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Edwin Hubble

Edwin Powell Hubble (November 20, 1889 – September 28, 1953) was an American astronomer. He played a crucial role in establishing the fields of extragalactic astronomy and observational cosmology.

Hubble proved that many objects previously thought to be clouds of dust and gas and classified as "nebulae" were actually galaxies beyond the Milky Way. He used the strong direct relationship between a classical Cepheid variable's luminosity and pulsation period (discovered in 1908 by Henrietta Swan Leavitt ) for scaling galactic and extragalactic distances.

Hubble provided evidence that the recessional velocity of a galaxy increases with its distance from Earth, a property now known as Hubble's law, although it had been proposed two years earlier by Georges Lemaître. The Hubble law implies that the universe is expanding. A decade before, the American astronomer Vesto Slipher had provided the first evidence that the light from many of these nebulae was strongly red-shifted, indicative of high recession velocities.

Hubble's name is most widely recognized for the Hubble Space Telescope, which was named in his honor, with a model prominently displayed in his hometown of Marshfield, Missouri.

Early life and education
Edwin Hubble was born in 1889 to Virginia Lee Hubble (née James) (1864–1934) and John Powell Hubble, an insurance executive, in Marshfield, Missouri, and moved to Wheaton, Illinois, in 1900. In his younger days, he was noted more for his athletic prowess than his intellectual abilities, although he did earn good grades in every subject except spelling. Edwin was a gifted athlete, playing baseball, football, and running track in both high school and college. He won seven first places and a third place in a single high school track and field meet in 1906, and he played a variety of positions on the basketball court from center to shooting guard. Hubble led the University of Chicago's basketball team to their first Big Ten Conference title in 1907.

Undergraduate studies
Hubble's studies at the University of Chicago were concentrated on mathematics, astronomy and philosophy, which resulted in a bachelor of science degree by 1910. For a year he was also a student laboratory assistant for the physicist Robert Millikan, a future Nobel Prize winner. Hubble also became a member of the Kappa Sigma Fraternity. A Rhodes Scholar, he spent three years at The Queen's College, Oxford studying jurisprudence instead of science (as a promise to his dying father), and later added studies in literature and Spanish, eventually earning his master's degree.

In 1909, Hubble's father moved his family from Chicago to Shelbyville, Kentucky, so that the family could live in a small town, ultimately settling in nearby Louisville. His father died in the winter of 1913, while Edwin was still in England. In the following summer, Edwin returned home to care for his mother, two sisters, and younger brother, along with his brother William. The family moved once more to Everett Avenue, in Louisville's Highlands neighborhood, to accommodate Edwin and William.

Hubble was also a dutiful son, who despite his intense interest in astronomy since boyhood, acquiesced to his father's request to study law, first at the University of Chicago and later at Oxford. In this time, he also took some math and science courses. After the death of his father in 1913, Edwin returned to the Midwest from Oxford but did not have the motivation to practice law. Instead, he proceeded to teach Spanish, physics and mathematics at New Albany High School in New Albany, Indiana, where he also coached the boys' basketball team. After a year of high-school teaching, he entered graduate school with the help of his former professor from the University of Chicago to study astronomy at the university's Yerkes Observatory, where he received his Ph.D. in 1921. His dissertation was titled "Photographic Investigations of Faint Nebulae". In Yerkes, he had access to one of the most powerful telescopes in the world at the time, which had an innovative 26 inch (61 cm) reflector.

Doctoral studies
After the United States declared war on Germany in 1917, Hubble rushed to complete his Ph.D. dissertation so he could join the military. Hubble volunteered for the United States Army and was assigned to the newly created 86th Division, where he served in 2nd Battalion, 343 Infantry Regiment. He rose to the rank of Major, and was found fit for overseas duty on July 9, 1918, but the 86th Division never saw combat. After the end of World War I, Hubble spent a year at Cambridge University, where he renewed his studies of astronomy.

Career
In 1919, Hubble was offered a staff position at the Carnegie Institution for Science's Mount Wilson Observatory, near Pasadena, California, by George Ellery Hale, the founder and director of the observatory. Hubble remained on staff at Mount Wilson until his death in 1953. Shortly before his death, Hubble became the first astronomer to use the newly completed giant 200 in reflector Hale Telescope at the Palomar Observatory near San Diego, California.

Hubble also worked as a civilian for U.S. Army at Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland during World War II as the Chief of the External Ballistics Branch of the Ballistics Research Laboratory during which he directed a large volume of research in exterior ballistics which increased the effective firepower of bombs and projectiles. His work was facilitated by his personal development of several items of equipment for the instrumentation used in exterior ballistics, the most outstanding development being the high-speed clock camera, which made possible the study of the characteristics of bombs and low-velocity projectiles in flight. The results of his studies were credited with greatly improving design, performance, and military effectiveness of bombs and rockets. For his work there, he received the Legion of Merit award.

Universe goes beyond the Milky Way galaxy

Edwin Hubble's arrival at Mount Wilson Observatory, California, in 1919 coincided roughly with the completion of the 100 in Hooker Telescope, then the world's largest. At that time, the prevailing view of the cosmos was that the universe consisted entirely of the Milky Way Galaxy.

Using the Hooker Telescope at Mount Wilson, Hubble identified Cepheid variables, a standard candle discovered by Henrietta Leavitt. Comparing their apparent luminosity to their intrinsic luminosity gives their distance from Earth. Hubble found Cepheids in several nebulae, including the Andromeda Nebula and Triangulum Nebula. His observations, made in 1924, proved conclusively that these nebulae were much too distant to be part of the Milky Way and were, in fact, entire galaxies outside our own; thus today they are no longer considered nebulae.

This was first hypothesized as early as 1755 when Immanuel Kant's General History of Nature and Theory of the Heavens appeared. Hubble's hypothesis was opposed by many in the astronomy establishment of the time, in particular by Harvard University–based Harlow Shapley. Despite the opposition, Hubble, then a thirty-five-year-old scientist, had his findings first published in The New York Times on November 23, 1924, then presented them to other astronomers at the January 1, 1925, meeting of the American Astronomical Society. Hubble's results for Andromeda were not formally published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal until 1929.

Hubble's findings fundamentally changed the scientific view of the universe. Supporters state that Hubble's discovery of nebulae outside of our galaxy helped pave the way for future astronomers. Although some of his more renowned colleagues simply scoffed at his results, Hubble ended up publishing his findings on nebulae. This published work earned him an award titled the American Association Prize and five hundred dollars from Burton E. Livingston of the Committee on Awards.

Hubble also devised the most commonly used system for classifying galaxies, grouping them according to their appearance in photographic images. He arranged the different groups of galaxies in what became known as the Hubble sequence.

Redshift increases with distance
Hubble went on to estimate the distances to 24 extra-galactic nebulae, using a variety of methods. In 1929 Hubble examined the relationship between these distances and their radial velocities as determined from their redshifts. All of his estimated distances are now known to be too small, by up to a factor of about 7. This was due to factors such as the fact that there are two kinds of Cepheid variables or confusing bright gas clouds with bright stars. However, his distances were more or less proportional to the true distances, and combining his distances with measurements of the redshifts of the galaxies by Vesto Slipher, and by his assistant Milton L. Humason, he found a roughly linear relationship between the distances of the galaxies and their radial velocities (corrected for solar motion), a discovery that later became known as Hubble's law.

This meant that the greater the distance between any two galaxies, the greater their relative speed of separation. If interpreted that way, Hubble's measurements on 46 galaxies lead to a value for the Hubble constant of 500 km/s/Mpc, which is much higher than the currently accepted values of 74 km/s/Mpc  (cosmic distance ladder method) or 68 km/s/Mpc  (CMB method) due to errors in their distance calibrations.

Yet the reason for the redshift remained unclear. Georges Lemaître predicted on theoretical grounds based on Einstein's equations for general relativity the redshift-distance relation, and published observational support for it, two years before the discovery of Hubble's law. Although he used the term "velocities" in his paper (and "apparent radial velocities" in the introduction), he later expressed doubt about interpreting these as real velocities. In 1931 he wrote a letter to the Dutch cosmologist Willem de Sitter expressing his opinion on the theoretical interpretation of the redshift-distance relation:

"'Mr. Humason and I are both deeply sensible of your gracious appreciation of the papers on velocities and distances of nebulae. We use the term 'apparent' velocities to emphasize the empirical features of the correlation. The interpretation, we feel, should be left to you and the very few others who are competent to discuss the matter with authority.'"

Today, the "apparent velocities" in question are usually thought of as an increase in proper distance that occurs due to the expansion of the universe. Light traveling through an expanding metric will experience a Hubble-type redshift, a mechanism somewhat different from the Doppler effect (although the two mechanisms become equivalent descriptions related by a coordinate transformation for nearby galaxies).

In the 1930s, Hubble was involved in determining the distribution of galaxies and spatial curvature. These data seemed to indicate that the universe was flat and homogeneous, but there was a deviation from flatness at large redshifts. According to Allan Sandage,

"'Hubble believed that his count data gave a more reasonable result concerning spatial curvature if the redshift correction was made assuming no recession. To the very end of his writings, he maintained this position, favouring (or at the very least keeping open) the model where no true expansion exists, and therefore that the redshift 'represents a hitherto unrecognized principle of nature.'"

There were methodological problems with Hubble's survey technique that showed a deviation from flatness at large redshifts. In particular, the technique did not account for changes in luminosity of galaxies due to galaxy evolution. Earlier, in 1917, Albert Einstein had found that his newly developed theory of general relativity indicated that the universe must be either expanding or contracting. Unable to believe what his own equations were telling him, Einstein introduced a cosmological constant (a "fudge factor") to the equations to avoid this "problem". When Einstein learned of Hubble's redshifts, he immediately realized that the expansion predicted by general relativity must be real, and in later life, he said that changing his equations was "the biggest blunder of [his] life." In fact, Einstein apparently once visited Hubble and tried to convince him that the universe was expanding.

Hubble also discovered the asteroid 1373 Cincinnati on August 30, 1935. In 1936 he wrote The Observational Approach to Cosmology and The Realm of the Nebulae which explained his approaches to extra-galactic astronomy and his view of the subject's history.

In December 1941, Hubble reported to the American Association for the Advancement of Science that results from a six-year survey with the Mt. Wilson telescope did not support the expanding universe theory. According to a Los Angeles Times article reporting on Hubble's remarks, "The nebulae could not be uniformly distributed, as the telescope shows they are, and still fit the explosion idea. Explanations which try to get around what the great telescope sees, he said, fail to stand up. The explosion, for example, would have had to start long after the earth was created, and possibly even after the first life appeared here." (Hubble's estimate of what we now call the Hubble constant would put the Big Bang only 2 billion years ago.)

Personal life
Hubble married Grace Lillian (Burke) Leib (1889–1980), daughter of John Patrick and Luella (Kepford) Burke, on February 26, 1924.

Hubble was raised as a Protestant Christian but some of his later statements suggest uncertainty.

Health issues and death
Hubble had a heart attack in July 1949 while on vacation in Colorado. He was cared for by his wife and continued on a modified diet and work schedule. He died of cerebral thrombosis (a blood clot in his brain) on September 28, 1953, in San Marino, California. No funeral was held for him, and his wife never revealed his burial site.

Hubble's papers comprising the bulk of his correspondence, photographs, notebooks, observing logbooks, and other materials, are held by the Huntington Library in San Marino, California. They were donated by his wife Grace Burke Hubble upon her death in 1980.

Accusations concerning Lemaître's priority
In 2011, the journal Nature reported claims that Hubble had played a role in the redaction of key parts of the translation of Lemaître's 1927 paper, which stated what is now called Hubble's Law and also gave observational evidence for it. Historians quoted in the article were skeptical that the redactions were part of a campaign to ensure Hubble retained priority. However, the observational astronomer Sidney van den Bergh published a paper suggesting that while the omissions may have been made by a translator, they may still have been deliberate.

In November 2011, the astronomer Mario Livio reported in Nature that documents in the Lemaître archive demonstrated that the redaction had indeed been carried out by Lemaître himself, who apparently saw little point in including scientific content which had already been reported by Hubble. This, however, does not detract from the fact that Lemaître published in French, without such omissions, two years prior to Hubble.

Attempt at obtaining the Nobel Prize
At the time, the Nobel Prize in Physics did not recognize work done in astronomy. Hubble spent much of the later part of his career attempting to have astronomy considered an area of physics, instead of being its own science. He did this largely so that astronomers—including himself—could be recognized by the Nobel Prize Committee for their valuable contributions to astrophysics. This campaign was unsuccessful in Hubble's lifetime, but shortly after his death, the Nobel Prize Committee decided that astronomical work would be eligible for the physics prize. However, the prize is not one that can be awarded posthumously.

Awards

 * Newcomb Cleveland Prize in 1924;
 * Bruce Medal in 1938;
 * Franklin Medal in 1939;
 * Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1940;
 * Legion of Merit for outstanding contribution to ballistics research in 1946.

Honors

 * Elected member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1927.
 * Elected member of the American Philosophical Society in 1929.

Namesakes

 * Asteroid 2069 Hubble;
 * The crater Hubble on the Moon;
 * Orbiting Hubble Space Telescope;
 * Edwin P. Hubble Planetarium, located in the Edward R. Murrow High School, Brooklyn, NY;
 * Edwin Hubble Highway, the stretch of Interstate 44 passing through his birthplace of Marshfield, Missouri;
 * Hubble Middle School, a public school in Wheaton, Illinois, where he lived from 11 years old and up.

Stamp
On March 6, 2008, the United States Postal Service released a 41-cent stamp honoring Hubble on a sheet titled "American Scientists" designed by artist Victor Stabin. His citation reads:

"Often called a 'pioneer of the distant stars,' astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889–1953) played a pivotal role in deciphering the vast and complex nature of the universe. His meticulous studies of spiral nebulae proved the existence of galaxies other than our own Milky Way. Had he not died suddenly in 1953, Hubble would have won that year's Nobel Prize in Physics."

(Note that the assertion that he would have won the Nobel Prize in 1953 is likely false, although he was nominated for the prize that year. )

The other scientists on the "American Scientists" sheet include Gerty Cori, biochemist; Linus Pauling, chemist, and John Bardeen, physicist.

Other notable appearances

 * 1934 Delivered the Halley Lecture ] at Oxford University
 * Hall of Famous Missourians 2003
 * 2008 "American Scientists" US stamp series, $0.41
 * 2017 Indiana Basketball Hall of Fame

In popular culture
In the 1980 documentary Cosmos: A Personal Voyage by astronomer Carl Sagan, Hubble's life and work are portrayed on screen in episode 10: "The Edge of Forever".

The play Creation's Birthday, written by Cornell physicist Hasan Padamsee, tells Hubble's life story.

title: Edwin Hubble


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Emperor Ninmyō

Emperor Ninmyō (仁明天皇) was the 54th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Ninmyō's reign lasted from 833 to 850, during the Heian period.

Traditional narrative
Ninmyō was the second son of Emperor Saga and the Empress Tachibana no Kachiko. His personal name (imina) was Masara (正良). After his death, he was given the title Ninmyō (仁明).

Ninmyō had nine Empresses, Imperial consorts, and concubines (kōi); and the emperor had 24 Imperial sons and daughters.

Emperor Ninmyō is traditionally venerated at his tomb; the Imperial Household Agency designates Fukakusa Imperial Mausoleum (深草陵), in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto, as the location of Ninmyō's mausoleum.

Events of Ninmyō's life

Ninmyō ascended to the throne following the abdication of his uncle, Emperor Junna.

 * 6 January 823 (Kōnin 10, 4th month, 19th day (弘仁十四年四月十九日)): Received the title of Crown Prince at the age of 14.
 * 22 March 833 (Tenchō 10, 28th day of the 2nd month (天長十年二月二十八日)): In the 10th year of Emperor Junna's reign, the emperor abdicated; and the succession (senso) was received by his adopted son. Masara-shinnō was the natural son of Emperor Saga, and therefore would have been Junna's nephew.  Shortly thereafter, Emperor Ninmyo is said to have acceded to the throne (sokui).

Shortly after Ninmyo was enthroned, he designated an heir. He named Prince Tsunesada, a son of former Emperor Junna, as the crown prince.

 * 835 (Jōwa 2 (承和二年)): Kūkai (known posthumously as Kōbō-Daishi) died. This monk, scholar, poet, and artist had been the founder of the Shingon or "True Word" school of Buddhism.
 * 838-839 (Jōwa 5-6): Diplomatic mission to Tang China headed by Fujiwara no Tsunetsugu.
 * 842: Following a coup d'état called the Jōwa Incident, Tsunesada the crown prince was replaced with Ninmyō's first son, Prince Michiyasu (later Emperor Montoku) whose mother was the Empress Fujiwara no Junshi, a daughter of sadaijin Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu. It is supposed that this was the result of political intrigue planned by Ninmyō and Fujiwara no Yoshifusa. The first of what would become a powerful line of Fujiwara regents,  Yoshifusa had numerous family ties to the imperial court; he was Ninmyō's brother in law (by virtue of his sister who became Ninmyō's consort), the second son of sadaijin Fuyutsugu, and uncle to the new crown prince.

In his lifetime, Ninmyō could not have anticipated that his third son, Prince Tokiyasu, would eventually ascend the throne in 884 as Emperor Kōkō.

 * 6 May 850 (Kashō 3, 21st day of the 3rd month (嘉祥三年三月二十一日)): Emperor Ninmyō died at the age of 41.  He was sometimes posthumously referred to as "the Emperor of Fukakusa", because that was the name given to his tomb.

Eras of Ninmyō's reign
The years of Ninmyō's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name (nengō).
 * Tenchō (824–834)
 * Jōwa   (834–848)
 * Kashō   (848–851)

Kugyō
Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.

In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Ninmyō's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:
 * Sadaijin, Fujiwara no Otsugu (藤原緒嗣), 773–843.
 * Sadaijin, Minamoto no Tokiwa (源常), 812–854.
 * Udaijin, Kiyohara no Natsuno (清原夏野), 782–837.
 * Udaijin, Fujiwara no Mimori (藤原三守), d. 840.
 * Udaijin, Minamoto no Tokiwa (源常)
 * Udaijin, Tachibana no Ujikimi (橘氏公), 783–847.
 * Udaijin, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa (藤原良房), 804–872.
 * Udaijin, Fujiwara no Otsugu, 825–832
 * Naidaijin (not appointed)
 * Dainagon, Fujiwara no Otsugu, ?–825.

Consorts and children
Consort (Nyōgo) later Empress Dowager (Tai-Kōtaigō): Fujiwara no Junshi (藤原順子; 809–871), Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu’s daughter
 * First Son: Imperial Prince Michiyasu (道康親王) later Emperor Montoku

Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Takushi/Sawako (藤原沢子; d.839), Fujiwara no Fusatsugu’s daughter
 * Second Son: Imperial Prince Muneyasu (宗康親王; 828–868)
 * Third Son: Imperial Prince Tokiyasu (時康親王) later Emperor Kōkō
 * Fourth Son: Imperial Prince Saneyasu (人康親王; 831–872)
 * Imperial Princess Shinshi (新子内親王; d.897)

Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Teishi/Sadako (藤原貞子; d.864), Fujiwara no Tadamori’s daughter
 * Eighth Son: Imperial Prince Nariyasu (成康親王; 836–853)
 * Imperial Princess Shinshi (親子内親王; d. 851)
 * Imperial Princess Heishi (平子内親王; d. 877)

Court lady: Shigeno no Tsunako (滋野縄子), Shigeno no Sadanushi’s daughter
 * fifth Son: Imperial Prince Motoyasu (本康親王; d. 902)
 * Ninth Daughter: Imperial Princess Tokiko (時子内親王; d. 847), 2nd Saiin in Kamo Shrine 831–833
 * Imperial Princess Jūshi (柔子内親王; d. 869)

Consort (Nyōgo): Tachibana no Kageko (橘影子; d. 864), Tachibana no Ujikimi’s daughter

Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara Musuko (藤原息子)

Court Attendant (Koui): Ki no Taneko (紀種子; d. 869), Ki no Natora’s daughter
 * Seventh Prince: Imperial Prince Tsuneyasu (常康親王; d. 869)
 * Imperial Princess Shinshi/Saneko (真子内親王; d. 870)

Court Attendant (Koui) (deposed in 845): Mikuni-machi (三国町), daughter of Mikuni clan
 * Sada no Noboru (貞登), given the family name "Sada" from Emperor (Shisei Kōka, 賜姓降下) in 866

Court lady: Fujiwara no Katoko (藤原賀登子), Fujiwara no Fukutomaro's daughter
 * Sixth Son: Imperial Prince Kuniyasu (国康親王; d. 898)

Court lady: Fujiwara no Warawako (藤原小童子), Fujiwara no Michitō's daughter
 * Imperial Princess Shigeko (重子内親王; d. 865)

Court lady: Princess Takamune (高宗女王), Prince Okaya's daughter
 * Seventh/eighth Daughter: Imperial Princess Hisako (久子内親王; d. 876), 18th Saiō in Ise Shrine 833–850.

Court lady: daughter of Yamaguchi clan (山口氏の娘)
 * Minamoto no Satoru (源覚; 849–879)

Nyoju: Kudaraō Toyofuku's daughter
 * Minamoto no Masaru (源多; 831–888), Udaijin 882–888
 * Minamoto no Hikaru (源光; 846–913), Udaijin 901–913

Court lady (Nyoju): Kudara no Yōkyō (百済永慶), Kudara no Kyōfuku's daughter
 * Twelfth Daughter: Imperial Princess Takaiko (高子内親王; d. 866), 3rd Saiin in Kamo Shrine 833–850

(from unknown women)
 * Minamoto no Suzushi (源冷; 835–890), Sangi 882–890
 * Minamoto no Itaru (源効)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Emperor Ninmyō


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Emperor Montoku

Emperor Montoku (文徳天皇) (August 826 – 7 October 858) was the 55th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.

Montoku's reign lasted from 850 to 858.

Traditional narrative
Before Montoku's ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (imina) was Michiyasu (道康). He was also known as Tamura-no-mikado or Tamura-tei.

He was the eldest son of Emperor Ninmyō. His mother was Empress Dowager Fujiwara no Junshi (also called the Gojō empress 五条后), daughter of the minister of the left, Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu.

Montoku had six Imperial consorts and 29 Imperial children.

Events of Montoku's life

 * 6 May 850 (Kashō 3, 21st day of the 3rd month): In the 17th year of Ninmyō-tennō's reign (仁明天皇十七年), the emperor died; and his eldest son received the succession (senso).
 * 850 (Kashō 3, 4th month): Emperor Montoku formally acceded to the throne (sokui).
 * 850 (Kashō 3, 5th month): The widow of Emperor Saga, who was also the mother of Emperor Ninmyō and the grandmother of Emperor Montoku, died. This very devout Buddhist had founded a temple called Danrin-ji (檀林寺) on the site of present-day Tenryū-ji (天龍寺) – more formally known as Tenryū Shiseizen-ji (天龍資聖禅寺), located in what is now Susukinobaba-chō, Ukyō Ward in Kyoto,  Before her death, the former empress had been known by the honorific title, Danrin-kōgō (檀林皇后); and she had been honored as if she were a saint.
 * 850 (Kashō 3, 11th month): The emperor named Korehito-shinnō, the 4th son of Emperor Montoku as his heir. This 9-month-old baby was also the grandson of  udaijin Fujiwara no Yoshifusa.
 * 853 (Ninju 3, 2nd month): The emperor visited the home of udaijin Yoshifusa, the grandfather of his designated heir.
 * 11 July 854 (Saikō 1, 13th day of the 6th month): The sadaijin Minamoto no Tokiwa, also known as Minamoto no Tsune, died at age 43.
 * 855 (Saikō 2, in the 1st month): The Emishi organized a rebellion; and in response, a force of 1,000 men and provisions were sent to the north.
 * 855 (Saikō 2, 5th month): The head of the great statute of Buddha in the Tōdai-ji fell off; and in consequence, the emperor ordered the then dainagon Fujiwara no Yoshisuke, the brother of sadaijin Yoshifusa, to be in charge of gathering the gifts of the pious from throughout the empire to make another head for the Daibutsu.

Events during his reign included the repression of insurrections among the Ebisu people in Mutsu Province in 855, and among the people of the island of Tsushima two years later.

 * 7 October 858 (Ten'an 2, 27th day of the 8th month): Montoku died at the age of 32.

The actual site of Montoku's grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Kyoto.

The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Montoku's mausoleum. It is formally named Tamura no misasagi.

Kugyō
Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.– kugyō of Montoku-tennō (in French)

In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Montoku's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:
 * Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa　(藤原良房), 804–872.
 * Sadaijin, Minamoto no Tokiwa　(源常), 812–854.
 * Sadaijin, Minamoto no Makoto　(源信), 810–868.
 * Udaijin, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa　(藤原良房), 804–872.
 * Udaijin, Fujiwara no Yoshimi　(藤原良相), 813–867.
 * Naidaijin (not appointed)
 * Dainagon

Eras of Montoku's reign
The years of Montoku's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
 * Kashō  (848–851)
 * Ninju (851–854)
 * Saikō (854–857)
 * Ten'an (857–859)

Consorts and children

 * Consort (Nyōgo) (Tai-Kotaigō): Fujiwara no Akirakeiko (藤原明子; 829–899), also known as Somedono-no-Kisaki, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa's daughter.
 * Fourth Son: Imperial Prince Korehito (惟仁親王) later Emperor Seiwa
 * Third Daughter: Imperial Princess Gishi (儀子内親王; d. 879), 6th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 859–876

 * Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Koshi/Furuko (藤原古子), Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu's daughter

 * Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Takakiko (藤原多賀幾子; d. 858), Fujiwara no Yoshimi's daughter

 * Consort (Nyōgo): Princess Azumako (東子女王; d. 865)

 * Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Nenshi/Toshiko (藤原年子)

 * Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Koreko (藤原是子)

 * Consort (Nyōgo): Tachibana no Fusako (橘房子), Tachibana no Ujikimi's daughter

 * Consort (Nyōgo): Tachibana no Chushi (橘忠子), Tachibana no Ujikimi's daughter

 * Consort (Koui): Ki no Shizuko (紀静子; d. 866), Ki no Natora's daughter
 * First Son: Imperial Prince Koretaka (惟喬親王; 844–897)
 * Second son: Imperial Prince Koreeda (惟条親王; 848–868)
 * Imperial Princess Tenshi (恬子内親王; d. 913), 20th Saiō in Ise Shrine 859–876
 * Fifth daughter: Imperial Princess Jutsushi (述子内親王; d. 897), 5th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 857–858
 * Imperial Princess Chinshi (珍子内親王; d. 877)

 * Court lady: Shigeno no Okuko (滋野奥子), Shigeno no Sadanushi's daughter
 * Third Son: Imperial Prince Korehiko (惟彦親王; 850–883)
 * Imperial Princess Nōshi (濃子内親王; d. 903)
 * Imperial Princess Shōshi (勝子内親王; d. 871)

 * Court lady: Fujiwara no Konshi/Imako (藤原今子), Fujiwara no Sadamori's daughter
 * Imperial Prince Koretsune (惟恒親王; d. 904)
 * Imperial Princess Reishi (礼子内親王; d. 899)
 * Seventh Daughter: Imperial Princess Keishi (掲子内親王; d. 914), 22nd Saiō in Ise Shrine 882–884

 * Court lady: Fujiwara no Retsushi (藤原列子), Fujiwara no Koreo's daughter
 * First Daughter: Imperial Princess Anshi (晏子内親王; d. 900), 19th Saiō in Ise Shrine 850–858
 * Eighth Daughter: Imperial Princess Akirakeiko (慧子内親王; d. 881), 4th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 850–857

 * Court lady: Shigeno no Mineko (滋野岑子), Shigeno no Sadao's daughter
 * Minamoto no Motoari (源本有)
 * Minamoto no Noriari (源載有)
 * Minamoto no Fuchiko/Shigeko (源淵子/滋子; d. 911)

 * Court lady: Tomo clan's daughter
 * Minamoto no Yoshiari (源能有; 845–897), Udaijin 896–897

 * Court lady: Fuse clan's daughter
 * Minamoto no Yukiari (源行有; 854–887)

 * Court lady: Tajihi clan's daughter
 * Minamoto no Tsuneari (源毎有)

 * Court lady: Kiyohara clan's daughter
 * Minamoto no Tokiari (源時有)

 * Court lady: Sugawara clan's daughter
 * Minamoto no Sadaari (源定有)
 * Minamoto no Tomiko (源富子)

 * (from unknown women)
 * Minamoto no Tomiari (源富有, d.887)
 * Minamoto no Hyōshi (源憑子)
 * Minamoto no Kenshi (源謙子)
 * Minamoto no Okuko (源奥子)
 * Minamoto no Retsushi (源列子)
 * Minamoto no Seishi (源済子), married to Emperor Seiwa
 * Minamoto no Shuko (源修子)

title: Emperor Montoku


text:
Emperor Seiwa

Emperor Seiwa (清和天皇) was the 56th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.

Seiwa's reign spanned the years from 858 through 876.

Traditional narrative
Seiwa was the fourth son of Emperor Montoku. His mother was Empress Dowager Fujiwara no Akirakeiko (明子), also called the Somedono empress (染殿后). Seiwa's mother was the daughter of Fujiwara no Yoshifusa (藤原良房), who was regent and great minister of the council of state. He was the younger half-brother of Imperial Prince Koretaka (惟喬親王; 844–897)

Imina
Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) was Korehito (惟仁), the first member of the Imperial house to be personally named "-hito" 仁. One meaning of the character 仁 is the Confucian concept of ren. Later it has been a tradition to name the personal name of all male members of the Imperial family this way.

He was also known as emperor as Mizunoo-no-mikado or Minoo-tei.

Events of Seiwa's life
Originally under the guardianship of his maternal grandfather Fujiwara no Yoshifusa, he displaced Imperial Prince Koretaka (惟喬親王) as Crown Prince. Upon the death of his father in 858, Emperor Montoku, he became Emperor at the age of 9, but the real power was held by his grandfather, Yoshifusa.

 * 7 October 858 (Ten'an 2, 27th day of the 8th month): In the 8th year of Montoku-tennō's reign (文徳天皇8年), the emperor died; and the succession (senso) was received by his son. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Seiwa is said to have acceded to the throne (sokui).
 * 15 December 858 (Ten'an 2, 7th day of the 11th month): The emperor's official announcement of his enthronement at age 9 was accompanied by the appointment of his grandfather as regent (sesshō). This is the first time that this high honor has been accorded to a member of the Fujiwara family, and it is also the first example in Japan of the accession of an heir who is too young to be emperor.  The proclamation of the beginning of Seiwa's reign was made at the Kotaijingu at Ise Province and at all the tombs of the imperial family.
 * 859 (Jōgan 1, 1st month): All New Year's festivities were suspended because of the period of national mourning for the death of Emperor Montoku.
 * 859 (Jōgan 1): Construction began on the Iwashimizu Shrine near Heian-kyō. This shrine honors Hachiman, the Shinto war god.
 * 869 (Jōgan 10): Yōzei was born, and he was named Seiwa's heir in the following year.
 * 876 (Jōgan 17, 11th month): In the 18th year of Seiwa-tennō's reign (清和天皇18年), the emperor ceded his throne to his five-year-old son, which meant that the young child received the succession (senso). Shortly thereafter, Emperor Yōzei formally acceded to the throne (sokui).
 * 878 (Gangyō 2): Seiwa became a Buddhist priest.  His new priestly name was Soshin (素真).
 * 7 January 881 (Gangyō 4, 4th day of the 12th month): Former-Emperor Seiwa died at age 30.

Mausoleum
The actual site of Seiwa's grave is known. The emperor is traditionally venerated at the misasagi memorial shrine in the Ukyō-ku ward of Kyoto. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Seiwa's mausoleum. It is formally named the Minooyama no Misasagi (清和天皇陵) or Seiwa Tennō Ryō. From the site of his tomb the Emperor Seiwa is sometimes referred to as the Emperor Mizunoo (水尾帝). The kami of Emperor Seiwa is venerated at the Seiwatennō-sha near the mausoleum.

Kugyō
Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.

In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Seiwa's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:
 * Sesshō, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa, 804–872.
 * Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa.
 * Sadaijin, Minamoto no Makoto (源信).
 * Sadaijin, Minamoto no Tooru (源融).
 * Udaijin, Fujiwara no Yoshimi (藤原良相), 817–867.
 * Udaijin, Fujiwara no Ujimune (藤原氏宗).
 * Udaijin, Fujiwara no Mototsune, 836–891.
 * Naidaijin
 * Dainagon, Fujiwara no Mototsune.

Eras of Seiwa's reign
The years of Seiwa's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
 * Ten'an      (857–859)
 * Jōgan (859–877)

Consorts and children

 * Consort (Nyōgo) later Kōtaigō: Fujiwara no Takako (藤原高子; 842–910) later Nijo-kisaki (二条后), Fujiwara no Nagara's daughter
 * First Son: Imperial Prince Sadaakira (貞明親王) later Emperor Yōzei
 * Fourth Son: Imperial Prince Sadayasu (貞保親王; 870–924)
 * Third/Fifth daughter: Imperial Princess Atsuko (敦子内親王; d. 930), 7th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 877–880
 * Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Tamiko (藤原多美子; d. 886), Fujiwara no Yoshimi's daughter
 * Consort (Nyōgo): Taira no Kanshi (平寛子)
 * Consort (Nyōgo): Princess Kashi (嘉子女王)
 * Consort (Nyōgo): Minamoto no Sadako (源貞子; d. 873)
 * Consort (Nyōgo): Princess Ryūshi (隆子女王)
 * Consort (Nyōgo): Princess Kenshi (兼子女王)
 * Consort (Nyōgo): Princess Chūshi/Tadako (忠子女王; 854–904), Emperor Kōkō's daughter
 * Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Yoriko (藤原頼子; d. 936), Fujiwara no Mototsune's daughter
 * Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Kazuko (藤原佳珠子; b. 856), Fujiwara no Mototsune's daughter
 * Seventh Son: Imperial Prince Sadatoki (貞辰親王; 874–929)
 * Consort (Nyōgo): Minamoto no Takeko/Izuko (源厳子; d. 879), Minamoto no Yoshiari's daughter
 * Consort (Nyōgo): Minamoto no Seishi (源済子), Emperor Montoku's daughter
 * Consort (Nyōgo): Minamoto no Kenshi/Atsuko (源喧子)
 * Consort (Nyōgo): Minamoto no Gishi/Yoshiko (源宜子), Minamoto no Okimoto's daughter
 * Court Attendant (Koui): Ariwara no Fumiko (在原文子), Ariwara no Yukihira's daughter
 * Eighth Son: Imperial Prince Sadakazu (貞数親王; 875–916)
 * Imperial Princess Kaneko (包子内親王; d. 889)
 * Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Yoshichika's daughter
 * Imperial Prince Sadahira (貞平親王; d. 914)
 * Imperial Princess Shikiko (識子内親王; 874–906), 21st Saiō (Imperial Princess serving at Ise Grand Shrine) 877–880
 * Court Attendant (Koui): Tachibana no Yasukage's daughter (d. 924)
 * Imperial Prince Sadakata (貞固親王; 868–930)
 * Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Nakamune's daughter
 * third Son: Imperial Prince Sadamoto (貞元親王; 870–910)
 * Court Attendant (Koui): Prince Munesada's daughter
 * Sixth Son: Imperial Prince Sadasumi (貞純親王; 873–916) – father of Minamoto no Tsunemoto, founder of the Seiwa Genji, from whom the Kamakura shogunate, Ashikaga shogunate and the Tokugawa shogunate descend.
 * Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Sadamune's daughter
 * Imperial Prince Sadayori (貞頼親王; 876–922)
 * Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Morofuji's daughter
 * Imperial Prince Sadazane (貞真親王; 876–932)
 * Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Morokazu's daughter
 * Imperial Princess Mōshi (孟子内親王; d. 901)
 * Court Attendant (Koui): Saeki no Sanefusa's daughter
 * Minamoto no Nagami (源長鑒)
 * Minamoto no Nagayori (源長頼; b. 875)
 * Court Attendant (Koui): Ben-no-miyasundokoro (弁の御息所), Ōe no Otondo's daughter
 * Court lady: Kamo no Mineo's daughter
 * Minamoto no Naganori (源長猷; d. 918)
 * Minamoto no Saishi/Noriko (源載子)
 * Court lady: Ōno no Takatori's daughter
 * Minamoto no Nagafuchi (源長淵)

title: Emperor Seiwa


text:
Emperor Yōzei

Emperor Yōzei (陽成天皇) was the 57th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.

Yōzei's reign spanned the years from 876 through 884.

Traditional narrative
Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) was Sadaakira Shinnō (貞明親王).

Yōzei was the oldest son of Emperor Seiwa. His mother was the Empress Fujiwara no Takaiko, who was also known after Seiwa's abdication as the Nijō empress. Yōzei's mother was the sister of Fujiwara no Mototsune, who would figure prominently in the young emperor's life.

In ancient Japan, there were four noble clans, the Gempeitōkitsu (源平藤橘). One of these clans, the Minamoto clan (源氏) are also known as Genji, and of these, the Yōzei Genji (陽成源氏) are descended from the 57th emperor Yōzei.

Yōzei had nine Imperial children, born after he had abdicated.

He is said to have mental instability after acceding to his position at a tender young age. He concentrated on waka during his later years. His famous waka expressed his growing love by superimposing the image of the flow of the river.

Events of Yōzei's life
Yōzei was made emperor when he was an immature, unformed young boy.

 * 869 (Jōgan 10): Yōzei was born, and he is named Seiwa's heir in the following year.
 * 18 December 876 (Jōgan 18, 29th day of the 11th month): In the 18th year of Emperor Seiwa's reign (清和天皇十八年), he ceded his throne to his son, which meant that the young child received the succession (senso). Shortly thereafter, Emperor Yōzei formally acceded to the throne (sokui).
 * 20 January 877 (Gangyō 1, 3rd day of the 1st month): Yōzei was formally enthroned at age 8; and the beginning of a new nengō was proclaimed. However, the new residence being constructed for the emperor had not been completed; and initially, he must live elsewhere in the palace compound.
 * 877 (Gangyō 1, 2nd month): Ambassadors from Baekje arrived in the province of Izumo; but they were turned back.
 * 877 (Gangyō 1, 6th month): There was a great drought; and sacrifices were made at the temples of Hachiman, Kamo and other temples in Ise Province. Eventually, it rained.
 * 883 (Gangyō 7, 1st month): In his early teens, Yōzei often spent time alone; and sometimes he would feed live frogs to snakes so that he could watch the reptile swallowing; or sometimes, he would find pleasure in setting dogs and monkeys to fight. In time, these amusements became more dangerous.  He himself executed criminals.  When he became angry, he sometimes chased after those who dared speak up; and he sometimes tried to use his sword.  Fujiwara no Mototsune, the Kanpaku, used every possible opportunity to turn Yōzei towards more seemly conduct, but the emperor closed his ears to all remonstrances.
 * 884 (Gangyō 8, 1st month): The extravagant and dangerous habits of the emperor continued unabated. At one point, Mototsune came to the court and discovered that Yōzei had arranged a bizarre scenario for his diversion:  He ordered some men to climb high into trees, and then he ordered others to use sharp lances to poke at these men in trees until they fell to their deaths.  This extraordinary event convinced Mototsune that the emperor was too "undignified" to reign.  Mototsune reluctantly realized that someone needed to devise a strategy for deposing the emperor.  Shortly thereafter, Mototsune approached Yōzei and remarked that it must be boring to be so often alone, and then Mototsune suggested that the emperor might be amused by a horse race.  Yōzei was attracted to this proposition, and he eagerly encouraged Mototsune to set a time and place for the event.  It was decided that this special amusement for the emperor would take place on the 4th day of the 2nd month of Gangyō 8.
 * 4 March 884 (Gangyō 8, 4th day of the 2nd month): The pretext of a special horse race enticed the emperor to leave his palace. Yōzei traveled in a carriage which was quickly surrounded by a heavy guard.  The carriage was redirected to Yo seí in palace (Yang tchhing yuan) at Ni zio, a town situated a short distance to the south-west of Miyako.  Mototsune confronted the emperor, explaining that his demented behavior made him incapable of reigning, and that he was being dethroned.  At this news, Yōzei cried sincerely, which did attract feelings of compassion from those who witnessed his contrition.

According to very scanty information from the Imperial archives, including sources such as Rikkokushi, and Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku, Emperor Yōzei murdered one of his retainers, an action that caused massive scandal in the Heian court. Japanese society during the Heian era was very sensitive to issues of "pollution," both spiritual and personal. Deaths (especially killing animals or people) were the worst acts of pollution possible, and warranted days of seclusion in order to purify oneself. Since the Emperor was seen as a divine figure and linked to the deities, pollution of such extreme degree committed by the highest source was seen as extremely ruinous. Many of the high court officials construed Emperor Yōzei's actions as exceeding the bounds of acceptable behavior, and as justifiable cause for the emperor to be forcibly deposed.

In Kitabatake Chikafusa's 14th-century account of Emperor Yōzei's reign, the emperor is described as possessing a "violent disposition" and unfit to be a ruler. In the end, when Fujiwara no Mototsune, who was Sesshō (regent for the child-emperor, 876–880), Kampaku (chief advisor or first secretary for the emperor, 880–890), and Daijō Daijin (Great Minister of the Council of State), decided that Yōzei should be removed from the throne, he discovered that there was general agreement amongst the kuge that this was a correct and necessary decision.

Yōzei was succeeded by his father's uncle, Emperor Kōkō; and in the reign of Kōkō's son, Emperor Uda, the madness re-visited the tormented former emperor:

 * 889 (Kanpyō 1, 10th month): The former emperor Yōzei was newly attacked by the mental illness. Yōzei would enter the palace and address courtiers he would meet with the greatest rudeness. He became increasingly furious. He garroted women with the strings of musical instruments and then threw the bodies into a lake. While riding on horseback, he directed his mount to run over people.  Sometimes he simply disappeared into the mountains where he chased wild boars and Sika deer, which in Shinto cosmology, were considered to be messengers of the kami.

Yōzei lived in retirement until the age of 80.

The actual site of Yōzei's grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Kyoto.

The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Yōzei's mausoleum. It is formally named Kaguragaoka no Higashi no misasagi.

Kugyō
Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.

In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Yozei's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:
 * Sesshō, Fujiwara no Mototsune (藤原基経), 836–891.
 * Kampaku, Fujiwara no Mototsune (藤原基経).
 * Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara no Mototsune.
 * Sadaijin, Minamoto no Tōru (源融).
 * Udaijin, Fujiwara no Mototsune.
 * Udaijin, Minamoto no Masaru (源多).
 * Naidaijin (not appointed)
 * Dainagon, Minamoto no Masaru (源多).
 * Dainagon, Minafuchi no Toshina (南淵年名), 807–877

Eras of Yōzei's reign
The years of Yōzei's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. During this time, the tradition of naming eras because of good omens changed. Instead, the name of an era might be chosen to limit the effects of something bad.
 * Jōgan   (859–877)
 * Gangyō (877–885)

Consorts and children
Consort (Hi): Imperial Princess Kanshin (簡子内親王) (d. 914), Emperor Kōkō's second daughter

Consort (Hi): Imperial Princess Yasuko (綏子内親王) (d. 925), Emperor Kōkō's third daughter

Consort (Hi): Princess Kyoko (姣子女王; d. 914), Imperial Prince Koretada's daughter
 * Imperial Prince Motonaga (元長親王; 901–976)
 * Fourth Son: Imperial Prince Mototoshi (元利親王; d. 964)
 * Imperial Princess Chōshi (長子内親王; d. 922)
 * Imperial Princess Genshi (儼子内親王; d. 930)

Court lady: Fujiwara no Tōnaga's daughter
 * Second Son: Imperial Prince Motoyoshi (元良親王)
 * Imperial Prince Motohira (元平親王; d. 958)

Court lady: daughter of Ki clan
 * First son: Minamoto no Kiyokage (源清蔭; 884–950), Dainagon 948–950

Court lady: Tomo Yasuhira's daughter
 * Minamoto no Kiyomi (源清鑒; d. 936)

Court lady: daughter of Saeki clan
 * Minamoto no Kiyotō (源清遠; d. 912)

title: Emperor Yōzei


text:
Emperor Kōkō

Emperor Kōkō (光孝天皇) was the 58th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.

Kōkō reigned from 884 to 887.

Traditional narrative
Before the emperor's ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his name (imina) was Tokiyasu Shinnō (時康親王) or Komatsu-tei. He would later be identified sometimes as "the Emperor of Komatsu". This resulted in the later Emperor Go-Komatsu adopting this name (go- meaning "later", so "Later Emperor Komatsu" or "Emperor Komatsu II").

Tokiyasu Shinnō was the third son of Emperor Ninmyō. His mother was Fujiwara no Sawako.

Kōkō had four Imperial consorts and 41 Imperial sons and daughters.

Events of Kōkō's life
The first kampaku Fujiwara no Mototsune was influential in the process by which Kōkō became an emperor. At the time Emperor Yōzei was deposed, Prince Tokiyasu was already Governor of Hitachi and Chief Minister of Ceremonies (Jibu-kyō, 治部卿)

According to Kitabatake Chikafusa's 14th-century account, Mototsune resolved the problem of succession by simply going to visit Tokiyasu-shinnō, where the kampaku addressed the prince as a sovereign and assigned imperial guards. The prince signaled his acceptance by going into the imperial palanquin, which then conducted him to the emperor's residence within the palace. Curiously, he was still wearing the robes of a prince when he decided to take this ride into an entirely unanticipated future.

 * February 4, 884 (Gangyō 8, 4th day of the 1st month): In the 8th year of Emperor Yōzei's reign (陽成天皇八年), the emperor was deposed; and scholars then construed that the succession (senso) was received by the third son of former Emperor Ninmyō, who was then age 55.
 * March 23, 884 (Gangyō 8, 23rd day of the 2nd month): Emperor Kōkō is said to have acceded to the throne (sokui).
 * 885 (Gangyō 9): The era name was changed accordingly in 885.

During his reign, Kōkō revived many ancient court rituals and ceremonies, and one example is the imperial hawking excursion to Serikawa, which had been initiated in 796 by Emperor Kanmu. This ritual event was revived by Kōkō after a lapse of 50 years.

 * January 11, 886 (Ninna 2, 14th day of the 12th month): Kōkō traveled to Seri-gawa to hunt with falcons. He very much enjoyed this kind of hunting, and he often took time for this kind of activity.
 * September 17, 887 (Ninna 3, 26th day of the 8th month ) 仁和三年八月二十六日 -->: Kōkō died at the age of 57.

The actual site of Kōkō's grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Kyoto.

The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōkō's mausoleum. It is formally named Kaguragaoka no Higashi no misasagi.

Kugyō
Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.

In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Kōkō's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:
 * Kampaku, Fujiwara no Mototsune (藤原基経) (Shōsen-kō, 昭宣公), 836–891.
 * Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara no Mototsune.
 * Sadaijin, Minamoto no Tōru (源融).
 * Udaijin, Minamoto no Masaru (源多).
 * Naidaijin (not appointed)
 * Dainagon, Fujiwara no Yoshiyo (藤原良世)
 * Dainagon, Fujiwara no Fuyuo (藤原冬緒)

Eras of Kōkō's reign
The years of Kōkō's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
 * Gangyō (877–885)
 * Ninna (885–889)

Consorts and children

 * Consort (later Kōtaigō): Princess Hanshi (班子女王; 833–900) later Toin-Kisaki (洞院后), Imperial Prince Nakano's daughter (son of Emperor Kanmu)
 * First Son: Minamoto no Motonaga (源元長; d. 883), die before Emperor Kōkō's succession
 * Twelfth son: Imperial Prince Koretada (是忠親王; 857–922)
 * Thirteenth Son: Imperial Prince Koresada (是貞親王; d. 903)
 * Fifteenth Son: Imperial Prince Sadami (定省親王) later Emperor Uda
 * Fourth Daughter: Imperial Princess Tadako (忠子内親王; 854–904), married to Emperor Seiwa
 * Fifth Daughter: Imperial Princess Kanshi (簡子内親王; d. 914)
 * Eighth Daughter: Imperial Princess Yasuko (綏子内親王; d. 925), married to Emperor Yōzei
 * Sixteenth Daughter: Imperial Princess Ishi (為子内親王; d. 899), married to Emperor Daigo
 * Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Kamiko (藤原佳美子; d. 898), Fujiwara no Mototsune's daughter
 * Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Genjiko (藤原元善子), Fujiwara no Yamakage's daughter
 * Consort (Nyōgo): Taira no Motoko/Tōshi (平等子), Taira no Yoshikaze's daughter
 * Court Attendant (Koui): Shigeno no Naoko (滋野直子; d. 915)
 * Fourth Daughter: Imperial Princess Shigeko (繁子内親王; d. 916), 23rd Saiō in Ise Shrine 884–887
 * Court Attendant (Koui): Sanuki no Naganao's daughter
 * Ninth Son: Minamoto no Motomi (源旧鑒; d. 908)
 * Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara Motoko (藤原元子)
 * Court lady: Sugawara no Ruishi (菅原類子), Sugawara no Koreyoshi's daughter
 * Court lady: Princess Keishin (桂心女王), Prince Masami's daughter
 * Seventh Daughter: Imperial Princess Bokushi (穆子内親王; d. 903), 8th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 882–887
 * Court lady: daughter of Tajihi clan (多治氏の娘)
 * Minamoto no Kanshi/Ayako (源緩子/綾子; d. 908)
 * Court lady: A daughter of Fuse clan (布勢氏の娘)
 * Twelfth Son: Shigemizu no Kiyozane (滋水清実), given the family name "Shigemizu" by the Emperor (Shisei Kōka, 賜姓降下) in 886
 * Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Kadomune's daughter, later married Minamoto no Noboru
 * Thirteenth Son (adopted son): Minamoto no Koreshige (源是茂; 886–941), Minamoto no Noboru's son
 * (from unknown women)
 * Second Son: Minamoto no Kaneyoshi (源兼善; d. 879)
 * Third son: Minamoto no Nazane (源名実)
 * Fourth Son: Minamoto no Atsuyuki (源篤行)
 * Fifth Son: Minamoto no Seiyoshi (源最善)
 * Sixth Son: Minamoto no Chikayoshi (源近善; d. 918)
 * Seventh son: Minamoto no Ototsune (源音恒)
 * Eighth Son: Minamoto no Koretsune (源是恒; d. 905)
 * Tenth Son: Minamoto no Sadatsune (源貞恒; 857–908)
 * Eleventh Son: Minamoto no Narikage (源成蔭)
 * Fourteenth Son: Minamoto no Kuninori (源国紀; d. 909)
 * Sixteenth Son: Minamoto no Kosen (源香泉)
 * Seventeenth Son: Minamoto no Tomosada (源友貞)
 * First Daughter: Minamoto no Osoko (源遅子)
 * Second Daughter: Minamoto no Reishi (源麗子)
 * Third Daughter: Minamoto no Onshi/Kusuko (源音子/奇子; d. 919)
 * Sixth Daughter: Minamoto no Shushi (源崇子)
 * Seventh Daughter: Minamoto no Renshi/Tsurako (源連子; d. 905)
 * Ninth Daughter: Minamoto no Reishi (源礼子)
 * Tenth Daughter: Minamoto no Saishi (源最子; d. 886)
 * Eleventh Daughter: Minamoto no Kaishi (源偕子)
 * Twelve Daughter: Minamoto no Mokushi (源黙子; d. 902)
 * Thirteenth Daughter: Minamoto no Koreko (源是子)
 * Fourteenth Daughter: Minamoto no Heishi (源並子; d. 906)
 * Fifteenth Daughter: Minamoto no Shinshi (源深子; d. 917)
 * Seventeenth Daughter: Minamoto no Shūshi (源周子; d. 912)
 * Eighteenth Daughter: Minamoto no Mitsuko (源密子)
 * Minamoto no Washi (源和子; d. 947), married to Emperor Daigo
 * Minamoto no Kenshi (源謙子; d. 924)
 * Minamoto no Sayako (源袟子)
 * Minamoto no Kaishi (源快子; d. 910)
 * Minamoto no Zenshi (源善子)

Poetry
Emperor Kōkō is well-remembered for his poetry, and one of his waka appeared in the Ogura Hyakunin Isshu:

title: Emperor Kōkō


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Emperor Uda

Emperor Uda (宇多天皇) was the 59th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.

Uda's reign spanned the years from 887 through 897.

Name and legacy
Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (imina) was Sadami (定省) or Chōjiin-tei.

Emperor Uda was the third son of Emperor Kōkō. His mother was Empress Dowager Hanshi, a daughter of Prince Nakano (who was himself a son of Emperor Kanmu). Uda had five Imperial consorts and 20 Imperial children. Particularly important sons include:

 * Prince Atsuhito (884–930)
 * Prince Atsuzane (893–967)

Historical background
In ancient Japan, there were four noble clans, the Gempeitōkitsu. One of these clans, the Minamoto clan, is also known as Genji. Some of Uda's grandchildren were granted the surname Minamoto, the most used surname for former Japanese royalty. In order to distinguish Uda's descendants from other Genji, they became known as the Uda Genji, some of which moved to Ōmi Province and became known as Sasaki clan or Ōmi Genji.

Among the Uda Genji, Minamoto no Masazane, a son of Prince Atsumi succeeded in the court. Masazane became sadaijin (Minister of the Left). One of Masazane's daughters, Minamoto no Rinshi married Fujiwara no Michinaga and from this marriage three empresses dowagers and two regents (sesshō) were born.

From Masanobu, several kuge families originated including the Niwata, Ayanokōji, Itsutsuji, Ōhara and Jikōji. From his fourth son Sukeyosi, the Sasaki clan originated, and thus Kyōgoku clan originated. These descendants are known as Ōmi Genji today. From this line, Sasaki Takauji made a success at the Muromachi shogunate and the Amago clan originated from his brother.

Events of Uda's life
Uda's father, Emperor Kōkō, demoted his sons from the rank of imperial royals to that of subjects in order to reduce the state expenses, as well as their political influence. Sadami was given the clan name of Minamoto and named Minamoto no Sadami. Later, in 887, when Kōkō needed to appoint his successor, Sadami was once again promoted to the Imperial Prince rank with support of kampaku Fujiwara no Mototsune, since Sadami was adopted by a half-sister of Mototsune. After the death of his father in November of that year, Sadami-shinnō ascended to the throne.

 * September 17, 887 (Ninna 3, 26th day of the 8th month): Emperor Kōkō died; and his third son received the succession (senso).  Shortly thereafter, Emperor Uda formally acceded to the throne (sokui).
 * December 5, 887 (Ninna 3, 17th day of the 11th month): Mototsune asked Uda for permission to retire from his duties; but the emperor is said to have responded, "My youth limits my ability to govern; and if you stop offering me your good counsel, I will be obliged to abdicate and to retire to a monastery." Therefore, Mototsune continued to serve as the new emperor's kampaku.
 * 888 (Ninna 4, 8th month): Construction of the newly created Buddhist temple of Ninna-ji (仁和寺) was completed; and a former disciple of Kōbō-daishi was installed as the new abbot.
 * 889 (Kanpyō 1, 10th month): The former emperor Yōzei became deranged, and afflicted by mental illness. Yōzei would enter the palace and address courtiers he would meet with the greatest rudeness. He became increasingly furious.  He garroted women with the strings of musical instruments and then threw the bodies into a lake.  While riding on horseback, he directed his mount to run over people.  Sometimes he simply disappeared into the mountains where he chased wild boars and red deer.

In the beginning of Uda's reign, Mototsune held the office of kampaku (or chancellor). Emperor Uda's reign is marked by a prolonged struggle to reassert power by the Imperial Family away from the increasing influence of the Fujiwara, beginning with the death of Mototsune in 891. Records show that shortly thereafter, Emperor Uda assigned scholars Sukeyo and Kiyoyuki, supporters of Mototsune, to provincial posts in the remote provinces of Mutsu and Higo respectively. Meanwhile, non-Fujiwara officials mainly from the Minamoto family were promoted to prominent ranks, while his trusted counselor, Sugawara no Michizane rapidly rose in rank within five years to reach the third rank in the court, and supervision of the Crown Prince's household. Meanwhile, Mototsune's son and heir, Fujiwara no Tokihira, rose in rank, but only just enough to prevent an open power struggle.

Meanwhile, Emperor Uda attempted to return Court politics to the original spirit envisioned in the Ritsuryō Codes, while reviving intellectual interest in Confucian doctrine and culture. In the seventh month of 896, Emperor Uda dispatched Sugawara no Michizane to review prisoners in the capitol and provide a general amnesty for the wrongfully accused, in keeping with Chinese practices. Emperor Uda also issued edicts reinforcing peasant land rights from encroachment by powerful families in the capital or monastic institutions, while auditing tax collections made in the provinces.

Emperor Uda stopped the practice of sending ambassadors to China (遣唐使). The emperor's decision was informed by what he understood as persuasive counsel from Sugawara Michizane.

The Special Festival of the Kamo Shrine was first held during Uda's reign.

In 897, Uda abdicated in favor of his eldest son, Prince Atsuhito, who would later come to be known as Emperor Daigo. Uda left behind an hortatory will or testament which offered general admonitions or precepts for his son's guidance (see excerpt at right). The document praises Fujiwara no Tokihira as an advisor but cautions against his womanizing; and Sugawara no Michizane is praised as Uda's mentor. Both were assigned by Emperor Uda to look after his son until the latter reach maturity.

Three years later, he entered the Buddhist priesthood at age 34 in 900. Having founded the temple at Ninna-ji, Uda made it his new home after his abdication.

His Buddhist name was Kongō Kaku. He was sometimes called "the Cloistered Emperor of Teiji ", because the name of the Buddhist hall where he resided after becoming a priest was called Teijiin.

Uda died in 931 (Shōhei 1, 19th day of the 7th month) at the age of 65.

The actual site of Uda's grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Kyoto.

The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Uda's mausoleum. It is formally named Kaguragaoka no Higashi no misasagi.

The former emperor is buried amongst the "Seven Imperial Tombs" at Ryōan-ji Temple in Kyoto. The mound which commemorates the Hosokawa Emperor Uda is today named O-uchiyama. The emperor's burial place would have been quite humble in the period after Uda died. These tombs reached their present state as a result of the 19th century restoration of imperial sepulchers which were ordered by Emperor Meiji.

Kugyō
Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.

In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.

During Uda's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:

 * Kampaku, Fujiwara no Mototsune
 * Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara no Mototsune
 * Sadaijin, Minamoto no Tōru
 * Sadaijin, Fujiwara no Yoshiyo
 * Udaijin, Minamoto no Masaru
 * Udaijin, Fujiwara no Yoshiyo
 * Udaijin, Minamoto no Yoshiari
 * Naidaijin (not appointed)
 * Dainagon

Eras of Uda's reign
The years of Uda's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name, or nengō.
 * Ninna (885–889)
 * Kanpyō (889–898)

Consorts and children
Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Onshi, Fujiwara no Mototsune’s daughter
 * Imperial Princess Kinshi, married to Imperial Prince Atsuyoshi

Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Inshi, Fujiwara no Takafuji’s daughter
 * First Son: Imperial Prince Atsugimi later Emperor Daigo
 * Fourth Son: Imperial Prince Atsuyoshi
 * Imperial Prince Atsukata
 * Imperial Princess Jūshi, 25th Saiō in Ise Shrine (897–930)
 * Eighth Son: Imperial Prince Atsumi

Consort (Nyōgo): Tachibana no Yoshiko/Gishi, Tachibana no Hiromi’s daughter
 * Second Son: Imperial Prince Tokinaka
 * Third Son: Imperial Prince Tokiyo later Imperial Prince Priest Shinjaku
 * Imperial Prince Tokikuni
 * Fourth Daughter: Imperial Princess Kunshi, 10th Saiin in Kamo Shrine (893–902)

Consort (Nyōgo): Sugawara no Hiroko/Enshi, Sugawara no Michizane’s daughter
 * Minamoto no Junshi married Fujiwara no Tadahira

Consort (Nyōgo): Tachibana no Fusako

Court Attendant (Koui): Minamoto no Sadako, Minamoto no Noboru’s daughter
 * Imperial Princess Ishi

Court Attendant (Koui): Princess Norihime, Prince Tōyo’s daughter
 * Imperial Princess Fushi

Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Yasuko, Fujiwara no Arizane’s daughter
 * Imperial Princess Kaishi, married to Imperial Prince Motoyoshi (son of Emperor Yōzei)
 * Imperial Princess Kishi

Court Attendant (Koui): Minamoto no Hisako

Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Shizuko

Lady-in-waiting: Fujiwara no Hōshi, Fujiwara no Tokihira’s daughter
 * Imperial Prince Masaakira
 * Imperial Prince Noriakira
 * Imperial Prince Yukiakira

Court lady: A daughter of Fujiwara no Tsugukage, Ise
 * prince (died young)

(from unknown women)
 * Imperial Prince Yukinaka
 * Imperial Princess Seishi
 * Minamoto no Shinshi

title: Emperor Uda


text:
Daigo

Daigo may refer to:

Buddhism

 * Daigo (Zen) (大悟), a Buddhist term meaning great enlightenment or great realization
 * Daigo (Shōbōgenzō) (大悟), or Great Realization, a book in Eihei Dōgen's Shōbōgenzō
 * Daigo Temple (醍醐寺), from which Emperor Daigo took his name

People

 * Emperor Daigo (醍醐天皇), Emperor of Japan between 897 and 930
 * Daigo family, a branch of the Ichijō family of Japanese nobility
 * Daigo (musician) (born 1978), Japanese singer-songwriter, actor, talent, and voice actor
 * Daigo (name)
 * Daigo Umehara, or simply "Daigo", Japanese competitive fighting game player

Places

 * Daigo, Fushimi, Kyoto, a district in the ward of Fushimi-ku, Kyoto
 * Daigo Station (Kyoto) (醍醐駅), a train station
 * Daigo Station (Akita) (醍醐駅), a train station
 * Daigo, Ibaraki (大子町), a town in Ibaraki Prefecture

Other uses

 * Daigo (dairy product) (醍醐), or ghee, which is theorized to have been made in ancient Japan
 * Daigo of the Heavenly Illusion Star (天幻星・大五), aka Shishi Ranger (シシレンジャー) from Gosei Sentai Dairanger

title: Daigo


text:
Suzaku

Suzaku, Su-zaku, or Su-Zaku may refer to:
 * Vermilion Bird (Zhū Què), whose Japanese name is Suzaku, the bird guardian of the South and one of the Four Symbols of Chinese constellations
 * Suzaku (film), a 1997 Japanese film by Naomi Kawase
 * Emperor Suzaku (922–952), an emperor of Japan
 * Emperor Go-Suzaku (1009–1045), an emperor of Japan
 * SUZAK Inc., also known as Suzaku, a video game developer
 * Suzaku Avenue, one of the ancient main streets in Kyoto and Nara, Japan
 * Suzaku (satellite), the name given in 2005 to an ASTRO-EII spacecraft, a joint venture of NASA and the Japanese Space Agency JAXA

Fiction

 * Suzaku (YuYu Hakusho), a character in YuYu Hakusho media
 * Suzaku Kururugi, a character in the anime series Code Geass: Lelouch of the Rebellion
 * Suzaku, an enemy in the PlayStation game SaGa Frontier
 * Suzaku, a character in Descendants of Darkness (Yami no Matsuei) who is one of Tsuzuki's shikigami, or guardian beasts
 * Suzaku, a character in the game Flying Dragon
 * Suzaku Seikun, a god-character in Fushigi Yûgi
 * Suzaku, the bitbeast companion of Kai Hiwatari in the Beyblade franchise
 * Suzaku, an antagonist of the game Tenchu 2: Birth of the Stealth Assassins
 * Suzaku, the 23rd rank in the video game Tekken Tag Tournament 2
 * Ryu Suzaku, the protagonist of the anime series F-Zero: Legend of the Falcon (F-Zero GP Legend), known in English as Rick Wheeler
 * Su-Zaku, an enemy in the Game Boy game The Final Fantasy Legend
 * Suzaku, one of the four divine guardians in the video game Final Fantasy XI: Rise of the Zilart
 * Suzaku, the guardian of the South Gate of The Imperial Palace in Accel World
 * Suzaku, one of the guardian spirits in the video game Nioh.
 * Suzaku, one of the Four Lords in the video game Final Fantasy XIV: Stormblood

title: Suzaku


text:
Murakami

Murakami may refer to:

 * 3295 Murakami, a minor planet
 * Murakami (crater), an impact crater on the far side of the Moon
 * Murakami (name), a Japanese surname, including a list of people with the name
 * Murakami, Niigata, a city in Niigata prefecture
 * Murakami Domain, a clan within Feudal Japan
 * "Murakami", a song by Russian rock singer Svetlana Surganova
 * "Murakami", a song on the 2015 album Without My Enemy What Would I Do by U.S. band Made In Heights

title: Murakami


text:
Earless seal

The earless seals, phocids, or true seals are one of the three main groups of mammals within the seal lineage, Pinnipedia. All true seals are members of the family Phocidae. They are sometimes called crawling seals to distinguish them from the fur seals and sea lions of the family Otariidae. Seals live in the oceans of both hemispheres and, with the exception of the more tropical monk seals, are mostly confined to polar, subpolar, and temperate climates. The Baikal seal is the only species of exclusively freshwater seal.

Evolution

The earliest known fossil earless seal is Noriphoca gaudini from the late Oligocene or earliest Miocene (Aquitanian) of Italy. Other early fossil phocids date from the mid-Miocene, 15 million years ago in the north Atlantic. Until recently, many researchers believed that phocids evolved separately from otariids and odobenids; and that they evolved from otter-like animals, such as Potamotherium, which inhabited European freshwater lakes. Recent evidence strongly suggests a monophyletic origin for all pinnipeds from a single ancestor, possibly Enaliarctos, most closely related to the mustelids and bears.

Monk seals and elephant seals were previously believed to have first entered the Pacific through the open straits between North and South America, with the Antarctic true seals either using the same route or travelled down the west coast of Africa. It is now thought that the monk seals, elephant seals, and Antarctic seals all evolved in the southern hemisphere, and likely dispersed to their current distributions from more southern latitudes.

Taxonomy
In the 1980s and 1990s, morphological phylogenetic analysis of the phocids led to new conclusions about the interrelatedness of the various genera. More recent molecular phylogenetic analyses have confirmed the monophyly of the two phocid subfamilies (Phocinae and Monachinae). The Monachinae (known as the "southern" seals), is composed of three tribes; the Lobodontini, Miroungini, and Monachini. The four Antarctic genera Hydrurga, Leptonychotes, Lobodon, and Ommatophoca are part of the tribe Lobodontini. Tribe Miroungini is composed of the elephant seals. The Monk seals (Monachus and Neomonachus) are all part of the tribe Monachini. Likewise, subfamily Phocinae (the "northern" seals) also includes three tribes; Erignathini (Erignathus), Cystophorini (Cystophora), and Phocini (all other phocines). More recently, five species have been split off from Phoca, forming three additional genera.

Alternatively the three monachine tribes have been evaluated to familiar status, which elephant seals and the Antarctic seals are more closely related to the phocines.

External anatomy

Adult phocids vary from 1.17 m in length and 45 kg in weight in the ringed seal to 5.8 m and 4000 kg in the southern elephant seal, which is the largest member of the order Carnivora. Phocids have fewer teeth than land-based members of the Carnivora, although they retain powerful canines. Some species lack molars altogether. The dental formula is:

While otariids are known for speed and maneuverability, phocids are known for efficient, economical movement. This allows most phocids to forage far from land to exploit prey resources, while otariids are tied to rich upwelling zones close to breeding sites. Phocids swim by sideways movements of their bodies, using their hind flippers to fullest effect. Their fore flippers are used primarily for steering, while their hind flippers are bound to the pelvis in such a way that they cannot bring them under their bodies to walk on them. They are more streamlined than fur seals and sea lions, so they can swim more effectively over long distances. However, because they cannot turn their hind flippers downward, they are very clumsy on land, having to wriggle with their front flippers and abdominal muscles.

Phocid respiratory and circulatory systems are adapted to allow diving to considerable depths, and they can spend a long time underwater between breaths. Air is forced from the lungs during a dive and into the upper respiratory passages, where gases cannot easily be absorbed into the bloodstream. This helps protect the seal from the bends. The middle ear is also lined with blood sinuses that inflate during diving, helping to maintain a constant pressure.

Phocids are more specialized for aquatic life than otariids. They lack external ears and have sleek, streamlined bodies. Retractable nipples, internal testicles, and an internal penile sheath provide further streamlining. A smooth layer of blubber lies underneath the skin. Phocids are able to divert blood flow to this layer to help control their temperatures.

Communication
Unlike otariids, true seals do not communicate by 'barking'. Instead, they communicate by slapping the water and grunting.

Reproduction

Phocids spend most of their time at sea, although they return to land or pack ice to breed and give birth. Pregnant females spend long periods foraging at sea, building up fat reserves, and then return to the breeding site to use their stored energy to nurse pups. However, the common seal displays a reproductive strategy similar to that used by otariids, in which the mother makes short foraging trips between nursing bouts.

Because a phocid mother's feeding grounds are often hundreds of kilometers from the breeding site, she must fast while lactating. This combination of fasting with lactation requires the mother to provide large amounts of energy to her pup at a time when she is not eating (and often, not drinking). Mothers must supply their own metabolic needs while nursing. This is a miniature version of the humpback whales' strategy, which involves fasting during their months-long migration from arctic feeding areas to tropical breeding/nursing areas and back.

Phocids produce thick, fat-rich milk that allows them to provide their pups with large amounts of energy in a short period. This allows the mother to return to the sea in time to replenish her reserves. Lactation ranges from five to seven weeks in the monk seal to just three to five days in the hooded seal. The mother ends nursing by leaving her pup at the breeding site to search for food (pups continue to nurse if given the opportunity). "Milk stealers" that suckle from unrelated, sleeping females are not uncommon; this often results in the death of the mother's pup, since a female can only feed one pup.

Growth and maturation
The pup's diet is so high in calories that it builds up a fat store. Before the pup is ready to forage, the mother abandons it, and the pup consumes its own fat for weeks or even months while it matures. Seals, like all marine mammals, need time to develop the oxygen stores, swimming muscles, and neural pathways necessary for effective diving and foraging. Seal pups typically eat no food and drink no water during the period, although some polar species eat snow. The postweaning fast ranges from two weeks in the hooded seal to 9–12 weeks in the northern elephant seal. The physiological and behavioral adaptations that allow phocid pups to endure these remarkable fasts, which are among the longest for any mammal, remain an area of active study and research.

Feeding strategy
Phocids make use of at least four different feeding strategies: suction feeding, grip and tear feeding, filter feeding, and pierce feeding. Each of these feeding strategies is aided by a specialized skull, mandible, and tooth morphology. However, despite morphological specialization, most phocids are opportunistic and employ multiple strategies to capture and eat prey. For example, the leopard seal, Hydrurga leptonyx, uses grip and tear feeding to prey on penguins, suction feeding to consume small fish, and filter feeding to catch krill.

title: Earless seal