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Isle Royale National Park

Isle Royale National Park is an American national park consisting of Isle Royale, along with more than 400 small adjacent islands and the surrounding waters of Lake Superior, in the state of Michigan.

Isle Royale is 45 mi long and 9 mi wide, with an area of 206.73 sqmi, making it the fourth-largest lake island in the world. In addition, it is the largest natural island in Lake Superior, the second-largest island in the Great Lakes (after Manitoulin Island), the third-largest in the contiguous United States (after Long Island and Padre Island), and the 33rd-largest island in the United States.

Isle Royale National Park was established on April 3, 1940, then additionally protected from development by wilderness area designation in 1976, declared a UNESCO International Biosphere Reserve in 1980, and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2019 as the Minong Traditional Cultural Property. The park covers 894 sqmi, with 209 sqmi of land and 685 sqmi of surrounding waters.

The park's northern boundary lies adjacent to the Canadian Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area along the international border. With 25,894 visits in 2021, it is the seventh least-visited National Park in the United States.

Geography
In 1875, Isle Royale was split off from Keweenaw County, as a separate county, Isle Royale County. In 1897, the county was dissolved, and the island was reincorporated into Keweenaw County. The highest point on the island is Mount Desor at 1394 ft, or about 800 ft above lake level.

Isle Royale, the largest island in Lake Superior, is over 45 mi in length and 9 mi wide at its widest point. The park is made up of Isle Royale itself and approximately 400 smaller islands, along with any submerged lands within 4.5 mi of the surrounding islands (16USC408g).

Isle Royale is within about 15 mi from the shore of the Canadian province of Ontario and adjacently, the state of Minnesota (near the city of Thunder Bay), and is 56 mi from the Michigan shore, on the Keweenaw Peninsula, itself part of Upper Peninsula. There are no roads on the island, and wheeled vehicles or devices, other than wheelchairs, are not permitted. Rock Harbor has wheeled carts available to move personal belongings from the Rock Harbor marina to the cabins and hotel. Also, the National Park Service employs tractors and utility terrain vehicles to move items around the developed areas at Ozaagaateng, Rock Harbor, and Mott Island.

Topsoil tends to be thin, which favors trees that have horizontal root patterns such as balsam fir, white spruce, and black spruce.

Interior lakes
Siskiwit Lake is the largest lake on the island. It has cold, clear water which is relatively low in nutrients. Siskiwit Lake contains several islands, including Ryan Island, the largest.
 * Chicken Bone Lake
 * Lake Desor
 * Feldtmann Lake
 * Intermediate Lake (Isle Royale)
 * Lake Ritchie
 * Sargent Lake

Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification system, Isle Royale National Park has a mild summer Humid continental climate (Dfb). According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the Plant Hardiness zone is 4b at 1178 ft (359 m) elevation with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of -24.2 °F (-31.2 °C).

There is no weather station in the park, but the PRISM Climate Group, a project of Oregon State University, provides interpolated data for the island based on the climates of nearby areas.

Prehistory
The island was a common hunting ground for native people from nearby Minnesota and Ontario. A canoe voyage of thirteen miles is necessary to reach the island's west end from the mainland.

Large quantities of copper artifacts found in indian mounds and settlements, some dating back to 3000 B.C., were most likely mined on Isle Royale and the nearby Keweenaw Peninsula. The island has hundreds of pits and trenches up to 65 feet (20 m) deep from these indigenous peoples, with most in the McCargoe Cove area. Carbon-14 testing of wood remains found in sockets of copper artifacts indicates that they are at least 6500 years old. In Prehistoric Copper Mining in the Lake Superior Region, Drier and Du Temple estimated that over 750,000 tons of copper had been mined from the region. However, David Johnson and Susan Martin contend that their estimate was based on exaggerated and inaccurate assumptions. The Jesuit missionary Dablon published an account in 1669-70 of "an island called Menong, celebrated for its copper." Menong, or Minong, was the native term for the island, and is the basis for Minong Ridge. Prospecting began in earnest when the Chippewas relinquished their claims to the island in 1843, starting with many of the original native pits. This activity had ended by 1855, when no economic deposits were found. The Minong Mine and Island Mine were the result of renewed but short-lived activity from 1873 to 1881.

Isle Royale was given to the United States by the 1783 treaty with Great Britain (formerly part of the Indian Reserve disputed by the United States) but the British remained in control until after the War of 1812, and the Ojibwa peoples considered the island to be their territory. The Ojibwas ceded the island to the U.S. in the 1842 Treaty of La Pointe, with the Grand Portage Band unaware that neither they nor Isle Royale were in British territory. With the clarification to the Ojibwas of the 1842 Webster–Ashburton Treaty that was signed before the Treaty of La Pointe, the Ojibwas re-affirmed the 1842 Treaty of La Pointe in the 1844 Isle Royale Agreement, with the Grand Portage Band signing the agreement as an addendum to the 1842 treaty.

In the mid-1840s, a report by Douglass Houghton, Michigan's first state geologist, set off a copper boom in the state, and the first modern copper mines were opened on the island. Evidence of the earlier mining efforts was everywhere, in the form of many stone hammers, some copper artifacts, and places where copper had been partially worked out of the rock but left in place. The ancient pits and trenches led to the discovery of many of the copper deposits that were mined in the 19th century. The remoteness of the island, combined with the small veins of copper, caused most of the 19th-century mines to fail quickly. Between the miners and commercial loggers, much of the island was deforested during the late 19th century. Once the island became a national park in 1940, logging and other exploitive activities ended, and the forest began to regenerate.

The island was once the site of several lake trout and whitefish fisheries, as well as a few resorts. The fishing industry has declined considerably, but continues at Edisen Fishery. Today, it has no permanent inhabitants; the small communities of Scandinavian fishermen were removed by the United States National Park Service after the island became a national park in the 1940s. About 12 families still have lifetime leases for their cabins and claim Isle Royale as their heritage, and several descendant fishermen fish the Isle Royale waters commercially.

Because numerous small islands surround Isle Royale, ships were once guided through the area by lighthouses at Passage Island, Rock Harbor, Rock of Ages, and Isle Royale Lighthouse on Menagerie Island. The western tip of the island is home to several shipwrecks that are very popular with scuba divers, including the SS America. The NPS Submerged Resources Center mapped the 10 most famous of the shipwrecks contained within the park, and published Shipwrecks of Isle Royale National Park; The Archeological Survey, which gives an overview of the maritime history of the area. The area's notoriously harsh weather, dramatic underwater topography, the island's central location on historic shipping routes, and the cold, fresh water have resulted in largely intact, well preserved wrecks throughout the park.

In January 2019, the entire island chain was added to the National Register of Historic Places by the federal government. On the Register it is called 'the Minong Traditional Cultural Property.'

Angelique Mott
In 1845, an Ojibwe woman named Angelique and her voyageur husband Charles Mott were left on Isle Royale, as hires for Cyrus Mendenhall and the Lake Superior Copper Company. They were hired and carried to Isle Royale by Mendenhall's schooner, the Algonquin, first to scout for copper. Angelique found a large mass of copper ore, upon which she and her husband were hired to stay and guard until a barge could come to retrieve it, promised in no more than 3 months' time. They were dropped off in July and were left stranded there until the following spring. They were left with minimal provisions, which consisted of a half-barrel of flour, six pounds of butter, and some beans. A supply boat was promised to arrive after the first few weeks, but it was never sent out.

The full events were chronicled in a footnote as told by Angelique, in the first printing of a book called "The Honorable Peter White" by Ralph D. Williams in 1907; Angelique's story was pulled from the subsequent printing, thus making it the only written record that survives. Humans have not normally settled year-round on Isle Royale. For about three thousand years, Native Americans used the land for copper and fish. These Native Americans usually limited their visits to the island in the summer. Americans in the nineteenth century did likewise.

Natural history
A number of habitats exist on the island, the primary being boreal forest, similar to neighboring Ontario and Minnesota. Upland areas along some of the ridges are effectively "balds" with exposed bedrock and a few scrubby trees, blueberry bushes, and hardy grasses. Occasional marshes exist, which are typically the by-product of beaver activities. There are also several lakes, often with wooded or marshy shores. The climate, especially in lowland areas, is heavily influenced by the cold waters of Lake Superior.

Flora
According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. Potential natural vegetation Types, Isle Royale National Park has a Great Lakes Spruce/Fir (93) potential vegetation type and a Northern Conifer Forest (22) potential vegetation form.

The predominant floral habitats of Isle Royale are within the Laurentian Mixed Forest Province. The area is a temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome transition zone between the true boreal forest to the north and Big Woods to the south, with characteristics of each. It has areas of both broadleaf and conifer forest cover, and bodies of water ranging from conifer bogs to swamps.

Conifers include jack pines (Pinus banksiana), black and white spruces (Picea mariana and Picea glauca), balsam firs (Abies balsamea), and eastern redcedars (Juniperus virginiana).

Deciduous trees include quaking aspens (Populus tremuloides), red oaks (Quercus rubra), paper birches (Betula papyrifera), American mountain ash (Sorbus americana), red maples (Acer rubrum), sugar maples (Acer saccharum), and mountain maples (Acer spicatum). There are over 600 species of flowering plants found in Isle Royale National Park such as wild sarsaparilla, marsh-marigold, wood lily and prickly wild rose.

Fauna
Isle Royale National Park is known for its timber wolf and moose populations, which are studied by scientists investigating predator-prey relationships in a closed environment. There is a cyclical relationship between the two animals: as the moose increase in population, so do the wolves. Eventually, the wolves kill too many moose and begin to starve and lower their reproductive rates. This is made easier because Isle Royale has been colonized by roughly just one third of the mainland mammal species, because it is so remote. In addition, the environment is unique in that it is the only known place where wolves and moose coexist without the presence of bears.

Other common mammals are red foxes, beavers, and red squirrels. Some foxes are accustomed to human contact and can be seen prowling the campgrounds at dawn, looking for stray scraps left by unwary campers. For its part, the wolf is an elusive species which avoids human interaction. Few documented cases of direct wolf/human contact existed for most of the island's history. In the 2024 season dozens of wolf sightings were reported around the Rock Harbor area. Ermine have been periodically sighted around docks. Other mammals that can be seen include mink along the various lake shores and muskrats (occasionally) at beaver ponds. Several species of bat also exist on the island. Reptiles include the eastern garter snake, painted turtle, and northern redbelly snake. Six species of frogs and three species of salamander also live on the island.

Historically neither moose nor wolves inhabited Isle Royale. Just prior to becoming a national park the large mammals on Isle Royale were Canada lynx and the boreal woodland caribou. Archeological evidence indicates both of these species were present on Isle Royale for 3,500 years prior to being removed by direct human actions (hunting, trapping, mining, logging, fires, competition for resources from exotic species and possibly disease due to the introduction of invasive species). The last caribou documented on Isle Royale was in 1925. Though lynx were removed by the 1930s, some have periodically crossed the ice bridge from neighboring Ontario, Canada, the most recent being an individual sighting in 1980. Although lynx are no longer present on the island, their primary prey, snowshoe hares, remain. Before the appearance of wolves, coyotes were also predators on the island. Coyotes appeared around 1905 and disappeared shortly after wolves arrived in the 1950s. Four wolves were brought from Minnesota in 2018 after some debate as to whether or not the introduction was an unnatural intervention.

Moose are believed to have colonized Isle Royale sometime between 1905 and 1912. It was initially believed that a small herd of moose (moose typically do not travel in herds) colonized the islands by crossing the ice from the adjacent mainland; later this theory was modified to a herd of moose swimming 20 miles across Lake Superior from the nearest mainland. The improbability of these theories received little scrutiny until recent years. Although no thorough scientific investigation to determine how moose arrived on Isle Royale has been carried out to date, both cultural and genetic evidence indicates they were likely introduced by humans to create a private hunting preserve in the early 1900s. The cultural evidence that moose were trapped in northwestern Minnesota and transported to Isle Royale seemed unlikely until decades later when genetic evidence revealed the moose on Isle Royale were more closely related to moose in the far northwestern Minnesota/Manitoba border area than the mainland adjacent to Isle Royale in far northeastern Minnesota bordering Ontario. Further evidence has also shown that the Washington Harbor Club, a group of well-to-do businessmen, owned various buildings on Isle Royale in addition to railroads that ran from Baudette to Duluth and Two Harbors and so had the means to transport moose from northwestern Minnesota to Two Harbors.

There are usually around 25 wolves and 1000 moose on the island, but the numbers change greatly year to year. In the 2006-2007 winter, a survey found 385 moose and 21 wolves in 3 packs. In spring 2008, 23 wolves and approximately 650 moose were counted. However, recent reductions in winter pack ice had ended replenishment of the wolf population from the mainland. Due to genetic inbreeding, the wolf population had declined to two individuals in 2016, causing researchers to expect that the island's wolf population would eventually become extinct. At the same time, the island's moose population had exploded to an estimated 1600. By November 2017, the wolf population was down to one, a female.

In December 2016, the National Park Service put forward an initial plan to bring additional wolves to the island in order to prevent the pack from disappearing completely. The decision to relocate 20-30 wolves to the island was approved and from September 2018 to September 2019, 19 wolves were relocated to Isle Royale from various locations in Minnesota, Michigan, and Ontario. As of April 14, 2020, there were an estimated 14 wolves remaining on the island.

Geology
The island is composed largely of ridges, running roughly southwest-to-northeast. The main ridge, Greenstone Ridge, is over 1000 ft in many places. Greenstone belts are exposed, with rounded stones of chlorastrolite, also known as greenstone, near and in the lake.

The two main rock assemblages found on the island include the Portage Lake Volcanics and the Copper Harbor Conglomerate, both Precambrian in age. The volcanics are mainly ophitic flood basalts, some 100 individual flows over an accumulated thickness of at least 10,000 feet. The conglomerate outcrops on the southwestern portion of the island and consists of sedimentary rock derived from volcanic rocks in present-day Minnesota. Glacial erosion accentuated the ridge and valley topography from pre-glacial stream erosion. Glacial striations indicate a generally westward movement of the glaciers as do the recessional moraines west of Lake Desor. Drumlins are found west of Siskiwit Lake.

Recent analyses by the USGS of both unmineralized basalt and copper-mineralized rock show that a small amount of naturally occurring mercury is associated with mineralization.

Native copper and chlorastrolite, the official state gem of Michigan, are secondary minerals filling pore spaces formed by vesicles and fractures within the volcanic rocks. Prehnite and agate amygdules are also plentiful island gemstones.

Recreation
Recreational activity on Isle Royale includes hiking, backpacking, fishing, boating, canoeing, kayaking, and observing nature. Wheeled vehicles are not permitted on Isle Royale; however, wheelchairs are allowed.

Hiking
The island offers approximately 170 mi of hiking trails for everything from day hikes to a two-week circumnavigation hike. Some of the hiking trails are quite challenging, with steep grades. The Greenstone Ridge is a high ridge in the center of the island and carries the longest trail in the park, the Greenstone Ridge Trail, which runs 40 mi from one end of the island to the other. This is generally done as a 4 or 5 day hike. A boat shuttle can carry hikers back to their starting point. The trail leads to the peak of Mount Desor, at 1394 ft, the highest point on the island, and passes through northwoods wilderness, and by inland glacial lakes, swamps, bogs and scenic shorelines.

In total there are 165 mi of hiking trails. There are also canoe/kayak routes, many involving portages, along coastal bays and inland lakes.

Services
The park has two developed areas:

Ozaagaateng (formerly Windigo), at the southwest end of the island (docking site for the ferries from Minnesota), with a campstore, showers, campsites, rustic camper cabins, and a boat dock.

Rock Harbor on the south side of the northeast end (docking site for the ferries from Michigan), with a campstore, showers, restaurant, lodge, campsites, and a boat dock. Non-camping sleeping accommodations at the park are limited to the lodge at Rock Harbor and the camper cabins at Ozaagaateng.

Camping
The park has 36 designated wilderness campgrounds. Some campgrounds in the interior are accessible only by trail or by canoe/kayak on the island lakes. Other campgrounds are accessible only by private boat. The campsites vary in capacity but typically include a few three-sided wood shelters (the fourth wall is screened) with floors and roofs, and several individual sites suitable for pitching a small tent. Some tent sites with space for groups of up to 10 are available, and are used for overflow if all the individual sites are filled.

The only amenities at the campgrounds are pit toilets, picnic tables, and fire-rings at specific areas. Campfires are not permitted at most campgrounds; gas or alcohol camp stoves are recommended. Drinking and cooking water must be drawn from local water sources (Lake Superior and inland lakes) and filtered, treated, or boiled to avoid parasites. Hunting is not permitted, but fishing is, and edible berries (blueberries, thimbleberries) may be picked from the trail.

Access
The park is accessible by ferries, floatplanes, and passenger ships during the summer months—from Houghton and Copper Harbor in Michigan and Grand Portage in Minnesota. Private boats travel to the island from the coasts of Michigan, Minnesota, and Ontario. Isle Royale is quite popular with day-trippers in private boats, and day-trip ferry service is provided from Copper Harbor and Grand Portage to and from the park.

Isle Royale is the only American national park to entirely close in the winter months, from November 1 through April 15, due to extreme weather conditions and for the safety and protection of visitors. Isle Royale is the least-visited national park in the contiguous United States, due to the winter closing and the distance across Lake Superior to reach the park. The average annual visitation was about 19,000 in the period from 2009 to 2018, with 25,798 visiting in 2018. Only three of the most remote Alaskan national parks—Lake Clark, Kobuk Valley and Gates of the Arctic—receive fewer visitors.

Ships
Scheduled ferry service operates from Grand Portage, Copper Harbor and Houghton.

The Grand Portage ferries reach the island in 1½ hours, and stay 4 hours at the island, allowing time for hiking, a guided hike or program by the park staff, and picnics.

The Isle Royale Queen serves park visitors out of Copper Harbor, on the northern Upper Peninsula coast of Michigan. It arrives at Rock Harbor in the park in 3 to 3½ hours and spends 3½ hours before returning to Copper Harbor.

The Sea Hunter operates round-trips and offers day trips to the Ozaagaateng visitor center through much of the season, and less frequently in early summer and autumn; it will transport kayaks and canoes for visitors wanting to explore the park from the water. It is the fastest ferry serving the island and arrives in 1½ hours, including some sightseeing points along the way out and back. Because of the relatively short boat ride, day visitors are able to get four hours on the island, and get back to the mainland earlier in the afternoon. This gives visitors on a tight schedule time to visit the Grand Portage National Monument or other attractions in the same day.

The Ranger III is a 165 ft ship that serves park visitors from Houghton, Michigan to Rock Harbor. It is operated by the National Park Service, and is said to be the largest piece of equipment in the National Park system. It carries 125 passengers, along with canoes, kayaks, and even small powerboats. It is a six-hour voyage from Houghton to the park. The ship stays overnight at Rock Harbor before returning the next day, making two round trips each week from June to mid-September. Briefly in the 2008 season, the Ranger III carried visitors to and from Ozaagaateng. This was not continued after four trips, due to low interest and long crossing times. In 2012, Park Superintendent Phyllis Green required the Ranger III to purify its ballast water.

The Voyageur II, out of Grand Portage, crosses up to three times a week, overnighting at Rock Harbor and providing transportation between popular lakeside campgrounds. In the fall season, in addition to carrying campers and hikers, it provides day-trip service to Ozaagaateng on weekends. The Voyageur transports kayaks and canoes for visitors wanting to explore the island from the water. The Voyageur II and other boat taxi services ferry hikers to points along the island, allowing a one-way hike back to Rock Harbor or Ozaagaateng. Visitors may land at Rock Harbor and depart from Ozaagaateng several days later, or vice versa. Hikers frequently ride it in one direction to do a cross-island hike and then get picked up at the other end.

title: Isle Royale National Park


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NATO Integrated Air Defense System

The NATO Integrated Air Defense System (short: NATINADS) is a command and control network combining radars and other facilities spread throughout the NATO alliance's air defence forces. It formed in the mid-1950s and became operational in 1962 as NADGE. It has been constantly upgraded since its formation, notably with the integration of Airborne Early Warning aircraft in the 1970s. The United Kingdom maintained its own network, but was fully integrated with the network since the introduction of the Linesman/Mediator network in the 1970s. Similarly, the German network maintained an independent nature through GEADGE.

Development
Development was approved by the NATO Military Committee in December 1955. The system was to be based on four air defense regions (ADRs) coordinated by SACEUR (Supreme Allied Commander Europe). Starting from 1956 early warning coverage was extended across Western Europe using 18 radar stations. This part of the system was completed by 1962. Linked to existing national radar sites the coordinated system was called the NATO Air Defence Ground Environment (NADGE).

From 1960 NATO countries agreed to place all their air defence forces under the command of SACEUR in the event of war. These forces included command & control (C2) systems, radar installations, and Surface-to-Air (SAM) missile units as well as interceptor aircraft.

By 1972 NADGE was converted into NATINADS consisting of 84 radar sites and associated Control Reporting Centers (CRC) and in the 1980s the Airborne Early Warning / Ground Environment Integration Segment (AEGIS) upgraded the NATINADS with the possibility to integrate the AWACS radar picture and all of its information into its visual displays. (NOTE: This AEGIS is not to be confused with the U.S.Navy AEGIS, a shipboard fire control radar and weapons system.) AEGIS processed the information through Hughes H5118ME computers, which replaced the H3118M computers installed at NADGE sites in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

NATINADS ability to handle data increased with faster clock rates. The H5118M computer had a staggering 1 megabyte of memory and could handle 1.2 million instructions per second while the former model had a memory of only 256 kilobytes and a clock speed of 150,000 instructions per seconds.

NATINADS/AEGIS were complemented, in West Germany by the German Air Defence Ground Environment (GEADGE), an updated radar network adding the southern part of Germany to the European system and Coastal Radar Integration System (CRIS), adding data links from Danish coastal radars.

In order to counter the hardware obsolescence, during the mid-1990s NATO started the AEGIS Site Emulator (ASE) program allowing the NATINADS/AEGIS sites to replace the proprietary hardware (the 5118ME computer and the various operator consoles IDM-2, HMD-22, IDM-80) with commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) servers and workstations.

In the first years 2000, the initial ASE capability was expanded with the possibility to run, thanks to the new hardware power, multiple site emulators on the same hardware, so the system was renamed into Multi-AEGIS Site Emulator (MASE). The NATO system designed to replace MASE in the near future is the Air Command and Control System (ACCS).

Because of changing politics, NATO expanding and financial crises most European (NATO) countries are trying to cut defence budgets; as a direct result, many obsolete and outdated NATINADS facilities are phased out earlier. As of 2013, operational NATO radar sites in Europe are as follows:

Allied Air Command
Allied Air Command (AIRCOM) is the central command of all NATO air forces on the European continent. The command is based at Ramstein Air Base in Germany and has two subordinate commands in Germany and Spain. The Royal Canadian Air Force and United States Air Force fall under command of the Canadian/American North American Aerospace Defense Command.

 * Allied Air Command, at Ramstein Air Base, Germany
 * CAOC Torrejón, at Torrejón Air Base, Spain - responsible for the airspace South of the Alps
 * Albania: Air Surveillance Centre, at Tirana International Airport
 * Bulgaria: Air Sovereignty Operations Centre, in Sofia
 * Croatia: Airspace Surveillance Centre, in Podvornica
 * Greece: Air Operations Centre, at Larissa Air Base
 * Italy: National Air and Space Operations Centre, in Poggio Renatico
 * Montenegro: Air Surveillance and Reporting Centre, at Podgorica Airport
 * Portugal: Control and Reporting Centre, in Monsanto
 * Romania: Air Operations Centre, in Balotești
 * Slovenia: Airspace Surveillance and Control Centre, in Brnik
 * Spain: Air Operations Centre, in Torrejón
 * Central Command and Control Group, at Torrejón Air Base
 * Northern Command and Control Group, at Zaragoza Air Base
 * Turkey: Control and Reporting Centre, in Ahlatlıbel
 * CAOC Uedem, in Uedem, Germany - responsible for the airspace North of the Alps
 * Baltic Air Surveillance Network - Regional Airspace Surveillance Coordination Centre, in Karmėlava
 * Estonia: Air Operations Control Centre, at Ämari Air Base
 * Latvia: Air Operations Centre, at Lielvārde Air Base
 * Lithuania: Airspace Control Centre, in Karmėlava
 * Belgium: Control and Reporting Centre, at Beauvechain Air Base
 * Czech Republic: Control and Reporting Centre, in Hlavenec
 * Denmark: Control and Reporting Centre, at Karup Air Base
 * France: Control and Reporting Centre, at Mont Verdun Air Base
 * Germany: Air Operations Centre, in Uedem
 * Control and Reporting Centre 2, in Erndtebrück
 * Control and Reporting Centre 3, in Schönewalde
 * Hungary: Air Operations Centre, in Veszprém
 * Iceland: Control and Reporting Centre, at Keflavik Air Base
 * Luxembourg: airspace controlled by Belgium's Control and Reporting Centre, at Beauvechain Air Base
 * Netherlands: Control and Reporting Centre, in Nieuw-Milligen
 * Norway: Control and Reporting Centre, in Sørreisa
 * Poland: Air Operations Centre, in Warsaw-Pyry
 * 22nd Command and Control Centre, in Osówiec
 * 32nd Command and Control Centre, in Balice
 * Slovakia: Air Operations Centre, at Sliač Air Base
 * United Kingdom: Control and Reporting Centre, at RAF Boulmer

Albania
The Albanian Air Force's Air Surveillance Centre is based in Rinas and the Air Force operates a Lockheed Martin AN/TPS-77 radar on top of Mida mountain near Pukë.

Belgium
The Belgian Air Component's Control and Reporting Centre was based at Glons, where also its main radar was located. The radar was deactivated in 2015 and the Centre moved to Beauvechain Air Base in 2020. The Belgian Control and Reporting Centre reports to CAOC Uedem in Germany and is also responsible for guarding the airspace of Luxembourg. At the new location the Control and Reporting Centre uses digital radar data of the civilian radars of Belgocontrol and the Marconi S-723 radar of the Air Component's Air Traffic Control Centre in Semmerzake.

Bulgaria
The Bulgarian Air Force's Air Sovereignty Operations Centre is located in Sofia and reports to CAOC Torrejón. The Bulgarian Air Force fields three control and surveillance zones, which operate obsolete Soviet-era radars. The Bulgarian Air Force intends to replace these radars with fewer, but more capable Western 3-D radars as soon as possible. The future locations of the new radars are as of 2018 unknown.

 * Joint Forces Command, in Sofia
 * Air Sovereignty Operational Center (ASOC), in Sofia
 * Base Operative Center (part of 3rd Air Base), Graf Ignatievo Air Base, operational control of fighter aviation
 * Command, Control and Surveillance Base, in Sofia
 * 1st Control and Surveillance Zone, in Bozhurishte, Sofia Province
 * 2nd Control and Surveillance Zone, in Trud, Plovdiv Province
 * 3rd Control and Surveillance Zone, in Bratovo, Burgas Province

Canada
The Royal Canadian Air Force's control centres and radar stations are part of the Canadian/American North American Aerospace Defense Command.

Croatia
The Croatian Air Force and Air Defense's Airspace Surveillance Centre is headquartered in Podvornica and reports to CAOC Torrejón.

 * Air Force and Air Defense Command
 * Airspace Surveillance and Control Battalion, at 91st Air Force Base (Zagreb - Pleso)
 * Airspace Surveillance Centre, in Podvornica
 * Sector Operational Centre, in Split
 * Mount Sljeme Radar Post, with AN/FPS-117(E)1T
 * Borinci Radar Post, with AN/FPS-117(E)1T
 * Papuk Radar Post, with AN/FPS-117(E)1T
 * Učka Radar Post, with AN/FPS-117(E)1T
 * Mount Rota, with AN/FPS-117(E)1T

Czech Republic
The Czech Air Force's Control and Reporting Centre is located in Hlavenec and reports to CAOC Uedem.

 * Air Force Command, in Prague
 * 26th Air Command, Control and Surveillance Regiment, in Stará Boleslav
 * 261st Control and Reporting Centre (CRC), in Hlavenec
 * 262nd Radio-technical Battalion, in Hlavenec
 * 1st Radio-technical Company, in Nepolisy, with RAT-31DL
 * 2nd Radio-technical Company, in Pomezí, with RL-5M
 * 4th Radio-technical Company, in Sokolnice, with RAT-31DL
 * 6th Radio-technical Company, in Planá, with RL-5M
 * 263nd Support Battalion, in Hlavenec
 * Reserve Control and Reporting Centre, in Větrušice

Denmark
The Royal Danish Air Force's Combined Air Operations Centre (CAOC 1) in Finderup was deactivated in 2008 and replaced at the same location by the Combined Air Operations Centre Finderup (CAOC F), which had responsibility for the airspaces of Iceland, Norway, Denmark and the United Kingdom. CAOC F was deactivated in 2013 and its responsibilities were transferred to CAOC Uedem in Germany. The national Danish Control and Reporting Centre is located at Karup Air Base and it reports to CAOC Uedem.

The Pituffik Space Base in Greenland is a United States Space Force installation and its radars are part of the North American Aerospace Defense Command and United States Space Command.

 * Air Force Tactical Command, at Karup Air Base
 * Air Control Wing, at Karup Air Base
 * Control and Reporting Centre, at Karup Air Base
 * Radar Station Skagen, in Skagen, with RAT-31DL
 * Radar Station Skrydstrup, at Skrydstrup Air Base, with AN/TPS-77
 * Radar Station Bornholm, in Almindingen, with Marconi S-723

Estonia
The Estonian Air Force's Air Operations Control Centre is located at Ämari Air Base and reports to the Baltic Air Surveillance Network's Regional Airspace Surveillance Coordination Centre (RASCC) in Karmėlava, Lithuania, which in turn reports to CAOC Uedem.

 * Air Force Command, in Tallinn
 * Air Surveillance Wing, at Ämari Air Base
 * Air Operations Control Centre, at Ämari Air Base
 * Engineering and Technical Group, at Ämari Air Base
 * Radar Station, in Levalõpme, with GM 403
 * Radar Station, in Otepää, with GM 403
 * Radar Station, in Kellavere, with AN/TPS-77(V)
 * Airport Surveillance Radar at Ämari Air Base, with ASR-8

France
The French Air and Space Force's Air Operations Centre is located at Mont Verdun Air Base and reports to CAOC Uedem. Most French radar sites use the PALMIER radar, which is being taken out of service. By 2022 all PALMIER radars will have been replaced with new radar stations using the GM 403 radar.

 * Air Defense and Air Operations Command
 * Air Operations Brigade, at Mont Verdun Air Base
 * Air Operations Centre, at Mont Verdun Air Base
 * Control and Reporting Centre, at Mont-de-Marsan Air Base
 * Control and Reporting Centre, in Cinq-Mars-la-Pile
 * Mont Verdun Air Base radar, with GM GM 406
 * Élément Air Rattaché (EAR) 943, on Mont Agel, with GM 406

Additionally the French Air and Space Force fields a GM 406 radar at the Cayenne-Rochambeau Air Base in French Guiana to protect the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou.

Germany
The German Air Force's Combined Air Operations Centre (CAOC 2) in Uedem was deactivated in 2008 and reactivated as CAOC Uedem in 2013. CAOC Uedem is responsible for the NATO airspace North of the Alps. The HADR radars are a variant of the HR-3000 radar, while the RRP-117 radars are a variant of the AN/FPS-117.

 * Air Operations Centre (Zentrum Luftoperationen der Luftwaffe) (NATO CAOC Uedem), in Uedem
 * Control and Reporting Centre 2 (Einsatzführungsbereich 2), in Erndtebrück
 * Operations Squadron 21, in Erndtebrück
 * Operations Support Squadron 22, in Erndtebrück
 * Sensor Platoon I, in Lauda
 * Remote Radar Post 240 "Loneship", in Erndtebrück with GM 406F
 * Remote Radar Post 246 "Hardwheel", on Erbeskopf with HADR
 * Remote Radar Post 247 "Batman", in Lauda with GM 406F
 * Remote Radar Post 248 "Coldtrack", in Freising with GM 406F
 * Remote Radar Post 249 "Sweet Apple", in Meßstetten with HADR
 * Sensor Platoon II, in Auenhausen
 * Remote Radar Post 241 "Crabtree", in Marienbaum with HADR
 * Remote Radar Post 242 "Backwash", in Auenhausen with GM 406F
 * Remote Radar Post 243 "Silver Cork", in Visselhövede with GM 406F
 * Remote Radar Post 244 "Round up", in Brockzetel with HADR
 * Remote Radar Post 245 "Bugle", in Brekendorf with GM 406F
 * Control and Reporting Training Inspection 23, in Erndtebrück
 * Education and Training Centre, in Erndtebrück
 * Education, Test and Training Group, in Erndtebrück
 * Control and Reporting Centre 3 (Einsatzführungsbereich 3), in Schönewalde
 * Operations Squadron 31, in Schönewalde
 * Operations Support Squadron 32, in Schönewalde
 * Sensor Platoon III, in Cölpin
 * Remote Radar Post 351 "Matchpoint", in Putgarten with RRP-117
 * Remote Radar Post 352 "Mindreader", in Cölpin with RRP-117
 * Remote Radar Post 353 "Teddy Bear", in Tempelhof with RRP-117
 * Remote Radar Post 356 "", in Elmenhorst with RRP-117
 * Sensor Platoon IV, in Regen
 * Remote Radar Post 354 "Blackmoor", in Döbern with RRP-117
 * Remote Radar Post 355 "Royal Flash", in Gleina with RRP-117
 * Remote Radar Post 357 "", on Döbraberg with RRP-117
 * Remote Radar Post 358 "Snow Cap", on Großer Arber with RRP-117

Greece
1st Area Control Centre, inside Mount Chortiatis, with Marconi S-743D 2nd Area Control Centre, inside Mount Parnitha, with Marconi S-743D 9th Control and Warning Station Squadron, on Mount Pelion, with Marconi S-743D 10th Control and Warning Station Squadron, on Mount Chortiatis, with Marconi S-743D

The Hellenic Air Force's Combined Air Operations Centre (CAOC 7) at Larissa Air Base was deactivated in 2013 and its responsibilities transferred to the CAOC Torrejón in Spain. The Hellenic Air Force fields two HR-3000, four AR-327 and six Marconi S-743D radar systems, however as of 2018 the air force is in the process of replacing some of its older systems with three RAT-31DL radars.

 * Air Force Tactical Command, at Larissa Air Base
 * Air Operations Centre, at Larissa Air Base
 * 1st Area Control Centre, inside Mount Chortiatis
 * 2nd Area Control Centre, inside Mount Parnitha
 * 1st Control and Warning Station Squadron, in Didymoteicho, with AR-327
 * 2nd Control and Warning Station Squadron, on Mount Ismaros, with HR-3000
 * 3rd Control and Warning Station Squadron, on Mount Vitsi, with Marconi S-743D
 * 4th Control and Warning Station Squadron, on Mount Elati, with RAT-31DL
 * 5th Control and Warning Station Squadron, in Kissamos, with Marconi S-743D
 * 6th Control and Warning Station Squadron, on Mykonos, with AR-327
 * 7th Control and Warning Station Squadron, on Mount Mela, with AR-327
 * 8th Control and Warning Station Squadron, on Lemnos, with AR-327
 * 9th Control and Warning Station Squadron, on Mount Pelion, with Marconi S-743D
 * 10th Control and Warning Station Squadron, on Mount Chortiatis, with Marconi S-743D
 * 11th Control and Warning Station Squadron, in Ziros, with HR-3000

Hungary
The Hungarian Air Force's Air Operations Centre is located in Veszprém and reports to CAOC Uedem. There are additional three radar companies with Soviet-era equipment subordinate to the 54th Radar Regiment "Veszprém", however it is unclear if they will remain in service once Hungary's newest radar at Medina reaches full operational capability.

 * Air Force Command, in Budapest
 * Air Operations Centre, in Veszprém
 * 54th Radar Regiment "Veszprém", in Veszprém
 * 1st Radar Data Centre, in Békéscsaba, with RAT-31DL
 * 2nd Radar Data Centre, in Medina, with RAT-31DL
 * 3rd Radar Data Centre, in Bánkút, with RAT-31DL

Iceland
The Iceland Air Defense System, which is part of the Icelandic Coast Guard, monitors Iceland's airspace. Air Defense is provided by fighter jets from NATO allies, which rotate units for the Icelandic Air Policing mission to Keflavik Air Base. The Iceland Air Defense System's Control and Reporting Centre is at Keflavik Air Base and reports to CAOC Uedem in Germany.

 * Iceland Air Defense System, at Keflavik Air Base
 * Control and Reporting Centre, at Keflavik Air Base
 * H1 Radar Station, at Miðnesheiði, with AN/FPS-117(V)5
 * H2 Radar Station, on Mount Gunnolfsvík, with AN/FPS-117(V)5
 * H3 Radar Station, at Stokksnes, with AN/FPS-117(V)5
 * H4 Radar Station, on Mount Bolafjalli, with AN/FPS-117(V)5

Italy
The Italian Air Force's Combined Air Operations Centre (CAOC 5) in Poggio Renatico was deactivated in 2013 and replaced with the Mobile Command and Control Regiment (RMCC) at Bari Air Base, while the Centre's responsibilities were transferred to the CAOC Torrejón in Spain.

 * Air Operations Command (COA), in Poggio Renatico
 * Air Operations Centre, in Poggio Renatico
 * Integrated Missile Air-defense Regiment (Rep. DAMI), in Poggio Renatico
 * 11th Integrated Missile Air-defense Squadron, in Poggio Renatico
 * 22nd Air Force Radar Squadron (GrRAM), in Licola, with AN/FPS-117(V)
 * 112th Remote Radar Station Flight, in Mortara, with RAT-31DL
 * 113th Remote Radar Station Flight, in Lame di Concordia, with RAT-31DL
 * 114th Remote Radar Station Flight, in Potenza Picena, with RAT-31DL
 * 115th Remote Radar Station Flight, in Capo Mele, with RAT-31DL
 * 121st Remote Radar Station Flight, in Poggio Ballone, with AN/FPS-117(V)
 * 123rd Remote Radar Station Flight, in Capo Frasca, with AN/FPS-117(V)
 * 131st Remote Radar Station Flight, in Jacotenente, with RAT-31DL
 * 132nd Remote Radar Station Flight, in Capo Rizzuto, with RAT-31DL
 * 133rd Remote Radar Station Flight, in San Giovanni Teatino, with AN/FPS-117(V)
 * 134th Remote Radar Station Flight, in Lampedusa, with RAT-31DL
 * 135th Remote Radar Station Flight, in Marsala, with RAT-31DL
 * 136th Remote Radar Station Flight, in Otranto, with RAT-31DL
 * 137th Remote Radar Station Flight, in Mezzogregorio, with RAT-31DL

Latvia
The Latvian Air Force's Air Operations Centre is located at Lielvārde Air Base and reports to the Baltic Air Surveillance Network's Regional Airspace Surveillance Coordination Centre (RASCC) in Karmėlava, Lithuania, which in turn reports to CAOC Uedem.

 * Air Force Headquarters, at Lielvārde Air Base
 * Air Surveillance Squadron, at Lielvārde Air Base
 * Air Operations Centre, at Lielvārde Air Base
 * 1st Radiotechnical (Radar) Post, at Lielvārde Air Base, with AN/TPS-77(V)
 * 2nd Radiotechnical (Radar) Post, in Audriņi, with AN/TPS-77(V)
 * 3rd Radiotechnical (Radar) Post, in Čalas, with AN/TPS-77(V)
 * Mobile Radar Section, with TPS-77 MRR

Lithuania
The Lithuanian Air Force's Air Operations Control Centre is located in Karmėlava and reports to the Baltic Air Surveillance Network's Regional Airspace Surveillance Coordination Centre (RASCC) co-located in Karmėlava, which in turn reports to CAOC Uedem.

 * Lithuanian Air Force Headquarters, in Kaunas
 * Airspace Surveillance and Control Command, in Kaunas
 * Airspace Control Centre, in Karmėlava
 * 1st Radar Post, in Antaveršis
 * 3rd Radar Post, in Degučiai
 * 4th Radar Post, in Ceikiškės

Luxembourg
Luxembourg's airspace is monitored and guarded by the Belgian Air Component's Control and Reporting Centre at Beauvechain Air Base.

Montenegro
The Armed Forces of Montenegro do not possess a modern air defense radar and the country's airspace is monitored by Italian Air Force radar sites. The Armed Forces Air Surveillance and Reporting Centre is located at Podgorica Airport in Golubovci and reports to CAOC Torrejón in Spain.

Netherlands
The Royal Netherlands Air Force's Air Operations Centre is located at Nieuw-Milligen and reports to CAOC Uedem. The air force's main radars are being replaced with two modern SMART-L GB radars.

 * Air Force Command, in Breda
 * Air Operations Control Station, in Nieuw-Milligen
 * Control and Reporting Centre, in Nieuw-Milligen
 * Radar Station South, in Nieuw-Milligen, with SMART-L GB
 * Radar Station North, at Wier, with SMART-L GB

Norway
The Royal Norwegian Air Force's Combined Air Operations Centre (CAOC 3) in Reitan was deactivated in 2008 and its responsibilities were transferred to the Combined Air Operations Centre Finderup (CAOC F). After CAOC F was deactivated in 2013 the responsibility for the air defense of Norway was transferred to CAOC Uedem in Germany and the Royal Norwegian Air Force's Control and Reporting Centre in Sørreisa reports to it. Until 2016 the Royal Norwegian Air Force's radar installations were distributed between two CRCs. That year the CRC Mågerø was disbanded. In its place a wartime mobilization back-up CRC has been formed with a reduction in personnel from the around active 170 duty to about 50 air force home guardsmen. The SINDRE I radars are a variant of the HR-3000 radar, which is also used in the German HADR radars. The newer RAT-31SL/N radars are sometimes designated SINDRE II.

 * Armed Forces Operational Headquarters, Reitan near Bodø Main Air Station
 * 131 Air Wing, in Sørreisa
 * Control and Reporting Centre Sørreisa
 * Radar Station Njunis, with RAT-31SL/N
 * Radar Station Senja, with RAT-31SL/N
 * Radar Station Honningsvåg, with RAT-31SL/N
 * Radar Station Vestvågøy, with SINDRE I
 * Radar Station Vågsøy, with SINDRE I
 * Radar Station Skykula, with SINDRE I

Poland
The Polish Armed Forces Operational Command's Air Operations Centre is located in the Warsaw-Pyry neighborhood and reports to CAOC Uedem. The 3rd Wrocław Radiotechnical Brigade is responsible for the operation of the Armed Forces radar equipment. As of 2021, the Polish Air Force possesses three NUR-12M and three RAT-31DL long-range radars making up BACKBONE system, which are listed below.

 * Armed Forces Operational Command, in Warsaw
 * Air Operations Centre - Air Component Command, in Warsaw-Pyry
 * Mobile Air Operations Command Unit, in Babki
 * 22nd Command and Control Centre, in Osówiec
 * 32nd Command and Control Centre, at Kraków-Balice Air Base
 * 1st Air Operations Coordination Centre, in Gdynia
 * 2nd Air Operations Coordination Centre, in Kraków
 * 4th Air Operations Coordination Centre, in Szczecin
 * 3rd Wrocław Radiotechnical Brigade, in Wrocław
 * 3rd Sandomierz Radiotechnical Battalion, in Sandomierz
 * 110th Long Range Radiolocating Post, in Łabunie, with RAT-31DL
 * 360th Long Range Radiolocating Post, in Brzoskwinia, with NUR-12M
 * 8th Szczycień Radiotechnical Battalion, in Lipowiec
 * 144th Long Range Radiolocating Post, in Roskosz, with NUR-12M
 * 184th Long Range Radiolocating Post, in Szypliszki, with RAT-31DL
 * 211th Long Range Radiolocating Post, in Chruściel, with RAT-31DL
 * 31st Lower Silesian Radiotechnical Battalion, in Wrocław
 * 170th Long Range Radiolocating Post, in Wronowice, with NUR-12M
 * 34th Chojnice Radiotechnical Battalion, in Chojnice

Portugal
The Portuguese Air Force's Combined Air Operations Centre (CAOC 10) in Lisbon was deactivated in 2013 and its responsibilities were transferred to CAOC Torrejón in Spain.

 * Air Command, in Lisbon
 * Control and Reporting Centre, in Monsanto
 * Radar Station 1, on Monte Fóia, with HR-3000
 * Radar Station 2, on Monte Pilar in Paços de Ferreira, with HR-3000
 * Radar Station 3, at Montejunto, with HR-3000
 * Radar Station 4, on Pico do Arieiro, on the island of Madeira, with LANZA 3-D

Romania
The Romanian Air Force's Air Operations Centre is headquartered in Balotești and reports to CAOC Torrejón. Additionally, the WSR-98D radar stations in Bârnova, Medgidia, Bobohalma, Timișoara, and Oradea are officially designated and operated as a civilian radar stations by the National Meteorological Administration, however their data is fed into the military air surveillance system as well.

 * Air Component Command "General comandant aviator Ermil Gheorghiu", in Balotești
 * Air Operations Centre, in Balotești
 * Radar Station, in Ovidiu, with AN/FPS-117(V)
 * Radar Station, at Giarmata Airport, with AN/FPS-117(V)
 * Radar Station, in Suceava, with AN/FPS-117(V)
 * Radar Station, in Craiova (Cârcea), with AN/FPS-117(V)
 * Radar Station, on Muntele Mare, with AN/FPS-117(V)
 * 76th Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Brigade "Dacia", in Moara Vlăsiei
 * 1st Airspace Surveillance Group "General Neculai Iordache", at 86th Air Base, in Fetești
 * 2nd Airspace Surveillance Group "General Pompiliu Ionescu", at 95th Air Base, in Bacău
 * 3rd Airspace Surveillance Group "General Vasile Mihalache", at 71st Air Base, in Câmpia Turzii
 * 4th Electronic Warfare Group "Locotenent-colonel Mihai Cană", in Domnești

Slovakia
The Slovak Air Force's Air Operations Centre is located at Zvolen and reports to CAOC Uedem.

 * Air Force Command, in Zvolen
 * 2nd Air Force Brigade, in Zvolen
 * Air Operations Center, in Zvolen
 * Radar Surveillance Battalion, in Zvolen (6× EL/M-2084M-MMR radars)
 * Command and Support Company, in Zvolen
 * 1st Radar Surveillance Company, in Michalovce
 * 2nd Radar Surveillance Company, in Veľká Ida
 * 3rd Radar Surveillance Company, in Ožďany
 * 4th Radar Surveillance Company, in Močiar
 * 5th Radar Surveillance Company, in Hlohovec
 * 6th Radar Surveillance Company, in Mierovo
 * 7th Radar Surveillance Company, in Prešov
 * 8th Radar Surveillance Company, in Voderady

Slovenia
The Slovenian Air Force and Air Defense's Airspace Surveillance and Control Centre is headquartered in Brnik and reports to CAOC Torrejón.

The Italian Air Force's 4th Wing at Grosseto Air Base and 36th Wing at Gioia del Colle Air Base rotate a QRA flight of Eurofighter Typhoons to Istrana Air Base, which are responsible for the air defense of Northern Italy and Slovenia.

 * Forces Command, in Vrhnika
 * 15th Military Aviation Regiment, at Cerklje ob Krki Air Base
 * 16th Airspace Surveillance and Control Battalion in Brnik
 * Airspace Surveillance and Control Centre, in Brnik
 * 1st Radar Station, in Vrhnika, with GM 403
 * 2nd Radar Station, in Hočko Pohorje, with GM 403

Spain
The Spanish Air Force's Combined Air Operations Centre (CAOC 8) at Torrejón Air Base was deactivated in 2013 and replaced at same location by CAOC Torrejon, which took over the functions of CAOC 5, CAOC 7, CAOC 8 and CAOC 10. CAOC Torrejón is responsible for the NATO airspace South of the Alps.

 * Combat Air Command, at Torrejón Air Base
 * Combat Air Command Headquarter (CGMACOM), at Torrejón Air Base
 * Air Operations Centre / NATO CAOC Torrejón
 * Command and Control Systems Headquarter (JSMC), at Torrejón Air Base
 * Central Command and Control Group (GRUCEMAC), at Torrejón Air Base
 * Northern Command and Control Group (GRUNOMAC), at Zaragoza Air Base
 * Mobile Air Control Group (GRUMOCA) at Tablada Air Base
 * 1st Air Surveillance Squadron (EVA 1) radar station, at Air Station El Frasno, with LANZA 3-D
 * 2nd Air Surveillance Squadron (EVA 2) radar station, at Air Station Villatobas, with RAT-31SL/T
 * 3rd Air Surveillance Squadron (EVA 3) radar station, at Air Station Constantina, with LANZA 3-D
 * 4th Air Surveillance Squadron (EVA 4) radar station, at Air Station Roses, with LANZA 3-D
 * 5th Air Surveillance Squadron (EVA 5) radar station, at Air Station Aitana, with RAT-31SL/T
 * 7th Air Surveillance Squadron (EVA 7) radar station, at Air Station Puig Major, with LANZA 3-D
 * 9th Air Surveillance Squadron (EVA 9) radar station, at Air Station Motril, with RAT-31SL/T
 * 10th Air Surveillance Squadron (EVA 10) radar station, at Air Station Barbanza, with LANZA 3-D
 * 11th Air Surveillance Squadron (EVA 11) radar station, at Air Station Alcalá de los Gazules, with LANZA 3-D
 * 12th Air Surveillance Squadron (EVA 12) radar station, at Air Station Espinosa de los Monteros, with RAT-31SL/T
 * 13th Air Surveillance Squadron (EVA 13) radar station, at Air Station Sierra Espuña, with LANZA 3-D
 * 21st Air Surveillance Squadron (EVA 21) radar station, at Vega de San Mateo on Gran Canaria, with LANZA 3-D
 * 22nd Air Surveillance Squadron (EVA 22) radar station, in Haría on Lanzarote, with RAT-31SL/T

Turkey
The Turkish Air Force's Combined Air Operations Centre (CAOC 6) in Eskişehir was deactivated in 2013 and its responsibilities were transferred to CAOC Torrejón in Spain. Turkey's Air Force fields a mix of HR-3000, AN/FPS-117, RAT-31SL and RAT-31DL radars, however the exact number of each of these radar and their location in the Turkish radar system is unknown.

 * Air Force Command (COA), in
 * Control and Reporting Centre, in Ahlatlıbel
 * Aerial Surveillance Radar Post, in Ahlatlıbel, with
 * Aerial Surveillance Radar Post, in Körfez, with
 * Aerial Surveillance Radar Post, in Karabelen, with
 * Aerial Surveillance Radar Post, in Çanakkale, with
 * Aerial Surveillance Radar Post, in Erzurum, with
 * Aerial Surveillance Radar Post, in Datça, with
 * Aerial Surveillance Radar Post, in İnebolu, with
 * Aerial Surveillance Radar Post, in İskenderun, with
 * Aerial Surveillance Radar Post, in Rize, with

United Kingdom
The Royal Air Force's Air Surveillance and Control System is located at RAF Boulmer, and reports to CAOC Uedem. The RAF operates seven Remote Radar Heads (RRHs) across the UK, which feed back to the Control and Reporting Centre at RAF Boulmer. Under Project Guardian, all of the UK's radar stations and systems are being upgraded and strengthened. The UK is also unique in Europe in possessing a Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) which is based at RAF Fylingdales.

 * National Air and Space Operations Centre (NASOC), at RAF High Wycombe
 * Control and Reporting Centre, at RAF Boulmer
 * RRH Benbecula, in North Uist, with AMES Type 92
 * RRH Brizlee Wood, in Shipley, with AMES Type 92
 * RRH Buchan, in Boddam, with AMES Type 92
 * RRH Saxa Vord, in Unst, with AMES Type 92
 * RRH Neatishead, in Neatishead, with AMES Type 92
 * RRH Staxton Wold, in Scarborough, with AMES Type 92
 * RRH Portreath, in Portreath, with AMES Type 101
 * Ballistic Missile Early Warning System, at RAF Fylingdales with AN/FPS-126

United States
The United States Air Force's control centres and radar stations are part of the Canadian/American North American Aerospace Defense Command.

Austria

 * Austrian Air Force - GOLDHAUBE system:
 * Command and Control Center "Basisraum", in St Johann im Pongau
 * Kolomansberg Radar Station
 * Großer Speikkogel Radar Station
 * Steinmandl Radar Station

Switzerland

 * Swiss Air Force - FLORAKO system:
 * Air Defence & Direction Center, at Dübendorf Air Base
 * Pilatus Radar Station
 * Scopi Radar Station
 * Weisshorn Radar Station
 * Weissfluh Radar Station

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: NATO Integrated Air Defense System


text:
Invisible balance

The invisible balance or balance of trade on services is that part of the balance of trade that refers to services and other items that do not result in the transfer of physical objects. Examples include consulting services, shipping services, tourism, and patent license revenues. This figure is usually generated by tertiary industry. The term 'invisible balance' is especially common in the United Kingdom.

For countries that rely on service exports or on tourism, the invisible balance is particularly important. For instance the United Kingdom and Saudi Arabia receive significant international income from financial services, while Japan and Germany rely more on exports of manufactured goods.

Types of invisibles
Invisibles are both international payments for services (as opposed to goods), as well as movements of money without exchange for goods or services. These invisibles are called 'transfer payments' or 'remittances' and may include money sent from one country to another by an individual, business, government or non-governmental organisations (NGO) – often charities.

An individual remittance may include money sent to a relative overseas. Business transfers may include profits sent by a foreign subsidiary to a parent company or money invested by a business in a foreign country. Bank loans to foreign countries are also included in this category, as are license fees paid for the use of patents and trademarks. Government transfers may involve loans made or official aid given to foreign countries, while transfers made by NGO's include money designated for charitable work within foreign countries, respectively.

Balance of payments and invisibles
In many countries a useful distinction is drawn between the balance of trade and the balance of payments. 'Balance of trade' refers to the trade of both tangible (physical) objects as well as the trade in services – collectively known as exports and imports (in other words, 'visibles plus services') – while the 'balance of payments' also includes transfers of Capital in the form of loans, investments in shares or direct investment in projects.

A nation may have a visibles balance surplus but this can be offset by a larger deficit in the invisibles balance (creating a Balance of Trade deficit overall) – if, for example, there are large payments made to foreign businesses for invisibles such as shipping or tourism. On the other hand, a Visibles Balance deficit can be offset by a strong surplus on the invisibles balance if, for example, foreign aid is being provided.

In a similar way, a nation may also have a surplus 'balance of trade' because it exports more than it imports but a negative (or deficit) 'balance of payments' because, it has a much greater shortfall in transfers of capital. And, just as easily, a deficit in the 'balance of trade' may be offset by a larger surplus in capital transfers from overseas to produce a balance of payments surplus overall.

Balance of payments problems and the invisible balance
Problems with a country's balance of trade (or balance of payments) are often associated with an inappropriate valuation of its currency, its country's foreign exchange rate.

If a country's exchange rate is too high, its exports will become uncompetitive as buyers in foreign countries require more of their own currency to pay for them. In the meantime, it also becomes cheaper for the citizens of the country to buy goods from overseas, as opposed to buying locally produced goods), because an overvalued currency makes foreign products less expensive.

The simultaneous decline in currency inflows from decreased exports and the rise in outflows, due to increased imports, sends the balance of trade into deficit, which then needs to be paid for by a transfer of funds in some form, either invisible transfers (aid, etc.) or capital flows (loans, etc.). However, relying on funds like that to support a trade deficit, is unsustainable, and the country may eventually require its currency to be devalued.

If, on the other hand, a currency is undervalued, its exports will become cheaper and therefore more competitive internationally. At the same time, imports will also become more costly, stimulating the production of domestic substitutes to replace them. That will result in a growth of currency flowing into the country and a decline in currency flowing out of it, resulting in an improvement in the country's balance of trade.

Because a nation's exchange rate has a big impact on its 'balance of trade' and its 'balance of payments', many economists favour freely floating exchange rates over the older, fixed (or pegged) rates of foreign currency exchange. Floating exchange rates allow more regular adjustments in exchange rates to occur, allowing the greater opportunity for international payments to maintain equilibrium.

title: Invisible balance