known as Kiki (記紀) or Japanese chronicles. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. It's recorded in the Kiki that Hanzei was born to Princess Iwa (磐之媛命) sometime in 352 AD, and was given the name Mizuhawake (瑞歯別). He was the third son of Emperor Nintoku, and a younger brother of Emperor Richū. The phrase Mizu ha in the name Mizuhawake translates to beautiful teeth, as he was said to have beautiful "exceptionally large" "teeth like one bone" all of the same size. Only the Kojiki mentions the alleged full grown height of Emperor Hanzei which is said to have been 9 ft. Shortly after Nintoku died, his elder brother Prince Suminoe no Nakatsu (住吉仲皇子) attempted to assassinate his eldest brother Prince Ōenoizahowake (大兄去来穂別尊) (Richū). Mizuhawake was able to bribe one of Nakatsu's retainers into killing Nakatsu in order to prove his loyalty to the future emperor.

According to the Nihon Shoki, Richū bypassed his own children to make his younger brother Mizuhawake crown prince in 401 AD. The given reason is that a Tajihi flower fell into a well which gave the name of Mizuhawake as the next heir to be. Mizuhawake was proclaimed as "Emperor Hanzei" upon Richū's death in 405 AD, and was enthroned sometime in the following year. Shortly after his enthronement Hanzei took Tsuno-hime (津野媛) as an "Imperial concubine", and eventually her younger sister Oto-hime (弟媛) as a consort. The two Empresses bore him 4 children which consisted of 2 sons and 2 daughters. During Emperor Hanzei's reign, he ruled from the palace Shibagaki no Miya at Tajihi in the province of Kawachi (present-day Matsubara, Osaka). During his five year reign the country enjoyed a time of peace. Emperor Hanzei died peacefully in his palace sometime in 410 AD without naming an heir (crown prince). This issue was later settled by Imperial ministers who selected Emperor Nintoku's youngest son Ingyō as the next emperor.

Historical assessment

Hanzei is regarded by historians as a ruler during the early 5th century whose existence is generally accepted as fact. Scholar Francis Brinkley lists Emperor Hanzei under "Protohistoric sovereigns", but notes that his short reign was "not remarkable for anything" except for indirect evidence that Chinese customs were beginning to be adopted by the Japanese court. Scholar William George Aston notes in his translation of the Nihon Shoki that "three ranks of concubines are mentioned", which at the time were of Chinese origin (ranked concubines). Others such as author Ryoichi Maenosono (Kokushi Daijiten) identify Emperor Hanzei with "King Chin of the Five kings of Wa. According to Chinese records, King Chin sent a tribute to the Liu Song dynasty in 438 AD.

British academic and Japanologist Basil Hall Chamberlain notes in his translation of the Kojiki that no accurate information exists regarding the ancient Japanese measures used to get Hanzei's alleged height of 9 ft. He went on to say that "the English equivalents used in this passage correspond but approximately to the modern Japanese standards". As for Hanzei's ascension, the Nihon Shoki mentions that Tajihi is now known as the itadori flower. Aston notes though, that the story of a Tajihi flower falling into a well is inconsistent with a later passage in the Nihon Shoki which refers to Tajihi as a location (not a flower).

There is no evidence to suggest that the title tennō was used during the time to which Hanzei's reign has been assigned. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning "the great king who rules all under heaven". An alternate title could have also been ヤマト大王/大君 "Great King of Yamato". The name Hanzei-tennō was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Hanzei, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki.

While the actual site of Hanzei's grave is not known, this regent is traditionally venerated at a kofun-type Imperial tomb in Sakai, Osaka. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Hanzei's mausoleum, and is formally named formally named Mozu no mimihara no kita no misasagi (百舌鳥耳原北陵). Outside of the Kiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as "traditional" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.

title: Emperor Hanzei


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Emperor Ingyō

Emperor Ingyō (允恭天皇) was the 19th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Both the Kojiki, and the Nihon Shoki (collectively known as the Kiki) recorded events that took place during Ingyō's alleged lifetime. No firm dates can be assigned to this Emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 410 to 453.

While the location of Ingyō's grave (if any) is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb.

Protohistoric narrative
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Ingyō is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, which are collectively known as Kiki (記紀) or Japanese chronicles. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. It's recorded in the Kiki that Ingyō was born to Princess Iwa (磐之媛命) somewhere between 373 and 375 AD and was given the name Oasazuma Wakugo no Sukune (雄朝津間稚子宿禰). He was the fourth son of Emperor Nintoku, making him the youngest brother of Richū and Hanzei. After the death of his brother Hanzei in 410 AD Oasazuma was approached by ministers who had unanimously chosen him as the next Emperor. Oasazuma declined the offer stating that his brothers had "despised him as a fool". He also called himself "unlucky" as he claimed to be suffering from an unmentioned paralyzing illness.

After more than two years had passed, Oasazuma was finally persuaded by his favorite concubine Oshisaka no Ōnakatsuhime to accept the throne. Oasazuma was formally enthroned as Emperor Ingyō and his concubine became the next Kōgō. Sometime in early 414 an envoy was sent to Silla and procured a physician for the ailing Emperor. The physician attributed the problem to Ingyō's legs and was able to cure him in August of that year. In 415 AD, Ingyō reformed the system of family and clan names. This had been an ongoing issue as many families either gave false names or used a clan title with a ranking they hadn't earned. In the middle of 416 AD, an earthquake hit Japan which disrupted the "temporary" burial process of Emperor Hanzei.

Sometime in the winter of 418 AD, empress Oshisaka no Ōnakatsuhime unintentionally introduced her husband to her younger sister at a banquet. Emperor Ingyō fell deeply in love and sent a messenger afterwards to summon her. He learned that the woman's name was "Otohime" ("youngest princess"), but was given the designation of "Sotohori Iratsume" ("clothing pass maiden") by local men for her beauty. Otohime initially refused to comply as she didn't want to hurt her sister's feelings. Not wanting to face punishment for disobeying, the messenger stayed with Otohime until she agreed to come. Oshisaka was not pleased by this and refused to let Otohime into the Imperial palace. Ingyō thus built Otohime a separate residence nearby where he often sneaked off to.

Empress Oshisaka no Ōnakatsuhime bore Ingyō a total of nine children (5 sons and 4 daughters). In 434 AD Ingyō chose to name his first son Kinashi no Karu as Crown Prince. This was unknowingly a controversial choice as Kinashi was later accused of an incestuous relationship with his sister, Princess Karu no Ōiratsume. Ingyō couldn't punish his son due to the title he had bestowed upon him, so instead chose an indirect approach by banishing his daughter Karu no Ōiratsume to Iyo. When Emperor Ingyō died sometime in 453 AD, the king of Silla grieved so much that he presented Japan with 80 musicians to comfort Ingyo's soul. Kinashi no Karu meanwhile faced a challenge as his younger brother Anaho was favored to be heir apparent.

Historical assessment

Ingyō is regarded by historians as a ruler during the early 5th century whose existence is generally accepted as fact. Scholar Francis Brinkley lists Emperor Ingyō under "Protohistoric sovereigns" whose reign was occupied by an affair and scandal by his son. Other scholars identify Ingyō with King Sai in the Book of Song. This would have been a king of Japan (referred to as Wa by contemporary Chinese scholars) who is said to have sent messengers to the Liu Song dynasty at least twice, in 443 and 451. However, there is no record in the Kiki of messengers being sent.

Titles and dating
There is no evidence to suggest that the title tennō was used during the time to which Ingyō's reign has been assigned. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning "the great king who rules all under heaven". An alternate title could have also been ヤマト大王/大君 "Great King of Yamato". The name Ingyō-tennō was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Ingyō, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki.

Outside of the Kiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as "traditional" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.

Events during reign
Early on in his reign, Emperor Ingyō chose to send envoys to Korea for medical assistance. Brinkley took note of this and stated that Korea was evidently regarded as the "home of healing science". He also attributed the "many other" arts which were borrowed from China. In regard to reforms, Sholar William George Aston notes in his translation of the Nihon Shoki that when Ingyō reformed the system of family and clan names, it would have only applied to dominant caste. At the time the general populace of Japan kept their personal names and "cared little for geopolitics". Emperor Ingyō's later affair with "Otohime" is regarded as important by Brinkley as it illustrates the manners and customs at the time. He also suggests that the "atmosphere of loose morality" was in part responsible for Kinashi no Karu's incestuous relationship.

It is agreed upon by Basil Hall Chamberlain's translation of the Kojiki, and Aston's translation of the Nihon Shoki that Prince Kinashi no Karu was probably appointed crown prince during his father's lifetime. At the time, marriage between children of the same father had always been allowed as long as the mothers involved were different. Marriage of children of the same mother of whom Kinashi no Karu was guilty of was considered incest. Aston notes in his translation of the Nihon Shoki that it's doubtful Karu no Ōiratsume was banished by her father. Historically women have always been more lightly punished than men for the same offense, and "the particular character of the fault in this case makes such a discrimination all the more reasonable".

Francis Brinkley comments that four facts present themselves during Emperor Ingyō's reign: "Men wore wristbands and garters to which grelots were attached, that a high value was set for pearls, that metal was used for the construction of great man's gates, and the first earthquake is said to have been experienced in 416 AD". The latter of these things allegedly leveled the Imperial Palace at Kyoto from the severity of the Earth's tremors. Modern sources have since questioned the reliability of this "first earthquake", opting instead to recognize another that took place in Nara prefecture on May 28, 599 during the reign of Empress Suiko.

Gravesite
While the actual site of Ingyō's grave is not known, this regent is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine in Fujiidera Osaka. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Ingyō's mausoleum/kofun-type Imperial tomb. Formally, this tomb is called Emperor Ingyō's misasagi (恵我長野北陵,), but is also given the name Ichinoyama Kofun (市ノ山古墳（市野山古墳). Another burial candidate for Emperor Ingyō's is the Tsudoshiroyama Kofun (津堂城山古墳), which is also located in Fujiidera. Ingyō is also enshrined at the Imperial Palace along with other emperors and members of the Imperial Family at the Three Palace Sanctuaries.

title: Emperor Ingyō


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Emperor Ankō

Emperor Ankō (安康天皇) (401 – 456) was the 20th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.

No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 453 to 456.

Protohistoric narrative
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Ankō is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, which are collectively known as Kiki (記紀) or Japanese chronicles. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. It's recorded in the Kiki that Ingyō was born to Oshisaka no Ōnakatsuhime (忍坂大中姫) somewhere in 400 AD, and was given the name Anaho (穴穂). While he was the third son of Emperor Ingyō, the title of "Crown Prince" was not bestowed upon him in his father's lifetime. For this particular sovereign, the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki tell different versions of what allegedly happened in regard to Emperor Ankō's older brother Prince Kinashi no Karu.

War between Anaho and Kinashi
After Emperor Ingyō's death in 453 AD, Crown Prince Kinashi no Karu faced a mounting problem. The incestuous relationship with his sister, Princess Karu no Ōiratsume had caused the public to shun him and his retainers refused to follow. Karu chose to take up arms against his younger brother Anaho (穴穂) as his retainers had instead given their allegiance to him. Prince Anaho (穴穂) responded with a force of his own which prompted Karu to flee and take refuge at a noble family's residence. From this point on, the Kiki splits narratives that converge again with the same fatal outcome. In the Nihon Shoki's version of events, Kinashi no Karu takes his final stand at the residence where he commits an honorary suicide. The Nihon Shoki does not say what happened to Princess Karu no Ōiratsume other than her being banished to Iyo by Emperor Ingyō during his lifetime for incest. In the Kojikis version of events, Kinashi no Karu surrenders to his younger brother and is banished to Iyo. Karu no Ōiratsume follows him to Iyo afterwards and the two commit suicide together.

Reign
Prince Anaho (穴穂) was enthroned as Emperor Ankō towards the end of 453 AD. During this time the capital was moved to Isonokami (located in Yamoto) where the new emperor had his palace. One of Ankō's first decisions in the following year was to arrange a marriage between his younger brother, Prince Ōhatuse no Wakatakeru (大泊瀬稚武皇子), and Hatahihime, who was a sister of his uncle Prince Ookusaka (大草香皇子). Ankō dispatched his servant Ne-no-omi (根使主) to negotiate with Ookusaka, and he happily consented to the marriage. As a token of approval, he entrusted Ne-no-omi with a richly jeweled coronet to be presented to the Emperor. Unbeknownst to Ankō, his servant chose to keep the coronet for himself and lied to him by saying Ookusaka refused to comply. Ankō believed Ne-no-omi's words and infuriated with rage sent his soldiers to kill Ookusaka and take his wife Nakashi (Emperor Richū’s daughter) as his Kogo. Hatahihime was then married to Ōhatuse in accordance with the Emperor's wishes. Aside from his eventual demise, there aren't any other noteworthy events during Ankō's reign.

Death
Ankō married Nakashi whom he "loved deeply" in 455 AD, but before this time she already had a son named Mayowa no Ōkimi (Prince Mayowa). The young prince (6 years old at the time) was able to escape punishment on "his mother's account" and was brought up in the royal palace. Sometime in the Autumn of 456 AD, Emperor Ankō confided to Nakashi that he was worried one day Mayowa may seek to avenge his father's death. Mayowa overheard this remark and creeped to the side of his step-father who was asleep in Nakashi's lap. He then proceeded to cut off Ankō's head with his own sword. At the time of his death Ankō was 56 years old, had no children of his own, and according to the Nihon Shoki was buried sometime in 459 AD. Prince Ōhatuse no Wakatakeru (Emperor Ingyō's youngest son) became the next Emperor towards the end of 456 AD after killing Prince Mayowa and the rest of his competition.

Historical assessment
Ankō is regarded by historians as a ruler during the mid 5th century whose existence is generally accepted as fact. Scholar Francis Brinkley lists Emperor Ankō under "Protohistoric sovereigns" whose reign was "a discreditable page of Japanese History". Other scholars identify Ankō with King Kō in the Book of Song. This would have been a king of Japan (referred to as Wa by contemporary Chinese scholars) who is said to have sent tribute to the Southern Dynasty of China in 462, during the reign of Emperor Taiwu of the Northern Wei. It also mentions that King Kō was appointed as the "General of the East". However, there is no record in the Kiki of any tribute being sent during this time.

Titles and dating
There is no evidence to suggest that the title tennō was used during the time to which Ankō's reign has been assigned. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning "the great king who rules all under heaven". An alternate title could have also been ヤマト大王/大君 "Great King of Yamato". The name Ankō-tennō was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Ankō, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki.

Outside of the Kiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as "traditional" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.

Events during reign
Emperor Ankō had a short 3-year reign which is largely confined to an event that had deadly consequences. Sholar William George Aston notes in his translation of the Nihon Shoki that Hatahihime and Prince Ookusaka (大草香皇子) are implied in the Shukai as grandchildren rather than children of Emperor Nintoku. He states that the "obvious explanation" is that the "chronicle is entirely untrustworthy". At the point where Emperor Ankō's servant Ne-no-omi (根使主) relays false information regarding Prince Ookusaka's alleged rejection, the emperor had no reason to doubt him. Frank Brinkley notes that it was "not customary in those days" to conduct investigations (in this case a servant).

The exact account of Emperor Ankō's death is also questionable given that a child could conceive or commit such a thing. Scholar Francis Brinkley suggests that Empress Nakashi played a role in her husband's death. He also suggests that answer might lie with Prince Ōhatuse no Wakatakeru (大泊瀬稚武皇子) who later became Emperor Yūryaku. Brinkley argues that if Ōhatuse had no issue with killing several of his family members to obtain the throne, then there is no reason why he wouldn't have started with the reigning emperor.

Gravesite
While the actual site of Ankō's grave is not known, this regent is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine at the ruins of Horai Castle in Nara City. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Ankō's mausoleum/kofun-type Imperial tomb. Formally, this tomb is called Emperor Ankō's misasagi (菅原伏見西陵), but is also given the name Kojo No. 1 Mound (古城1号墳). Another possible burial theory involves the Horaisan Kofun (宝来山古墳), whose owner remains unknown. Ankō is also enshrined at the Imperial Palace along with other emperors and members of the Imperial Family at the Three Palace Sanctuaries.

title: Emperor Ankō


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Emperor Yūryaku

Emperor Yūryaku (雄略天皇) (417/18 – 479) was the 21st Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. According to the Kojiki, this Emperor is said to have ruled from the Thirteenth Day of the Eleventh Month of 456 (Heishin) until his death on the Seventh Day of the Eight Month of 479 (Kibi).

Protohistoric narrative
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Yūryaku is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, which are collectively known as Kiki (記紀) or Japanese chronicles. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. It is recorded in the Kiki that Yūryaku was born to Oshisaka no Ōnakatsuhime (忍坂大中姫) sometime in 417 or 418 AD, and was given the name Ōhatsuse no Wakatakeru (大泊瀬稚武皇子). As the fifth and youngest son of Emperor Ingyō he was never given the title of "Crown Prince" due to his two older living brothers.

Ascension
Ōhatsuse was thrown into a fit of rage when he learned that his brother Emperor Ankō was assassinated in 456 AD. He then immediately became suspicious of his two elder brothers as conspirers. Ōhatsuse's first action was to question Prince Shirahiko regarding what could have happened. Shirahiko allegedly knew Ōhatsuse was up to no good, so he sat silently which prompted Ōhatsuse to kill him both individually with a sword. He then turned his rage towards the boy assassin Mayowa no Ōkimi (Prince Mayowa), and his other brother Kurohiko by burning him to death. This just left Emperor Richū's eldest son Prince Ichinobe no Oshiwa in contention for the throne.

Ōhatsuse was resentful that Ankō had formally wished to transfer the kingdom to Ichinobe. Both the Nihon Shoki and Kojiki describe how Ōhatsuse took Prince Ichinobe and his younger brother Prince Mima out hunting and "treacherously" killed them. The sons of Prince Ichinobe fled to Harima and went into hiding, later becoming Emperor Kenzō and Emperor Ninken. Ōhatsuse (later known as Emperor Yūryaku) was then enthroned sometime afterwards in November 456. The new emperor subsequently made Asakura no Miya at Sakurai, Nara the location of his imperial palace. Emperor Richū's widow Kusaka no Hatabi no hime was appointed Empress with three concubines in March 457.

Reign
According to the Kiki, Emperor Yūryaku's reign was full of tyranny and cruelty. He allegedly ordered a girl to "have her four limbs stretched on a tree and be roasted to death" due to misplaced affection. Another account states that he killed one of his servants during a hunt because his servant did not understand how to cut up animal meat. Yūryaku also allegedly removed a high official to a distant post so he could help himself to the man's wife. The Emperor arbitrary and capriciously killed so many men and women that he was referred to as Emperor of Great Wickedness by the public. However, it is noted that Yūryaku improved his behavior after being admonished by the empress. On a more positive side, Yūryaku greatly encouraged arts and crafts during his reign. Silkworms were cultivated by the Empress, and expert handicraftsmen were commissioned from Baekje (Korea). While the Empress herself never bore Yūryaku any children, he had three sons and two daughters with his concubines.

In the 22nd year of his reign (477 AD) Yūryaku moved the temple of Toyoukeohokami (present: Gaiku temple) from Tamba to Yamada in Ise.

In 463, Yūryaku Tennō invited the thunder god of the Mimuro hill to come to the Imperial Palace, and ordered Chiisakobe no muraji Sugaru to fetch the deity. He obliged, thinking the supernatural being would have no reason to refuse the invitation, and rode carrying a halberd with a red banner, symbolising his office of royal messenger. Soon enough, the thunder struck, and Sugaru enlisted the help of priests to enshrine the kami into a portable carriage, to be brought in the Emperor's presence, as a great serpent. But, said Emperor neglected to practice proper ritual purification and religious abstinence. The thunder kami then showed his displeasure through thundering and threatening fiery eyeballs, and Emperor Yūryaku fled into the interior of the Palace while covering his eyes. The great serpent was returned to Mimuro, and the Emperor made many offerings to appease the angry deity. This story is recorded in Nihongi and mentioned by William George Aston, in "Shinto, the Ancient Religion of Japan" as well as several other books.

Historical assessment
Yūryaku is regarded by historians as a ruler during the 5th century whose existence is generally accepted as fact. Scholar Francis Brinkley lists Emperor Yūryaku under "Protohistoric sovereigns" where he remarks that while some historians have described him as an "austere" man, "few readers of his annals will be disposed to endure such a lenient verdict." Scottish Orientalist scholar and journalist James Murdoch regards Yūryaku as a "much maligned person who was a strong if somewhat ferocious ruler." The Emperor is also described as a "mighty hunter" who at one point had the God "Hitokotonushi" accompany him in the chase.

A cognitive analysis "as deciphered in the Nihon shoki" was conducted in 2024 by the National Institute of Japanese Literature. In this analysis Emperor Yūryaku was included as an example of "impulsive murder and the tendency to become enraged." Factors such as "the disproportion between the triggering events", "the violence expressed by the emperor on such occasions (quite extreme in degree)", and the "frequent occurrence of such descriptions" were then considered for a conclusion. It is suggested that Emperor Yūryaku may have had an "intermittent explosive disorder, a type of Impulse-control disorder."

The Emperor's interest in poetry is amongst the more well-documented aspects of his character and reign. Poems attributed to him are included in the Man'yōshū, and a number of his verses are preserved in the Kojiki and the Nihonshoki.

Archaeological research has also confirmed that large keyhole-shaped tombs belonging to the chiefs of local ruling families disappeared from around the end of the 5th century when Yūryaku reigned.

Outside of the Kiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as "traditional" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.

Great King of Yamoto
During this moment in history, the calendar system of the Nihon Shoki changes from before and after Yūryaku's reign. As his name is mentioned at the beginning of the Man'yōshū and Nihon Ryōiki, this is seen as a historical turning point. Previously the Japanese archipelago had been a confederation of powerful ruling families from various regions. This appeared to have changed with the appearance of Emperor Yuryaku as the autocratic rule of the Great King was established and a centralized system centered on the Great King began. This is further supported by a major discovery that occurred in 1968 when the iron Inariyama burial-mound sword was extracted from a tomb. In 1978, X-ray analysis revealed a gold-inlaid inscription that comprises at least 115 Chinese characters. The given year on the sword is denoted as "xin-hai" ("Year of the Metal Pig") according to the Chinese sexagenary cycle, in which the name of the year is recycled every 60 years. While this year is generally regarded in Japan to correspond to 471 AD, at least one historian suggests that 531 is a more likely date.

The person buried in the tomb is given the name "Wowake", who was thought to be an influential warrior in the region. King Waka Takiru in the transcription is thought to be the same person as Ōhatsuse-wakatakeru-no-mikoto as mentioned in the Nihon Shoki, an alias of Emperor Yūryaku. As each inscription contains the name of an official position, this suggests that a system similar to the Bemin was already in place. While the Eta Funayama Sword also apparently mentions the name "Waka Takiru", many characters on that sword are illegible possibly due to polishing by a Japanese sword sharpener at the end of the Taisho period. If Yūryaku's name can be corroborated to this sword then it can be interpreted that the power of the Great King had already extended from Kyushu to Togoku by the latter half of the 5th century.

There is no evidence to suggest that the title tennō (meaning "emperor") was used during the time to which Yūryaku's reign has been assigned. Instead, his title could have possibly been Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning "the great king who rules all under heaven", or ヤマト大王/大君 "Great King of Yamato". The name Yūryaku-tennō was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Yūryaku, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki.

King Bu
There is also a theory that Emperor Yūryaku is synonymous with King Bu (武) as written in the Chinese records. According to the Book of Song, Bu dispatched envoys to Emperor Shun of Song (a Southern Chinese dynasty) in both 477 and 478 AD. The first envoy was to inform the Chinese emperor that King Kō (Emperor Ankō) had died, and his older brother had become king. It is written that he called himself "King of Wa", and the military commander of several different Kingdoms. Its written that in the following year Emperor Shun appointed Bu the title of Grand Peacekeeper-General of the East. The full context of this latter passage describes how Bu's ancestors conquered countries, and expanded their power to the east and west. It describes how they crossed the sea to the north and reached the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. Although the kings of Wa (Japan) repeatedly requested that the Emperors of the Song dynasty recognize their military control over Baekje, their efforts were denied. The reason for this is thought to be that the Song dynasty placed importance on Baekje, which was located in a strategically important area. By not offering recognition the Song Emperors could put the Northern Wei in check, and avoid opposition from Goguryeo which was in conflict with Wa. Scholar Francis Brinkley notes that the power of the Koma clan (supported by the Liu Song dynasty) in Goguryeo increased steadily during this time. Brinkley suggests that Emperor Yūryaku's attempts to establish close relations with the Chinese Emperor seem to be from a desire to isolate Korea, which ended in failure.

The other two recorded instances regarding King Bu are mentioned in the books of Qi, and Liang. As compared to the former mention in 478 AD, these are not considered to be reliable. Japanese historian Mori Kimiaki points out that both of these appointments coincide with the founding year of their respective dynasties. This is thought to be an administrative matter, and it is not clear whether King Bu (Yūryaku) himself requested it or not. There is at least 1 theory that supports the envoy being sent to Southern Qi in 479 as being factual. This is solely based though, on the description in the title of Shoban Shokugu Illustrated Scrolls (諸番職貢図巻) included in Ainichi Ginro Sho Ga Zuroku (愛日吟盧書画続録). The fourth and final appointment allegedly made by King Bu (Yūryaku) falls outside of his recorded timeline. As the Kiki states that Emperor Yūryaku died in 479, the last given year of 502 AD would be implausible.

Gravesite
While the actual site of Yūryaku's grave is not known, this regent is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) in Habikino, Osaka. As designated by the Imperial Household Agency as Yūryaku's mausoleum, its formal name is Tajihi no Takawashi-no-hara no misasagi. Aside from this shrine in Osaka, there is another burial site named Kawachi Otsukayama Kofun (河内大塚山古墳) where Yūryaku is a possible burial candidate. Those in doubt of this theory though, point to the construction style of the Kofun which may have begun several decades after Emperor Yūryaku's death. This has led some researchers to add Emperor Ankan as a burial candidate for the Kofun. Yūryaku is also enshrined at the Imperial Palace along with other emperors and members of the Imperial Family at the Three Palace Sanctuaries. He is additionally deified at the Katsuragi Ichigoshu Shrine (葛城一言主神社) in Gose, Nara.

title: Emperor Yūryaku


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Emperor Seinei

Emperor Seinei (清寧天皇) (444 – 27 February 484) was the 22nd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.

No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 480 to 484.

Legendary narrative
Seinei was a 5th-century monarch. The reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 – 571 AD), the 29th emperor, is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates; however, the conventionally accepted names and dates of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of Emperor Kanmu (737–806), the 50th sovereign of the imperial dynasty.

According to Kojiki and Nihonshoki, he was a son of Emperor Yūryaku and his consort Katsuragi no Karahime. Seinei's full sister was Princess Takuhatahime. His name in birth was Shiraka (白髪皇子). It is said that the color of his hair was white since birth. After the death of his father, Seinei won the fight against Prince Hoshikawa, his brother, for the throne and so succeeded his father.

Seinei's contemporary title would not have been tennō, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning "the great king who rules all under heaven". Alternatively, Seinei might have been referred to as ヤマト大王/大君 or the "Great King of Yamato".

Seinei fathered no children; however, two grandsons of the 17th Emperor, Emperor Richū, were found—later to ascend as Prince Woke and Prince Oke. Seinei adopted them as his heirs.

The actual site of Seinei's grave is not known. The emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Osaka.

The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Seinei's mausoleum. It is formally named Kawachi no Sakado no hara no misasagi.

title: Emperor Seinei


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Emperor Kenzō

Emperor Kenzō (顕宗天皇) (450 – 2 June 487) was the 23rd legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.

No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 1 February 485 to 2 June 487.

Legendary narrative
Prince Woke (袁祁王), later to become Emperor Kenzō, is said to have been the grandson of Emperor Richū, and the son of Ichinobe-no Oshiwa. He would have been quite young when Emperor Yūryaku shot the arrow which killed his father during a hunting expedition; and this caused both Prince Woke and his older brother, Prince Oke, to flee for their lives. According to Harima no Kuni Fudoki, they found refuge at Akashi in Harima Province where they hid by living in obscurity. Histories from that period explained that the two brothers sought to blend into this rural community by posing as common herdsmen.

It is said that the Oke came by chance to Akashi; and at that time, Prince Oke revealed his true identity. This intermediary re-introduced the lost cousins to Emperor Seinei, who had by this time ascended to the throne after the death of his father, the former Emperor Yūryaku. Seinei invited both brothers to return the court; and he adopted both of them as sons and heirs.

At Seinei's death, he had no other heirs than Prince Oke and Prince Woke, whose father had been killed by Yūraku. At this point, Woke wanted his elder brother to become Emperor; but Oke refused. The two could not reach an agreement. The great men of the court insisted that one or the other of the brothers must accept the throne; but in the end, Woke proved to be more adamant. Prince Woke agreed to accept the throne; and Kenzō was ultimately proclaimed as the new Emperor—which created a sense of relief for all the people who had endured this period of uncertainty.

Kenzō is considered to have ruled the country during the late-5th century, but there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study.

Kenzō's contemporary title would not have been tennō, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning "the great king who rules all under heaven". Alternatively, Kenzō might have been referred to as ヤマト大王/大君 or the "Great King of Yamato".

Kenzō's reign
It is recorded that his capital was at Chikatsu Asuka no Yatsuri no Miya (近飛鳥八釣宮) in Yamato Province. The location of the palace is thought to have been in present-day Osaka Prefecture or Nara Prefecture.

Murray reports that the only event of major consequence during Kenzō's reign had to do with the filial respect he showed for his murdered father. Kenzō arranged to have his father's remains retrieved and re-interred in a mausoleum appropriate for the son of an Emperor and the father of another.

Kenzō died at age 37, reigning only three years. He too had no other heirs; so his brother would follow him on the throne. His Empress was Princess Naniwa-no-Ono (難波小野王), Prince Oka-no-Wakugo's daughter (also Prince Iwaki's granddaughter and Emperor Yuryaku's great-granddaughter).

The actual site of Kenzō's grave is not known. The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Osaka.

The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kenzō's mausoleum. It is formally named Kataoka no Iwatsuki no oka no kita no misasagi.

Consorts and children
Empress (Kōgō) : Princess Naniwa-no-Ono (難波小野王), Prince Oka-no-Wakugo's daughter (also Prince Iwaki's granddaughter and Emperor Yuryaku's great-granddaughter)

title: Emperor Kenzō


text:
Emperor Ninken

Emperor Ninken (仁賢天皇) (449 – 9 September 498) was the 24th legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 4 February 488 to 9 September 498.

Legendary narrative
Ninken is considered to have ruled the country during the late-5th century, but there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study.

In his youth, he was known as Prince Oke (億計). Along with his younger brother, Prince Woke, Oke was raised to greater prominence when Emperor Seinei died without an heir. The two young princes were said to be grandsons of Emperor Richū. Each of these brothers would ascend the throne as adopted heirs of Seinei, although it is unclear whether they had been "found" in Seinei's lifetime or only after that.

Oke's younger brother, who would become posthumously known as Emperor Kenzō, ascended before his elder brother. This unconventional sequence was in accordance with an agreement made by the two brothers.

Ninken's reign
When Emperor Kenzo died without heirs, Prince Oke succeeded him as Emperor Ninken.

Ninken's contemporary title would not have been tennō, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning "the great king who rules all under heaven". Alternatively, Ninken might have been referred to as ヤマト大王/大君 or the "Great King of Yamato".

Ninken married to Emperor Yūryaku's daughter Kasuga no Ōiratsume no Himemiko, a second cousin of him. Their daughter Tashiraka was later married to Emperor Keitai, successor or possibly usurper after her brother, and became mother of Emperor Kinmei, a future monarch and lineal ancestor of all future monarchs of Japan. There apparently was also another daughter, Princess Tachibana, who in turn is recorded to have become a wife of Senka and mother of Princess Iwahime, who herself became a consort of Kimmei and bore Emperor Bidatsu, a future monarch and lineal ancestor of current monarchs of Japan.

Ninken was succeeded by his son, who would accede as Emperor Buretsu.

The actual site of Ninken's grave is not known. The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Osaka.

The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Ninken's mausoleum. It is formally named Hanyū no Sakamoto no misasagi.

Consorts and children

 * Empress (Kōgō) : Princess Kasuga no Ōiratsume (春日大娘皇女), Emperor Yūryaku's daughter
 * Princess Takarashi-no-Oiratsume-Hime (高橋大娘皇女)
 * Princess Asazuma-Hime (朝嬬皇女)
 * Princess Tashiraka (手白香皇女), married to Emperor Keitai
 * Princess Kusuhi (樟氷皇女)
 * Princess Tachibana no Nakatsu (橘仲皇女), married to Emperor Senka
 * Prince Ohatsuse no Wakasazaki (小泊瀬稚鷦鷯尊), later Emperor Buretsu
 * Princess Mawaka (真稚皇女)
 * Consort (Hi) : Nukakimi-no-Iratsume (糠君娘), Wani Nitsume's daughter
 * Princess Kasuga no Yamada (春日山田皇女), married to Emperor Ankan

title: Emperor Ninken