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Embroidery

Embroidery is the art of decorating fabric or other materials using a needle to stitch thread or yarn. Embroidery may also incorporate other materials such as pearls, beads, quills, and sequins. In modern days, embroidery is usually seen on hats, clothing, blankets, and handbags. Embroidery is available in a wide variety of thread or yarn colour. It is often used to personalize gifts or clothing items.

Some of the basic techniques or stitches of the earliest embroidery are chain stitch, buttonhole or blanket stitch, running stitch, satin stitch, and cross stitch. Those stitches remain the fundamental techniques of hand embroidery today.

Origins
The process used to tailor, patch, mend and reinforce cloth fostered the development of sewing techniques, and the decorative possibilities of sewing led to the art of embroidery. Indeed, the remarkable stability of basic embroidery stitches has been noted:

"It is a striking fact that in the development of embroidery ... there are no changes of materials or techniques which can be felt or interpreted as advances from a primitive to a later, more refined stage. On the other hand, we often find in early works a technical accomplishment and high standard of craftsmanship rarely attained in later times."

The art of embroidery has been found worldwide and several early examples have been found. Works in China have been dated to the Warring States period (5th–3rd century BC). In a garment from Migration period Sweden, roughly 300–700 AD, the edges of bands of trimming are reinforced with running stitch, back stitch, stem stitch, tailor's buttonhole stitch, and Whip stitch, but it is uncertain whether this work simply reinforced the seams or should be interpreted as decorative embroidery.

Historical applications and techniques
Depending on time, location and materials available, embroidery could be the domain of a few experts or a widespread, popular technique. This flexibility led to a variety of works, from the royal to the mundane. Examples of high status items include elaborately embroidered clothing, religious objects, and household items often were seen as a mark of wealth and status.

In medieval England, Opus Anglicanum, a technique used by professional workshops and guilds in medieval England, was used to embellish textiles used in church rituals. In 16th century England, some books, usually bibles or other religious texts, had embroidered bindings. The Bodleian Library in Oxford contains one presented to Queen Elizabeth I in 1583. It also owns a copy of The Epistles of Saint Paul, whose cover was reputedly embroidered by the Queen.

In 18th-century England and its colonies, with the rise of the merchant class and the wider availability of luxury materials, rich embroideries began to appear in a secular context. These embroideries took the form of items displayed in private homes of well-to-do citizens, as opposed to a church or royal setting. Even so, the embroideries themselves may still have had religious themes. Samplers employing fine silks were produced by the daughters of wealthy families. Embroidery was a skill marking a girl's path into womanhood as well as conveying rank and social standing.

Embroidery was an important art and signified social status in the Medieval Islamic world as well. The 17th-century Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi called it the "craft of the two hands". In cities such as Damascus, Cairo and Istanbul, embroidery was visible on handkerchiefs, uniforms, flags, calligraphy, shoes, robes, tunics, horse trappings, slippers, sheaths, pouches, covers, and even on leather belts. Craftsmen embroidered items with gold and silver thread. Embroidery cottage industries, some employing over 800 people, grew to supply these items.

In the 16th century, in the reign of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, his chronicler Abu al-Fazl ibn Mubarak wrote in the famous Ain-i-Akbari: "'His majesty [Akbar] pays much attention to various stuffs; hence Irani, Ottoman, and Mongolian articles of wear are in much abundance especially textiles embroidered in the patterns of Nakshi, Saadi, Chikhan, Ari, Zardozi, Wastli, Gota and Kohra. The imperial workshops in the towns of Lahore, Agra, Fatehpur and Ahmedabad turn out many masterpieces of workmanship in fabrics, and the figures and patterns, knots and variety of fashions which now prevail astonish even the most experienced travelers. Taste for fine material has since become general, and the drapery of embroidered fabrics used at feasts surpasses every description.'"

Conversely, embroidery is also a folk art, using materials that were accessible to nonprofessionals. Examples include Hardanger embroidery from Norway; Merezhka from Ukraine; Mountmellick embroidery from Ireland; Nakshi kantha from Bangladesh and West Bengal; Achachi from Peru; and Brazilian embroidery. Many techniques had a practical use such as Sashiko from Japan, which was used as a way to reinforce clothing.

While historically viewed as a pastime, activity, or hobby, intended just for women, embroidery has often been used as a form of biography. Women who were unable to access a formal education or, at times, writing implements, were often taught embroidery and utilized it as a means of documenting their lives by telling stories through their embroidery. In terms of documenting the histories of marginalized groups, especially women of color both within the United States and around the world, embroidery is a means of studying the everyday lives of those whose lives largely went unstudied throughout much of history.

21st century

Since the late 2010s, there has been a growth in the popularity of embroidering by hand. As a result of visual social media such as Pinterest and Instagram, artists are able to share their work more extensively, which has inspired younger generations to pick up needle and threads.

Contemporary embroidery artists believe hand embroidery has grown in popularity as a result of an increasing need for relaxation and digitally disconnecting practices.

Modern hand embroidery, as opposed to cross-stitching, is characterized by a more "liberal" approach, where stitches are more freely combined in unconventional ways to create various textures and designs.

Climate crisis
Training women in traditional embriodery skills in Inner Mongolia, was begun by Bai Jingying as a reaction to the financial pressures caused by the impact of climate change, including desertification, in the region.

Classification
Embroidery can be classified according to what degree the design takes into account the nature of the base material and by the relationship of stitch placement to the fabric. The main categories are free or surface embroidery, counted-thread embroidery, and needlepoint or canvas work.

In free or surface embroidery, designs are applied without regard to the weave of the underlying fabric. Examples include crewel and traditional Chinese and Japanese embroidery.

Counted-thread embroidery patterns are created by making stitches over a predetermined number of threads in the foundation fabric. Counted-thread embroidery is more easily worked on an even-weave foundation fabric such as embroidery canvas, aida cloth, or specially woven cotton and linen fabrics. Examples include cross-stitch and some forms of blackwork embroidery.

While similar to counted thread in regards to technique, in canvas work or needlepoint, threads are stitched through a fabric mesh to create a dense pattern that completely covers the foundation fabric. Examples of canvas work include bargello and Berlin wool work.

Embroidery can also be classified by the similarity of its appearance. In drawn thread work and cutwork, the foundation fabric is deformed or cut away to create holes that are then embellished with embroidery, often with thread in the same color as the foundation fabric. When created with white thread on white linen or cotton, this work is collectively referred to as whitework. However, whitework can either be counted or free. Hardanger embroidery is a counted embroidery and the designs are often geometric. Conversely, styles such as Broderie anglaise are similar to free embroidery, with floral or abstract designs that are not dependent on the weave of the fabric.

Materials

A needle is the main stitching tool in embroidery, and comes in various sizes and types. The fabrics and yarns used in traditional embroidery vary from place to place. Wool, linen, and silk have been in use for thousands of years for both fabric and yarn. Today, embroidery thread is manufactured in cotton, rayon, and novelty yarns as well as in traditional wool, linen, and silk. Ribbon embroidery uses narrow ribbon in silk or silk/organza blend ribbon, most commonly to create floral motifs.

Surface embroidery techniques such as chain stitch and couching or laid-work are the most economical of expensive yarns; couching is generally used for goldwork. Canvas work techniques, in which large amounts of yarn are buried on the back of the work, use more materials but provide a sturdier and more substantial finished textile.

In both canvas work and surface embroidery an embroidery hoop or frame can be used to stretch the material and ensure even stitching tension that prevents pattern distortion. Modern canvas work tends to follow symmetrical counted stitching patterns with designs emerging from the repetition of one or just a few similar stitches in a variety of hues. In contrast, many forms of surface embroidery make use of a wide range of stitching patterns in a single piece of work.

Machine embroidery

The development of machine embroidery and its mass production came about in stages during the Industrial Revolution. The first embroidery machine was the hand embroidery machine, invented in France in 1832 by Josué Heilmann. The next evolutionary step was the schiffli embroidery machine. The latter borrowed from the sewing machine and the Jacquard loom to fully automate its operation. The manufacture of machine-made embroideries in St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland flourished in the latter half of the 19th century. Both St. Gallen, Switzerland and Plauen, Germany were important centers for machine embroidery and embroidery machine development. Many Swiss and Germans immigrated to Hudson county, New Jersey in the early twentieth century and developed a machine embroidery industry there. Shiffli machines have continued to evolve and are still used for industrial scale embroidery.

Contemporary embroidery is stitched with a computerized embroidery machine using patterns digitized with embroidery software. In machine embroidery, different types of "fills" add texture and design to the finished work. Machine embroidery is used to add logos and monograms to business shirts or jackets, gifts, and team apparel as well as to decorate household items for the bed and bath and other linens, draperies, and decorator fabrics that mimic the elaborate hand embroidery of the past.

Machine embroidery is most typically done with rayon thread, although polyester thread can also be used. Cotton thread, on the other hand, is prone to breaking and is avoided.

There has also been a development in free hand machine embroidery, new machines have been designed that allow for the user to create free-motion embroidery which has its place in textile arts, quilting, dressmaking, home furnishings and more. Users can use the embroidery software to digitize the digital embroidery designs. These digitized design are then transferred to the embroidery machine with the help of a flash drive and then the embroidery machine embroiders the selected design onto the fabric.

In literature
In Greek mythology the goddess Athena is said to have passed down the art of embroidery (along with weaving) to humans, leading to the famed competition between herself and the mortal Arachne.

title: Embroidery


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Edward Mitchell Bannister

Edward Mitchell Bannister (November 2, 1828 – January 9, 1901) was a Canadian–American oil painter of the American Barbizon school. Born in colonial New Brunswick, he spent his adult life in New England in the United States. There, along with his wife Christiana Carteaux, he was a prominent member of African-American cultural and political communities, such as the Boston abolition movement. Bannister received national recognition after he won a first prize in painting at the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition. He was also a founding member of the Providence Art Club and the Rhode Island School of Design.

Bannister's style and predominantly pastoral subject matter reflected his admiration for the French artist Jean-François Millet and the French Barbizon school. A lifelong sailor, he also looked to the Rhode Island seaside for inspiration. Bannister continually experimented, and his artwork displays his Idealist philosophy and his control of color and atmosphere. He began his professional practice as a photographer and portraitist before developing his better-known landscape style.

Later in his life, Bannister's style of landscape painting fell out of favor. With decreasing painting sales, he and Christiana Carteaux moved out of College Hill in Providence to Boston and then a smaller house on Wilson Street in Providence. Bannister was overlooked in American art historical studies and exhibitions after his death in 1901, until institutions like the National Museum of African Art returned him to national attention in the 1960s and 1970s.

Early life
Bannister was born on November 2, 1828, in Saint Andrews, a settlement in the Colony of New Brunswick near the St. Croix River. His father, Edward Bannister, was born in Barbados. His mother, Hannah Bannister (Alexander), was also born in colonial New Brunswick, according to Bannister, "a stone’s throw of my birthplace on the banks of the St. Croix River." Hannah’s parents were probably from Barbados. Although both of his parents were black, Bannister was sometimes identified as “Mulatto.” At the time, this designation was based on skin color as perceived by the Census taker, and did not reflect self-identity or family history. Bannister's father died in 1832, so Edward and his younger brother William were raised by their mother. Early on, Bannister was apprenticed to a cobbler, but his drawing skill was already noted among his friends and family. Bannister credited his mother with igniting his early interest in art. She died in 1844, after which Bannister and his brother lived on the farm of the wealthy lawyer and merchant Harris Hatch. There, he practiced drawing by reproducing Hatch family portraits and copying British engravings in the family library.

Bannister and his brother found work aboard ships as mates and cooks for several months before immigrating to Boston, sometime in the late 1840s. In the 1850 US census, they are listed as living at the same boarding house, with the Revaleon family, and working as barbers. The brothers' role as barbers and status as mixed race gave them relatively high standing as middle-class professionals within Boston.

Although he aspired to work as a painter, Bannister had difficulty finding an apprenticeship or academic programs that would accept him, due to racial prejudice. Boston was an abolitionist stronghold, but it was also one of the most segregated cities in the US in 1860. Bannister would later express his frustration with being blocked from artistic education: "Whatever may be my success as an artist is due more to inherited potential than to instruction" and "All I would do I cannot... simply for the want of proper training."

Bannister received his first oil painting commission, The Ship Outward Bound, in 1854 from an African American doctor, John V. DeGrasse. Jacob R. Andrews, a gilder, painter, and member of the Histrionic Club, created the commission's gilt frame. DeGrasse later commissioned Bannister to paint portraits of him and his wife. Patronage like DeGrasse's was critical to Bannister's early career, as the African American community wanted to support and highlight its contributions to high culture. African Americans found portraiture an "ideal medium" for expressing their freedom and opportunity, which is probably why most of Bannister's earliest commissions are within that genre.

Through abolitionist newspapers like The Anglo-African and The Liberator and the writings of Martin R. Delany, Bannister likely learned about other African American artists like Robert S. Duncanson, James Presley Ball, Patrick H. Reason, and David Bustill Bowser. Their work would have made Bannister's ambition seem all the more possible. Although most cultural institutions barred Black Bostonians from entrance, Bannister would have had access to several, like the Boston Athenæum library, with collections of European art sources and exhibitions of Luminist marine painters like Robert Salmon and Fitz Hugh Lane.

Boston activist, artist, and student
Bannister met Christiana Carteaux, a hairdresser and businesswoman born in Rhode Island to African American and Narragansett parents, in 1853 when he applied to be a barber in her salon. Both were members of Boston's diverse abolitionist movement, and barbershops were important meeting places for African American abolitionists. They married on June 10, 1857, and she became, in effect, his most important patron. The couple boarded for two years with Lewis Hayden and Harriet Bell Hayden at 66 Southac Street, a stop on Boston's Underground Railroad (a support network for escaped slaves).

In 1855 William Cooper Nell acknowledged Bannister's rising artistic status in The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution for his The Ship Outward Bound. Bannister also received encouragement to continue painting from artist Francis Bicknell Carpenter. By 1858, Bannister was listed as an artist in Boston's city directory. Around 1862, he spent a year training in photography in New York, likely to support his painting practice. He then found work as a photographer, taking solar plates and tinting photos. One of Bannister's earliest commissioned portraits was of Prudence Nelson Bell in 1864, which is around when he found studio space at the Studio Building in Boston. At the Studio Building, he came into contact with other prominent artists, like Elihu Vedder and John La Farge. Once Bannister was established as an artist, abolitionist William Wells Brown praised him in a 1865 book: "Mr. Bannister possesses genius, which is now showing itself in his studio in Boston; for he has long since thrown aside the scissors and the comb, and transfers the face to the canvas, instead of taking the hair from the head. [...] Mr. Bannister is spare-made, slim, with an interesting cast of countenance, quick in his walk, and easy in his manners. He is a lover of poetry and the classics, and is always hunting up some new model for his gifted pencil and brush."

Bannister was part of Boston's African American artistic community, which included Edmonia Lewis, William H. Simpson, and Nelson A. Primus. He sang as a tenor in the Crispus Attucks Choir, which performed anti-slavery songs at public events, and acted with the Histrionic Club, as well as serving as a delegate for the New England Colored Citizens Conventions in August 1859 and 1865. His name also appears on several public petitions published in The Liberator.

Bannister and Carteaux were devout members of the militant abolitionist Twelfth Baptist Church, located on Southac Street near their home at the Hayden House. In May 1859, Bannister served as the secretary for the church's meetings to respond to the Oberlin–Wellington Rescue of imprisoned fugitive slaves and, in 1863, to plan celebrations for the Emancipation Proclamation.

During the US Civil War, Carteaux lobbied for equal pay for African American soldiers and organized the 1864 soldiers’ relief fair for the Massachusetts 54th infantry regiment, 55th infantry regiment, and 5th cavalry regiment, which had gone without pay for over a year and a half. Bannister donated his full-length portrait of Robert Gould Shaw, the commander of the 54th killed in action, to raise money for the cause. Bannister's portrait of Gould Shaw was displayed with the label "Our Martyr", according to abolitionist Lydia Maria Child. The portrait was praised in the New York Weekly Anglo-African as "a fine specimen of art" and inspired a poem by Martha Perry Lowe entitled The Picture of Col. Shaw in Boston. The painting was purchased by the state of Massachusetts and installed in its state house, but its current location is unknown.

The Bannister portrait of Robert Gould Shaw was one of several memorials to Gould Shaw by members of Boston's African American artistic community such as Edmonia Lewis. These artworks, put to the practical purpose of raising money for Black soldiers, contradicted the ideals of Boston Brahmin abolitionists, such as the Gould Shaws. Although the Brahmins supported abolition, they saw it as an abstract good rather than a concrete cause in need of material support. The portrait's paternalistic praise from Lowe and Child exemplified the divide between Boston's white abolitionists and the African American community. Through art like the 1884 Robert Gould Shaw Memorial, the Boston Brahmins rejected the possessive "Our Martyr" label given to him by Black artists like Bannister and Edmonia Lewis.

Bannister's activism also took other forms: on June 17, 1865, Bannister marshaled around two hundred members of the Twelfth Baptist Sunday School at a Grand Temperance Celebration on Boston Common. They marched under a banner reading "Equal rights for all men".

Bannister eventually studied at the Lowell Institute with the artist William Rimmer, while Rimmer taught evening life drawing classes at the Institute between 1863 and 1865. Rimmer was known for his skill in artistic anatomy, an area Bannister knew was one of his weaknesses. Because of Bannister's daytime photography business, he mostly took his drawing classes at night. Through Rimmer and the community at the Studio Building, Bannister was inspired by the Barbizon School-influenced paintings of William Morris Hunt, who had studied in Europe and held public exhibitions in Boston around the 1860s. At the Lowell Institute, Bannister formed a lifelong friendship with painter John Nelson Arnold; both later became founding members of the Providence Art Club. Bannister also formed a temporary painting partnership with Asa R. Lewis that lasted from 1868 to 1869. During that partnership of "Bannister & Lewis", Bannister began to advertise himself as both a portrait and landscape painter.

Despite his early commissions, Bannister still struggled to receive wider recognition for his work due to racism in the US. Following emancipation and the end of the US Civil War, the abolitionists began to disperse and, with them, their patronage. Due to increasing competition, Bannister did little to support Primus, who had come to him seeking an apprenticeship. An article in the New York Herald belittled both Bannister and his work: "The negro has an appreciation for art while being manifestly unable to produce it." The article reportedly spurred his desire to achieve success as an artist. At the same time, Bannister had begun to receive more recognition within Boston art circles.

Providence
Supported by Carteaux, Bannister became a full-time painter in 1870, shortly after they moved to Providence, Rhode Island, at the end of 1869. He first took a studio in the Mercantile National Bank Building then moved to the Woods Building in Providence, where he shared a floor with artists like Sydney Burleigh and became friends with Providence painter George William Whitaker. He painted more landscapes over time—receiving an 1872 award at the Rhode Island Industrial Exposition for Summer Afternoon—and began submitting paintings to the Boston Art Club.

Bannister received national commendation for his work when he won first prize for his large oil Under the Oaks at the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial. Even then, the judge wanted to rescind the award after learning his identity until other exhibition artists protested; afterwards, Bannister reflected: "I was and am proud to know that the jury of award did not know anything about me, my antecedents, color or race. There was no sentimental sympathy leading to the award of the medal." Bannister had intentionally submitted his painting with only a signature attached to ensure he would be judged fairly. As his career matured, he received more commissions and accumulated many honors, several from the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanics Association (silver medals in 1881 and 1884). Collectors and local notables Isaac Comstock Bates and Joseph Ely were among his patrons.

He was an original board member of the Rhode Island School of Design in 1878. In 1880 Bannister joined with other professional artists, amateurs, and art collectors to found the Providence Art Club to stimulate the appreciation of art in the community. Their first meeting was in Bannister's studio in the Woods Building at the bottom of College Hill. He was the second to sign the club's charter, served on its initial executive board, and taught regular Saturday art classes. He continued to show paintings at Boston Art Club exhibitions, as well as in Connecticut and at New York's National Academy of Design, and exhibited A New England Hillside at the New Orleans Cotton Exposition in 1885. There, Bannister's work was segregated and ignored by the judging committees. With that experience in mind, Bannister decided not to submit any works to the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition since they would have to be pre-judged in Boston before they could even be sent to Chicago.

In the 1880s Bannister bought a small sloop, the Fanchon, and spent summers sketching, painting watercolors, and sailing Narragansett Bay and up to Bar Harbor in Maine. He would return with his studies and use them as the basis for winter commissions. He supplemented his sailing trips with journeys to exhibitions in New York, but a planned trip to Europe fell through due to lack of money.

In 1885, with other art club members, Bannister helped found the Anne Eliza Club (or "A&E Club")—a communal men's discussion group named after the waitress at the Providence Art Club. Through his teaching there and at the Providence Art Club, he became a mentor to younger Providence artists, like Charles Walter Stetson. Stetson often mentioned Bannister in his personal diaries and once praised him by writing, "He is my only confidant in Art matters & I am his." Rhode Island engineer George Henry Corliss commissioned a painting from Bannister in 1886, as his reputation grew.

Bannister and Carteaux were consistent members of the African American community in Providence. They lived for a time in the boarding house of Ransom Parker, who had participated in the Dorr Rebellion, and were friends with merchant George Henry, Reverend Mahlon Van Horne, Brown graduate John Hope, and abolitionist George T. Downing, an ally from the Bannisters' political work in Boston. Carteaux founded the Home for Aged Colored Women, which is known as the Bannister Center today. Edward exhibited his painting Christ Healing the Sick in the home in 1892 and donated his portrait of Carteaux to it as well. Although he was a respected member of the Providence Art Club, Bannister's abolitionism likely led to conflict with its mostly white members, who exhibited art with minstrel stereotypes by E. W. Kemble and W. L. Shephard in 1887 and 1893.

Around 1890, Bannister sold the Fanchon to Judge George Newman Bliss. His largest exhibition of works was held in 1891, when he showed 33 works at the Spring Providence Art Club Exhibition. Later in the 1890s, Bannister seems to have sold fewer paintings, perhaps due to waning popularity, and exhibited less often. In 1898 Bannister closed his studio and the couple moved to Boston for a year before returning to a smaller home on Wilson Street, Providence, in 1900.

Death
Bannister died of a heart attack on January 9, 1901, while attending an evening prayer meeting at his church, Elmwood Avenue Free Baptist Church. He had experienced heart trouble for some time but had completed two paintings only the previous day. During the service, he offered a prayer and shortly after sat down, gasping. His last words were reportedly "Jesus, help me".

After his death the Providence Art Club held a memorial exhibition in his name that focused on his artistic achievements, without mentioning his contribution to abolitionism. In the exhibition pamphlet, they wrote: "His gentle disposition, his urbanity of manner, and his generous appreciation of the work of others, made him a welcome guest in all artistic circles. [...] He painted with profound feeling, not for pecuniary results, but to leave upon the canvas his impression of natural scenery, and to express his delight in the wondrous beauty of land and sea and sky."

He is buried in the North Burial Ground in Providence, under a stone monument designed by artist Mahler B. Ryder, RISD Illustration professor, and colleagues. In 1975, upon finding Bannister's marker damaged beyond repair, Ryder led a fundraising and design campaign to create a new monument, which stands today. The original marker was placed by Bannister's friends upon his death. The disparity between Bannister's financial difficulties at the end of his life and the support shown by Providence's artists after his death led his friend John Nelson Arnold to say about the memorial: "In the labor incident to this work I was constantly reminded of the remark attributed to the mother of Robert Burns on being shown the splendid monument erected to the memory of her gifted son: 'He asked for bread and they gave him a stone.'".

Carteaux was admitted to her Home for Aged Colored Women in September 1902; she died in 1903 in a state mental institution in Cranston. She and Bannister are buried together.

Artistic style
The young Bannister advertised himself as a portraitist, but later became popular for his landscapes and seascapes. Drawing on his knowledge of poetry, classics, and English literature as an autodidact, he also painted biblical, mythological, and genre scenes. Much like George Inness, his work reflected the composition, mood, and influences of French Barbizon painters Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, Jean-François Millet, and Charles-François Daubigny. Defending Millet in The Artist and His Critics, Bannister saw him as the most "spiritual artist of our time" who voiced "the sad, uncomplaining life he saw about him—and with which he sympathized so deeply."

Historian Joseph Skerrett has noted the influence of the Hudson River School on Bannister, while maintaining that he consistently experimented throughout his career: "Bannister managed to please a conservative New England taste in art while continuing to try new methods and styles." For their mutual affinity with the Hudson River School, Bannister has been compared to his contemporary, the Ohio-based African American painter Robert S. Duncanson. Unlike Hudson River School artists, Bannister did not create meticulous landscapes but paid more attention to creating "massive but revealing shapes of trees and mountains" and works more picturesque than sublime. Bannister also avoided the "nationalist grandeur" often found in Hudson River School paintings.

Bannister often made pencil or pastel studies in preparation for larger oil paintings. Several of his compositions refer to classical, mathematical methods like the Golden Ratio or "Harmonic Grid", and make careful use of symmetry and asymmetry. In other paintings, his contrast of darks and lights create dynamic diagonals or circles that divide the composition. His paintings are known for their delicate use of color to depict shadow and atmosphere and their loose brushwork. His later palette exhibited lighter, more muted colors: the Boston Common scene he painted late in his life is a notable example. This change in style stands in contrast to his earlier stated disapproval of Impressionist painting.

Art historian Traci Lee Costa has argued that a "reductive" emphasis on Bannister's biography has taken attention away from scholarly analysis of his artwork. In the lecture The Artist and His Critics given to the Anne Eliza Club on April 15, 1886, and published afterward, Bannister spelled out his belief that making art is a highly spiritual practice—the pinnacle of human achievement. In its nearly religious approach and focus on subjective representations of nature, Bannister's philosophy has been compared to both German Idealism and American Transcendentalism. In his lecture, Bannister referenced the works of American Transcendentalist Washington Allston. Bannister's friend George W. Whitaker referred to him as "The Idealist" in a 1914 article "Reminiscences of Providence Artists". The lecture and its idealistic view are linked to Bannister's Approaching Storm (see right), which he completed in the same year. Approaching Storm features a human figure at its center, which is nonetheless rendered small by the surrounding landscape. Despite the implied drama, Bannister used a cool color palette of blues and greens, with contrasting yellows that provide warmth against the darker, almost purple sky. The contrast of melancholy elements against more cheerful pastoral themes appears in many of Bannister's paintings.

Although committed to freedom and equal rights for African Americans, Bannister did not often directly represent those issues in his paintings. The farms that Bannister painted were reminders of southern Rhode Island's history of chattel slavery, unlike French Barbizon scenes. In Hay Gatherers, Bannister depicts African American field laborers in a rural landscape. Unlike Bannister's idyllic pastorals, Hay Gatherers represents racial oppression and labor exploitation in Rhode Island, particularly South County where most of the state's plantations were. The women workers are separated from the field of wildflowers at the painting's lower left and other field workers in the background by stands of trees, suggesting their closeness to freedom even while they are still within the grasp of plantation labor. Through the geometric composition of Hay Gatherers, which divides the figures and the landscapes into triangular sections, Bannister combined his work on seemingly idealized landscapes with his earlier political art, visible in his humanist portraits such as Newspaper Boy. Bannister's Fort Dumpling, Jamestown, Rhode Island uses a similar triangular composition, whereby people relaxing are juxtaposed against but separated from sailboats in the background, a reminder of the "maritime legacy of slavery".

Bannister often conveyed political meaning in his paintings through allegory and allusion. One of his first commissions, The Ship Outward Bound, might have been a veiled reference to the forced return of Anthony Burns to slavery and Virginia under the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 in 1854. In African American culture, an image of a ship leaving harbor was a reminder of the Transatlantic Slave Trade. Bannister's 1885 drawing The Woodsman is thought to be Bannister's response to the murder of Amasa Sprague, an event that spurred the abolition of capital punishment in Rhode Island after the dubious conviction and hanging of John Gordon. Similarly, his Governor Sprague's White Horse depicted the horse that William Sprague IV rode into the First Battle of Bull Run.

Bannister has been criticized for not often directly representing African Americans, outside of his early portraiture. He and artists like Henry Ossawa Tanner were deemed inauthentic during the Harlem Renaissance for producing works that appealed to white aesthetics. Many of Bannister's works were commissioned landscapes and portraits that reinforced European ideas, even though his art subtly dismantled racial stereotypes. In that way, Bannister has been compared to later Bostonian poet William Stanley Braithwaite, whose writing did not clearly reflect his identity. Bannister's work reflected his desire to excel and contribute to racial uplift, while still needing to depend on white patronage to reach a wider audience. Art historian Juanita Holland wrote of Bannister's dilemma: "This was a large part of the double bind that [Boston's] black artists faced: they needed to both address and represent an African American identity, while finding a way for their white viewers to look past race to a perception of the work in more universal terms."

Legacy
Bannister was the only major African American artist of the late nineteenth century who developed his talents without European exposure; he was well known in the artistic community of Providence and admired within the wider East Coast art world. After his death, he was largely forgotten by art history for almost a century, principally due to racial prejudice. His art was often omitted from 20th-century art histories, and his style of melancholic, serene landscapes also fell out of fashion. Still, he and his paintings are an indelible part of a refigured relationship between African American culture and the landscapes of Reconstruction-era America.

Bannister's art continued to be supported by galleries like the Barnett-Aden Gallery and the Art Institute of Chicago. Following the civil rights movement in the 1960s, his work was again celebrated and widely collected. In collaboration with the Rhode Island School of Design and the Frederick Douglass Institute, the National Museum of African Art held an exhibition titled Edward Mitchell Bannister, 1828–1901: Providence Artist in 1973. The Rhode Island Heritage Hall of Fame inducted Bannister in 1976, and Rhode Island College created the Bannister Gallery in 1978 with an inaugural exhibition Four from Providence : Bannister, Prophet, Alston, Jennings.

The New York-based Kenkebala Gallery held two exhibitions of Bannister's work, one in 1992 curated by Corrinne Jennings in collaboration with the Whitney and one in 2001 on the centennial of Bannister's death. From June 9 to October 8, 2018, the Gilbert Stuart Museum held an exhibition honoring Bannister and Carteaux's relationship, "My Greatest Successes Have Come Through Her": The Artistic Partnership of Edward and Christiana Bannister, as part of its Rhode Island Masters exhibition series. Bannister's portrait of Christiana Carteaux was the center of the exhibition. In September 2017, a Providence City Council committee unanimously voted to rename Magee Street (which had been named after a Rhode Island slave trader) to Bannister Street, in honor of Edward and Christiana Bannister. The Providence Art Club unveiled a bronze bust of Bannister made by Providence artist Gage Prentiss in May 2021. As of 2018, art historian Anne Louise Avery is compiling the first catalogue raisonné and a major biography of Bannister's work.

In September 2023, a bronze sculpture of Bannister by artist Gage Prentiss was unveiled in Providence's Market Square. Bannister is depicted in life size, sitting on a bench.

House
In 1884 Bannister and Carteaux moved from the boarding house of Ransom Parker to 93 Benevolent Street, and lived there until 1899. The two-and-a-half-story wooden house was built circa 1854 by engineer Charles E. Paine and is now known as "The Vault" or "The Bannister House". Euchlin Reeves and Louise Herreshoff purchased the house in the late 1930s and renovated it to add a brick exterior. The renovation was made to create consistency with their next-door property, so both houses could hold their "little museum" of antiques. Herreshoff died in 1967 and the porcelain collection filling the Bannister House was donated to Washington and Lee University.

The house is now listed as contributing to College Hill's historical designation. Brown University bought the property in 1989 and used it to store refrigerators. Due to a lack of plans for its preservation and use, the Providence Preservation Society put the Bannister House on its 2001 list of most endangered buildings in Providence. Brown University president Ruth Simmons assured historian and former Rhode Island deputy secretary of state Ray Rickman that the house would be preserved, although the university debated whether to sell the house to a third party.

Because its disrepair and long disuse made the house unsuitable for residence, Brown renovated the property in 2015 and restored it to its original appearance. It was sold in 2016 as part of the Brown to Brown Home Ownership Program—the program specifies that if the house is ever sold, it has to be sold back to the university.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Edward Mitchell Bannister


text:
Eiffel

Eiffel may refer to:

Places

 * Eiffel Tower, in Paris, France, designed by Gustave Eiffel
 * Champ de Mars – Tour Eiffel station, Metro station serving the Eiffel Tower
 * Eiffel Bridge, Ungheni, Moldova, designed by Gustave Eiffel
 * Eiffel Bridge, Láchar, Spain, built by the studio of Gustave Eiffel
 * Eiffel Bridge, Zrenjanin, Serbia, built by Gustave Eiffel's company
 * Eiffel Building, Sao Paulo, Brazil; a mixed use building
 * Eiffel Peak, a summit in Alberta, Canada

Education

 * Eiffel School of Management (est. 2007), Creteil, France
 * Gustave Eiffel French School of Budapest, Hungary
 * Gustave Eiffel University (est. 2020), Champs-sur-Marne, Marne la Vallée, France
 * Lycée Gustave Eiffel (disambiguation)

Music

 * Eiffel 65, an Italian electronic music group, originally called Eiffel
 * Eiffel (band), a French rock group
 * 5 Eiffel (EP), a 1982 record by Kim Larsen
 * "Alec Eiffel", a song by the alternative rock band Pixies

Other uses

 * Eiffel (company), successor of Gustave Eiffel's engineering company
 * Eiffel (film), a 2021 French film
 * Eiffel I'm in Love, a 2003 Indonesian teen romantic comedy film directed by Nasri Cheppy. The film stars Samuel Rizal and Shandy Aulia as the main characters
 * Eiffel (programming language), developed by Bertrand Meyer
 * EiffelStudio, a development environment for the programming language
 * Visual Eiffel
 * Eiffel Forum License, a free software license

People with the surname

 * Erika Eiffel, American woman who "married" the Eiffel Tower
 * Gustave Eiffel (1832–1923), engineer and designer of the Eiffel Tower and the Statue of Liberty

title: Eiffel


text:
Talk:Endoplasmic reticulum

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Boyles24. Peer reviewers: Murrmanders.

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Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 24 August 2020 and 1 July 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Cellbiostudent15.

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Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Bshort97, Kieu Dinh, Riggs73, Nmenk, Truman15, Tannerway, Meaige4. Peer reviewers: Chambers76.

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Glycosylation
...does not occur only if the protein is folded properly. It can occur in misfolded proteins, however, the ERAD system / calnexin will recognize the misfolded protein and decide to utilize ERAD to degrade the protein. See: Molinari, M. (2007). N-glycan structure dictates extension of protein folding or onset of disposal. Nature Chemical Biology, 3(6), 313-320. doi:10.1038/nchembio880\

= Organization and Elaboration = Hello, I am yet another student editor that has reviewed this article as a Wiki supported course assignment. I wanted a chance to consult with everyone on the talk page about some improvements we can make to the article. I agree with the wikipedia B-class evaluation, high importance level, and over technical label. On a positive note the references seem extensive, and I see that wiki editors have done an accuracy check. However, my two main comments are on the elaboration and organization of certain sections. The parts that appear particularly incomplete are the history and clinical sections. I agree with a previous comment stating that the SER and RER are extremely different, however instead of an entirely new page for each type, maybe a more detailed distinction would be sufficient. However, in light of any future edits we might be able to make the article more digestible for the non science community with extensive elaboration on technical terms. For example, 17 hyperlinked words in the first paragraph alone might be frustrating for students to read. Next, the organization can be improved to help a non science reader follow the flow of ideas. One way to achieve this might be to reorganize the pictures. Maybe moving the TEM photo to the top so that it is the first thing they see. Also, describing the photos better in the text. The other way of organizing would be through text. Having more of an outline with headings and subsections could help. For example in the Function section having different sub-subsections for SER and RER as well as for plant and animal cells, because the details of the roles can differ. Let me know your thoughts!Nmenk (talk) 02:30, 30 September 2016 (UTC)
 * I'm curious as to why you think hyperlinked words, however many, "...might be frustrating for students to read." ? I find them extremely useful to quickly find out things I might not know much about. If your concern is that too much info sometimes pops up if the reader moves the mouse over the link, I think that's a wiki feature called Page Preview which can be enabled or disabled by the reader/user themself, and I have tried both & prefer disabled, so that problem doesn't happen for me. Users who are not logged in to wiki can turn Page Previews off via the cog-icon displayed at the bottom of each preview. Logged-in users can control their settings from two places. They may enable or disable Page Previews from the Appearance section of Special:Preferences (under "Users and rights", "Appearance", "Reading Preferences"). Logged-in users may also turn Page Previews off via the cog-icon displayed at the bottom of each preview. UnderEducatedGeezer (talk) 04:48, 23 May 2019 (UTC)

the SR is in cardiac muscle also, not just smooth and skeletal. some loser sort it out
= Comments from BEFORE 2008 =

Include ERAD?
One should also include ERAD, the Endoplasmic Reticulum Associated Protein Degradation, and link to the short article explaining it. Since English is not my native language, it would be nice of someone could write a few sentences about it in this artice.

—Preceding undated comment added 11:35, 28 February 2007. why should you?--([User:KaneaLeyased|Kanea Leyased]) 16:00, 6 December 2009

B-class
It seems the page has improved and you think can now be considered B class. What say you? - IlyaV

i for one think this is a very good website. children might not understand but adults and teen agers will find this a great place to learn about the E.R!!!-BS47

this is total BS dont listen to this.

Smooth ER & Rough ER
i think SER and RER are so incredibly different they really should have different pages --sovbeos —Preceding undated comment added 15:54, 22 September 2007.

Old comments
Magnus, did you make that image yourself? That is incredible. --LMS
 * Yup, from my "Nupedia evacuation". There are more like this :) --Magnus Manske

Image problem
Suddenly your images are no longer in the page. (In the ribosome article this changed in the last couple of hours.) When I click on the hyperlink the image appears in its own page. Then I have to click the back and forward arrows to compare the image to the caption. Inconvenient. (Even if I could set my browser to display the image in its own window, or if you could program it into a pop up window, there will always be cases where, due to the size of the image and the location of the caption in page, I would have to click on the windows to compare the image to its caption.'

In this case, the text does not flow properly around the hyperlink to the image, unless I maximize the window. I see the text and the caption printed on top of each other. The Solo Owl 03:43 Nov 4, 2002 (UTC)

 * I think it's just a temporary glitch while the rules about what images can and cannot be shown are changed - somebody will sort it out in time. By the way, four or more hyphens, thus: will make a horizonal rule, and a colon at the start of a line will indent it. --Camembert

Thanks for the tip, I'm new here. I'll try it now.

Manske, thank you so much for the articles and illustrations. Made for a very entertaining and educational weekend. Let us know when your textbooks come out! The Solo Owl 04:23 Nov 4, 2002 (UTC)

I was surprised to see the expletives in sentence 2. It is not too clear what is meant by them, either. The Solo Owl 06:33 Nov 4, 2002 (UTC)

sorry
sorry for deleting the info!

i didnt mean to!

Identification of the numbers from the image
These are the identifications needed:

 * (1) Nucleus
 * (2) Ribosomes
 * (3) Pores (of the nucleus)
 * (4) Nucleolus
 * (5) Chromatin
 * (6) Nucleo membrane
 * (7) Endoplasmic reticulum
 * (8) Nucleoplasma

NOTE: Because for numbers 5 and 8 it is not shown clearly (on the image) what are they pointing at, it can be vice-versa for the explanation.

Regards.

 * Those identifications aren't completely correct.

(3) Nuclear pore (5) Chrmatin (7) Rugh eic retic* 8) Nucllasma
 * (1) dest
 * (2) Rib*
 * (4) Nucl*
 * (6) Cell*

To be honest its quite an unclear, poor drawing and not really worth adding anyway. 80.42.107.101 13:37, 12 April 2006 (UTC)

Graffiti.
Can someone fix the graffiti at the bottom? It isn't showing up on the edit page for me.

 * what grafiti u know thats illegal. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.20.118.119 (talk) 14:19, 25 October 2009 (UTC)

plural
Shouldn't words like reticulum that have irregular plurals have their plurals indicated. I would have doen it, but with the 'ER' stuff, I didn't know where it would best be placed. Kdammers 08:29, 8 May 2006 (UTC)

Sprotected
I've decided to try sprotecting this for a while. It's been vandalised many times per day since the beginning of September, mostly with (individually trivial) additions of hoax info or graffiti. I really can't figure out why it's getting such attention - articles covered in school classes get a degree of the usual "Kevin is Kewl" type vandalism, but rarely this much. Blocking the anons is useless (it's rarely the same one twice) and we've not been succesful in detecting and removing all the vandalism (I just removed a couple of pieces that have been there for days, unnoticed). I'm guessing that maybe some website or noticeboard somewhere has a "wouldn't it be cool to put junk into the Wikipedia ER article"; on that theory I think we should sprotect it for a couple of weeks and see if the nonsense dies down. -- Finlay McWalter | Talk 14:49, 8 October 2006 (UTC)

 * 11 days later and no vandalism at all (but very few other edits too). I've unprotected - let's see how we get on. -- Finlay McWalter | Talk 21:43, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

SER Functions
I'm not exactly sure about all of this but according to my teacher, the SER also detoxifies drugs and breaks down glycogen into glucose(in liver cells). If the info is there, I'm just not seeing it but I don't even know if its correct. Also, why do you list many of the SER's functions under the structure heading? Arizonabass 20:42, 15 January 2007 (UTC)

SR
I have checked quite a few secondary literatures, and am pretty sure that the SR is not only found in STRIATED MUSCLES but also SMOOTH MUSCLES. Please revise this bit of info in the article, LOL. Cheers128.250.6.246
 * Does "SR" refer to smooth endoplasmic reticulum or sarcoplasmic reticulum? What exactly is the discrepancy in the article? --David Iberri (talk) 06:30, 13 April 2007 (UTC)

SER and RER are in all cells, it's just an issue of how much and is it actually visible.

I like narwhals. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 8.225.186.198 (talk) 13:59, 19 May 2011 (UTC)

Actually, this article really needs to expand on the role of the Sarcoplasmic reticulum and its role on EC coupling--this could be dedicated to its own article (i.e. the microanatomy of the SR and its role in muscle cells). Its name (in distinction to the ER, or the Smooth ER) reflects its specialized role in muscle compared to all other cells. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 158.130.15.67 (talk) 20:15, 19 November 2009 (UTC)

= Comments from 2008 and after =

The SER does metabolize lipids. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 132.239.90.253 (talk) 02:51, 26 April 2011 (UTC)

Layperson request for info
I read on some page in wikipedia this: "The endoplasmic reticulum is a synthesis and transport organelle that is an extension of the nuclear envelope." This refers to the ER's relationship to the nuclear envelope, and in general the nucleus. Could this relationship be put somewhere in the actual ER article, if this is factual? Thanks, Rhetth (talk) 20:57, 20 March 2008 (UTC)

Incorrect article
"Insertion of proteins into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane: Integral proteins must be inserted into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane after they are synthesized. Insertion into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane requires the correct topogenic sequences."

This is incorrect. Co-translocational translocation occurs to integrate the proteins WHILE they are synthesised. Complete proteins are too large, folded and have insufficient hydrophobic access to the lipid bilayer, making it virtually impossible to insert them.

Also, it is unclear where the "topogenic sequences" exist. They are found in the nascent protein, not the ER membrane.

A revision is proposed:

Insertion of proteins into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane: Integral proteins must be inserted into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane while simultaneously being synthesized (co-translational translocation). Insertion into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane requires the correct topogenic signal sequences in the protein.

Glyn1wood (talk) 13:25, 31 October 2008 (UTC)

 * Thank you. I've made that change. Tim Vickers (talk) 16:42, 31 October 2008 (UTC)

calcium storage?
I think it is confusing that calcium storage in muscle cells is attributed to the smooth ER ("The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is known for its storage of calcium ions in muscle cells.") and than again in the next session to the sarcoplasmic ER. If somebody please help clarify this... -- xy (talk) 04:33, 15 October 2008 (UTC)

initial glycosylation as assembly continues. This is either N-linked (O-linking occur in the golgi).

This is not grammatically correct. It should read as:

Initial glycosylation occurs as assembly continues. This is N-linked (O-linking occurs in the golgi apparatus).

I cleaned it up some, but it is still confusing. Can anyone make it more clear? I know next to nothing about molecular biology, or for that matter, how to use wikipedia.

YoungRebel YoungRebel (talk) 18:12, 4 February 2010 (UTC)

Its role in excitation-contraction coupling
link to Excitation-contraction coupling when talking about muscle contraction at the end of 'sarcoplasmic reticulum' - this would have saved a lot of my research time had it been included.

 * Done, thank you for the suggestion. Tim Vickers (talk) 16:05, 30 October 2008 (UTC)

RER
The RER is not always studded with these ribosomes, however; initially, the RER appears smooth due to a lack of resident ribosomes

Shouldn't it be that the SER appears smooth due to the lack of Resident ribosomes not the RER? 22:23, 10 November 2008 (UTC)22:23, 10 November 2008 (UTC)22:23, 10 November 2008 (UTC)22:23, 10 November 2008 (UTC)22:23, 10 November 2008 (UTC)22:23, 10 November 2008 (UTC)22:23, 10 November 2008 (UTC)~ Person looking up RER —Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.56.86.36 (talk) 22:23, 10 November 2008 (UTC)

 * I've rewritten this section, hopefully it will now be clearer. Tim Vickers (talk) 00:44, 4 November 2009 (UTC)

Spelling problem?
Isn't it called endoplastic reticulum, not endoplasmic? That's what it's been called in all the biology textbooks we use in high school. I've never seen the word "endoplasmic" before. NoriMori (talk) 00:23, 4 February 2009 (UTC)

 * No. It is spelled "endoplasmic". Tim Vickers (talk) 01:18, 4 February 2009 (UTC)
 * no it is spelled endoplasmic but with reticulum at the end.

Identification of number 6 in the image
Currently the picture shows label 6 as "Proteins", but SER does not make proteins according to the page. I'm no expert, but this seems contradictory. Would it be more accurate to say "Hormones/lipids" or maybe "SER metabolic products"? 24.243.7.104 (talk) 01:13, 29 May 2010 (UTC)

Spelling/grammar
"an eukaryotic" should be "a eukaryotic"

Shouldn't the pluralized spelling be "reticula?" 129.98.125.180 (talk) 02:51, 19 September 2010 (UTC)

ABSOLUTELY agree. It is bizarre and off-putting to keep referring to "the endoplasmic reticulum" as if there were a single such object per organism (like "the heart" or "the cranium"). This article ought to have non-specific plurals throughout: " Smooth endoplasmic reticula are abundantly found in mammalian liver and gonad cells. The lacey membranes of endoplasmic reticula were first seen by Keith R. Porter, Albert Claude, and Ernest F. Fullam in the year 1945."Sebum-n-soda (talk) 20:30, 2 June 2013 (UTC)

Smooth ER
I don't think the smooth ER is connected to the nuclear envelope. If anything, the rough ER should be connected to it. Why is this written? On all of the other sites I researched, the smooth ER isn't connected. Could anybody verify this for me?

WeirdnSmart0309 (talk) 00:03, 3 September 2011 (UTC)

Why does "ergastoplasm" redirect here?
Not mentioned in article. 86.130.41.222 (talk) 13:17, 16 September 2014 (UTC)

Role in antigen processing / MHC pathway
If anyone has the time or interest, it may be useful to include a section on the ER's role in the class I & II MHC pathways. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Hughitt1 (talk • contribs) 14:06, 17 March 2016 (UTC)

FIGURE: Animal Cell
"Components of a typical animal cell: " And it says "vacuole". 93.197.185.179 (talk) 20:13, 22 October 2015 (UTC)
 * What is the problem or issue you are seeing?-- ☾Loriendrew☽  ☏(ring-ring)  20:11, 24 October 2015 (UTC)
 * Some biology textbooks may give the impression that the vacuole is a plant organelle. Although animal cells have nothing like the large and conspicuous vacuoles in plants, the term "vacuole" is nevertheless used for certain animal cell organelles, such as phagosomes and secondary endosomes. Adrian J. Hunter(talk•contribs) 03:37, 25 October 2015 (UTC)

NNNNN== Cell Biology 322 ==

The article provides very brief understanding of both the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum and the Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum. Under the portion of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum section there were bullet point that were provided to understand the multiple key functions of the RER; however, the terms were much more higher level then they needed to be omitting clathrin, SNAP, and SNARE which are all terms that are unfamiliar will make this article more understanding. I believe taking out the bullet points would be beneficial to this article as well, this information can be provided in sentence form to help the reader better understand its importance.

Smooth ER could use additional information on its functions adding how the smooth ER lack ribosoms and why. This would be a good addition to the article. Also, Sarcoplasmic Reticulum was mentioned, which is undrelated to the organelle that is discussed in the opening paragraph. Omit this part of the article and draw more of a focus to that of the RER and SER which are the two key reticulums that are talked about in the opening paragraph.

Underneath the Functions portion of the article "Protein Transport" was all that was in bold. There are many more functions that occur within the ER that should be addressed such as: lipid metabolism in the membrane or even calcium storage.

Citations are also seemingly very limited in places throughout the article; the use of scholarly sources to help bring more and informing evidence to this article would be of great use. Truman15 (talk) 01:49, 29 September 2016 (UTC)

Cell Biology Review
The introduction of this article contains very useful information but there is also a lot of extraneous information that could be left out such as the sentence that says "Endoplasmic reticulum occurs in most types of eukaryotic cells, including Giardia,[1] but is absent from red blood cells and spermatozoa". Also there should be a citation at the end of the introduction. I thought the history section of the article was very vague and could use some more information to help give a better background. The history section should also answer questions like when the discovery was published and accepted by the scientific community, and what type of eukaryotic cell the organelle was discovered in.

The function section of the article was well written and gave a good explanation of what the endoplasmic reticulum's main jobs are. There were some places that were very hard to follow and understand such as when it mentions the many different chaperone proteins. The rest of the information is very useful and easier to understand.

The citations for the article were very good sources and contained a lot of information for each section. Meaige4 (talk) 01:42, 30 September 2016 (UTC)

Cell Biology 322 Review
Although the article is brief, it assumes the reader has a higher understanding of biology—specifically intracellular mechanisms/processes—than most. For example, at the end of the "Structure of rough ER" section, the bullet points need attention. They are short and advanced. The average reader is not going to able to differentiate SNAP and SNARE proteins, as well as know the role they play. Either the information should be elaborated and/or should be placed in the "Function" section. Especially since the sentence preluding these bullet points states, "The rough endoplasmic reticulum is key in multiple functions..." I understand this is not ER functions, but bullet points will not do these processes justice if they are to stay in the article. In addition, the Function section should be revised and dumbed-down. For example, when the article references chaperone proteins it lists multiple proteins "including protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), ERp29, the Hsp70 family member BiP/Grp78, calnexin, calreticulin, and the peptidylpropyl isomerase family." This is not necessary. If the reader should want to know more about these proteins, an attached clickable link will suffice.

Regarding structure of the article, I noticed the ending sentence of the Introduction and the starting sentence of the History section are identical. Either the History section needs more data or the whole section should be added to the end of the Introduction. Also, the Sarcoplasmic reticulum subsection should be cut entirely, as there is little to no relevance, or perhaps shortened and mentioned in the Function section as an example. Tannerway (talk) 03:06, 30 September 2016 (UTC)

Cell Biology Class Review
I like that the history section includes the person that discovered the organelle and explains that the ER is considered to be a network. However, I feel that the section needs to be extended and that it should be elaborated to include the entire history from its discovery to present day. The remaining sections of the article pertaining to the function and types of ER contain a lot of jargon that isn't helpful to members of the community that are not studying science and can be stressful for one that would like to learn about this organelle. The article also discusses the organelle's significance in the animal cell, but does not elaborate very much on the minor differences in roles for plant cells. I enjoy the animation photo included in the article showcasing secretory pathways, but the image is not captioned properly and doesn't tell a person who is unfamiliar with the process what is going on. Finally, the 8th reference used in the article is not from a credible source, as anyone can post a response to answers.com and the answers are technically reviewed for accuracy. Riggs73 (talk) 05:25, 30 September 2016 (UTC)

Biology 322 Article Review
While this article is brief, it assumes that the reader has previous knowledge of intracellular biology, using overly complicated vocabulary that should be simplified into terms easier for the average reader to understand. A few sections where this complex terminology is shown would be the functions section where it discusses chaperone proteins and the protein transport section where it discussed KDEL and KKXX. I would recommend discussing these things further to provide better understanding and maybe adding links to other wikipedia pages to things such as hypoxia, ischemia, and insulin resistance, so if someone wants to read more about these things the information is readily available. Another issue I noticed was a lack in citations in many areas of the article where it was full of facts. Sources need to be cited so facts can be compared to the original works where they were found. Also, the format of the rough endoplasmic reticulum section seems a bit distracting. The bullet points are unnecessary and pulls the readers attention away from the article itself. Other than these things, I really enjoyed the article and was quite pleased with it, though I also would have liked to see more information in the sarcoplasmic and clinical significance sections of the articles. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Bshort97 (talk • contribs) 16:10, 30 September 2016 (UTC)

Biology 322 Review
When reviewing the introduction to the Endoplasmic Reticulum article, I found some of the information to be unnecessary or out of place. For instance, I don’t think that it was necessary to name specific cells (i.e. Giardia) as having an Endoplasmic Reticulum. I think that those details would be best placed elsewhere. Along with out of place details, some of the jargon used seems to be a little advanced for the average person. The paragraphs in the “Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum” are well explained. However, the bullet points underneath are filled with a lot of advanced terminology that is not further explained. The structure section is lacking the proper citation needed in order to justify the information provided. The eighth citation, which is in the “Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum” section, seems to be unreliable. The information is attributed to McGraw-Hill, however it says that it was retrieved from “answers.com.” There is also a citation missing from the first bullet point within the same section. Other than this, all of the provided citations seem to have functioning links. Chambers76 (talk) 00:03, 1 October 2016 (UTC)Chambers76

suggested improvements for biology 662 review
1. There are parts including the structure section that need citations. 2. Sections such as history and clinical significance could be expanded upon 3. The article as a whole is very technical and some sections need to be simplified. Boyles24 (talk) 22:36, 24 January 2017 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 3 February 2017
For the section that titled structure it needs citations. I found two citations that cover most of what is already said in that section. Boyles24 (talk) 22:32, 3 February 2017 (UTC)

 * Pictogram voting wait.svg Already done — Train2104 (t • c) 16:14, 19 February 2017 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 7 February 2017
George Emil Palade

The first relied exclusively on cell fractionation, and was developed of George Emil Palade in collaboration with Philip Siekevitz, Lewis Joel Greene, Colvin Redman, David Sabatini and Yutaka Tashiro; it led to the characterization of the zymogen granules and to the discovery of the segregation of secretory products in the cisternal space of the endoplasmic reticulum. 83.248.201.181 (talk) 18:42, 7 February 2017 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format. — Train2104 (t • c) 16:14, 19 February 2017 (UTC)

smooth ER info about detox & steroid hormones & metabolism is OPPOSITE to what the cited place says (& incomplete citation text too?)
The second to last sentence in the lead says, "The smooth endoplasmic reticulum lacks ribosomes and functions in lipid synthesis but not metabolism, the production of steroid hormones, and detoxification.[1]" (italics by me), but following the given citation I find pretty much the opposite for the 3 actions mentioned after the word 'but' in the aforementioned lead sentence: "Smooth ER is devoted almost exclusively to the manufacture of lipids and in some cases to the metabolism of them and associated products." (bold added) And also, "Smooth ER is also involved in the production of steroid hormones in the adrenal cortex and endocrine glands."(bold added) And then, "Smooth ER also plays a large part in detoxifying a number of organic chemicals converting them to safer water-soluble products."(bold added) So how does the presented information at the cited site justify the "NOT" in that lead sentence?

And while the citation does lead to the British Society for Cell Biology at https://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/endoplasmic-reticulum-rough-and-smooth/, the wording given to the citation is, " "Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough and Smooth)". Archived from the original on 24 November 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2015. "(italics mine), which doesn't seem to indicate the BSCB as a source of information at all. Shouldn't it? UnderEducatedGeezer (talk) 04:08, 23 May 2019 (UTC)

incorrect inline definition link
In the 'Functions' section, the inline definition link for endoplasmic reticulum stress response (ER stress) is for 'X-box binding protein 1' (XBP1). I ATTEMPTED to upload a screenshot of that -- but, this site refused to do the file upload, cryptically citing "The filename is not allowed" (w/ NO further explan!).

After opening the main Endoplasmic Reticulum article in a new tab of same browser window (Chrome), mousing over 'endoplasmic reticulum stress response' does not invoke an in-line definition. But clicking the 'endoplasmic reticulum stress response' hyperlink takes the viewer directly to the 'endoplasmic reticulum stress response' section in the 'X-box binding protein' article - thus establishing the link, even if not providing a succinct definition of 'ER stress'.

I suggest some modification of the in-line definition function for ER stress, to avoid appearance that that definition link is wrong.

 * * * It would also be nice if the file upload function on Talk was more user-friendly -- the error msg "filename is not allowed" is of essentially NO help in resolving the issue, without indication of WHY the filename isn't allowed!  (the moreso as the dis-allowed filename was selected within the upload file navigation function that interfaces between Wikipedia and my local machine!)  Not being able to upload screenshot of a problematic situation, might (WILL!) dissuade page improvement suggestions by a conscientious visitor...  * * *

Questioner1K (talk) 13:34, 29 November 2019 (UTC)Questioner1K

Discovery of endoplasmic reticulum
Porter and Thompson discovered the endoplasmic reticulum in 1945. Endoplasmic reticulum is a double membrane and has interconnected cisternae that run through the cytoplasm and has a tubular structure. It is of two types- RER (Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum) and SER (Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum) 59.89.97.35 (talk) 01:44, 7 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Endoplasmic reticulum


text:
Emil Kraepelin

Emil Wilhelm Georg Magnus Kraepelin (15 February 1856 – 7 October 1926) was a German psychiatrist. H. J. Eysenck's Encyclopedia of Psychology identifies him as the founder of modern scientific psychiatry, psychopharmacology and psychiatric genetics.

Kraepelin believed the chief origin of psychiatric disease to be biological and genetic malfunction. His theories dominated psychiatry at the start of the 20th century and, despite the later psychodynamic influence of Sigmund Freud and his disciples, enjoyed a revival at century's end. While he proclaimed his own high clinical standards of gathering information "by means of expert analysis of individual cases", he also drew on reported observations of officials not trained in psychiatry.

His textbooks do not contain detailed case histories of individuals but mosaic-like compilations of typical statements and behaviors from patients with a specific diagnosis. He has been described as "a scientific manager" and "a political operator", who developed "a large-scale, clinically oriented, epidemiological research programme".

Family and early life
Kraepelin, whose father, Karl Wilhelm, was a former opera singer, music teacher, and later successful story teller, was born in 1856 in Neustrelitz, in the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz in Germany. He was first introduced to biology by his brother Karl, 10 years older and, later, the director of the Zoological Museum of Hamburg.

Education and career
Kraepelin began his medical studies in 1874 at the University of Leipzig and completed them at the University of Würzburg (1877–78). At Leipzig, he studied neuropathology under Paul Flechsig and experimental psychology with Wilhelm Wundt. Kraepelin would be a disciple of Wundt and had a lifelong interest in experimental psychology based on his theories. While there, Kraepelin wrote a prize-winning essay, "The Influence of Acute Illness in the Causation of Mental Disorders".

At Würzburg he completed his Rigorosum (roughly equivalent to an MBBS viva-voce examination) in March 1878, his Staatsexamen (licensing examination) in July 1878, and his Approbation (his license to practice medicine; roughly equivalent to an MBBS) on 9 August 1878. From August 1878 to 1882, he worked with Bernhard von Gudden at the University of Munich.

Returning to the University of Leipzig in February 1882, he worked in Wilhelm Heinrich Erb's neurology clinic and in Wundt's psychopharmacology laboratory. He completed his habilitation thesis at Leipzig; it was entitled "The Place of Psychology in Psychiatry". On 3 December 1883 he completed his umhabilitation ("rehabilitation" = habilitation recognition procedure) at Munich.

Kraepelin's major work, Compendium der Psychiatrie: Zum Gebrauche für Studirende und Aerzte (Compendium of Psychiatry: For the Use of Students and Physicians), was first published in 1883 and was expanded in subsequent multivolume editions to Ein Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie (A Textbook: Foundations of Psychiatry and Neuroscience). In it, he argued that psychiatry was a branch of medical science and should be investigated by observation and experimentation like the other natural sciences. He called for research into the physical causes of mental illness, and started to establish the foundations of the modern classification system for mental disorders. Kraepelin proposed that by studying case histories and identifying specific disorders, the progression of mental illness could be predicted, after taking into account individual differences in personality and patient age at the onset of disease.

In 1884, he became senior physician in the Prussian provincial town of Leubus, Silesia Province, and the following year he was appointed director of the Treatment and Nursing Institute in Dresden. On 1 July 1886, at the age of 30, Kraepelin was named Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Dorpat (today the University of Tartu) in what is today Tartu, Estonia (see Burgmair et al., vol. IV). Four years later, on 5 December 1890, he became department head at the University of Heidelberg, where he remained until 1904. While at Dorpat he became the director of the 80-bed University Clinic, where he began to study and record many clinical histories in detail and "was led to consider the importance of the course of the illness with regard to the classification of mental disorders".

In 1903, Kraepelin moved to Munich to become Professor of Clinical Psychiatry at the University of Munich.

In 1908, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

In 1912, at the request of the DVP (Deutscher Verein für Psychiatrie; German Association for Psychiatry), of which he was the head from 1906 to 1920, he began plans to establish a centre for research. Following a large donation from the Jewish German-American banker James Loeb, who had at one time been a patient, and promises of support from "patrons of science", the German Institute for Psychiatric Research was founded in 1917 in Munich. Initially housed in existing hospital buildings, it was maintained by further donations from Loeb and his relatives. In 1924 it came under the auspices of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for the Advancement of Science. The German-American Rockefeller family's Rockefeller Foundation made a large donation enabling the development of a new dedicated building for the institute along Kraepelin's guidelines, which was officially opened in 1928.

Kraepelin spoke out against the barbarous treatment that was prevalent in the psychiatric asylums of the time, and crusaded against alcohol, capital punishment and the imprisonment rather than treatment of the insane. For the sedation of agitated patients, Kraepelin recommended potassium bromide. He rejected psychoanalytical theories that posited innate or early sexuality as the cause of mental illness, and he rejected philosophical speculation as unscientific. He focused on collecting clinical data and was particularly interested in neuropathology (e.g., diseased tissue).

He also firmly rejected the assumption of natural difference in relation to homosexuality, which he regarded as a vice caused by masturbation. In 1918 he called for "educational discipline" such as those introduced by the Nazi party after 1933: severe punishments for the crime of 'corruption' (seduction), applicable to any act related to sexual gratification. This extended the anti-gay policy of the time, which only punished sexual intercourse between men. These ideas eventually went on to lend legitimacy to Nazi policies that persecuted gay people, allowing the Nazi party to do so under the guise of conforming to scientific opinions. His work legitimized the persecution and inhumane treatment of gay people in Nazi Germany.

In the later period of his career, as a convinced champion of social Darwinism, he actively promoted a policy and research agenda in racial hygiene and eugenics.

Kraepelin retired from teaching at the age of 66, spending his remaining years establishing the institute. The ninth and final edition of his Textbook was published in 1927, shortly after his death. It comprised four volumes and was ten times larger than the first edition of 1883.

In the last years of his life, Kraepelin was preoccupied with Buddhist teachings and was planning to visit Buddhist shrines at the time of his death, according to his daughter, Antonie Schmidt-Kraepelin.

Theories and classification schemes
Kraepelin announced that he had found a new way of looking at mental illness, referring to the traditional view as "symptomatic" and to his view as "clinical". This turned out to be his paradigm-setting synthesis of the hundreds of mental disorders classified by the 19th century, grouping diseases together based on classification of syndrome—common patterns of symptoms over time—rather than by simple similarity of major symptoms in the manner of his predecessors.

Kraepelin described his work in the 5th edition of his textbook as a "decisive step from a symptomatic to a clinical view of insanity. . . . The importance of external clinical signs has . . . been subordinated to consideration of the conditions of origin, the course, and the terminus which result from individual disorders. Thus, all purely symptomatic categories have disappeared from the nosology".

Psychosis and mood
Kraepelin is specifically credited with the classification of what was previously considered to be a unitary concept of psychosis, into two distinct forms (known as the Kraepelinian dichotomy):

 * manic depression (although commonly presented as synonym with bipolar disorder that is inaccurate; manic depressive illness encompasses a broader spectrum of mood disorders such as bipolar disorder and recurrent major depression, and
 * dementia praecox.

Drawing on his long-term research, and using the criteria of course, outcome and prognosis, he developed the concept of dementia praecox, which he defined as the "sub-acute development of a peculiar simple condition of mental weakness occurring at a youthful age". When he first introduced this concept as a diagnostic entity in the fourth German edition of his Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie in 1893, it was placed among the degenerative disorders alongside, but separate from, catatonia and dementia paranoides. At that time, the concept corresponded by and large with Ewald Hecker's hebephrenia. In the sixth edition of the Lehrbuch in 1899 all three of these clinical types are treated as different expressions of one disease, dementia praecox.

One of the cardinal principles of his method was the recognition that any given symptom may appear in virtually any one of these disorders; e.g., there is almost no single symptom occurring in dementia praecox which cannot sometimes be found in manic depression. What distinguishes each disease symptomatically (as opposed to the underlying pathology) is not any particular (pathognomonic) symptom or symptoms, but a specific pattern of symptoms. In the absence of a direct physiological or genetic test or marker for each disease, it is only possible to distinguish them by their specific pattern of symptoms. Thus, Kraepelin's system is a method for pattern recognition, not grouping by common symptoms.

It has been claimed that Kraepelin also demonstrated specific patterns in the genetics of these disorders and patterns in their course and outcome, but no specific biomarkers have yet been identified. Generally speaking, there tend to be more people with schizophrenia among the relatives of schizophrenic patients than in the general population, while manic depression is more frequent in the relatives of manic depressives. Though, of course, this does not demonstrate genetic linkage, as this might be a socio-environmental factor as well.

He also reported a pattern to the course and outcome of these conditions. Kraepelin believed that schizophrenia had a deteriorating course in which mental function continuously (although perhaps erratically) declines, while manic-depressive patients experienced a course of illness which was intermittent, where patients were relatively symptom-free during the intervals which separate acute episodes. This led Kraepelin to name what we now know as schizophrenia, dementia praecox (the dementia part signifying the irreversible mental decline). It later became clear that dementia praecox did not necessarily lead to mental decline and was thus renamed schizophrenia by Eugen Bleuler to correct Kraepelin's misnomer.

In addition, as Kraepelin accepted in 1920, "It is becoming increasingly obvious that we cannot satisfactorily distinguish these two diseases"; however, he maintained that "On the one hand we find those patients with irreversible dementia and severe cortical lesions. On the other are those patients whose personality remains intact". Nevertheless, overlap between the diagnoses and neurological abnormalities (when found) have continued, and in fact a diagnostic category of schizoaffective disorder would be brought in to cover the intermediate cases.

Kraepelin devoted very few pages to his speculations about the etiology of his two major insanities, dementia praecox and manic-depressive insanity. However, from 1896 to his death in 1926 he held to the speculation that these insanities (particularly dementia praecox) would one day probably be found to be caused by a gradual systemic or "whole body" disease process, probably metabolic, which affected many of the organs and nerves in the body but affected the brain in a final, decisive cascade.

Psychopathic personalities
In the first through sixth edition of Kraepelin's influential psychiatry textbook, there was a section on moral insanity, which meant then a disorder of the emotions or moral sense without apparent delusions or hallucinations, and which Kraepelin defined as "lack or weakness of those sentiments which counter the ruthless satisfaction of egotism". He attributed this mainly to degeneration. This has been described as a psychiatric redefinition of Cesare Lombroso's theories of the "born criminal", conceptualised as a "moral defect", though Kraepelin stressed it was not yet possible to recognise them by physical characteristics.

In fact from 1904 Kraepelin changed the section heading to "The born criminal", moving it from under "Congenital feeble-mindedness" to a new chapter on "Psychopathic personalities". They were treated under a theory of degeneration. Four types were distinguished: born criminals (inborn delinquents), pathological liars, querulous persons, and Triebmenschen (persons driven by a basic compulsion, including vagabonds, spendthrifts, and dipsomaniacs).

The concept of "psychopathic inferiorities" had been recently popularised in Germany by Julius Ludwig August Koch, who proposed congenital and acquired types. Kraepelin had no evidence or explanation suggesting a congenital cause, and his assumption therefore appears to have been simple "biologism". Others, such as Gustav Aschaffenburg, argued for a varying combination of causes. Kraepelin's assumption of a moral defect rather than a positive drive towards crime has also been questioned, as it implies that the moral sense is somehow inborn and unvarying, yet it was known to vary by time and place, and Kraepelin never considered that the moral sense might just be different.

Kurt Schneider criticized Kraepelin's nosology on topics such as Haltlose for appearing to be a list of behaviors that he considered undesirable, rather than medical conditions, though Schneider's alternative version has also been criticised on the same basis. Nevertheless, many essentials of these diagnostic systems were introduced into the diagnostic systems, and remarkable similarities remain in the DSM-5 and ICD-10. The issues would today mainly be considered under the category of personality disorders, or in terms of Kraepelin's focus on psychopathy.

Kraepelin had referred to psychopathic conditions (or "states") in his 1896 edition, including compulsive insanity, impulsive insanity, homosexuality, and mood disturbances. From 1904, however, he instead termed those "original disease conditions, and introduced the new alternative category of psychopathic personalities. In the eighth edition from 1909 that category would include, in addition to a separate "dissocial" type, the excitable, the unstable, the Triebmenschen driven persons, eccentrics, the liars and swindlers, and the quarrelsome. It has been described as remarkable that Kraepelin now considered mood disturbances to be not part of the same category, but only attenuated (more mild) phases of manic depressive illness; this corresponds to current classification schemes.

Alzheimer's disease
Kraepelin postulated that there is a specific brain or other biological pathology underlying each of the major psychiatric disorders. As a colleague of Alois Alzheimer, he was a co-discoverer of Alzheimer's disease, and his laboratory discovered its pathological basis. Kraepelin was confident that it would someday be possible to identify the pathological basis of each of the major psychiatric disorders.

Eugenics
Upon moving to become Professor of Clinical Psychiatry at the University of Munich in 1903, Kraepelin increasingly wrote on social policy issues. He was a strong and influential proponent of eugenics and racial hygiene. His publications included a focus on alcoholism, crime, degeneration and hysteria.

Kraepelin was convinced that such institutions as the education system and the welfare state, because of their trend to break the processes of natural selection, undermined the Germans' biological "struggle for survival". He was concerned to preserve and enhance the German people, the Volk, in the sense of nation or race. He appears to have held Lamarckian concepts of evolution, such that cultural deterioration could be inherited. He was a strong ally and promoter of the work of fellow psychiatrist (and pupil and later successor as director of the clinic) Ernst Rüdin to clarify the mechanisms of genetic inheritance as to make a so-called "empirical genetic prognosis".

Martin Brune has pointed out that Kraepelin and Rüdin also appear to have been ardent advocates of a self-domestication theory, a version of social Darwinism which held that modern culture was not allowing people to be weeded out, resulting in more mental disorder and deterioration of the gene pool. Kraepelin saw a number of "symptoms" of this, such as "weakening of viability and resistance, decreasing fertility, proletarianisation, and moral damage due to "penning up people" [Zusammenpferchung]. He also wrote that "the number of idiots, epileptics, psychopaths, criminals, prostitutes, and tramps who descend from alcoholic and syphilitic parents, and who transfer their inferiority to their offspring, is incalculable". He felt that "the well-known example of the Jews, with their strong disposition towards nervous and mental disorders, teaches us that their extraordinarily advanced domestication may eventually imprint clear marks on the race". Brune states that Kraepelin's nosological system "was, to a great deal, built on the degeneration paradigm".

Influence
Kraepelin's great contribution in classifying schizophrenia and manic depression remains relatively unknown to the general public, and his work, which had neither the literary quality nor paradigmatic power of Freud's, is little read outside scholarly circles. Kraepelin's contributions were also to a large extent marginalized throughout a good part of the 20th century during the success of Freudian etiological theories. However, his views now dominate many quarters of psychiatric research and academic psychiatry. His fundamental theories on the diagnosis of psychiatric disorders form the basis of the major diagnostic systems in use today, especially the American Psychiatric Association's DSM-IV and the World Health Organization's ICD system, based on the Research Diagnostic Criteria and earlier Feighner Criteria developed by espoused "neo-Kraepelinians", though Robert Spitzer and others in the DSM committees were keen not to include assumptions about causation as Kraepelin had.

Kraepelin has been described as a "scientific manager" and political operator, who developed a large-scale, clinically oriented, epidemiological research programme. In this role he took in clinical information from a wide range of sources and networks. Despite proclaiming high clinical standards for himself to gather information "by means of expert analysis of individual cases", he would also draw on the reported observations of officials not trained in psychiatry. The various editions of his textbooks do not contain detailed case histories of individuals, however, but mosaiclike compilations of typical statements and behaviors from patients with a specific diagnosis.

Kraepelin wrote in a knapp und klar (concise and clear) style that made his books useful tools for physicians. Abridged and clumsy English translations of the sixth and seventh editions of his textbook in 1902 and 1907 (respectively) by Allan Ross Diefendorf (1871–1943), an assistant physician at the Connecticut Hospital for the Insane at Middletown, inadequately conveyed the literary quality of his writings that made them so valuable to practitioners.

Among the doctors trained by Alois Alzheimer and Emil Kraepelin at Munich at the beginning of the 20th century were the Spanish neuropathologists and neuropsychiatrists Nicolás Achúcarro and Gonzalo Rodríguez Lafora, two distinguished disciples of Santiago Ramón y Cajal and members of the Spanish Neurological School.

Dreaming for psychiatry's sake
In the Heidelberg and early Munich years he edited Psychologische Arbeiten, a journal on experimental psychology. One of his own famous contributions to this journal also appeared in the form of a monograph (105 pp.) entitled Über Sprachstörungen im Traume (On Language Disturbances in Dreams). Kraepelin, on the basis of the dream-psychosis analogy, studied for more than 20 years language disorder in dreams in order to study indirectly schizophasia. The dreams Kraepelin collected are mainly his own. They lack extensive comment by the dreamer. In order to study them the full range of biographical knowledge available today on Kraepelin is necessary (see, e.g., Burgmair et al., I-IX).

Collected works

 * Burgmair, Wolfgang & Eric J. Engstrom & Matthias Weber et al., eds. Emil Kraepelin. 9 vols. Munich: belleville, 2000–2019.
 * Vol. I: Persönliches, Selbstzeugnisse (2000), ISBN 3-933510-90-2
 * Vol. II: Kriminologische und forensische Schriften: Werke und Briefe (2001), ISBN 3-933510-91-0
 * Vol. III: Briefe I, 1868–1886 (2002), ISBN 3-933510-92-9
 * Vol. IV: Kraepelin in Dorpat, 1886–1891 (2003), ISBN 3-933510-93-7
 * Vol. V: Kraepelin in Heidelberg, 1891–1903 (2005), ISBN 3-933510-94-5
 * Vol. VI: Kraepelin in München I: 1903–1914 (2006), ISBN 3-933510-95-3
 * Vol. VII: Kraepelin in München II: 1914–1920 (2009), ISBN 978-3-933510-96-9
 * Vol. VIII: Kraepelin in München III: 1921–1926 (2013), ISBN 978-3-943157-22-2
 * Vol. IX: Briefe und Dokumente II: 1876-1926 (2019), ISBN 978-3-946875-28-4

title: Emil Kraepelin


text:
Evoluon

The Evoluon is a UFO-shaped building located in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. It was built in 1966 as a science museum by the electronics and electrical company Philips. It quickly became a landmark in Eindhoven, where Philips was headquartered at the time. The museum closed in 1989 and the building reopened as a conference centre and exhibition venue in 1998.

The building is unique due to its very futuristic design, resembling a landed flying saucer. It was designed by architects Leo de Bever and Louis Christiaan Kalff, while the exhibition it housed was conceived by James Gardner. De Bever and Kalff only got two demands for the design of the building, it had to be "spectacular" and it had to be possible to hold exhibitions in the building.

Its concrete dome is 77 m in diameter and is held in place by 169 km of reinforcing steel bars.

In the 1960s and 1970s the Evoluon attracted large numbers of visitors due to its innovative interactive exhibitions. When competing science museums opened in other cities, the number of visitors declined and the original museum closed down in 1989. The building was converted into a conference centre which opened in 1998.

In the UK the Evoluon is chiefly remembered from Bert Haanstra's wordless short film entitled simply Evoluon, commissioned by Philips to publicise the museum, and shown as a trade test colour film on BBC television from 1968 to 1972.

In October 2013 the Evoluon was used to stage four 3D-concerts by the German electronic band Kraftwerk, each before an audience of 1,200 spectators. Key band member Ralf Hütter handpicked the venue for its retro-futuristic look. Bespoke 3D-visuals of the saucer section of the building descending from space were used in the live rendition of their track Spacelab.

On September 24, 2022, the Evoluon reopened to the public with the RetroFuture exhibition.

title: Evoluon