text:
Talk:Chemistry of ascorbic acid

Vitamin C?
Exactly how is vitamin C different from ascorbic acid? Even if strictly true in a chemical sense, a good encyclopadia will take the average reader to the terminology most used in everyday speech (first)and then gradually inform him or her what all the other alternate words are. "Ascorbic acid" is definately not used as much as the term "vitamin C", right?

W. Whitney

 * It's definitely used more. Not only is it the actual substance (common) name, but it's what is listed in prepared food ingredients. --Belg4mit 17:22, 21 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Ascorbic acid is toxic.
 * The true vitamin C is   Ascorbi III citrous acid.
 * Ascorbi 3 citrous acid
 * Ascorbi three citrous acid 51.9.136.168 (talk) 17:20, 8 May 2024 (UTC)

- The acid hydrolysis mechanism here uses single-headed arrows. This is wrong. A single-headed arrow implies movement of single electrons (a radical mechanism). Double headed arrows should be used here, implying movement of electron pairs. 24.181.29.106

Ascorbic acid and Vitamin C are not equivalent--Vitamin C is a form of ascorbic acid (I'm believing what I'm reading). Ascorbic acid is more general, so if anything, Vitamin C should redirect into ascorbic acid.

However, I think it's best if they're separate entries; ascorbic acid about the general class of ascorbic acid, Vitamin C about the L-idoslkwhater of ascorbic acid.

--TheCunctator

Exactly. isomer. The L isomer. Althought that isn't the only nomenclature that can be used to describe the isomeric differences. I'm not an expert on the biochemistry of ascorbic acid--it could be that the L form and the D form interconvert to form a racemate in vivo, but I wouldn't bet on it.

one can discuss ascorbic acid as a organic acid without any reference to it as a nutrient. That's why I originally put the stuff in about it's use as a reductant in chemical developer solutions--Eastman Kodak uses tons of this stuff!

--JoeAnderson

Was it Haworth or Szent-Györgyi who got the Nobel for vitamin C? -- Marj Tiefert, Tuesday, June 11, 2002

both!

see:

http://www.nobel.se/chemistry/laureates/1937/haworth-lecture.html

http://www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/1937/szent-gyorgyi-lecture.html

Malcolm Farmer, Wednesday, June 12, 2002

Could someone check my revision of the SMILES string? I didn't like how it neded with (CC) since I don't see an ethyl in the structure anywhere.

C1(O)=C(O)C(=O)OC1(C(O)CO)

gives the same structure as "ascorbin.gif" when I plug it in at http://www.daylight.com/daycgi/depict, although my head swims when I try to figure it out on paper. Milkfish 11:25 Apr 14, 2003 (UTC) - Fundermetaly... Vitamin C that we commonly know must have called L-ascorbic acid. That is ascorbic acid include ascorbic acid. -From my tiny knowledge- Moon Empress 2010.06.21 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 211.182.212.129 (talk) 09:15, 21 June 2010 (UTC)

-
 * Note that since Erythorbic acid and Ascorbic acid are stereoisomers, they differ among at least one of their two chiral centres; however, the images on both pages are identical. Which of the two images is correct? Can someone please look it up and post the correct image?

Many (most?) bird species do not require vitamin C, so I changed "birds" to "some birds" on the article page. See: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3145266/ Rex senegalus (talk) 17:24, 29 January 2014 (UTC)

Molecular weight ?
An anonymous user amended this from 176.12 to 176.13 Both weights give a similar number of hits on Google however since a large proportion of the 176.12 sites are Wikipedia mirror ones I've left the higher figure. Can anyone give an authorative answer? Lumos3 15:33, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Using the numbers for atomic weight given on wikipedia for carbon (12.0107), Hydrogen (1.00794), and Oxygen (15.9994), it's 176.12412, which would be the same as 176.12, so I edited it back. --Niffux 06:43, 20 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Synthesis route?
I know nothing on this, but would like to see a section on how it's synthesized, and when that process was developed etc. Thanks!--Joel 02:53, 25 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * There is a short description of Artificial chemical synthesis on Vitamin C. But a more detailed chemistry based description would be welcome here. Lumos3 08:10, 25 Apr 2005 (UTC)

There is mention of GE bacteria being used. Are there any references to this please?

Which is the "acid" hydrogen?
I'm curious since the molecule doesn't have any obvious "acid" component. Does the ring get hydrolyzed, leaving a carboxyl group? GCarty 08:57, 18 July 2005 (UTC)

--- While the acidic hydrogen is currently noted, I am not in agreement with how it is exemplified. Ascorbic acid is a vinylogous acid. That is it has a double bond added between the carbon and oxygen of a simple acid like acetic acid. I do not disagree with the arrows showing why the carbonyl oxygen pulls the electrons of the sp3-oxygen in and thus increasing the proton-electron pair distance, thus increasing its acidity. However, for simplicity, I would prefer a more conventional description in which the proton is removed to give a vinylogous acid with the negative charge distributed over both oxygen atoms in a traditional resonance arrow to separate the two resonance structures. Orgopete 12:42, 18 April 2007 (UTC)

This is not directly within the acid hydrogen discussion, but I am unfamiliar with contributing to a wiki, so please excuse my ignorance. The tautomerism discussion is really an extension of the vinylog acidity in that the negative charge of the anion can reside on three atoms. Therefore, protonation can logically also occur on any of the three, including on the carbon. However, that isomer is less stable than the common structure on the page. In the tautomerism discussion, it describes the formation of the 1,2-diketone being able to form, and I think that would be the more interesting isomer to show it formation as my above discussion shows, yet the 1,2-diketone is not illustrated. Since it is simply related to the given mechanism, I suggest the formation of the 1,2-diketone preferentially or additionally be shown. Orgopete 12:56, 18 April 2007 (UTC)

- Is there any empirical evidence for the existence of the C2- or C3- protonated tautomers? There is no reference in this section. Absent citation of some evidence, I think this discussion should be deleted. It has no practical relevance to understanding actual ascorbic acid or its properties. Rectifico (talk) 18:11, 17 June 2010 (UTC)

To Polyparadigm and GCarty
Polyparadigm- I do have infomation on the synthesis of Vitamin C in about 10 different methods, though im not really sure about copyright on the images i would need to explain it. GCarty - The OH groups on the 'bottom' of the molecule are easily oxidised and the H+ are dissociated into solution, giving the acid, acidic preoperties. (usually only 1 H+ dissociates forming dehydroascorbic acid, therefore its is only a weak acid) the remaining oxygen form a double bonds with the carbon (a carbonyl group like you mentioned) (Eyehawk78 23:43, 1 March 2006 (UTC))

The acid is the OH on the very last of the string, but not any part or near the ring.

Decomposition of ascorbic acid
I read somewhere (don't remember where) that vitamin C decomposes with heat. Is this true? (I can't find anything on it on this article so if it's there point me to it.)

If so, does vitamin C continue to decompose while it's at a constant heated temperature (like, heated to 50 degrees C and then kept at 50 degrees C)? And what's the equation for its decomposition?

(I am studying chemistry at senior secondary school level (equivalent to 16-18 year olds).) Neonumbers 10:12, 27 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Decomposition?
 * At 50°C with oxygen present you get from HO-C=C-OH at the 5membered ring to the oxidated state of O=C-C=0 there this is the reaction normaly ascorbic acid is used for an anti oxidant protecting other substances to be oxidized, by being oxidized.--Stone 10:28, 27 March 2006 (UTC)

So ascorbic acid doesn't decompose, but instead gets oxidised by oxygen? (Ignore the "50 degrees" and replace 50 with some higher number if necessary.) Then (just so I can grasp everything):
 * could I ask someone please to elaborate on the melting point "190 - 192°C (decomposes)"?
 * Merk calaloug says the same.

 * does that mean that if you put ascorbic acid in a closed bottle without any oxidant in it, nothing will ever happen to it no matter how heated it is (practical considerations aside)?
 * No! Acid esters with alkohols can give reactions and it contains both groups. The temperature is the point 50°C would be OK but for some time but every 10°C the reaction rate doubles and at this rate with 100-150°C the stuff will turn brown and black within the hour.
 * Other reactions then oxidation like ester cleaving is also possible!

 * does that mean that heating something with vitamin C merely speeds up the rate of reaction, or shifts an equilibrium, of the redox reaction, or something on the lines of thermochemical/equilibrium principles?
 * speed up with temperatur!

 * is ascorbic acid oxidised by oxygen at room temperature (albeit slowly)?
 * Yes slowly!

Perhaps now is a good time to explain the context of my question: I am planning to investigate the effect of heat on the concentration of ascorbic acid in blackcurrant juice. Neonumbers 12:11, 27 March 2006 (UTC)

May be there is more (papers!)--Stone 16:45, 27 March 2006 (UTC)

Merger with vitamin c
Oppose This has already been discussed at length see Talk:Vitamin C. Lumos3 19:04, 25 June 2006 (UTC)

The vitamin C article is already plenty long, breaking it into a basic and industrial chemistry article and a separate, more biological one is fine. Also all vitamin C related material is not strictly ascorbic acid alone. Opposed.--69.178.41.55 06:44, 28 June 2006 (UTC) see prior discussion at Talk: Vitamin C late 2005.
 * 3 weeks in the sun (5 to 7 days as a decent comment interval, 4-0) with no support, I removed the Merger proposal tags.--69.178.41.55 05:49, 16 July 2006 (UTC)

Oppose for reasons stated above BrianZ (talk) 05:35, 2 July 2006 (UTC)

Oppose, ditto. -- Hongooi 10:43, 2 July 2006 (UTC)

Strong Oppose as above.--TheNautilus 07:27, 1 February 2007 (UTC) ṆјĽÈŲˡΑþŞΞĹ[[Category:]]

I'd like to suggest cross-linking the two articles in the heading in a bit bolder manner. -- Anonymous 07:20 13 Apr 2010 (MDT)

Strong Oppose as above. Each is already listed as main article of the other. The only way to more strongly cross link would be a "differentiate" template right at the beginning of each article. S B Harris 02:59, 8 June 2010 (UTC)

 * I removed the Merge with Vit C flag, as the consensus is that they should stay separate articles. 5Q5 (talk) 17:52, 7 July 2010 (UTC)

Merge Erythorbic acid into this article?
Articles such as Tartaric acid contain stereoisomer information rather than having it in separate articles. This would probably be the best idea here.
 * Support ◄  §ĉҺɑʀκs  ►  13:06, 16 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Support Lumos3 14:58, 16 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Support: I agree, but don't take me too seriously because I'm not a chemist. Neonumbers 12:31, 17 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Oppose Although the chemistry and industrial uses of Erythorbic acid are very simular to ascorbic acid or vitamin C, it took me, as a PhD chemist, about ten minutes and the use of the Acros Organic Catalogue (which I just accidently happen to have on my desk), to reveal the difference between the two compounds. This means, by transfering the Erythorbic acid article, to the ascorbic one, the erythorbic data rappidly drawn in the ascorbic. On the other hand, by focusing on the differences in the erythorbic-article and refering to ascorbic acid on the chemical behavior both points of view may be satisfied. T.vanschaik 22:14, 17 December 2006 (UTC)
 * The Eryhthorbic acid article's not that long. How about having it in a section or sub-section in this article?  Then those differences can be focused on there.  Neonumbers 02:01, 18 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Oppose Since there are vitamin, essential food and pharmaceutical uses of ascorbic acid, food antioxidant use of erythorbic and a strong industrial use of erythorbic, I prefer to try to maximize separation to avoid possible confusion. The erythobic acid article needs room to grow.--TheNautilus 07:27, 1 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Oppose - distinct chemical compounds Jack · talk · 03:01, Monday, 26 February 2007
 * Oppose - they're stereoisomers all right, but diastereomers, not enantiomers. Diastereomers of cyclic compounds have different chemical reactivity even in an achiral environment. Furthermore, their interconversion is not tautomeric. Similar example: glucose and mannose. --Vuo 18:14, 21 May 2007 (UTC)

Stereoismerism
Why is there nothing in the article about L-ascorbic acid and D-ascorbic acid? I mean it is a big deal, two totally distinctly different seperate sides of Ascorbic Acid, and there's nothing about this in the article... Like how research shows the body disregards D-ascorbic acid (+) and only uses L-ascorbic acid (-). Or at least anything regarding the 2 different and seperate sides of ascorbic acid. Does anyone think something regarding this topic should be put in the article?

 * I agree the optical isomerism of the molecule should be in there sonmewhere. Lumos3 (talk) 23:27, 15 April 2010 (UTC)

- The image of ascorbic acid may show the wrong stereochemistry. Here's why:
 * Since Erythorbic acid and Ascorbic acid are stereoisomers, they differ among at least one of their two chiral centres. However, the images on both pages are identical. Therefore, one MUST be wrong. Which of the two images is correct? Can someone please look it up and post the correct image?

The two images File:Erythorbic acid.png and File:L-Ascorbic_acid.svg are not identical, they just look similar until you pay close attention.

Ben (talk) 17:05, 5 April 2011 (UTC) Specifically, the two figures have the same chirality at the chiral center in the ring, and the opposite at the other (exocyclic) chiral center. It is the chiral center farthest from the aldehyde, which in this case is the exocyclic center, that determines D and L. Since D and L isomers are complete mirror images, D-ascorbate would differ from L-ascorbate at both centers. Now take D-ascorbate and invert the ring chiral center (so that it is the same as in L-ascorbate) and you have D-erythorbate. It might be mentioned on the erythorbate page that this is the D stereoisomer. However apparently erythorbate is readily available only as the D isomer, and ascorbate as the L (at least from Sigma) presumably because they are derived from readily available natural materials.Eaberry (talk) 23:33, 20 March 2012 (UTC)

Pronunciation?
Do you pronounce Ascorbic acid "uh-sore-bic" or "uh-score-bic"? In other words, is the "c" silent?? -52.128.30.25 14:04, 8 August 2007 (UTC)

Benzene from Benzoic acid in a can of soda??
Benzene_in_soft_drinks

Any idea what the reaction mechanism behind that one is? Evidently its not anything that goes anywhere near completion, but it made enough benzene to make news, apparently. Zaphraud (talk) 00:22, 20 March 2009 (UTC)

Youtube has several videos of making benzene from benzoic acid. But Cola is acid and making benzene requires alkali. Or Copper salts. Perrier and other water brands have been found to contain Benzene because its contaminated tap water (or polluted french wells.) Most likely it is the water they use. Rem soft drinks come from industrial bottling plants that use commercial water supplies. TaylorLeem (talk) 02:15, 3 June 2022 (UTC)

Ascorbic acid as a swimming pool stain eradicator
If you've got those brown stains in your pool, ascorbic acid makes it go away like magic. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Menshadow (talk • contribs) 04:26, 13 April 2009 (UTC)

Missing oxygens in resonance diagrams?
Is it just me, or are the resonance diagrams in the acidity section missing an oxygen? Looks like only five are shown, and shouldn't there be six? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Ehb (talk • contribs) 15:21, 15 October 2009 (UTC)

 * Hi, yes, you're right, there is one oxygen atom missing in each molecule. I'm sorry, I can't fix that (wikipedia beginner), could someone else please take care of it? JaninaM (talk) 13:37, 6 January 2010 (UTC)

 * If you are talking about File:AscorbicAcid acidity.svg, it appears to be correct to me. There are six oxygen atoms in each molecule.  Maybe it was wrong at some point, but I just wanted to point out that it is now correct.  ChemNerd (talk) 15:26, 1 March 2012 (UTC)

UV Vis spectra
anyone have UV vis spectra of VitC and degradation compounds (the brown, smelly things that form when solutions exsposed to air ? (I assume vitC by itself has no vis absorbance, since solutions are clear, and that UV may be generic, as there are no conjugated systems of note) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.236.121.54 (talk) 14:58, 1 March 2012 (UTC)

Ascorbic Acid Made By Boiling Corn Syrup in SuLphuric Acid?
I doctor told me that ascorbic acid or vitamin C is made by boiling corn syrup in suLphuric acid. If there is truth to this it needs to be explained in the article. 2602:306:C518:62C0:69B8:B150:2C54:4E9F (talk) 14:02, 19 August 2012 (UTC)

L- and D- not explained
The article statues that "There exists a D-ascorbic acid" without any explanation of what that means. I gave up chemistry several decades ago, and would (have) appreciate(d) a hint/reminder of what is going on.

Looking on THIS page, I think it is related to being a different isomers. So something as simple as....   "There also exists D-ascorbic acid, a stereoisomer of the XXX L-ascorbic acid." where XXX should be something like "better known", "more common", "first discovered", "more important".... And, of course, Stereoisomer should be a link to the relevant page/article...

RobertII (talk) 13:04, 14 July 2014 (UTC)
 * Done. Now that this article is about the chemical as a chemical, I added a note about it to the lede. DMacks (talk) 16:21, 19 May 2018 (UTC)

Anti-oxidant claims
Can some one find a citation for how free-radicals are "bad" for humans and mammals? The entire section does not include any references or citations. 50.46.151.230 (talk) 06:46, 21 February 2015 (UTC)

please add link to https://tr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Askorbik_asit in languages section
it is a redirect to vitamin c article — Preceding unsigned comment added by Odarcan (talk • contribs) 09:04, 14 December 2015 (UTC)

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D-ascorbic acid
The redirect, which currently targets Vitamin C, has been nominated for deletion at Redirects for discussion/Log/2018 May 19. You are invited to contribute to that discussion as comments from those who understand the subject would be beneficial. Thryduulf (talk) 12:57, 19 May 2018 (UTC)

Requested move 19 May 2018

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: move the page to Chemistry of ascorbic acid, per the discussion below. Dekimasu よ! 16:36, 27 May 2018 (UTC)

Ascorbic acid (molecular aspects) → Molecular aspects of ascorbic acid – Improper use of disambiguation since the article is about the same topic as Ascorbic acid. –Laundry Pizza 03  (d c̄ ) 16:41, 19 May 2018 (UTC)
 * Support a move but oppose that new name dispute basis for it. This article is not a subtopic of that one...almost the opposite. This is about a chemical (actually two different chemicals) and that is about the biochemical/nutritional aspects of one of them. I agree "molecular aspects" is an overly wordy DAB phrase, and seems atypical for chemical-vs-application article pairs. How about "...(chemical)" or "chemistry of..."? DMacks (talk) 03:14, 20 May 2018 (UTC)

 * How about just moving it to Ascorbic acid? Anyone who searches by that title is likely more interested in chemical aspects, as it's the proper technical name of the compound, while Vitamin C is already more into biochemistry and nutrition. Splitting in such a manner is not unheard of – for example, many important foodplant articles are split between articles about nutritive (under common name, e.g. legume, cabbage) and botanical aspects (under binomial name Fabaceae, brassica oleracea). Most of existing incoming links would probably benefit: for example, Irwin Stone (1907–1984) was [...] the first to use ascorbic acid in the food processing industry as a preservative – it's actually the acid has the preservative effect, not the vitamin (if you get what I mean). No such user (talk) 09:35, 21 May 2018 (UTC)
 * "Vitamin C" is a nickname for ascorbic acid. They are not two different things. Randy Kryn (talk) 10:06, 21 May 2018 (UTC)
 * That was exactly my point. It is called "ascorbic acid" mostly in chemical contexts (which this article is about), and "vitamin C" in nutritive and biomedical contexts. Not exclusively, I grant it, but in my opinion enough to warrant the naming I proposed. No such user (talk) 11:51, 21 May 2018 (UTC)
 * But your good faith suggestion would do a Solomon-era job of cutting the baby in two. Ascorbic acid redirects to Vitamin C, as it should, being the common and most recognizable name for the substance. Randy Kryn (talk) 12:18, 21 May 2018 (UTC)
 * But the baby has been already cut in two – we have two articles about the same substance, whose scope is not clearly delineated. Yeah, it's WP:SUMMARYSTYLE and the merged article would be too long, but this leaves us wanting for an appropriate name for this article, and I struggle to find a precedent for such a situation. For example, we have water and properties of water, but the latter is much widely-ranging than this one. If my proposal does not fly, I'd support DMacks' Chemistry of ascorbic acid. No such user (talk) 12:30, 21 May 2018 (UTC)
 * P.S. For an (inexact) parallel, see Alcohol (drug) (common name) vs. Ethanol (chemistry). No such user (talk) 12:38, 21 May 2018 (UTC)

 * Comment This article did sit at until December 2016, when it was unilaterally moved by Doc James. I don't think it was cool. No such user (talk) 13:55, 21 May 2018 (UTC)
 * Move to "Chemistry of ascorbic acid". "Ascorbic acid" itself is the official name of Vitamin C and correctly redirects there. I take a gram of C every morning, afternoon, and evening, and highly recommend that anyone reading these notes do the same. It is so important to the body that I tell people that the tablet, taken with food, is "half my meal". Randy Kryn (talk) 18:24, 21 May 2018 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Wikidata items and interlanguages links
There are 2 articles here at English Wikipedia and two Wikidata items: Vitamin C (Wikidata) Q199678 and Chemistry of ascorbic acid Q193598.

But not every other Wikipedia have 2 distintc articles. The only one may be linked to one of the WikiData items or the the other one. So it's a very muddled situation. --Mezze stagioni (talk) 12:54, 9 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Yes, the Wikidata items are correct. This page should not have interwiki links from there. --Izno (talk) 16:46, 9 April 2020 (UTC)
 * "Two articles on different specific aspects of a topic" is not uncommon. Nor is it uncommon for some languages' wikipedias to have made that fork while others have not. It is up to those other wikipedias that have only a single article to decide which wikidata item is more appropriate for the scope of their article. An alternate solution would be for them to split their article into the same two subarticles, so that they can each have the correct wikidata link. But "welcome to just one of the many problems intrinsic to how wikidata linking is implemented". DMacks (talk) 04:33, 10 April 2020 (UTC)

The structure in English wikipedia is not always best. There are no "problems intrinsic to how wikidata linking is implemented". You can create a redirect on the target wiki and link it from wikidata. This is much easier and less intrusive than splitting an article. Taylor 49 (talk) 20:49, 27 March 2023 (UTC)

What is the Electrochemical potential of Vit C?
I was seeking the reduction potential of alkaline Vitamin C (most EMF in acid solution). I think I saw a chem text give it stronger reduction potential than Borohydride. TaylorLeem (talk) 02:06, 3 June 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Chemistry of ascorbic acid


text:
Talk:Amber Road

Untitled
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piceni Fase "Piceno IV" — Preceding unsigned comment added by 95.235.69.71 (talk) 00:51, 21 September 2016 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Amber Road


text:
Adrenal gland

The adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones including adrenaline and the steroids aldosterone and cortisol. They are found above the kidneys. Each gland has an outer cortex which produces steroid hormones and an inner medulla. The adrenal cortex itself is divided into three main zones: the zona glomerulosa, the zona fasciculata and the zona reticularis.

The adrenal cortex produces three main types of steroid hormones: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens. Mineralocorticoids (such as aldosterone) produced in the zona glomerulosa help in the regulation of blood pressure and electrolyte balance. The glucocorticoids cortisol and cortisone are synthesized in the zona fasciculata; their functions include the regulation of metabolism and immune system suppression. The innermost layer of the cortex, the zona reticularis, produces androgens that are converted to fully functional sex hormones in the gonads and other target organs. The production of steroid hormones is called steroidogenesis, and involves a number of reactions and processes that take place in cortical cells. The medulla produces the catecholamines, which function to produce a rapid response throughout the body in stress situations.

A number of endocrine diseases involve dysfunctions of the adrenal gland. Overproduction of cortisol leads to Cushing's syndrome, whereas insufficient production is associated with Addison's disease. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is a genetic disease produced by dysregulation of endocrine control mechanisms. A variety of tumors can arise from adrenal tissue and are commonly found in medical imaging when searching for other diseases.

Structure
The adrenal glands are located on both sides of the body in the retroperitoneum, above and slightly medial to the kidneys. In humans, the right adrenal gland is pyramidal in shape, whereas the left is semilunar or crescent shaped and somewhat larger. The adrenal glands measure approximately 5 cm in length, 3 cm in width, and up to 1 cm in thickness. Their combined weight in an adult human ranges from 7 to 10 grams. The glands are yellowish in colour.

The adrenal glands are surrounded by a fatty capsule and lie within the renal fascia, which also surrounds the kidneys. A weak septum (wall) of connective tissue separates the glands from the kidneys. The adrenal glands are directly below the diaphragm, and are attached to the crura of the diaphragm by the renal fascia.

Each adrenal gland has two distinct parts, each with a unique function, the outer adrenal cortex and the inner medulla, both of which produce hormones.

Adrenal cortex
The adrenal cortex is the outer region and also the largest part of an adrenal gland. It is divided into three separate zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each zone is responsible for producing specific hormones. The adrenal cortex is the outermost layer of the adrenal gland. Within the cortex are three layers, called "zones". When viewed under a microscope each layer has a distinct appearance, and each has a different function. The adrenal cortex is devoted to production of hormones, namely aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens.

Zona glomerulosa
The outermost zone of the adrenal cortex is the zona glomerulosa. It lies immediately under the fibrous capsule of the gland. Cells in this layer form oval groups, separated by thin strands of connective tissue from the fibrous capsule of the gland and carry wide capillaries.

This layer is the main site for production of aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, by the action of the enzyme aldosterone synthase. Aldosterone plays an important role in the long-term regulation of blood pressure.

Zona fasciculata
The zona fasciculata is situated between the zona glomerulosa and zona reticularis. Cells in this layer are responsible for producing glucocorticoids such as cortisol. It is the largest of the three layers, accounting for nearly 80% of the volume of the cortex. In the zona fasciculata, cells are arranged in columns radially oriented towards the medulla. Cells contain numerous lipid droplets, abundant mitochondria and a complex smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Zona reticularis
The innermost cortical layer, the zona reticularis, lies directly adjacent to the medulla. It produces androgens, mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenedione (the precursor to testosterone) in humans. Its small cells form irregular cords and clusters, separated by capillaries and connective tissue. The cells contain relatively small quantities of cytoplasm and lipid droplets, and sometimes display brown lipofuscin pigment.

Medulla
The adrenal medulla is at the centre of each adrenal gland, and is surrounded by the adrenal cortex. The chromaffin cells of the medulla are the body's main source of the catecholamines, such as adrenaline and noradrenaline, released by the medulla. Approximately 20% noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and 80% adrenaline (epinephrine) are secreted here.

The adrenal medulla is driven by the sympathetic nervous system via preganglionic fibers originating in the thoracic spinal cord, from vertebrae T5–T11. Because it is innervated by preganglionic nerve fibers, the adrenal medulla can be considered as a specialized sympathetic ganglion. Unlike other sympathetic ganglia, however, the adrenal medulla lacks distinct synapses and releases its secretions directly into the blood.

Blood supply
The adrenal glands have one of the greatest blood supply rates per gram of tissue of any organ: up to 60 small arteries may enter each gland. Three arteries usually supply each adrenal gland: These blood vessels supply a network of small arteries within the capsule of the adrenal glands. Thin strands of the capsule enter the glands, carrying blood to them.
 * The superior suprarenal artery, a branch of the inferior phrenic artery
 * The middle suprarenal artery, a direct branch of the abdominal aorta
 * The inferior suprarenal artery, a branch of the renal artery

Venous blood is drained from the glands by the suprarenal veins, usually one for each gland:
 * The right suprarenal vein drains into the inferior vena cava.
 * The left suprarenal vein drains into the left renal vein or the left inferior phrenic vein.

The central adrenomedullary vein, in the adrenal medulla, is an unusual type of blood vessel. Its structure is different from the other veins in that the smooth muscle in its tunica media (the middle layer of the vessel) is arranged in conspicuous, longitudinally oriented bundles.

Variability
The adrenal glands may not develop at all, or may be fused in the midline behind the aorta. These are associated with other congenital abnormalities, such as failure of the kidneys to develop, or fused kidneys. The gland may develop with a partial or complete absence of the cortex, or may develop in an unusual location.

Function

The adrenal gland secretes a number of different hormones which are metabolised by enzymes either within the gland or in other parts of the body. These hormones are involved in a number of essential biological functions.

Corticosteroids
Corticosteroids are a group of steroid hormones produced from the cortex of the adrenal gland, from which they are named.
 * Mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone regulate salt ("mineral") balance and blood pressure
 * Glucocorticoids such as cortisol influence metabolism rates of proteins, fats and sugars ("glucose").
 * Androgens such as dehydroepiandrosterone.

The adrenal gland produces aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, which is important in the regulation of salt ("mineral") balance and blood volume. In the kidneys, aldosterone acts on the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting ducts by increasing the reabsorption of sodium and the excretion of both potassium and hydrogen ions. Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of about 2% of filtered glomerular filtrate. Sodium retention is also a response of the distal colon and sweat glands to aldosterone receptor stimulation. Angiotensin II and extracellular potassium are the two main regulators of aldosterone production. The amount of sodium present in the body affects the extracellular volume, which in turn influences blood pressure. Therefore, the effects of aldosterone in sodium retention are important for the regulation of blood pressure.
 * Mineralocorticoids

Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid in humans. In species that do not create cortisol, this role is played by corticosterone instead. Glucocorticoids have many effects on metabolism. As their name suggests, they increase the circulating level of glucose. This is the result of an increase in the mobilization of amino acids from protein and the stimulation of synthesis of glucose from these amino acids in the liver. In addition, they increase the levels of free fatty acids, which cells can use as an alternative to glucose to obtain energy. Glucocorticoids also have effects unrelated to the regulation of blood sugar levels, including the suppression of the immune system and a potent anti-inflammatory effect. Cortisol reduces the capacity of osteoblasts to produce new bone tissue and decreases the absorption of calcium in the gastrointestinal tract.
 * Glucocorticoids

The adrenal gland secretes a basal level of cortisol but can also produce bursts of the hormone in response to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary. Cortisol is not evenly released during the day – its concentrations in the blood are highest in the early morning and lowest in the evening as a result of the circadian rhythm of ACTH secretion. Cortisone is an inactive product of the action of the enzyme 11β-HSD on cortisol. The reaction catalyzed by 11β-HSD is reversible, which means that it can turn administered cortisone into cortisol, the biologically active hormone.

All corticosteroid hormones share cholesterol as a common precursor. Therefore, the first step in steroidogenesis is cholesterol uptake or synthesis. Cells that produce steroid hormones can acquire cholesterol through two paths. The main source is through dietary cholesterol transported via the blood as cholesterol esters within low density lipoproteins (LDL). LDL enters the cells through receptor-mediated endocytosis. The other source of cholesterol is synthesis in the cell's endoplasmic reticulum. Synthesis can compensate when LDL levels are abnormally low. In the lysosome, cholesterol esters are converted to free cholesterol, which is then used for steroidogenesis or stored in the cell.
 * Formation

The initial part of conversion of cholesterol into steroid hormones involves a number of enzymes of the cytochrome P450 family that are located in the inner membrane of mitochondria. Transport of cholesterol from the outer to the inner membrane is facilitated by steroidogenic acute regulatory protein and is the rate-limiting step of steroid synthesis.

The layers of the adrenal gland differ by function, with each layer having distinct enzymes that produce different hormones from a common precursor. The first enzymatic step in the production of all steroid hormones is cleavage of the cholesterol side chain, a reaction that forms pregnenolone as a product and is catalyzed by the enzyme P450scc, also known as cholesterol desmolase. After the production of pregnenolone, specific enzymes of each cortical layer further modify it. Enzymes involved in this process include both mitochondrial and microsomal P450s and hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases. Usually a number of intermediate steps in which pregnenolone is modified several times are required to form the functional hormones. Enzymes that catalyze reactions in these metabolic pathways are involved in a number of endocrine diseases. For example, the most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia develops as a result of deficiency of 21-hydroxylase, an enzyme involved in an intermediate step of cortisol production.

Glucocorticoids are under the regulatory influence of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA) axis. Glucocorticoid synthesis is stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), a hormone released into the bloodstream by the anterior pituitary. In turn, production of ACTH is stimulated by the presence of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which is released by neurons of the hypothalamus. ACTH acts on the adrenal cells first by increasing the levels of StAR within the cells, and then of all steroidogenic P450 enzymes. The HPA axis is an example of a negative feedback system, in which cortisol itself acts as a direct inhibitor of both CRH and ACTH synthesis. The HPA axis also interacts with the immune system through increased secretion of ACTH at the presence of certain molecules of the inflammatory response.
 * Regulation

Mineralocorticoid secretion is regulated mainly by the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS), the concentration of potassium, and to a lesser extent the concentration of ACTH. Sensors of blood pressure in the juxtaglomerular apparatus of the kidneys release the enzyme renin into the blood, which starts a cascade of reactions that lead to formation of angiotensin II. Angiotensin receptors in cells of the zona glomerulosa recognize the substance, and upon binding they stimulate the release of aldosterone.

Androgens
Cells in zona reticularis of the adrenal glands produce male sex hormones, or androgens, the most important of which is DHEA. In general, these hormones do not have an overall effect in the male body, and are converted to more potent androgens such as testosterone and DHT or to estrogens (female sex hormones) in the gonads, acting in this way as a metabolic intermediate.

Catecholamines
Primarily referred to in the United States as epinephrine and norepinephrine, adrenaline and noradrenaline are catecholamines, water-soluble compounds that have a structure made of a catechol group and an amine group. The adrenal glands are responsible for most of the adrenaline that circulates in the body, but only for a small amount of circulating noradrenaline. These hormones are released by the adrenal medulla, which contains a dense network of blood vessels. Adrenaline and noradrenaline act by interacting with adrenoreceptors throughout the body, with effects that include an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. Actions of adrenaline and noradrenaline are responsible for the fight or flight response, characterised by a quickening of breathing and heart rate, an increase in blood pressure, and constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body.

Catecholamines are produced in chromaffin cells in the medulla of the adrenal gland, from tyrosine, a non-essential amino acid derived from food or produced from phenylalanine in the liver. The enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase converts tyrosine to L-DOPA in the first step of catecholamine synthesis. L-DOPA is then converted to dopamine before it can be turned into noradrenaline. In the cytosol, noradrenaline is converted to epinephrine by the enzyme phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) and stored in granules. Glucocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex stimulate the synthesis of catecholamines by increasing the levels of tyrosine hydroxylase and PNMT.
 * Formation

Catecholamine release is stimulated by the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Splanchnic nerves of the sympathetic nervous system innervate the medulla of the adrenal gland. When activated, it evokes the release of catecholamines from the storage granules by stimulating the opening of calcium channels in the cell membrane.

Gene and protein expression
The human genome includes approximately 20,000 protein coding genes and 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal adult adrenal glands. Only some 250 genes are more specifically expressed in the adrenal glands compared to other organs and tissues. The adrenal-gland-specific genes with the highest level of expression include members of the cytochrome P450 superfamily of enzymes. Corresponding proteins are expressed in the different compartments of the adrenal gland, such as CYP11A1, HSD3B2 and FDX1 involved in steroid hormone synthesis and expressed in cortical cell layers, and PNMT and DBH involved in noradrenaline and adrenaline synthesis and expressed in the medulla.

Development
The adrenal glands are composed of two heterogenous types of tissue. In the center is the adrenal medulla, which produces adrenaline and noradrenaline and releases them into the bloodstream, as part of the sympathetic nervous system. Surrounding the medulla is the cortex, which produces a variety of steroid hormones. These tissues come from different embryological precursors and have distinct prenatal development paths. The cortex of the adrenal gland is derived from mesoderm, whereas the medulla is derived from the neural crest, which is of ectodermal origin.

The adrenal glands in a newborn baby are much larger as a proportion of the body size than in an adult. For example, at age three months the glands are four times the size of the kidneys. The size of the glands decreases relatively after birth, mainly because of shrinkage of the cortex. The cortex, which almost completely disappears by age 1, develops again from age 4–5. The glands weigh about at birth and develop to an adult weight of about  each. In a fetus the glands are first detectable after the sixth week of development.

Cortex
Adrenal cortex tissue is derived from the intermediate mesoderm. It first appears 33 days after fertilisation, shows steroid hormone production capabilities by the eighth week and undergoes rapid growth during the first trimester of pregnancy. The fetal adrenal cortex is different from its adult counterpart, as it is composed of two distinct zones: the inner "fetal" zone, which carries most of the hormone-producing activity, and the outer "definitive" zone, which is in a proliferative phase. The fetal zone produces large amounts of adrenal androgens (male sex hormones) that are used by the placenta for estrogen biosynthesis. Cortical development of the adrenal gland is regulated mostly by ACTH, a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates cortisol synthesis. During midgestation, the fetal zone occupies most of the cortical volume and produces 100–200 mg/day of DHEA-S, an androgen and precursor of both androgens and estrogens (female sex hormones). Adrenal hormones, especially glucocorticoids such as cortisol, are essential for prenatal development of organs, particularly for the maturation of the lungs. The adrenal gland decreases in size after birth because of the rapid disappearance of the fetal zone, with a corresponding decrease in androgen secretion.

Adrenarche
During early childhood androgen synthesis and secretion remain low, but several years before puberty (from 6–8 years of age) changes occur in both anatomical and functional aspects of cortical androgen production that lead to increased secretion of the steroids DHEA and DHEA-S. These changes are part of a process called adrenarche, which has only been described in humans and some other primates. Adrenarche is independent of ACTH or gonadotropins and correlates with a progressive thickening of the zona reticularis layer of the cortex. Functionally, adrenarche provides a source of androgens for the development of axillary and pubic hair before the beginning of puberty.

Medulla
The adrenal medulla is derived from neural crest cells, which come from the ectoderm layer of the embryo. These cells migrate from their initial position and aggregate in the vicinity of the dorsal aorta, a primitive blood vessel, which activates the differentiation of these cells through the release of proteins known as BMPs. These cells then undergo a second migration from the dorsal aorta to form the adrenal medulla and other organs of the sympathetic nervous system. Cells of the adrenal medulla are called chromaffin cells because they contain granules that stain with chromium salts, a characteristic not present in all sympathetic organs. Glucocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex were once thought to be responsible for the differentiation of chromaffin cells. More recent research suggests that BMP-4 secreted in adrenal tissue is the main responsible for this, and that glucocorticoids only play a role in the subsequent development of the cells.

Clinical significance
The normal function of the adrenal gland may be impaired by conditions such as infections, tumors, genetic disorders and autoimmune diseases, or as a side effect of medical therapy. These disorders affect the gland either directly (as with infections or autoimmune diseases) or as a result of the dysregulation of hormone production (as in some types of Cushing's syndrome) leading to an excess or insufficiency of adrenal hormones and the related symptoms.

Cushing's syndrome
Cushing's syndrome is the manifestation of glucocorticoid excess. It can be the result of a prolonged treatment with glucocorticoids or be caused by an underlying disease which produces alterations in the HPA axis or the production of cortisol. Causes can be further classified into ACTH-dependent or ACTH-independent. The most common cause of endogenous Cushing's syndrome is a pituitary adenoma which causes an excessive production of ACTH. The disease produces a wide variety of signs and symptoms which include obesity, diabetes, increased blood pressure, excessive body hair (hirsutism), osteoporosis, depression, and most distinctively, stretch marks in the skin, caused by its progressive thinning.

Primary aldosteronism
When the zona glomerulosa produces excess aldosterone, the result is primary aldosteronism. Causes for this condition are bilateral hyperplasia (excessive tissue growth) of the glands, or aldosterone-producing adenomas (a condition called Conn's syndrome). Primary aldosteronism produces hypertension and electrolyte imbalance, increasing potassium depletion sodium retention.

Adrenal insufficiency
Adrenal insufficiency (the deficiency of glucocorticoids) occurs in about 5 in 10,000 in the general population. Diseases classified as primary adrenal insufficiency (including Addison's disease and genetic causes) directly affect the adrenal cortex. If a problem that affects the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis arises outside the gland, it is a secondary adrenal insufficiency.

Addison's disease
Addison's disease refers to primary hypoadrenalism, which is a deficiency in glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid production by the adrenal gland. In the Western world, Addison's disease is most commonly an autoimmune condition, in which the body produces antibodies against cells of the adrenal cortex. Worldwide, the disease is more frequently caused by infection, especially from tuberculosis. A distinctive feature of Addison's disease is hyperpigmentation of the skin, which presents with other nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue.

A complication seen in untreated Addison's disease and other types of primary adrenal insufficiency is the adrenal crisis, a medical emergency in which low glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid levels result in hypovolemic shock and symptoms such as vomiting and fever. An adrenal crisis can progressively lead to stupor and coma. The management of adrenal crises includes the application of hydrocortisone injections.

Secondary adrenal insufficiency
In secondary adrenal insufficiency, a dysfunction of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis leads to decreased stimulation of the adrenal cortex. Apart from suppression of the axis by glucocorticoid therapy, the most common cause of secondary adrenal insufficiency are tumors that affect the production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) by the pituitary gland. This type of adrenal insufficiency usually does not affect the production of mineralocorticoids, which are under regulation of the renin–angiotensin system instead.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is a family of congenital diseases in which mutations of enzymes that produce steroid hormones result in a glucocorticoid deficiency and malfunction of the negative feedback loop of the HPA axis. In the HPA axis, cortisol (a glucocorticoid) inhibits the release of CRH and ACTH, hormones that in turn stimulate corticosteroid synthesis. As cortisol cannot be synthesized, these hormones are released in high quantities and stimulate production of other adrenal steroids instead. The most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia is due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. 21-hydroxylase is necessary for production of both mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, but not androgens. Therefore, ACTH stimulation of the adrenal cortex induces the release of excessive amounts of adrenal androgens, which can lead to the development of ambiguous genitalia and secondary sex characteristics.

Adrenal tumors

Adrenal tumors are commonly found as incidentalomas, unexpected asymptomatic tumors found during medical imaging. They are seen in around 3.4% of CT scans, and in most cases they are benign adenomas. Adrenal carcinomas are very rare, with an incidence of 1 case per million per year.

Pheochromocytomas are tumors of the adrenal medulla that arise from chromaffin cells. They can produce a variety of nonspecific symptoms, which include headaches, sweating, anxiety and palpitations. Common signs include hypertension and tachycardia. Surgery, especially adrenal laparoscopy, is the most common treatment for small pheochromocytomas.

History
Bartolomeo Eustachi, an Italian anatomist, is credited with the first description of the adrenal glands in 1563–4. However, these publications were part of the papal library and did not receive public attention, which was first received with Caspar Bartholin the Elder's illustrations in 1611.

The adrenal glands are named for their location relative to the kidneys. The term "adrenal" comes from Latin ad, "near", and ren, "kidney". Similarly, "suprarenal", as termed by Jean Riolan the Younger in 1629, is derived from the Latin supra, "above", and ren, "kidney", as well. The suprarenal nature of the glands was not truly accepted until the 19th century, as anatomists clarified the ductless nature of the glands and their likely secretory role – prior to this, there was some debate as to whether the glands were indeed suprarenal or part of the kidney.

One of the most recognized works on the adrenal glands came in 1855 with the publication of On the Constitutional and Local Effects of Disease of the Suprarenal Capsule, by the English physician Thomas Addison. In his monography, Addison described what the French physician George Trousseau would later name Addison's disease, an eponym still used today for a condition of adrenal insufficiency and its related clinical manifestations. In 1894, English physiologists George Oliver and Edward Schafer studied the action of adrenal extracts and observed their pressor effects. In the following decades several physicians experimented with extracts from the adrenal cortex to treat Addison's disease. Edward Calvin Kendall, Philip Hench and Tadeusz Reichstein were then awarded the 1950 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries on the structure and effects of the adrenal hormones.

title: Adrenal gland


text:
A360media

A360 Media, LLC (branded a360media), formerly American Media, Inc. (AMI), is an American publisher of magazines, supermarket tabloids, and books based in New York City. Originally affiliated with only the National Enquirer, the media company's holdings expanded considerably in the 1990s and 2000s. In November 2010, American Media filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection due to debts of nearly $1 billion, but has continued to buy and sell magazine brands since then.

AMI has been in the news affiliated with accusations of catch and kill operations. On December 12, 2018, the U.S. Attorney's Office reported that AMI admitted to paying $150,000 to Karen McDougal in concert with Donald Trump's presidential campaign for the sole purpose of preventing damaging allegations prior to the 2016 US presidential election.

According to its September 2018 non-prosecution agreement with Southern District of New York federal prosecutors, AMI "shall commit no crimes whatsoever" for three years, otherwise "A.M.I. shall thereafter be subject to prosecution for any federal criminal violation of which this office has knowledge."

On April 10, 2019, Chatham Asset Management, which controls 80 percent of AMI's stock, forced AMI to sell the National Enquirer. This came after Chatham owner Anthony Melchiorre, who AMI has also relied on for survival, expressed dismay over the tabloid magazine's recent scandals involving hush money assistance to U.S. president Donald Trump's 2016 campaign and blackmail of Jeff Bezos. On April 18, 2019, AMI agreed to sell not only the National Enquirer, but two of its other publications, Globe and National Examiner, to Hudson News Distributors.

In August 2020, Chatham Asset Management, AMI's owning holding company, announced it would merge AMI with Accelerate 360, a wholesale distribution company it also owned. As part of the merger, AMI was officially renamed A360 on October 1.

In February 2023, A360media agreed to sell the National Enquirer to VVIP Ventures, a joint venture of the digital media company Vinco Ventures and a new company set up for the purchase, Icon Publishing. As of July 7th, 2023 the deal has collapsed as reported by The Wall Street Journal.

History
The modern American Media came into being after Generoso Pope Jr., longtime owner of the National Enquirer, died in 1988, and his tabloids came under new ownership. American tabloids began consolidating in 1990, when American Media bought Star from Rupert Murdoch. The purchase of Globe Communications (owner of the Globe and the National Examiner) followed nine years later. Roger Altman, through Evercore Partners, bought a controlling stake in American Media in 1999.

American Media is not to be confused with American Media Distribution, the international news coverage firm. American Media's former corporate headquarters in Boca Raton, Florida, figured prominently in news headlines in late 2001, after an anthrax attack was perpetrated on the company and other media outlets. Since then the corporate headquarters have moved to New York City at 1 Park Avenue in Manhattan, before moving to the Financial District to the former JP Morgan Chase headquarters at 4 New York Plaza. That building was severely damaged by Hurricane Sandy but reopened in February 2013.

AMI continued to expand after it bought Joe Weider's Weider Publications in 2002. Joe Weider continued to manage control of his magazines under AMI's Weider Publications subsidiary until his death in March 2013.

American Media also owns Distribution Services, an in-store magazine merchandising company. In fall 2002, it launched the book-publishing imprint, AMI Books.

2010s: Bankruptcy and continued acquisitions
In 2009, American Media was taken over by its bondholders to keep it out of bankruptcy.

In November 2010, American Media filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection due to nearly $1 billion in debt, and assets of less than $50,000. Its subsidiary, American Media Operations Inc., listed assets of $100 to $500 million and debt of over $1 billion. It exited in December.

In May 2014, American Media announced a decision to shift the headquarters of the National Enquirer from Florida, where it had been located since 1971, back to New York City, where it originally began as The New York Enquirer in 1926. In August 2014, American Media was acquired by Chatham Asset Management and Omega Charitable Partnership.

In 2015, American Media sold Shape, Natural Health, and Fit Pregnancy to Meredith.

In 2016, Pecker revealed to the Toronto Star that AMI now relied on support from Chatham Asset Management and its owner Anthony Melchiorre. The $4 billion hedge fund owns 80 percent of AMI's stock.

In March 2017, American Media acquired Us Weekly from Wenner Media for a reported $100 million. Three months later, in June 2017, American Media also acquired Men's Journal from Wenner Media.

In June 2018, American Media acquired 13 brands from Bauer Media Group including In Touch Weekly, Life & Style and Closer to add to their celebrity portfolio. They also acquired Bauer Media's kids group including J-14 and Girl's World.

In February 2019, American Media acquired TEN's adventure sports properties.

In April 2019, the National Enquirer was reported to be up for sale and likely to be sold within days. The company stated that it had shifted its emphasis away from tabloids to its "glossy" magazines such as Us Weekly and Men's Journal. This came following pressure from Chatham owner Anthony Melchiorre, who expressed disapproval of the Enquirer's style of journalism. On April 18, 2019, AMI accepted an offer from Hudson News Distributors head James Cohen and agreed to sell not only the National Enquirer, but also Globe and The Examiner to Hudson News Distributors for $100 million. At the time the sales were announced, AMI was approximately $355 million in debt.

In 2022, A360 acquired single issue magazine publisher Centennial Media. Also in 2022, A360 sold Men's Journal and the Adventure Sports Network properties to The Arena Group.

Checkbook journalism controversy
On April 22, 2024, Pecker acknowledged that the National Enquirer engaged in a practice of checkbook journalism which involved paying sources for stories, and that he "gave a number to the editors that they could not spend more than $10,000" and he had final say over celebrity stories. He also acknowledged that "checkbook journalism" served as part of the editorial philosophy he followed when ran American Media Inc. Pecker stated that he believed that “The only thing that is important is the cover of a magazine.”

Allegation about Trump Tower maid
In late 2015, AMI paid $30,000 to Dino Sajudin, a doorman at Trump Tower, to obtain the rights to his story in which he alleged Donald Trump had an affair in the 1980s that resulted in the birth of a child. Sajudin in April 2018 identified the woman as Trump's former housekeeper. AMI reporters were given the names of the woman and the alleged child, while Sajudin passed a lie detector test when testifying that he had heard the story from others. Shortly after the payment was made, Pecker ordered the reporters to drop the story. In April 2018, AMI chief content officer Dylan Howard denied the story was "spiked" in a so-called "catch and kill" operation, insisting that AMI did not run the story because Sajudin's story lacked credibility. On August 24, 2018, after AMI had released Sajudin from the contract, CNN obtained a copy of it and published excerpts. The contract instructed Sajudin to provide "information regarding Donald Trump's illegitimate child," but did not contain further specifics of Sajudin's story.

In April 2024, Pecker testified in Trump's New York criminal trial how the story was his first "catch-and-kill" target during Trump's campaign, with Sajudin also attempting to claim that the child was a girl. A National Enquirer editor who discovered the allegation originally did not know Sajudin's name, but just as a doorman who had worked at Trump. Cohen was the one who discovered the names of the doorman and the alleged maid. Though Cohen at first claimed the story was not true, the National Enquirer acquired the story for $30,000, which was noticeably higher than the usual $10,000 they paid for stories.

Karen McDougal
In 2016, AMI paid Playboy model Karen McDougal $150,000 for exclusive rights to her allegations of a ten-month affair with Donald Trump—which she claimed happened in 2006–2007, when he was already married to Melania —but AMI never published the story. AMI publicly acknowledged having made the payment after The Wall Street Journal revealed it days before the 2016 presidential election, but AMI denied that its purpose had been to "kill damaging stories about" Trump; instead, AMI claimed it had paid only for "exclusive life rights to any relationship [McDougal] has had with a then-married man" and "two years' worth of her fitness columns and magazine covers." In March 2018, McDougal filed a lawsuit to invalidate the non-disclosure agreement she had with AMI. A month later, AMI settled with McDougal, allowing her to speak about the alleged affair. In August 2018, it was reported that AMI CEO/chairman David Pecker and AMI chief content officer Dylan Howard were granted witness immunity in exchange for their testimony regarding hush money payments made by Donald Trump's then-personal lawyer, Michael Cohen, in an attempt to influence the 2016 presidential election.

On December 12, 2018, the U.S. Attorney's office announced its agreement with AMI. "AMI admitted that it made the $150,000 payment in concert with a candidate's presidential campaign," the press release said, so that Karen McDougal wouldn't "publicize damaging allegations about the candidate before the 2016 presidential election. AMI further admitted that its principal purpose in making the payment was to suppress the woman's story so as to prevent it from influencing the election." As a result of this agreement, AMI did not face prosecution and agreed to provide extensive assistance to prosecutors about the involvement of Trump and other politicians with the company. The same press release also revealed that Michael Cohen had been sentenced to three years in prison for various crimes, including the $150,000 campaign finance violation—the facilitation of the payment to McDougal—to which he pled guilty on August 21, 2018. AMI agreed to pay the Federal Election Commission a $187,500 fine in June 2021.

In April 2024, Pecker testified how he, Howard and Cohen conspired to get the National Enquirer to acquire McDougal's story. Pecker stated that after Howard found out about McDougal's allegation, he sent Howard to California to interview her. During the time Howard met with McDougal, he conversed with Cohen about the situation. Ultimately, McDougal agreed to sell her story to the National Enquirer for $150,000.

Jeff Bezos blackmail
In January 2019, the National Enquirer broke a story about the extramarital affair of Amazon founder and Washington Post owner Jeff Bezos with Lauren Sánchez. Bezos began investigating how and why the information had been leaked to the National Enquirer. President Trump has long expressed displeasure with Bezos,  and Trump's irritation may have increased due to the Washington Post's critical coverage of the murder (and the subsequent cover-up ) of one of its reporters, Jamal Khashoggi. This, Bezos suspects, may have been the political motivation for someone to leak his affair to the tabloid.

On February 7, 2019, Bezos shared emails that he had received the previous day in which AMI sought a public statement from him and his lawyer "affirming that they have no knowledge or basis for suggesting that AM's coverage [of the sexual affair] was politically motivated or influenced by political forces, and an agreement that they will cease referring to such a possibility." AMI chief content officer Dylan Howard and his lawyer Jon Fine threatened Bezos, saying that if Bezos did not promptly meet their demands, AMI would publish selfies and sexts sent between Bezos and his girlfriend. Bezos wrote that he would refuse to make this "specific lie" or to otherwise participate in this blackmail bargain that "no real journalists [would] ever propose." "Of course I don't want personal photos published," Bezos added, but he said he chooses to "stand up, roll this log over, and see what crawls out."

That same day, The Washington Post published an article on the matter, quoting a former federal prosecutor who speculated that this news could undermine AMI's recent deal with the government. If prosecutors decide they must file new criminal charges against AMI, the government may not be able "to continue to use them [AMI] to assist other ongoing investigations," said Robert Mintz.

Lauren Sanchez's brother, Michael Sanchez, an ardent Trump supporter, stated he was told by multiple AMI employees that the Enquirer set out to do "a takedown to make Trump happy" and The Daily Beast reported seeing documents showing that Sanchez believed the Bezos story was run with "President Trump's knowledge and appreciation."

Current

 * Animal Tales
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 * Muscle & Fitness
 * Muscle & Fitness Hers
 * OK! (US)
 * Puzzle Fun
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 * Star
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Former

 * Autoworld Weekly
 * Bike
 * Country Music
 * Fit Pregnancy
 * Flex
 * Globe
 * Men's Fitness
 * Men's Journal
 * Nash Country Weekly
 * National Enquirer
 * National Examiner
 * Natural Health
 * Pixie
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 * Snowboarder Magazine
 * Soap Opera Digest
 * Soaps in Depth
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 * Stallone
 * Sun
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 * Teen Boss
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 * Weekly World News

Divisions

 * AMI Books
 * AMI Entertainment Group
 * Distribution Services, Inc.
 * Dew Tour

title: A360media


text:
Talk:Abraham Lincoln

Most Oates citations fail verification
The brief of this is that most of the Oates 1974 references seem like they're not supported by the book listed in the Bibliography and what my preliminary explorations were into what the proper citations might be.

I was able to find a (probably) different version of Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct available in the Internet Archive, with the Lincoln section between pages 97 and 107. Further, I found that the scope of the text was limited to just actions taken while president based on p. xxviii.

Most of the citations don't seem supported like they could ever be supported in text by this Oates book, since they are things that happened before Lincoln became President. The only one that seemed related was citation 207  which is largely supported by pages 99–101 of the archive copy, though I don't see anything about a telegraph.

I kinda wonder whether these citations are from some other Stephen B. Oates book and just cited as Oates 1974 instead? I did notice in this diff that both,   were introduced, replacing ref names that referred to  , but the other Oates sfns that were introduced in this change were originally named either   or  , so I don't know what their deal is.

is what those two citations used to refer to, but I don't know whether this is the right version of the book, nor how to cite it (it's odd that it was referred to as Oates1994 even though the google book is from 2009 and it was originally published in 1977). I do know that it's available on the archive though it has a different ISBN.

Anyways, that leaves 5 Oates citations that I can't explain, namely 83, 89, 119, 130, and 152 as of this revision. GrapesRock (talk) 18:45, 27 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Abraham Lincoln