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Ivanhoe

Ivanhoe: A Romance by Walter Scott is a historical novel published in three volumes, in December 1819, as one of the Waverley novels. It marked a shift away from Scott's prior practice of setting stories in Scotland and in the more recent past. It became one of Scott's best-known and most influential novels.

Set in England in the Middle Ages, with colourful descriptions of a tournament, outlaws, a witch trial, and divisions between Jews and Christians, Normans and Saxons, the novel was credited by many, including Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin, with inspiring increased interest in chivalric romance and medievalism. As John Henry Newman put it, Scott "had first turned men's minds in the direction of the Middle Ages". It was also credited with influencing contemporary popular perceptions of historical figures such as King Richard the Lionheart, Prince John, and Robin Hood.

Composition and sources
In June 1819, Walter Scott still suffered from the severe stomach pains that had forced him to dictate the last part of The Bride of Lammermoor, and also most of A Legend of the Wars of Montrose, which he finished at the end of May. By the beginning of July, at the latest, Scott had started dictating his new novel Ivanhoe, again with John Ballantyne and William Laidlaw as amanuenses. For the second half of the manuscript, Scott was able to take up the pen, and completed Ivanhoe: A Romance in early November 1819.

For detailed information about the Middle Ages Scott drew on three works by the antiquarian Joseph Strutt: Horda Angel-cynnan or a Compleat View of the Manners, Customs, Arms, Habits etc. of the Inhabitants of England (1775–76), Dress and Habits of the People of England (1796–99), and Sports and Pastimes of the People of England (1801). Two historians gave him a solid grounding in the period: Robert Henry with The History of Great Britain (1771–93), and Sharon Turner with The History of the Anglo-Saxons from the Earliest Period to the Norman Conquest (1799–1805). His clearest debt to an original medieval source involved the Templar Rule, reproduced in The Theatre of Honour and Knight-Hood (1623) translated from the French of André Favine. Scott was happy to introduce details from the later Middle Ages, and Chaucer was particularly helpful, as (in a different way) was the fourteenth-century romance Richard Coeur de Lion. The figure of Locksley in the story and many elements of the tale are undoubtedly influenced by Scott's association with Joseph Ritson, who had earlier compiled Robin Hood: a collection of all the ancient poems, songs and ballads now extant relative to that celebrated English outlaw (1795).

Editions
Ivanhoe was published by Archibald Constable in Edinburgh. All first editions carry the date of 1820, but it was released on 20 December 1819 and issued in London on the 29th by Hurst, Robinson and Co.. As with all of the Waverley novels before 1827, publication was anonymous. The print run was 10,000 copies, and the cost was £1 10s (£1.50, equivalent in purchasing power to £149 in 2021). It is possible that Scott was involved in minor changes to the text during the early 1820s but his main revision was carried out in 1829 for the 'Magnum' edition where the novel appeared in Volumes 16 and 17 in September and October 1830.

The standard modern edition, by Graham Tulloch, appeared as Volume 8 of the Edinburgh Edition of the Waverley Novels in 1998: this is based on the first edition with emendations principally from Scott's manuscript in the second half of the work; the new Magnum material is included in Volume 25b.

Plot introduction
Ivanhoe is the story of one of the remaining Anglo-Saxon noble families at a time when the nobility in England was overwhelmingly Norman. It follows the Saxon protagonist, Sir Wilfred of Ivanhoe, who is out of favour with his father for Sir Wilfred's allegiance to the Norman king Richard the Lionheart. The story is set in 1194, after the failure of the Third Crusade, when many of the Crusaders were still returning to their homes in Europe. King Richard, who had been captured by Leopold of Austria on his return journey to England, was believed to still be in captivity.

Opening
Protagonist Wilfred of Ivanhoe is disinherited by his father Cedric of Rotherwood for supporting the Norman King Richard and for falling in love with the Lady Rowena, a ward of Cedric and descendant of the Saxon Kings of England. Cedric planned to have Rowena marry the powerful Lord Athelstane, a pretender to the Crown of England by his descent from the last Saxon King, Harold Godwinson. Ivanhoe accompanies King Richard on the Third Crusade, where he is said to have played a notable role in the Siege of Acre.

The book opens with a scene of Norman knights and prelates seeking the hospitality of Cedric. They are guided there by a pilgrim, known at that time as a palmer. That same night, Isaac of York, a Jewish moneylender, seeks refuge at Rotherwood on his way to the tournament at Ashby. Following the night's meal, the palmer observes one of the Normans, the Templar Brian de Bois-Guilbert, issue orders to his Saracen soldiers to capture Isaac.

The palmer then assists in Isaac's escape from Rotherwood, with the additional aid of the swineherd Gurth.

Isaac of York offers to repay his debt to the palmer with a suit of armour and a war horse to participate in the tournament at Ashby-de-la-Zouch Castle, on his inference that the palmer was secretly a knight. The palmer is taken by surprise, but accepts the offer.

The tournament
The tournament is presided over by Prince John. Also in attendance are Cedric, Athelstane, Lady Rowena, Isaac of York, his daughter Rebecca, Robin of Locksley and his men, Prince John's advisor Waldemar Fitzurse, and numerous Norman knights.

On the first day of the tournament, in a bout of individual jousting, a mysterious knight, identifying himself only as "Desdichado" (described in the book as Spanish, taken by the Saxons to mean "Disinherited"), defeats Bois-Guilbert. The masked knight declines to reveal himself despite Prince John's request, but is nevertheless declared the champion of the day and is permitted to choose the Queen of the Tournament. He bestows this honour upon Lady Rowena.

On the second day, at a melee, Desdichado is the leader of one party, opposed by his former adversaries. Desdichado's side is soon hard-pressed and he himself beset by multiple foes until rescued by a knight nicknamed Le Noir Faineant ('the Black Sluggard'), who thereafter departs in secret. When forced to unmask himself to receive his coronet (the sign of championship), Desdichado is identified as Wilfred of Ivanhoe, returned from the Crusades. This causes much consternation to Prince John and his court who now fear the imminent return of King Richard.

Ivanhoe is severely wounded in the competition yet his father does not move quickly to tend to him. Instead, Rebecca, a skilled physician, tends to him while they are lodged near the tournament and then convinces her father to take Ivanhoe with them to their home in York when he is fit for that trip. The conclusion of the tournament includes feats of archery by Locksley, such as splitting a willow reed with his arrow. Prince John's dinner for the local Saxons ends in insults.

Capture and rescue
In the forests between Ashby and York, Isaac, Rebecca and the wounded Ivanhoe are abandoned by their guards, who fear bandits and take all of Isaac's horses. Cedric, Athelstane and the Lady Rowena meet them and agree to travel together. The party is captured by de Bracy and his companions and taken to Torquilstone, the castle of Front-de-Boeuf. The swineherd Gurth and Wamba the jester manage to escape, and then encounter Locksley, who plans a rescue.

The Black Knight, having taken refuge for the night in the hut of local friar, the Holy Clerk of Copmanhurst, volunteers his assistance on learning about the captives from Robin of Locksley. They then besiege the Castle of Torquilstone with Robin's own men, including the friar and assorted Saxon yeomen. Inside Torquilstone, de Bracy expresses his love for the Lady Rowena but is refused. Brian de Bois-Guilbert tries to rape Rebecca and is thwarted. He then tries to seduce her and is rebuffed. Front-de-Boeuf tries to wring a hefty ransom from Isaac of York, but Isaac refuses to pay unless his daughter is freed.

When the besiegers deliver a note to yield up the captives, their Norman captors demand a priest to administer the Final Sacrament to Cedric; whereupon Cedric's jester Wamba slips in disguised as a priest, and takes the place of Cedric, who escapes and brings important information to the besiegers on the strength of the garrison and its layout. On his way out, Cedric meets the Saxon crone Ulrica, who vows revenge on Front-de-Boeuf and advises Cedric to tell the besiegers. The besiegers storm the castle. The castle is set aflame during the assault by Ulrica, the daughter of the original lord of the castle, Lord Torquilstone, as revenge for her father's death. Front-de-Boeuf is killed in the fire while de Bracy surrenders to the Black Knight, who identifies himself as King Richard and releases de Bracy. Bois-Guilbert escapes with Rebecca while Isaac is captured by the Clerk of Copmanhurst. The Lady Rowena is saved by Cedric, while the still-wounded Ivanhoe is rescued from the burning castle by King Richard. In the fighting, Athelstane is wounded and presumed dead while attempting to rescue Rebecca, whom he mistakes for Rowena.

Rebecca's trial and Ivanhoe's reconciliation
Following the battle, Locksley plays host to King Richard. Word is conveyed by de Bracy to Prince John of the King's return and the fall of Torquilstone. In the meantime, Bois-Guilbert rushes with his captive to the nearest Templar Preceptory, where Lucas de Beaumanoir, the Grand Master of the Templars, takes umbrage at Bois-Guilbert's infatuation and subjects Rebecca to a "trial" for witchcraft. At Bois-Guilbert's secret request, she claims the right to trial by combat; and Bois-Guilbert, who had hoped to fight as Rebecca's champion, is devastated when the Grand Master orders him to fight on behalf of the Templestowe. Rebecca then writes to her father to procure a champion for her. Cedric organizes Athelstane's funeral at Coningsburgh, in the midst of which the Black Knight arrives with Ivanhoe. Cedric, who had not been present at Locksley's carousal, is ill-disposed towards the knight upon learning his true identity, but Richard calms Cedric and reconciles him with his son. During this conversation, Athelstane emerges – not dead, but laid in his coffin alive by monks desirous of the funeral money. Over Cedric's renewed protests, Athelstane pledges his homage to the Norman King Richard and urges Cedric to allow Rowena to marry Ivanhoe, to which Cedric finally agrees.

Soon after this reconciliation, Ivanhoe receives word from Isaac beseeching him to fight on Rebecca's behalf. Ivanhoe, riding day and night, arrives in time for the trial by combat; however, both horse and man are exhausted, with little chance of victory. The two knights make one charge at each other with lances, Bois-Guilbert appearing to have the advantage. Bois-Guilbert and Ivanhoe are unhorsed by each other's lances in the first joust. Ivanhoe rises quickly to finish the fight by sword; however, Bois-Guilbert, suffering from the severe inner conflict of his love for Rebecca and his honor as a knight, dies from emotional turmoil.

Ivanhoe and Rowena marry and live a long and happy life together. Fearing further persecution, Rebecca and her father plan to quit England for Granada. Before leaving, Rebecca comes to Rowena shortly after the wedding to bid her a solemn farewell. Ivanhoe's military service ends with the death of King Richard five years later.

Characters
(principal characters in bold)

 * Cedric the Saxon, of Rotherwood
 * Wilfred of Ivanhoe, Cedric's son
 * Rowena, Saxon princess, Cedric's ward
 * Athelstane, Saxon nobleman, Cedric's kinsman
 * Gurth, Cedric's swineherd
 * Wamba, Cedric's jester
 * Oswald, Cedric's cup-bearer
 * Elgitha, Rowena's waiting-woman
 * Albert Malvoisin, Preceptor of Templestowe
 * Philip Malvoisin, his brother, Cedric's neighbor
 * Hubert, Philip's forester
 * The Prior of Aymer, Abbot of Jorvaulx
 * Ambrose, a monk attending him
 * Brian de Bois-Guilbert, a Templar
 * Baldwin, his squire
 * Isaac of York, a Jewish money-lender
 * Rebecca, of York, Isaac's daughter, an accomplished physician and philanthropist
 * Nathan, a rabbi and physician
 * King Richard ('the Black Knight')
 * Prince John, Richard's brother
 * Alias Locksley, Robin Hood, an outlaw
 * Reginald Front-de-Bœuf of Torquilstone, Norman holder of an ancient Saxon fortress. Cedric's neighbor
 * Maurice de Bracy, a Free Companion (mercenary)
 * Waldemar Fitzurse, Prince John's advisor - a fictional son of Reginald FitzUrse, a murderer of Archbishop Becket.
 * Hugh de Grantmesnil
 * Ralph de Vipont, a Hospitaller
 * Friar Tuck, of Copmanhurst
 * Ulrica, of Torquilstone, alias Urfried
 * Lucas de Beaumanoir, grand-master of the Templars
 * Conrade Mountfitchet, his attendant knight
 * Higg, a peasant
 * Kirjath Jairam of Leicester, a rich Jew
 * Alan-a-Dale, a minstrel

Chapter summary
Dedicatory Epistle: An imaginary letter to the Rev. Dr Dryasdust from Laurence Templeton who has found the materials for the following tale mostly in the Anglo-Norman Wardour Manuscript. He wishes to provide an English counterpart to the preceding Waverley novels, in spite of various difficulties arising from the chronologically remote setting made necessary by the earlier progress of civilisation south of the Border.

Volume One
Ch. 1: Historical sketch. Gurth the swineherd and Wamba the jester discuss life under Norman rule.

Ch. 2: Wamba and Gurth wilfully misdirect a group of horsemen headed by Prior Aymer and Brian de Bois-Guilbert seeking shelter at Cedric's Rotherwood. Aymer and Bois-Guilbert discuss the beauty of Cedric's ward Rowena and are redirected, this time correctly, by a palmer [Ivanhoe in disguise].

Ch. 3: Cedric anxiously awaits the return of Gurth and the pigs. Aymer and Bois-Guilbert arrive.

Ch. 4: Bois-Guilbert admires Rowena as she enters for the evening feast.

Ch. 5: During the feast: Isaac enters and is befriended by the palmer; Cedric laments the decay of the Saxon language; the palmer refutes Bois-Guilbert's assertion of Templar supremacy with an account of a tournament in Palestine, where Ivanhoe defeated him; the palmer and Rowena give a pledge for a return match; and Isaac is thunderstruck by Bois-Guilbert's denial of his assertion of poverty.

Ch. 6: Next day the palmer tells Rowena that Ivanhoe will soon be home. He offers to protect Isaac from Bois-Guilbert, whom he has overheard giving instructions for his capture. On the road to Sheffield Isaac mentions a source of horse and armour of which he guesses the palmer has need.

Ch. 7: As the audience for a tournament at Ashby de la Zouch assembles, Prince John amuses himself by making fun of Athelstane and Isaac.

Ch. 8: After a series of Saxon defeats in the tournament the 'Disinherited Knight' [Ivanhoe] triumphs over Bois-Guilbert and the other Norman challengers.

Ch. 9: The Disinherited Knight nominates Rowena as Queen of the Tournament.

Ch. 10: The Disinherited Knight refuses to ransom Bois-Guilbert's armour, declaring that their business is not concluded. He instructs his attendant, Gurth in disguise, to convey money to Isaac to repay him for arranging the provision of his horse and armour. Gurth does so, but Rebecca secretly refunds the money.

Ch. 11: Gurth is assailed by a band of outlaws, but they spare him on hearing his story and after he has defeated one of their number, a miller, at quarter-staves.

Ch. 12: The Disinherited Knight's party triumph at the tournament, with the aid of a knight in black [Richard in disguise]; he is revealed as Ivanhoe and faints as a result of the wounds he has incurred.

Ch. 13: John encourages De Bracy to court Rowena and receives a warning from France that Richard has escaped. Locksley [Robin Hood] triumphs in an archery contest.

Ch. 14: At the tournament banquet Cedric continues to disown his son (who has been associating with the Normans) but drinks to the health of Richard, rather than John, as the noblest of that race.

Volume Two
Ch. 1 (15): De Bracy (disguised as a forester) tells Fitzurse of his plan to capture Rowena and then 'rescue' her in his own person.

Ch. 2 (16): The Black Knight is entertained by a hermit [Friar Tuck] at Copmanhurst.

Ch. 3 (17): The Black Knight and the hermit exchange songs.

Ch. 4 (18): (Retrospect: Before going to the banquet Cedric learned that Ivanhoe had been removed by unknown carers; Gurth was recognised and captured by Cedric's cupbearer Oswald.) Cedric finds Athelstane unresponsive to his attempts to interest him in Rowena, who is herself only attracted by Ivanhoe.

Ch. 5 (19): Rowena persuades Cedric to escort Isaac and Rebecca, who have been abandoned (along with a sick man [Ivanhoe] in their care) by their hired protectors. Wamba helps Gurth to escape again. De Bracy mounts his attack, during which Wamba escapes. He meets up with Gurth and they encounter Locksley who, after investigation, advises against a counter-attack, the captives not being in immediate danger.

Ch. 6 (20): Locksley sends two of his men to watch De Bracy. At Copmanhurst he meets the Black Knight who agrees to join in the rescue.

Ch. 7 (21): De Bracy tells Bois-Guilbert he has decided to abandon his 'rescue' plan, mistrusting his companion though the Templar says it is Rebecca he is interested in. On arrival at Torquilstone castle Cedric laments its decline.

Ch. 8 (22): Under threat of torture Isaac agrees to pay Front-de-Bœuf a thousand pounds, but only if Rebecca is released.

Ch. 9 (23): De Bracy uses Ivanhoe's danger from Front-de-Bœuf to put pressure on Rowena, but he is moved by her resulting distress. The narrator refers the reader to historical instances of baronial oppression in medieval England.

Ch. 10 (24): A hag Urfried [Ulrica] warns Rebecca of her forthcoming fate. Rebecca impresses Bois-Guilbert by her spirited resistance to his advances.

Ch. 11 (25): Front-de-Bœuf rejects a written challenge from Gurth and Wamba. Wamba offers to spy out the castle posing as a confessor.

Ch. 12 (26): Entering the castle, Wamba exchanges clothes with Cedric who encounters Rebecca and Urfried.

Ch. 13 (27): Urfried recognises Cedric as a Saxon and, revealing herself as Ulrica, tells her story which involves Front-de-Bœuf murdering his father, who had killed her father and seven brothers when taking the castle, and had become her detested lover. She says she will give a signal when the time is ripe for storming the castle. Front-de-Bœuf sends the presumed friar with a message to summon reinforcements. Athelstane defies him, claiming that Rowena is his fiancée. The monk Ambrose arrives seeking help for Aymer who has been captured by Locksley's men.

Ch. 14 (28): (Retrospective chapter detailing Rebecca's care for Ivanhoe from the tournament to the assault on Torquilstone.)

Ch. 15 (29): Rebecca describes the assault on Torquilstone to the wounded Ivanhoe, disagreeing with his exalted view of chivalry.

Ch. 16 (30): Front-de-Bœuf being mortally wounded, Bois-Guilbert and De Bracy discuss how best to repel the besiegers. Ulrica sets fire to the castle and exults over Front-de-Bœuf who perishes in the flames.

Volume Three
Ch. 1 (31): (The chapter opens with a retrospective account of the attackers' plans and the taking of the barbican.) The Black Knight defeats De Bracy, making himself known to him as Richard, and rescues Ivanhoe. Bois-Guilbert rescues Rebecca, striking down Athelstane who thinks she is Rowena. Ulrica perishes in the flames after singing a wild pagan hymn.

Ch. 2 (32): Locksley supervises the orderly division of the spoil. Friar Tuck brings Isaac whom he has made captive, and engages in good-natured buffeting with the Black Knight.

Ch. 3 (33): Locksley arranges ransom terms for Isaac and Aymer. Aymer agrees to write on Isaac's behalf to Bois-Guilbert, to urge Rebecca's release, in exchange for Isaac loaning him money to pay his ransom to the banditti.

Ch. 4 (34): De Bracy informs John that Richard is in England. Together with Fitzurse he threatens to desert John, but the prince responds cunningly.

Ch. 5 (35): At York, Isaac stays with a friend, Nathan, as he strives to rescue Rebecca from the Templestowe. At the priory the Grand-Master Beaumanoir tells Conrade Mountfitchet that he intends to take a hard line with Templar irregularities. Arriving, Isaac shows him a letter from Aymer to Bois-Guilbert referring to Rebecca, whom Beaumanoir determines must be a witch.

Ch. 6 (36): Beaumanoir tells Preceptor Albert Malvoisin of his outrage at Rebecca's presence in the preceptory. Albert informs Bois-Guilbert of her trial for sorcery, and warns Bois-Guilbert not to defend her. Mountfichet says he will seek evidence against her, including bribing a few fake witnesses with fabricated stories.

Ch. 7 (37): Rebecca is found guilty of witchcraft and sentenced to death. At Bois-Guilbert's secret prompting she demands that a champion defend her in trial by combat.

Ch. 8 (38): Rebecca's demand is accepted, Bois-Guilbert being appointed champion for the prosecution. Bearing a message to her father, the peasant Higg meets him and Nathan on their way to the preceptory, and Isaac goes in search of Ivanhoe.

Ch. 9 (39): Rebecca rejects Bois-Guilbert's offer to fail to appear for the combat in return for her love. Albert persuades him that it is in his interest to appear.

Ch. 10 (40): The Black Knight leaves Ivanhoe to travel to Coningsburgh castle for Athelstane's funeral, and Ivanhoe follows him the next day. The Black Knight is rescued by Locksley from an attack carried out by Fitzurse on John's orders, and reveals his identity as Richard to his companions, prompting Locksley to identify himself as Robin Hood.

Ch. 11 (41): Richard talks to Ivanhoe and dines with the outlaws before Robin arranges a false alarm to put an end to the delay. The party arrive at Coningsburgh.

Ch. 12 (42): Richard procures Ivanhoe's pardon from his father. Athelstane appears, not dead, giving his allegiance to Richard and surrendering Rowena to Ivanhoe.

Ch. 13 (43): Rebecca is tied to the stake, and no champion appears. Bois-Guilbert, racked by guilt, begs her to run away with him. Rebecca refuses. Ivanhoe, exhausted and not fully recovered from his injury, appears as Rebecca's champion, and as they charge Bois-Guilbert dies the victim of his contending passions.

Ch. 14 (44): Beaumanoir and his Templars leave Richard defiantly. Cedric agrees to the marriage of Ivanhoe and Rowena. Rebecca takes her leave of Rowena, leaving a message of her thanks to Ivanhoe for saving her, before her father and she quit England to make a new life under the tolerant King of Granada.

Style
Critics of the novel have treated it as a romance intended mainly to entertain boys. Ivanhoe maintains many of the elements of the Romance genre, including the quest, a chivalric setting, and the overthrowing of a corrupt social order to bring on a time of happiness. Other critics assert that the novel creates a realistic and vibrant story, idealising neither the past nor its main character.

Themes
Scott treats themes similar to those of some of his earlier novels, like Rob Roy and The Heart of Midlothian, examining the conflict between heroic ideals and modern society. In the latter novels, industrial society becomes the centre of this conflict as the backward Scottish nationalists and the "advanced" English have to arise from chaos to create unity. Similarly, the Normans in Ivanhoe, who represent a more sophisticated culture, and the Saxons, who are poor, disenfranchised, and resentful of Norman rule, band together and begin to mould themselves into one people. The conflict between the Saxons and Normans focuses on the losses both groups must experience before they can be reconciled and thus forge a united England. The particular loss is in the extremes of their own cultural values, which must be disavowed in order for the society to function. For the Saxons, this value is the final admission of the hopelessness of the Saxon cause. The Normans must learn to overcome the materialism and violence in their own codes of chivalry. Ivanhoe and Richard represent the hope of reconciliation for a unified future.

Ivanhoe, though of a more noble lineage than some of the other characters, represents a middling individual in the medieval class system who is not exceptionally outstanding in his abilities, as is expected of other quasi-historical fictional characters, such as the Greek heroes. Critic György Lukács points to middling main characters like Ivanhoe in Walter Scott's other novels as one of the primary reasons Scott's historical novels depart from previous historical works, and better explore social and cultural history.

Allusions to real history and geography
The location of the novel is centred upon southern Yorkshire, north-west Leicestershire and northern Nottinghamshire in England. Castles mentioned within the story include Ashby de la Zouch Castle (now a ruin in the care of English Heritage), York (though the mention of Clifford's Tower, likewise an extant English Heritage property, is anachronistic, it not having been called that until later after various rebuilds) and 'Coningsburgh', which is based upon Conisbrough Castle, in the ancient town of Conisbrough near Doncaster (the castle also being a popular English Heritage site). In the novel, Aymer is the Prior of Jorvaulx, a historical spelling of the great Jervaulx Abbey of Yorkshire. Reference is made within the story to York Minster, where the climactic wedding takes place, and to the Bishop of Sheffield, although the Diocese of Sheffield did not exist at either the time of the novel or the time Scott wrote the novel and was not founded until 1914. Such references suggest that Robin Hood lived or travelled in the region.

Conisbrough is so dedicated to the story of Ivanhoe that many of its streets, schools, and public buildings are named after characters from the book.

Sir Walter Scott took the title of his novel, the name of its hero, from the Buckinghamshire village of Ivinghoe. "The name of Ivanhoe," he says in his 1830 Introduction to the Magnum edition, "was suggested by an old rhyme.

"Tring, Wing, and Ivanhoe,

For striking of a blow,

Hampden did forego,

And glad he could escape so."

Ivanhoe is an alternate name for Ivinghoe first recorded in 1665.

Older rural people in the Ivinghoe area most probably pronounced the name the same as Ivanhoe, according to Prof. Paul Kerswill of the University of York, a Fellow of the British Academy (FBA).

It is most probable Scott had direct knowledge of Ivinghoe and did some research before using it as the title for his novel, as he did for the other places mentioned in the novel. The presence of Sir Walter Scott was recorded in Berkhamsted that is just 8 miles away from Ivinghoe. In the novel he speaks also of "the rich fief of Ivanhoe". The Manor of Ivanhoe is listed in the largest 20% of settlements recorded in Domesday.

Lasting influence on the Robin Hood legend
The modern conception of Robin Hood as a cheerful, decent, patriotic rebel owes much to Ivanhoe.

"Locksley" becomes Robin Hood's title in the Scott novel, and it has been used ever since to refer to the legendary outlaw. Scott appears to have taken the name from an anonymous manuscript – written in 1600 – that employs "Locksley" as an epithet for Robin Hood. Owing to Scott's decision to make use of the manuscript, Robin Hood from Locksley has been transformed for all time into "Robin of Locksley", alias Robin Hood. (There is, incidentally, a village called Loxley in Yorkshire.)

Scott makes the 12th-century's Saxon-Norman conflict a major theme in his novel. The original medieval stories about Robin Hood did not mention any conflict between Saxons and Normans; it was Scott who introduced this theme into the legend. The characters in Ivanhoe refer to Prince John and King Richard I as "Normans"; contemporary medieval documents from this period do not refer to either of these two rulers as Normans. Recent re-tellings of the story retain Scott's emphasis on the Norman-Saxon conflict.

Scott also shunned the late 16th-century depiction of Robin as a dispossessed nobleman (the Earl of Huntingdon).

This, however, has not prevented Scott from making an important contribution to the noble-hero strand of the legend, too, because some subsequent motion picture treatments of Robin Hood's adventures give Robin traits that are characteristic of Ivanhoe as well. The most notable Robin Hood films are the lavish Douglas Fairbanks 1922 silent film, the 1938 triple Academy Award-winning Adventures of Robin Hood with Errol Flynn as Robin (which contemporary reviewer Frank Nugent links specifically with Ivanhoe ), and the 1991 box-office success Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves with Kevin Costner. There is also the Mel Brooks spoof Robin Hood: Men in Tights.

In most versions of Robin Hood, both Ivanhoe and Robin, for instance, are returning Crusaders. They have quarrelled with their respective fathers, they are proud to be Saxons, they display a highly evolved sense of justice, they support the rightful king even though he is of Norman-French ancestry, they are adept with weapons, and they each fall in love with a "fair maid" (Rowena and Marian, respectively).

This particular time-frame was popularised by Scott. He borrowed it from the writings of the 16th-century chronicler John Mair or a 17th-century ballad presumably to make the plot of his novel more gripping. Medieval balladeers had generally placed Robin about two centuries later in the reign of Edward I, II or III.

Robin's familiar feat of splitting his competitor's arrow in an archery contest appears for the first time in Ivanhoe.

Historical accuracy
The general political events depicted in the novel are relatively accurate; the novel tells of the period just after King Richard's imprisonment in Austria following the Crusade and of his return to England after a ransom is paid. Yet the story is also heavily fictionalised. Scott himself acknowledged that he had taken liberties with history in his "Dedicatory Epistle" to Ivanhoe. Modern readers are cautioned to understand that Scott's aim was to create a compelling novel set in a historical period, not to provide a book of history.

There has been criticism of Scott's portrayal of the bitter extent of the "enmity of Saxon and Norman, represented as persisting in the days of Richard" as "unsupported by the evidence of contemporary records that forms the basis of the story." Historian E. A. Freeman criticised Scott's novel, stating its depiction of a Saxon–Norman conflict in late twelfth-century England was unhistorical. Freeman cited medieval writer Walter Map, who claimed that tension between the Saxons and Normans had declined by the reign of Henry I. Freeman also cited the late twelfth-century book Dialogus de Scaccario by Richard FitzNeal. This book claimed that the Saxons and Normans had so merged through intermarriage and cultural assimilation that (outside the aristocracy) it was impossible to tell "one from the other." Finally, Freeman ended his critique of Scott by saying that by the end of the twelfth century, the descendants of both Saxons and Normans in England referred to themselves as "English", not "Saxon" or "Norman".

However, Scott may have intended to suggest parallels between the Norman conquest of England, about 130 years previously, and the prevailing situation in Scott's native Scotland (Scotland's union with England in 1707 – about the same length of time had elapsed before Scott's writing and the resurgence in his time of Scottish nationalism evidenced by the emergence of Robert Burns, the famous poet who deliberately chose to work in Scots vernacular though he was an educated man and spoke modern English eloquently). Indeed, some experts suggest that Scott deliberately used Ivanhoe to illustrate his own combination of Scottish patriotism and pro-British Unionism.

The novel generated a new name in English – Cedric. The original Saxon name had been Cerdic but Scott misspelled it – an example of metathesis. "It is not a name but a misspelling" said satirist H. H. Munro.

In England in 1194, it would have been unlikely for Rebecca to face the threat of being burned at the stake on charges of witchcraft. It is thought that it was shortly afterwards, from the 1250s, that the Church began to undertake the finding and punishment of witches and death did not become the usual penalty until the 15th century. Even then, the form of execution used for witches in England was hanging, burning being reserved for those also convicted of treason. On the other hand, the conductor of the trial, the Grand Master Of The Templars, is referred to as Lucas de Beaumanoir, whereas the historically real Master during that time was Gilbert Horal. There are other various minor errors, e.g. the description of the tournament at Ashby owes more to the 14th century, most of the coins mentioned by Scott are exotic, William Rufus is said to have been John Lackland's grandfather, but he was actually his great-great-uncle, and Wamba (disguised as a monk) says "I am a poor brother of the Order of St Francis", but St. Francis of Assisi only began his preaching ten years after the death of Richard I. Also, in Chapter 45, Bois-Guilbert commences the fight being mounted on his horse named Zamor, which he claimed that he had won from the "Soldan (Sultan, or Emperor) Of Trebizond". This is anachronistic, as the Comnenids founded the rump Byzantine Empire of Trebizond only in 1204, just by the end of the Fourth Crusade. Lastly, in the ultimate chapter of the novel, Rebecca, when asked by Rowena whether she would stay in England with her family or not, she says that she will accompany her father Isaac on his way to spend the rest of life under Mohammed Boabdil, King Of Grenada. In fact, the real Muhammad XII of Granada, popularly known to the Western world as Boabdil, wasn't even born before 1460, and the Emirate of Granada (most likely equivalent of the mentioned Kingdom) established before 1230.

"For a writer whose early novels were prized for their historical accuracy, Scott was remarkably loose with the facts when he wrote Ivanhoe... But it is crucial to remember that Ivanhoe, unlike the Waverley books, is entirely a romance. It is meant to please, not to instruct, and is more an act of imagination than one of research. Despite this fancifulness, however, Ivanhoe does make some prescient historical points. The novel is occasionally quite critical of King Richard, who seems to love adventure more than he loves the well-being of his subjects. This criticism did not match the typical idealised, romantic view of Richard the Lion-Hearted that was popular when Scott wrote the book, and yet it accurately echoes the way King Richard is often judged by historians today."

Reception
Most of the original reviewers gave Ivanhoe an enthusiastic or broadly favourable reception. As usual, Scott's descriptive powers and his ability to present the matters of the past were generally praised. More than one reviewer found the work notably poetic. Several of them found themselves transported imaginatively to the remote period of the novel, although some problems were recognised: the combining of features from the high and late Middle Ages; an awkwardly created language for the dialogue; and antiquarian overload. The author's excursion into England was generally judged a success, the forest outlaws and the creation of 'merry England' attracting particular praise. Rebecca was almost unanimously admired, especially in her farewell scene. The plot was either criticised for its weakness, or just regarded as of less importance than the scenes and characters. The scenes at Torquilstone were judged horrible by several critics, with special focus on Ulrica. Athelstane's resurrection found no favour, the kindest response being that of Francis Jeffrey in The Edinburgh Review who suggested (writing anonymously, like all the reviewers) that it was 'introduced out of the very wantonness of merriment'.

Letitia Elizabeth Landon, who was a devotee of Scott's, wrote a poetical illustration to a picture of  by Thomas Allom in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838.

The Eglinton Tournament of 1839 held by the 13th Earl of Eglinton at Eglinton Castle in Ayrshire was inspired by and modelled on Ivanhoe.

On November 5, 2019, the BBC News listed Ivanhoe on its list of the 100 most influential novels.

Sequels

 * In 1850, novelist William Makepeace Thackeray wrote a spoof sequel to Ivanhoe called Rebecca and Rowena.
 * Edward Eager's book Knight's Castle (1956) magically transports four children into the story of Ivanhoe.
 * Simon Hawke uses the story as the basis for The Ivanhoe Gambit (1984) the first novel in his time travel adventure series TimeWars.
 * Pierre Efratas wrote a sequel called Le Destin d'Ivanhoe (2003), published by Éditions Charles Corlet.
 * Christopher Vogler wrote a sequel called Ravenskull (2006), published by Seven Seas Publishing.

Films
The novel has been the basis for several motion pictures:

 * Ivanhoe, United States 1911, directed by J. Stuart Blackton
 * Ivanhoe United States 1913, directed by Herbert Brenon; with King Baggot, Leah Baird, and Brenon. Filmed on location in England
 * Ivanhoe, Wales 1913, directed by Leedham Bantock, filmed at Chepstow Castle
 * Ye Olden Days United States 1933, directed by Burt Gillett
 * Ivanhoe, 1952, directed by Richard Thorpe, starring Robert Taylor, Elizabeth Taylor, Joan Fontaine and George Sanders; nominated for three Oscars.
 * The Revenge of Ivanhoe (1965) starred Rik Van Nutter (an Italian peplum)
 * Ivanhoe, the Norman Swordsman (1971) aka La spada normanna, directed by Roberto Mauri (an Italian peplum)
 * The Ballad of the Valiant Knight Ivanhoe (Баллада о доблестном рыцаре Айвенго), USSR 1983, directed by Sergey Tarasov, with songs of Vladimir Vysotsky, starring Peteris Gaudins as Ivanhoe.

Television
There have also been many television adaptations of the novel, including:
 * 1958: A television series based on the character of Ivanhoe starring Roger Moore as Ivanhoe
 * 1970: A TV miniseries starring Eric Flynn as Ivanhoe.
 * 1975: Children's Animated Classics Ivanhoe
 * 1982: Ivanhoe, a television movie starring Anthony Andrews as Ivanhoe.
 * 1986: Ivanhoe, a 1986 animated telemovie produced by Burbank Films in Australia.
 * 1995: Young Ivanhoe, a 1995 television movie directed by Ralph L. Thomas and starring Kristen Holden-Ried as Ivanhoe, Rachel Blanchard as Rowena, Stacy Keach as Pembrooke, Margot Kidder as Lady Margarite, Nick Mancuso as Bourget, and Matthew Daniels as Tuck.
 * 1995: "Sniffing the Gauntlet", an episode of the PBS show Wishbone that featured a retelling of Ivanhoe. A book tie-in was later published as Wishbone Classics #12: Ivanhoe, The Adventures of Wishbone #20: Ivanhound.
 * 1997: Ivanhoe the King's Knight a televised cartoon series produced by CINAR and France Animation. General retelling of classic tale.
 * 1997: Ivanhoe, a 6-part, 5-hour TV miniseries, a co-production of A&E and the BBC. It stars Steven Waddington as Ivanhoe, Ciarán Hinds as Bois-Guilbert, Susan Lynch as Rebecca, Ralph Brown as Prince John and Victoria Smurfit as Rowena.
 * 1999: The Legend of Ivanhoe, a Columbia TriStar International Television production dubbed into English starring John Haverson as Ivanhoe and Rita Shaver as Rowena.
 * 2000–2002: Dark Knight, a New Zealand/British series, starring Ben Pullen as Ivanhoe and Charlotte Comer as Rebecca.
 * 2017: The Heroic Quest of the Valiant Prince Ivandoe, a Danish/British animated parody.

Operas
Victor Sieg's dramatic cantata Ivanhoé won the Prix de Rome in 1864 and premiered in Paris the same year. Ivanhoe was the grand opera by Arthur Sullivan and Julian Sturgis (Sturgis was recommended by Sullivan's oft-time partner W.S. Gilbert). It debuted in 1891, and ran for 155 consecutive performances. Other operas based on the novel have been composed by Gioachino Rossini (Ivanhoé), Thomas Sari (Ivanhoé), Bartolomeo Pisani (Rebecca), A. Castagnier (Rébecca), Otto Nicolai (Il Templario), and Heinrich Marschner (Der Templer und die Jüdin). Rossini's opera is a pasticcio (an opera in which the music for a new text is chosen from pre-existent music by one or more composers). Scott attended a performance of it and recorded in his journal, "It was an opera, and, of course, the story sadly mangled and the dialogue, in part nonsense."

Legacy
The railway running through Ashby-de-la-Zouch was known as the Ivanhoe line between 1993 and 2005, in reference to the book's setting in the locality.

A portion of the Silver Lake neighborhood in Los Angeles was originally known as Ivanhoe, named by Hugo Reid, a Scottish immigrant for whom the rolling hills of the area reminded him of his home in Scotland. The upper reservoir and an elementary school are still named Ivanhoe while many of the streets in the area reference Scott's other works and characters such as Herkimer, Rowena, Kenilworth, Ben Lomond, Hawick, and St. George.

title: Ivanhoe


text:
Isoelectric point

The isoelectric point (pI, pH(I), IEP), is the pH at which a molecule carries no net electrical charge or is electrically neutral in the statistical mean. The standard nomenclature to represent the isoelectric point is pH(I). However, pI is also used. For brevity, this article uses pI. The net charge on the molecule is affected by pH of its surrounding environment and can become more positively or negatively charged due to the gain or loss, respectively, of protons (H+).

Surfaces naturally charge to form a double layer. In the common case when the surface charge-determining ions are H+/HO−, the net surface charge is affected by the pH of the liquid in which the solid is submerged.

The pI value can affect the solubility of a molecule at a given pH. Such molecules have minimum solubility in water or salt solutions at the pH that corresponds to their pI and often precipitate out of solution. Biological amphoteric molecules such as proteins contain both acidic and basic functional groups. Amino acids that make up proteins may be positive, negative, neutral, or polar in nature, and together give a protein its overall charge. At a pH below their pI, proteins carry a net positive charge; above their pI they carry a net negative charge. Proteins can, thus, be separated by net charge in a polyacrylamide gel using either preparative native PAGE, which uses a constant pH to separate proteins, or isoelectric focusing, which uses a pH gradient to separate proteins. Isoelectric focusing is also the first step in 2-D gel polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.

In biomolecules, proteins can be separated by ion exchange chromatography. Biological proteins are made up of zwitterionic amino acid compounds; the net charge of these proteins can be positive or negative depending on the pH of the environment. The specific pI of the target protein can be used to model the process around and the compound can then be purified from the rest of the mixture. Buffers of various pH can be used for this purification process to change the pH of the environment. When a mixture containing a target protein is loaded into an ion exchanger, the stationary matrix can be either positively-charged (for mobile anions) or negatively-charged (for mobile cations). At low pH values, the net charge of most proteins in the mixture is positive – in cation exchangers, these positively-charged proteins bind to the negatively-charged matrix. At high pH values, the net charge of most proteins is negative, where they bind to the positively-charged matrix in anion exchangers. When the environment is at a pH value equal to the protein's pI, the net charge is zero, and the protein is not bound to any exchanger, and therefore, can be eluted out.

Calculating pI values
For an amino acid with only one amine and one carboxyl group, the pI can be calculated from the mean of the pKas of this molecule.

 * $$ \mathrm{pI} = \frac{\mathrm{p}K_\mathrm{a1} + \mathrm{p}K_\mathrm{a2}}{2} $$

The pH of an electrophoretic gel is determined by the buffer used for that gel. If the pH of the buffer is above the pI of the protein being run, the protein will migrate to the positive pole (negative charge is attracted to a positive pole). If the pH of the buffer is below the pI of the protein being run, the protein will migrate to the negative pole of the gel (positive charge is attracted to the negative pole). If the protein is run with a buffer pH that is equal to the pI, it will not migrate at all. This is also true for individual amino acids.

Examples
In the two examples (on the right) the isoelectric point is shown by the green vertical line. In glycine the pK values are separated by nearly 7 units. Thus in the gas phase, the concentration of the neutral species, glycine (GlyH), is effectively 100% of the analytical glycine concentration. Glycine may exist as a zwitterion at the isoelectric point, but the equilibrium constant for the isomerization reaction in solution

is not known.

The other example, adenosine monophosphate is shown to illustrate the fact that a third species may, in principle, be involved. In fact the concentration of (AMP)H3(2+) is negligible at the isoelectric point in this case. If the pI is greater than the pH, the molecule will have a positive charge.

Peptides and proteins
A number of algorithms for estimating isoelectric points of peptides and proteins have been developed. Most of them use Henderson–Hasselbalch equation with different pK values. For instance, within the model proposed by Bjellqvist and co-workers, the pKs were determined between closely related immobilines by focusing the same sample in overlapping pH gradients. Some improvements in the methodology (especially in the determination of the pK values for modified amino acids) have been also proposed. More advanced methods take into account the effect of adjacent amino acids ±3 residues away from a charged aspartic or glutamic acid, the effects on free C terminus, as well as they apply a correction term to the corresponding pK values using genetic algorithm. Other recent approaches are based on a support vector machine algorithm and pKa optimization against experimentally known protein/peptide isoelectric points.

Moreover, experimentally measured isoelectric point of proteins were aggregated into the databases. Recently, a database of isoelectric points for all proteins predicted using most of the available methods had been also developed.

In practice, a protein with an excess of basic aminoacids (arginine, lysine and/or histidine) will bear an isoelectric point roughly greater than 7 (basic), while a protein with an excess of acidic aminoacids (aspartic acid and/or glutamic acid) will often have an isoelectric point lower than 7 (acidic). The electrophoretic linear (horizontal) separation of proteins by Ip along a pH gradient in a polyacrylamide gel (also known as isoelectric focusing), followed by a standard molecular weight linear (vertical) separation in a second polyacrylamide gel (SDS-PAGE), constitutes the so called two-dimensional gel electrophoresis or PAGE 2D. This technique allows a thorough separation of proteins as distinct "spots", with proteins of high molecular weight and low Ip migrating to the upper-left part of the bidimensional gel, while proteins with low molecular weight and high Ip locate to the bottom-right region of the same gel.

Ceramic materials
The isoelectric points (IEP) of metal oxide ceramics are used extensively in material science in various aqueous processing steps (synthesis, modification, etc.). In the absence of chemisorbed or physisorbed species particle surfaces in aqueous suspension are generally assumed to be covered with surface hydroxyl species, M-OH (where M is a metal such as Al, Si, etc.). At pH values above the IEP, the predominant surface species is M-O−, while at pH values below the IEP, M-OH2+ species predominate. Some approximate values of common ceramics are listed below: ''Note: The following list gives the isoelectric point at 25 °C for selected materials in water. The exact value can vary widely, depending on material factors such as purity and phase as well as physical parameters such as temperature. Moreover, the precise measurement of isoelectric points can be difficult, thus many sources often cite differing values for isoelectric points of these materials.''

Mixed oxides may exhibit isoelectric point values that are intermediate to those of the corresponding pure oxides. For example, a synthetically prepared amorphous aluminosilicate (Al2O3-SiO2) was initially measured as having IEP of 4.5 (the electrokinetic behavior of the surface was dominated by surface Si-OH species, thus explaining the relatively low IEP value). Significantly higher IEP values (pH 6 to 8) have been reported for 3Al2O3-2SiO2 by others. Similarly, also IEP of barium titanate, BaTiO3 was reported in the range 5–6 while others got a value of 3. Mixtures of titania (TiO2) and zirconia (ZrO2) were studied and found to have an isoelectric point between 5.3–6.9, varying non-linearly with %(ZrO2). The surface charge of the mixed oxides was correlated with acidity. Greater titania content led to increased Lewis acidity, whereas zirconia-rich oxides displayed Br::onsted acidity. The different types of acidities produced differences in ion adsorption rates and capacities.

Versus point of zero charge
The terms isoelectric point (IEP) and point of zero charge (PZC) are often used interchangeably, although under certain circumstances, it may be productive to make the distinction.

In systems in which H+/OH− are the interface potential-determining ions, the point of zero charge is given in terms of pH. The pH at which the surface exhibits a neutral net electrical charge is the point of zero charge at the surface. Electrokinetic phenomena generally measure zeta potential, and a zero zeta potential is interpreted as the point of zero net charge at the shear plane. This is termed the isoelectric point. Thus, the isoelectric point is the value of pH at which the colloidal particle remains stationary in an electrical field. The isoelectric point is expected to be somewhat different from the point of zero charge at the particle surface, but this difference is often ignored in practice for so-called pristine surfaces, i.e., surfaces with no specifically adsorbed positive or negative charges. In this context, specific adsorption is understood as adsorption occurring in a Stern layer or chemisorption. Thus, point of zero charge at the surface is taken as equal to isoelectric point in the absence of specific adsorption on that surface.

According to Jolivet, in the absence of positive or negative charges, the surface is best described by the point of zero charge. If positive and negative charges are both present in equal amounts, then this is the isoelectric point. Thus, the PZC refers to the absence of any type of surface charge, while the IEP refers to a state of neutral net surface charge. The difference between the two, therefore, is the quantity of charged sites at the point of net zero charge. Jolivet uses the intrinsic surface equilibrium constants, pK− and pK+ to define the two conditions in terms of the relative number of charged sites:

 * $$ \mathrm{p}K^- - \mathrm{p}K^+ = \Delta \mathrm{p}K = \log {\frac{\left[\mathrm{MOH}\right]^2}{\left[\mathrm{MOH}{_2^+}\right]\left[\mathrm{MO}^-\right]}} $$

For large ΔpK (>4 according to Jolivet), the predominant species is MOH while there are relatively few charged species – so the PZC is relevant. For small values of ΔpK, there are many charged species in approximately equal numbers, so one speaks of the IEP.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Isoelectric point


text:
International reply coupon

An international reply coupon (IRC) is a coupon that can be exchanged for one or more postage stamps representing the minimum postage for an unregistered priority airmail letter of up to twenty grams sent to another Universal Postal Union (UPU) member country. IRCs are accepted by all UPU member countries.

UPU member postal services are obliged to exchange an IRC for postage, but are not obliged to sell them.

The purpose of the IRC is to allow a person to send someone in another country a letter, along with the cost of postage for a reply. If the addressee is within the same country, there is no need for an IRC because a self-addressed stamped envelope (SASE) or return postcard will suffice; but if the addressee is in another country an IRC removes the necessity of acquiring foreign postage or sending appropriate currency.

Description

International reply coupons (in French, Coupons-Réponse Internationaux) are printed in blue ink on paper that has the letters "UPU" in large characters in the watermark. The front of each coupon is printed in French. The reverse side of the coupon, which has text relating to its use, is printed in German, English, Arabic, Chinese, Spanish, and Russian. Under Universal Postal Union regulations, participating member countries are not required to place a control stamp or postmark on the international reply coupons that they sell. Therefore, some foreign issue reply coupons that are tendered for redemption may bear the name of the issuing country (generally in French) rather than the optional control stamp or postmark.

The Nairobi Model was an international reply coupon printed by the Universal Postal Union which is approximately 3.75 inches by 6 inches and had an expiration date of 31 December 2013. This model was designed by Rob Van Goor, a graphic artist from the Luxembourg Post. It was selected from among 10 designs presented by Universal Postal Union member countries. Van Goor interpreted the theme of the contest – "The Postage Stamp: A Vehicle for Exchange" – by depicting the world being cradled by a hand and the perforated outline of a postage stamp.

The Doha Model is named for the 25th UPU congress held in Doha, Qatar, in 2012. The Doha model, designed by Czech artist and graphic designer Michal Sindelar, shows cupped hands catching a stream of water, to celebrate the theme of Water for Life. It expires after 31 December 2017.

The Istanbul Model was designed by graphic artist Nguyen Du (Vietnam) and features a pair of hands and a dove against an Arctic backdrop representing sustainable development in the postal sector. Ten countries participated in the competition which was held 7 October 2016, during the UPU congress in Istanbul, Turkey. It expires after 31 December 2021.

The Abidjan Model was designed by graphic artist Valeryia Tsimakhavets (Belarus) and features a Tree with New Leaves and Birds which represent the Eco-System and Climate Protection. Congress held in Abidjan, (Cote d'Ivorie) - Ivory Coast on 9th to 27th August 2021. It expires after 31 December 2025.

History
The IRC was introduced in 1906 at a Universal Postal Union congress in Rome. At the time an IRC could be exchanged for a single-rate, ordinary postage stamp for surface delivery to a foreign country, as this was before the introduction of airmail services. An IRC is exchangeable in a UPU member country for the minimum postage of a priority or unregistered airmail letter to a foreign country.

The current IRC, which features the theme "the Post and sustainable development", was designed by Vietnamese artist Nguyen Du for 2017–2021 and was adopted in Istanbul in 2016, it is known also as the "Istanbul model" for this reason. The previous design, "Water for Life" by Czech artist and graphic designer Michal Sindelar, was issued in 2013 and was valid until 31 December 2017.

IRCs are ordered from the UPU headquarters in Bern, Switzerland by postal authorities. They are generally available at large post offices; in the U.S., they were requisitioned along with regular domestic stamps by any post office that had sufficient demand for them. Prices for IRCs vary by country. In the United States in November 2012, the purchase price was $2.20 USD; however, the US Postal Service discontinued sales of IRCs on 27 January 2013 due to declining demand. Britain's Royal Mail also stopped selling IRCs on 31 December 2011, citing minimal sales and claiming that the average post office sold less than one IRC per year. IRCs purchased in foreign countries may be used in the United States toward the purchase of postage stamps and embossed stamped envelopes at the current one-ounce First Class International rate (US$1.20 as of November 2020) per coupon.

IRCs are often used by amateur radio operators sending QSL cards to each other; it has traditionally been considered good practice and common courtesy to include an IRC when writing to a foreign operator and expecting a reply by mail. If the operator's home country does not sell IRCs, then a foreign IRC may be used.

Previous editions of the IRC, the Beijing, Nairobi, Doha and Istanbul Models and all post-2000 versions, bear an expiration date. The current IRC, the Abidjan Model, will be valid until 2025 and since 2009 new models have been issued every four years.

Country details
Since about 2010, several countries have ceased selling International Reply Coupons. Below is information about different countries.

Australia
, Australia Post still sells International Reply Coupons at a cost of $4.55 each.

China (Mainland)
, China Post sells a IRC for 12 CNY, and exchanges a valid IRC for 7 CNY worth of postage (including equivalent imprinted stamps on a postal stationary).

Finland
, Posti sells International Reply Coupons for 3.25 EUR, and exchanges a valid one for 2.25 EUR worth of stamps.

France
, La Poste sells IRC for 1.80 EUR.

Germany
, Deutsche Post sells IRC for 2 EUR.

Hong Kong
, International reply coupons are sold by the HongKong Post for 19 HKD, and exchanges a valid IRC for 5.5 HKD worth of postage.

Italy
Poste Italiane is slowly phasing out the sales of IRC. The last series, named "Istanbul", was issued in 2017 in only 10,000 pieces, which expired at the end of 2021.

Japan
After October 2023, The Japan Post sells an IRC for 180 JPY, and exchanges a valid IRC for 160 JPY worth of stamps.

160 JPY is enough to deliver a letter all over the world by airmail (120 JPY by shipmail).

Macao
, Macau Post and Telecommunications (CTT) sells IRCs for 12 MOP, and exchanges a valid IRC for 6 MOP worth of postage, with a cost of redeeming stamps for 5 MOP.

Norway
, Posten sells IRCs online, and at their 30 remaining post offices. The cost is 38 NOK per IRC.

Singapore
Singapore Post sells IRCs at its GPO in Paya Lebar. IRCs are sold for S$2.50, and can be redeemed for S$1.40.

Switzerland
International reply coupons are sold by the Swiss Post in packs of 10 for 30 CHF.

Taiwan
After the adoption of United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758, the Republic of China (Taiwan) lost its membership in the Universal Postal Union starting from April 13, 1972, and Chunghwa Post no longer issues IRCs since then. , they only accept and exchange valid Japanese IRCs, for 13 TWD worth of stamps per Japanese IRC.

Thailand
Thailand Post sells IRC for 53 THB as of 2020.

Turkey
, Turkish Post only sells IRCs through their administration branches.

Turkish Post exchanges a valid IRC for 10 TRY worth of stamps as of 2021. 10 TRY is not enough to deliver a letter all over the world. (E.g. a postcard to Japan requires 21 TRY.)

United Kingdom
The Royal Mail stopped selling IRCs on 31 December 2011 due to a lack of demand.

United States
The United States Postal Service stopped selling international reply coupons on 27 January 2013.

The Ponzi scheme
In 1920, Charles Ponzi made use of the idea that profit could be made by taking advantage of the differing postal rates in different countries to buy IRCs cheaply in one country and exchange them for stamps of a higher value in another country. His attempts to raise money for this venture became instead the fraudulent Ponzi scheme.

In practice, the overhead on buying and selling large numbers of the very low-value IRCs precluded any profitability. The selling price and exchange value in stamps in each country have been adjusted to some extent to remove some of the potential for profit, but ongoing fluctuations in currency value and exchange rates make it impossible to achieve this completely, as long as stamps represent a specific currency value, instead of acting as vouchers granting specific postal services, devoid of currency nomination.

title: International reply coupon


text:
Isaac Bonewits

Phillip Emmons Isaac Bonewits (October 1, 1949 – August 12, 2010 ) was an American Neo-Druid who published a number of books on the subject of Neopaganism and magic. He was a public speaker, liturgist, singer and songwriter, and founder of the Neopagan organizations Ár nDraíocht Féin and the Aquarian Anti-Defamation League. Born in Royal Oak, Michigan, Bonewits had been heavily involved in occultism since the 1960s.

Early life and education
Bonewits was born on October 1, 1949, in Royal Oak, Michigan, as the fourth of five children. His father was a Presbyterian while his mother a Catholic. Spending much of his childhood in Ferndale, Michigan, he was moved at age 12 to San Clemente, California, where he spent a short time in a Catholic high school before he went back to public school to graduate from high school a year early. He enrolled at UC Berkeley in 1966 and graduated in 1970 with a Bachelor of Arts in magic, perhaps becoming the first and only person known to have ever received any kind of academic degree in magic from an accredited university.

Early years
In 1966, while enrolled at UC Berkeley, Bonewits joined the Reformed Druids of North America (RDNA). Bonewits was ordained as a Neo-druid priest in 1969. During this period, the 18-year-old Bonewits was also recruited by the Church of Satan, but left due to political and philosophical conflicts with Anton LaVey. During his stint in the Church of Satan, Bonewits appeared in some scenes of the 1970 documentary Satanis: The Devil's Mass. Bonewits, in his article "My Satanic Adventure", asserts that the rituals in Satanis were staged for the movie at the behest of the filmmakers and were not authentic ceremonies.

1970s: author and editor
His first book, Real Magic, was published in 1971. Between 1973 and 1975 Bonewits was employed as the editor of Gnostica magazine in Minnesota (published by Llewellyn Publications). He established an offshoot group of the Reformed Druids of North America (RDNA) called the Schismatic Druids of North America, and helped create a group called the Hasidic Druids of North America (despite, in his words, his "lifelong status as a gentile"). He also founded the short-lived Aquarian Anti-Defamation League (AADL), an early Pagan civil rights group.

In 1976, Bonewits moved back to Berkeley and rejoined his original grove there, now part of the New Reformed Druids of North America (NRDNA). He was later elected Archdruid of the Berkeley Grove.

1980s: founding of Ár nDraíocht Féin
Throughout his life Bonewits had varying degrees of involvement with occult groups including Gardnerian Wicca and the New Reformed Orthodox Order of the Golden Dawn (a Wiccan organization not to be confused with the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn). Bonewits was a regular presenter at Neopagan conferences and festivals all over the US, as well as attending gaming conventions in the Bay Area. He promoted his book Authentic Thaumaturgy to gamers as a way of organizing Dungeons & Dragons games.

In 1983, Bonewits founded Ár nDraíocht Féin (also known as "A Druid Fellowship" or ADF), which was incorporated in 1990 in the state of Delaware as a U.S. 501(c)3 non-profit organization. Although illness curtailed many of his activities and travels for a time, he remained Archdruid of ADF until 1996. In that year, he resigned from the position of Archdruid but retained the lifelong title of ADF Archdruid Emeritus.

Musician and activist
A songwriter, singer, and recording artist, he produced two CDs of pagan music and numerous recorded lectures and panel discussions, produced and distributed by the Association for Consciousness Exploration. He lived in Rockland County, New York, and was a member of the Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans (CUUPS).

Bonewits encouraged charity programs to help Neopagan seniors, and in January 2006 was the keynote speaker at the Conference On Current Pagan Studies at the Claremont Graduate University in Claremont, CA.

Personal life
Bonewits was married five times. He was married to Rusty Elliot from 1973 to 1976. His second wife was Selene Kumin Vega, followed by marriage to Sally Eaton (1980 to 1985). His fourth wife was author Deborah Lipp, from 1988 to 1998. On July 23, 2004, he was married in a handfasting ceremony to a former vice-president of the Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans, Phaedra Heyman Bonewits. At the time of the handfasting, the marriage was not yet legal because he had not yet been legally divorced from Lipp, although they had been separated for several years. Paperwork and legalities caught up on December 31, 2007, making them legally married.

Bonewits' only child was born to Deborah Lipp in 1990.

Illness and death
In 1990, Bonewits was diagnosed with eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome. The illness was a factor in his eventual resignation from the position of Archdruid of the ADF.

On October 25, 2009, Bonewits was diagnosed with a rare form of colon cancer, for which he underwent treatment. He died at home, on August 12, 2010, surrounded by his family.

Accusations of sexual assault
In 2018, accusations of sexual abuse against a minor rose against ADF founder Bonewits relating to his relationship with Moira Greyland when she was six years old. Greyland said in her book, 'The Last Closet: the Dark Side of Avalon':

"Some people called him the Pagan pope […] I hated Isaac, and refused to be in the same room with him, even if the only way I could articulate my objections to him was to say ‘he tickled me.'"

In light of this accusation, ADF, the lead pagan organization that Issac Bonewits founded, removed his name from their website and repudiated him.

"To preserve the health of our organization, we must cut out the blight that is Isaac Bonewits’ legacy. We sever the ties both historical and spiritual that bind us to him. For his actions against children, Isaac Bonewits will no longer be named as a beloved ancestor of ADF, nor is he welcome at our sacred fire.

May his memory and his dark actions fade with the rising of the sun."

Contributions to Neopaganism
In his book Real Magic (1971), Bonewits proposed his "Laws of Magic". These "laws" are synthesized from a multitude of belief systems from around the world to explain and categorize magical beliefs within a cohesive framework. Many interrelationships exist, and some belief systems are subsets of others. This work was chosen by Dennis Wheatley in the 1970s to be part of his publishing project Library of the Occult.

Bonewits also coined much of the modern terminology used to articulate the themes and issues that affect the North American Neopagan community.
 * Pioneered the modern usage of the terms "thealogy", "Paleo-Paganism", "Meso-Paganism", and numerous other retronyms.
 * Possibly coined the term "Pagan Reconstructionism", though the communities in question would later diverge from his initial meaning.
 * Founded Ar nDraiocht Fein, which was incorporated in 1990 in the state of Delaware as a U.S. 501(c)3 non-profit organization.
 * Developed the Advanced Bonewits Cult Danger Evaluation Frame (ABCDEF).
 * Coined the phrase "Never Again the Burning".
 * Critiqued the Burning Times / Old Religion Murray thesis (in Bonewits's Essential Guide to Witchcraft and Wicca).
 * In his book Real Magic (1971), Bonewits proposed his hypothesis on the Laws of Magic, which were then elaborated in his RPG supplement Authentic Thaumaturgy. The book makes it clear it is an adaptation of the ideas from Real Magic to gaming with the Laws presented being abbreviated from those in Real Magic.

Music

 * Be Pagan Once Again! – Isaac Bonewits & Friends (including Ian Corrigan, Victoria Ganger, and Todd Alan) (CD) (ACE/ADF)
 * Avalon is Rising! – Real Magic (CD)(ACE/ADF)

Spoken word

 * The Structure of Craft Ritual (ACE)
 * A Magician Prepares (ACE)
 * Programming Magical Ritual: Top-Down Liturgical Design (ACE)
 * Druidism: Ancient & Modern (ACE)
 * How Does Magic Work? (ACE)
 * Rituals That Work (ACE)
 * Sexual Magic & Magical Sex (with Deborah Lipp) (ACE)
 * Making Fun of Religion (with Deborah Lipp) (ACE)

Panel discussions

 * The Magickal Movement: Present & Future (with Margot Adler, Selena Fox, and Robert Anton Wilson) (ACE)
 * Magick Changing the World, the World Changing Magick (with AmyLee, Selena Fox, Jeff Rosenbaum and Robert Anton Wilson) (ACE)

title: Isaac Bonewits


text:
Talk:Isaac Bonewits laws of magic

OK, I've tried to edit this fairly, but claiming this to be a theory in the scientific sense is just plain wrong, and an article proclaiming the Laws of Magic should have a disclaimer pointing out that it's not accepted by virtually any science, because otherwise by using such terms as "theory" and "laws" it implies some scientific credibility. -- Robert Merkel

Do theories actually have to be scientific? I thought the English language was a bit more ambiguous on that, but i'm no native speaker, so what do I know? However, I redirected the disclaimer to the magic page, in the (perhaps futile) hope that universal refutations et cetera does not have to be included in all pages about belief systems not normally accepted in western society. Sigh. Oh, and by the way, do look in on chinese medicine, you'll have a field day. --Anders Törlind

OK, I've had another go. I accept that there's no point in having the debate on every single page, but I believe that if we're trying to write an encyclopedia we should be precise in our terminology, and as theory does imply a rigorously tested hypothesis to a scientist I don't think it should be used here for ideas that haven't had the same approach to rigorous testing. I'm not trying to be a spoilsport here, but Western scientific beliefs have had the scrutiny of hundreds of years of people trying to test whether its tenets are correct or not, and provide the basis of our entire technology, and pointing out that other beliefs don't have the same rigor backing them up is entirely reasonable. I'm not saying that Mr Bonewits's laws are necessarily bunk (but obviously I believe they almost certainly are), but they're not consistent with current scientific beliefs, haven't been scientifically evaluated, and when similar claims have been evaluated no evidence has been found for them. -- Robert Merkel. As for chinese medicine, I'll certainly point out where the beliefs behind it aren't supported by science, but where there's empirical evidence that it works I'll happily concede that too.

Heh. Whereas I know that this is no discussion forum (and I do agree that we should be as precise as possible, and I do not in any way try do demean science to "just another religion" the way some foolish people have found very fashionable of late), the laws presentend here are actually more of anthropological nature: They have been synthesized from their native belief systems (for example voodoo and aboriginal beliefs) and bundled together in a cohesive form, that may be used to describe magical beliefs from around the world. Furthermore, in many parts of the world, and for a duration of millennia, subsets of theese guidlines have been the center of healing arts (indeed, chinese medicine may very well be described by mr Bonewits' "laws") and religious rites, so historically, science is a dayfly by comparison (not saying that science is bad or that magic works, merely stating that it is new compared to various forms of magic). Aside from that, this page does nothing to explain the "laws" and their meaning and the belief systems surrounding them, so i fail to grasp how you can say they clash with scientific beliefs...They are just words as of yet. Enough with the ranting :-) --Anders Törlind (oh, by the way, i'm not a believer in anything supernaturual so we have that cleared up)

Ah. Perhaps the material in the above "rant" (which was actually rather informative) should be in the main article, then :) One challenge deserves another. . .  --Robert Merkel

Way ahead of you Robert! :-) Look on the parent page... --Anders Törlind

Perhaps the word you are looking for is conjecture (instead of theory)? I would try to revise the page but I don't have time right now. -- Oliver Seet —Preceding unsigned comment added by Daggath (talk • contribs) 04:14, 7 April 2009 (UTC)

Proposing a merge redirect
This article is a practical Orphan. Only redirects and lists of orphans link to this article. I'm proposing a merge of the content into the Isaac Bonewits article, and a redirection of this page to the that article. I will move ahead and do it if editors do not provide a valid argument against this deorfanizing effort. Thanks. --Legion fi (talk) 22:49, 23 March 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Isaac Bonewits laws of magic


text:
Intel 8080

The Intel 8080 ("eighty-eighty") is the second 8-bit microprocessor designed and manufactured by Intel. It first appeared in April 1974 and is an extended and enhanced variant of the earlier 8008 design, although without binary compatibility. The initial specified clock rate or frequency limit was 2 MHz, with common instructions using 4, 5, 7, 10, or 11 clock cycles. As a result, the processor is able to execute several hundred thousand instructions per second. Two faster variants, the 8080A-1 and 8080A-2, became available later with clock frequency limits of 3.125 MHz and 2.63 MHz respectively. The 8080 needs two support chips to function in most applications: the i8224 clock generator/driver and the i8228 bus controller. The 8080 is implemented in N-type metal–oxide–semiconductor logic (NMOS) using non-saturated enhancement mode transistors as loads thus demanding a +12 V and a −5 V voltage in addition to the main transistor–transistor logic (TTL) compatible +5 V.

Although earlier microprocessors were commonly used in mass-produced devices such as calculators, cash registers, computer terminals, industrial robots, and other applications, the 8080 saw greater success in a wider set of applications, and is largely credited with starting the microcomputer industry. Several factors contributed to its popularity: its 40-pin package made it easier to interface than the 18-pin 8008, and also made its data bus more efficient; its NMOS implementation gave it faster transistors than those of the P-type metal–oxide–semiconductor logic (PMOS) 8008, while also simplifying interfacing by making it TTL-compatible; a wider variety of support chips were available; its instruction set was enhanced over the 8008; and its full 16-bit address bus (versus the 14-bit one of the 8008) enabled it to access 64 KB of memory, four times more than the 8008's range of 16 KB. It was used in the Altair 8800 and subsequent S-100 bus personal computers until it was replaced by the Z80 in this role, and was the original target CPU for CP/M operating systems developed by Gary Kildall.

The 8080 directly influenced the later x86 architecture. Intel designed the 8086 to have its assembly language be similar enough to the 8080, with most instructions mapping directly onto each other, that transpiled 8080 assembly code could be executed on the 8086.

History
Microprocessor customers were reluctant to adopt the 8008 because of limitations such as the single addressing mode, low clock speed, low pin count, and small on-chip stack, which restricted the scale and complexity of software. There were several proposed designs for the 8080, ranging from simply adding stack instructions to the 8008 to a complete departure from all previous Intel architectures. The final design was a compromise between the proposals.

Federico Faggin, the originator of the 8080 architecture in early 1972, proposed the chip to Intel's management and pushed for its implementation. He finally got the permission to develop it six months later. Faggin hired Masatoshi Shima, who helped design the 4004 with him, from Japan in November 1972. Shima did the detailed design under Faggin's direction, using the design methodology for random logic with silicon gate that Faggin had created for the 4000 family.

The 8080 was explicitly designed to be a general-purpose microprocessor for a larger number of customers. Much of the development effort was spent trying to integrate the functionalities of the 8008's supplemental chips into one package. It was decided early in development that the 8080 was not to be binary-compatible with the 8008, instead opting for source compatibility once run through a transpiler, to allow new software to not be subject to the same restrictions as the 8008. For the same reason, as well as to expand the capabilities of stack-based routines and interrupts, the stack was moved to external memory.

Noting the specialized use of general-purpose registers by programmers in mainframe systems, Stanley Mazor, the chip architect, decided the 8080's registers would be specialized, with register pairs having a different set of uses. This also allowed the engineers to more effectively use transistors for other purposes.

Shima finished the layout in August 1973. After the regulation of NMOS fabrication, a prototype of the 8080 was completed in January 1974. It had a flaw, in that driving with standard TTL devices increased the ground voltage because high current flowed into the narrow line. Intel had already produced 40,000 units of the 8080 at the direction of the sales section before Shima characterized the prototype. It was released as requiring Low-power Schottky TTL (LS TTL) devices. The 8080A fixed this flaw.

Intel offered an instruction set simulator for the 8080 named INTERP/80 to run compiled PL/M programs. It was written in FORTRAN IV by Gary Kildall while he worked as a consultant for Intel.

Programming model

The Intel 8080 is the successor to the 8008. It uses the same basic instruction set and register model as the 8008, although it is neither source code compatible nor binary code compatible with its predecessor. Every instruction in the 8008 has an equivalent instruction in the 8080. The 8080 also adds 16-bit operations in its instruction set. Whereas the 8008 required the use of the HL register pair to indirectly access its 14-bit memory space, the 8080 added addressing modes to allow direct access to its full 16-bit memory space. The internal 7-level push-down call stack of the 8008 was replaced by a dedicated 16-bit stack-pointer (SP) register. The 8080's 40-pin DIP packaging permits it to provide a 16-bit address bus and an 8-bit data bus, enabling access to 64 KiB (216 bytes) of memory.

Registers
The processor has seven 8-bit registers (A, B, C, D, E, H, and L), where A is the primary 8-bit accumulator. The other six registers can be used as either individual 8-bit registers or in three 16-bit register pairs (BC, DE, and HL, referred to as B, D and H in Intel documents) depending on the particular instruction. Some instructions also enable the HL register pair to be used as a (limited) 16-bit accumulator. A pseudo-register M, which refers to the dereferenced memory location pointed to by HL, can be used almost anywhere other registers can be used. The 8080 has a 16-bit stack pointer to memory, replacing the 8008's internal stack, and a 16-bit program counter.

Flags
The processor maintains internal flag bits (a status register), which indicate the results of arithmetic and logical instructions. Only certain instructions affect the flags. The flags are:
 * Sign (S), set if the result is negative.
 * Zero (Z), set if the result is zero.
 * Parity (P), set if the number of 1 bits in the result is even.
 * Carry (C), set if the last addition operation resulted in a carry or if the last subtraction operation required a borrow.
 * Auxiliary carry (AC or H), used for binary-coded decimal arithmetic (BCD).

The carry bit can be set or complemented by specific instructions. Conditional-branch instructions test the various flag status bits. The accumulator and the flags together are called the PSW, or program status word. PSW can be pushed to or popped from the stack.

Commands, instructions
As with many other 8-bit processors, all instructions are encoded in one byte (including register numbers, but excluding immediate data), for simplicity. Some can be followed by one or two bytes of data, which can be an immediate operand, a memory address, or a port number. Like more advanced processors, it has automatic CALL and RET instructions for multi-level procedure calls and returns (which can even be conditionally executed, like jumps) and instructions to save and restore any 16-bit register pair on the machine stack. Eight one-byte call instructions (RST) for subroutines exist at the fixed addresses 00h, 08h, 10h, ..., 38h. These are intended to be supplied by external hardware in order to invoke a corresponding interrupt service routine, but are also often employed as fast system calls. The instruction that executes slowest is XTHL, which is used for exchanging the register pair HL with the value stored at the address indicated by the stack pointer.

8-bit instructions
All 8-bit operations with two operands can only be performed on the 8-bit accumulator (the A register). The other operand can be either an immediate value, another 8-bit register, or a memory byte addressed by the 16-bit register pair HL. Increments and decrements can be performed on any 8 bit register or an HL-addressed memory byte. Direct copying is supported between any two 8-bit registers and between any 8-bit register and an HL-addressed memory byte. Due to the regular encoding of the MOV instruction (using a quarter of available opcode space), there are redundant codes to copy a register into itself (MOV B,B, for instance), which are of little use, except for delays. However, the systematic opcode for MOV M,M is instead used to encode the halt (HLT) instruction, halting execution until an external reset or interrupt occurs.

16-bit operations
Although the 8080 is generally an 8-bit processor, it has limited abilities to perform 16-bit operations. Any of the three 16-bit register pairs (BC, DE, or HL, referred to as B, D, H in Intel documents) or SP can be loaded with an immediate 16-bit value (using LXI), incremented or decremented (using INX and DCX), or added to HL (using DAD). By adding HL to itself, it is possible to achieve the same result as a 16-bit arithmetical left shift with one instruction. The only 16-bit instructions that affect any flag is DAD, which sets the CY (carry) flag in order to allow for programmed 24-bit or 32-bit arithmetic (or larger), needed to implement floating-point arithmetic. BC, DE, HL, or PSW can be copied to and from the stack using PUSH and POP. A stack frame can be allocated using DAD SP and SPHL. A branch to a computed pointer can be executed with PCHL. LHLD loads HL from directly addressed memory and SHLD stores HL likewise. The XCHG instruction exchanges the values of the HL and DE register pairs. XTHLexchanges last item pushed on stack with HL.

Input output port space
The 8080 supports up to 256 input/output (I/O) ports, accessed via dedicated I/O instructions taking port addresses as operands. This I/O mapping scheme is regarded as an advantage, as it frees up the processor's limited address space. Many CPU architectures instead use so-called memory-mapped I/O (MMIO), in which a common address space is used for both RAM and peripheral chips. This removes the need for dedicated I/O instructions, although a drawback in such designs may be that special hardware must be used to insert wait states, as peripherals are often slower than memory. However, in some simple 8080 computers, I/O is indeed addressed as if they were memory cells, "memory-mapped", leaving the I/O commands unused. I/O addressing can also sometimes employ the fact that the processor outputs the same 8-bit port address to both the lower and the higher address byte (i.e., IN 05h would put the address 0505h on the 16-bit address bus). Similar I/O-port schemes are used in the backward-compatible Zilog Z80 and Intel 8085, and the closely related x86 microprocessor families.

Separate stack space
One of the bits in the processor state word (see below) indicates that the processor is accessing data from the stack. Using this signal, it is possible to implement a separate stack memory space. This feature is seldom used.

Status word
For more advanced systems, during the beginning of each machine cycle, the processor places an eight bit status word on the data bus. This byte contains flags that determine whether the memory or I/O port is accessed and whether it is necessary to handle an interrupt.

The interrupt system state (enabled or disabled) is also output on a separate pin. For simple systems, where the interrupts are not used, it is possible to find cases where this pin is used as an additional single-bit output port (the popular Radio-86RK computer made in the Soviet Union, for instance).

Example code
The following 8080/8085 assembler source code is for a subroutine named memcpy that copies a block of data bytes of a given size from one location to another. The data block is copied one byte at a time, and the data movement and looping logic utilizes 16-bit operations.

Pin use

The address bus has its own 16 pins, and the data bus has 8 pins that are usable without any multiplexing. Using the two additional pins (read and write signals), it is possible to assemble simple microprocessor devices very easily. Only the separate IO space, interrupts, and DMA need added chips to decode the processor pin signals. However, the pin load capacity is limited; even simple computers often require bus amplifiers.

The processor needs three power sources (−5, +5, and +12 V) and two non-overlapping high-amplitude synchronizing signals. However, at least the late Soviet version КР580ВМ80А was able to work with a single +5 V power source, the +12 V pin being connected to +5 V and the −5 V pin to ground.

The pin-out table, from the chip's accompanying documentation, describes the pins as follows:

Support chips
A key factor in the success of the 8080 was the broad range of support chips available, providing serial communications, counter/timing, input/output, direct memory access, and programmable interrupt control amongst other functions:
 * 8214 - Priority Interrupt Control Unit
 * 8224 – Clock generator
 * 8228/8238 – System controller and bus driver
 * 8251 – Communication controller
 * 8253 – Programmable interval timer
 * 8255 – Programmable peripheral interface
 * 8257 – DMA controller
 * 8259 – Programmable interrupt controller

Physical implementation
The 8080 integrated circuit uses non-saturated enhancement-load nMOS gates, demanding extra voltages (for the load-gate bias). It was manufactured in a silicon gate process using a minimal feature size of 6 μm. A single layer of metal is used to interconnect the approximately 4,500 transistors in the design, but the higher resistance polysilicon layer, which required higher voltage for some interconnects, is implemented with transistor gates. The die size is approximately 20 mm2.

Applications and successors
The 8080 is used in many early microcomputers, such as the MITS Altair 8800 Computer, Processor Technology SOL-20 Terminal Computer and IMSAI 8080 Microcomputer, forming the basis for machines running the CP/M operating system (the later, almost fully compatible and more able, Zilog Z80 processor would capitalize on this, with Z80 and CP/M becoming the dominant CPU and OS combination of the period c. 1976 to 1983 much as did the x86 and DOS for the PC a decade later).

In 1979, even after the introduction of the Z80 and 8085 processors, five manufacturers of the 8080 were selling an estimated 500,000 units per month at a price around $3 to $4 each.

The first single-board microcomputers, such as MYCRO-1 and the dyna-micro / MMD-1 (see: Single-board computer) were based on the Intel 8080. One of the early uses of the 8080 was made in the late 1970s by Cubic-Western Data of San Diego, California, in its Automated Fare Collection Systems custom designed for mass transit systems around the world. An early industrial use of the 8080 is as the "brain" of the DatagraphiX Auto-COM (Computer Output Microfiche) line of products which takes large amounts of user data from reel-to-reel tape and images it onto microfiche. The Auto-COM instruments also include an entire automated film cutting, processing, washing, and drying sub-system.

Several early video arcade games were built around the 8080 microprocessor. The first commercially-available arcade video game to incorporate a microprocessor was Gun Fight, Midway Games' 8080-based reimplementation of Taito's discrete-logic Western Gun, which was released in November 1975. (A pinball machine which incorporated a Motorola 6800 processor, The Spirit of '76, had already been released the previous month. ) The 8080 was then used in later Midway arcade video games and in Taito's 1978 Space Invaders, one of the most successful and well-known of all arcade video games.

Zilog introduced the Z80, which has a compatible machine language instruction set and initially used the same assembly language as the 8080, but for legal reasons, Zilog developed a syntactically-different (but code compatible) alternative assembly language for the Z80. At Intel, the 8080 was followed by the compatible and electrically more elegant 8085.

Later, Intel issued the assembly-language compatible (but not binary-compatible) 16-bit 8086 and then the 8/16-bit 8088, which was selected by IBM for its new PC to be launched in 1981. Later NEC made the NEC V20 (an 8088 clone with Intel 80186 instruction set compatibility) which also supports an 8080 emulation mode. This is also supported by NEC's V30 (a similarly enhanced 8086 clone). Thus, the 8080, via its instruction set architecture (ISA), made a lasting impact on computer history.

A number of processors compatible with the Intel 8080A were manufactured in the Eastern Bloc: the KR580VM80A (initially marked as КР580ИК80) in the Soviet Union, the MCY7880 made by Unitra CEMI in Poland, the MHB8080A made by TESLA in Czechoslovakia, the 8080APC made by Tungsram / MEV in Hungary, and the MMN8080 made by Microelectronica Bucharest in Romania.

, the 8080 is still in production at Lansdale Semiconductors.

Industry change
The 8080 also changed how computers were created. When the 8080 was introduced, computer systems were usually created by computer manufacturers such as Digital Equipment Corporation, Hewlett-Packard, or IBM. A manufacturer would produce the whole computer, including processor, terminals, and system software such as compilers and operating system. The 8080 was designed for almost any application except a complete computer system. Hewlett-Packard developed the HP 2640 series of smart terminals around the 8080. The HP 2647 is a terminal which runs the programming language BASIC on the 8080. Microsoft's founding product, Microsoft BASIC, was originally programmed for the 8080.

The 8080 and 8085 gave rise to the 8086, which was designed as a source code compatible, albeit not binary compatible, extension of the 8080. This design, in turn, later spawned the x86 family of chips, which continue to be Intel's primary line of processors. Many of the 8080's core machine instructions and concepts survive in the widespread x86 platform. Examples include the registers named A, B, C, and D and many of the flags used to control conditional jumps. 8080 assembly code can still be directly translated into x86 instructions, since all of its core elements are still present.

Cultural impact

 * Asteroid 8080 Intel is named as a pun and praise on the name of Intel 8080.
 * Microsoft's published phone number, 425-882-8080, was chosen because much early work was on this chip.
 * Many of Intel's main phone numbers also take a similar form: xxx-xxx-8080

title: Intel 8080