text:
Talk:Hinduism

Semi-protected edit request on 18 April 2024
this is wrong information if Adam A.S was first person in this world and he was muslim even he was not worshipping and idol then how Hinduism is oldest religion 2001:8F8:1A61:64B0:31BE:C9FB:6B83:77EF (talk) 01:13, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Liu1126 (talk) 01:44, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
 * jesus founded christianity not adam hinduism existed during jesus time 2001:8F8:1A3D:A1C9:4082:61A:99AD:E42B (talk) 12:59, 31 May 2024 (UTC)
 * actually that was me Alderbaraan (talk) 13:00, 31 May 2024 (UTC)

INFOBOX PROPOSAL
Its relevant to have a snapshot of data of the subject of the article, like I proposed as shown below. Improvements are accepted.

Editor8220 (talk) 13:29, 29 April 2024 (UTC)

 * regarding the infobox you added twice diff diff, see Talk:Hinduism.
 * Regarding the dates you added,
 * founded_date=2300-1500 BCE
 * https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-history-of-Hinduism
 * https://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/docs/support/world_religions/hinduism/origins.pdf
 * founded_place=Indus Valley
 * https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-prehistoric-period-3rd-and-2nd-millennia-bce
 * https://www.harappa.com/content/roots-hinduism-early-aryans-and-indus-civilization
 * see the third paragraph of the lead, and Hindu synthesis.
 * Regarding your sources (too lazy or hasty to edit bare references?):
 * Encycleopedia Britannica, The history of Hinduism;
 * Not 2300, but from 1500 onwards. And that is not in line with what scholarly sources say; see Hindu synthesis;
 * edu.gov.mb.ca, Origins of Hinduism:
 * No author, no references, non-academical website (Government of Manitoba (California), Education and Early Childhood Learning), and pure nonsense as quoted above. Non-WP:RS;
 * Encyclopedia Britannica, The prehistoric period (3rd and 2nd millennia bce):
 * Speculative indeed, and, again, not what mainstream scholarship says;
 * harappa.com, Book review of Asko Parpola, The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization:
 * Roots, not "founded place." Joshua Jonathan  -  Let's talk!  13:31, 29 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Speculative indeed, and, again, not what mainstream scholarship says;
 * harappa.com, Book review of Asko Parpola, The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization:
 * Roots, not "founded place." Joshua Jonathan  -  Let's talk!  13:31, 29 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Roots, not "founded place." Joshua Jonathan  -  Let's talk!  13:31, 29 April 2024 (UTC)

 * I said you can update it with what you can give, I have no opposition with that. But I don't think there is a need to remove the whole thing without giving it a fair chance for the readwrs to have an interpretation. Editor8220 (talk) 13:35, 29 April 2024 (UTC)

 * Again, see Talk:Hinduism. No need to repeat that discussion. Joshua Jonathan  -  Let's talk!  13:40, 29 April 2024 (UTC)
 * That one has problems I agree, But the one I made was different, I don't understand apart from the timeline and origin point disputes, where is the problem?? Let my edit go published for atleast a week and if any dispute arise, I can revoke it. It feels like two or three people deciding everything. Editor8220 (talk) 13:45, 29 April 2024 (UTC)

 * Dispute already has arisen. Joshua Jonathan  -  Let's talk!  14:52, 29 April 2024 (UTC)

 * The fundamental problem with an infobox on this article is the need to reduce a complex and nuanced history to parameters that are not designed to encompass complexity. The proposal here demonstrates those problems; many parameters obscure rather than illustrate, some others are actively misleading. The link to the IVC is a misrepresentation. The claim that it is an ethnic religion, likewise. The Scripture parameter is deeply confusing. The claim that Vedic sanskrit is the only language is misleading. The places of worship parameter is just odd. And I'm baffled as to why we would illustrate the world's oldest extant faith with a 21st century temple built in the US. Vanamonde93 (talk) 18:07, 29 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Isn't his point that he wants a infobox, not necessarily his version but just one. Other users could improve his version. Something like this based on your crtiticism, i didn't really know which temple should be on the illustration so suggestions would be helpfull:
 * ThatBritishAsianDude (talk) 18:49, 19 May 2024 (UTC)

 * The previous discussions obviously are lost on you. Joshua Jonathan  -  Let's talk!  19:46, 19 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Enlighten me, cause those links don't open for me. ThatBritishAsianDude (talk) 19:56, 19 May 2024 (UTC)
 * @ThatBritishAsianDude see here for one of those recent discussions - Talk:Hinduism/Archive_31. I think many editors want to see an infobox, but after many such discussions, seems there is no best way to include infobox on Hinduism page. Asteramellus (talk) 21:23, 30 May 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 29 April 2024
In the last paragraph of the introduction the sentence "...approximately 1.20 billion+ followers, or 15%+ of the..." should be changed to "...approximately 1.20 billion followers, or around 15% of the..." to make it more clear and accord better with the sources which say "approximately" and "15%".
 * ✅ Charliehdb (talk) 09:48, 14 May 2024 (UTC)

Infobx religion - again
this infobox has beendiscussed, and rejected, several times before. You're suggestion diff that Hinduism originated during the Vedic period, or that Buddism and Jainism split-off from Hinduis, don't make it much better either; rather, they betray a lack of knowledge of the history of Hinduism, and a lack of knowledge of the contents of this Wikipedia-article. Joshua Jonathan -  Let's talk!  17:56, 5 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Can I add these information wit reliable and trusted citations? Torotorobaaiji (talk) 10:28, 6 June 2024 (UTC)

 * No. Please read through the talkpage, and it's most recent archive. Joshua Jonathan  -  Let's talk!  10:41, 6 June 2024 (UTC)

Image for lead
The articles for Christianity and Islam have images in the lead sections so can we get one here too? Moodgenerator (talk) 04:03, 15 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Please 🙏 stipp 2001:5B0:43D6:C808:1752:27EA:6CCE:C9D0 (talk) 22:33, 27 June 2024 (UTC)

 * If someone has an image they feel would be better, they can add it, however I was thinking about maybe adding one of the images seen below:

 * Moodgenerator (talk) 02:27, 29 June 2024 (UTC)

 * The deities are sect-specific, and not representative of allof Hinduism; the djivali-picture is not distinctively recognizable as a representation of Hinduism. Maybe the Aum-symbol would be good, but that's already featured in the navbox. Joshua Jonathan  -  Let's talk!  03:34, 29 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Hi Moodgenerator, all of these images could work, but I think images of Ganesha would be most appropriate. In addition to the image of Ganesha above here is another option. Hemmingweigh (talk) 10:03, 16 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hinduism


text:
Hebrew numerals

The system of Hebrew numerals is a quasi-decimal alphabetic numeral system using the letters of the Hebrew alphabet. The system was adapted from that of the Greek numerals sometime between 200 and 78 BCE, the latter being the date of the earliest archeological evidence.

The current numeral system is also known as the Hebrew alphabetic numerals to contrast with earlier systems of writing numerals used in classical antiquity. These systems were inherited from usage in the Aramaic and Phoenician scripts, attested from c. 800 BCE in the Samaria Ostraca.

The Greek system was adopted in Hellenistic Judaism and had been in use in Greece since about the 5th century BCE.

In this system, there is no notation for zero, and the numeric values for individual letters are added together. Each unit (1, 2, ..., 9) is assigned a separate letter, each tens (10, 20, ..., 90) a separate letter, and the first four hundreds (100, 200, 300, 400) a separate letter. The later hundreds (500, 600, 700, 800 and 900) are represented by the sum of two or three letters representing the first four hundreds. To represent numbers from 1,000 to 999,999, the same letters are reused to serve as thousands, tens of thousands, and hundreds of thousands. Gematria (Jewish numerology) uses these transformations extensively.

In Israel today, the decimal system of Hindu–Arabic numeral system (ex. 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.) is used in almost all cases (money, age, date on the civil calendar). The Hebrew numerals are used only in special cases, such as when using the Hebrew calendar, or numbering a list (similar to a, b, c, d, etc.), much as Roman numerals are used in the West.

Numbers
The Hebrew language has names for common numbers that range from zero to one million. Letters of the Hebrew alphabet are used to represent numbers in a few traditional contexts, such as in calendars. In other situations, numerals from the Hindu–Arabic numeral system are used. Cardinal and ordinal numbers must agree in gender with the noun they are describing. If there is no such noun (e.g., in telephone numbers), the feminine form is used. For ordinal numbers greater than ten, the cardinal is used. Multiples of ten above the value 20 have no gender (20, 30, 40, ... are genderless), unless the number has the digit 1 in the tens position (110, 210, 310, ...).

Ordinal values
Note: For ordinal numbers greater than 10, cardinal numbers are used instead.

Cardinal values
Note: Officially, numbers greater than a million were represented by the long scale. However, since January 21, 2013, the modified short scale (under which the long scale milliard is substituted for the strict short scale billion), which was already the colloquial standard, became official.

Speaking and writing
Cardinal and ordinal numbers must agree in gender (masculine or feminine; mixed groups are treated as masculine) with the noun they are describing. If there is no such noun (e.g. a telephone number or a house number in a street address), the feminine form is used. Ordinal numbers must also agree in number and definite status like other adjectives. The cardinal number precedes the noun (e.g., shlosha yeladim), except for the number one which succeeds it (e.g., yeled echad). The number two is special: shnayim (m.) and shtayim (f.) become shney (m.) and shtey (f.) when followed by the noun they count. For ordinal numbers (numbers indicating position) greater than ten the cardinal is used.

Calculations
The Hebrew numeric system operates on the additive principle in which the numeric values of the letters are added together to form the total. For example, 177 is represented as which (from right to left) corresponds to 100 + 70 + 7 = 177.

Mathematically, this type of system requires 27 letters (1-9, 10–90, 100–900). In practice, the last letter, tav (which has the value 400), is used in combination with itself or other letters from qof (100) onwards to generate numbers from 500 and above. Alternatively, the 22-letter Hebrew numeral set is sometimes extended to 27 by using 5 sofit (final) forms of the Hebrew letters.

Key exceptions
By convention, the numbers 15 and 16 are represented as (9 + 6) and  (9 + 7), respectively, in order to refrain from using the two-letter combinations  (10 + 5) and  (10 + 6), which are alternate written forms for the Name of God in everyday writing. In the calendar, this manifests every full moon since all Hebrew months start on a new moon (see for example: Tu BiShvat).

This convention developed sometimes in the middle ages, before that it was common to write 15 and 16 as י"ה and י"ו.

Combinations which would spell out words with negative connotations are sometimes avoided by switching the order of the letters. For instance, 744 which should be written as (meaning "you/it will be destroyed") might instead be written as  or  (meaning "end to demon").

Use of final letters
The Hebrew numeral system has sometimes been extended to include the five final letter forms— for 500, for 600,  for 700,  for 800,  for 900. Usually though the final letter form are used with the same value as the regular letter form— for 20, for 40,  for 50,  for 80,  for 90.

The ordinary additive forms for 500 to 900 are, , , and.

Gershayim
Baiersdorf Juedischer Friedhof 025 (cropped).JPG, Germany, reading:

In English: ''Passed away on day 20 Iyar And buried on day 23 Iyar Year 695 without the thousands [i.e. year 5695] '' Note the dots above each letter in each number.]] Gershayim (U+05F4 in Unicode, and resembling a double quote mark) (sometimes erroneously referred to as merkha'ot, which is Hebrew for double quote) are inserted before (to the right of) the last (leftmost) letter to indicate that the sequence of letters represents something other than a word. This is used in the case where a number is represented by two or more Hebrew numerals (e.g., 28 → ).

Similarly, a single geresh (U+05F3 in Unicode, and resembling a single quote mark) is appended after (to the left of) a single letter to indicate that the letter represents a number rather than a (one-letter) word. This is used in the case where a number is represented by a single Hebrew numeral (e.g. 100 → ).

Note that geresh and gershayim merely indicate "not a (normal) word." Context usually determines whether they indicate a number or something else (such as an abbreviation).

An alternative method found in old manuscripts and still found on modern-day tombstones is to put a dot above each letter of the number.

Decimals
In print, Arabic numerals are employed in Modern Hebrew for most purposes. Hebrew numerals are used nowadays primarily for writing the days and years of the Hebrew calendar; for references to traditional Jewish texts (particularly for Biblical chapter and verse and for Talmudic folios); for bulleted or numbered lists (similar to A, B, C, etc., in English); and in numerology (gematria).

Thousands and date formats
Thousands are counted separately, and the thousands count precedes the rest of the number (to the right, since Hebrew is read from right to left). There are no special marks to signify that the "count" is starting over with thousands, which can theoretically lead to ambiguity, although a single quote mark is sometimes used after the letter. When specifying years of the Hebrew calendar in the present millennium, writers usually omit the thousands (which is presently 5 []), but if they do not this is accepted to mean 5,000, with no ambiguity. The current Israeli coinage includes the thousands.

Date examples
"Monday, 15 Adar 5764" (where 5764 = 5(×1000) + 400 + 300 + 60 + 4, and 15 = 9 + 6):

 * In full (with thousands): "Monday, 15(th) of Adar, 5764"

 * Common usage (omitting thousands): "Monday, 15(th) of Adar, (5)764"

"Thursday, 3 Nisan 5767" (where 5767 = 5(×1000) + 400 + 300 + 60 + 7):

 * In full (with thousands): "Thursday, 3(rd) of Nisan, 5767"

 * Common usage (omitting thousands): "Thursday, 3(rd) of Nisan, (5)767"

To see how today's date in the Hebrew calendar is written, see, for example, Hebcal date converter.

Recent years
5781 (2020–21) =

5780 (2019–20) =

5779 (2018–19) =

...

5772 (2011–12) =

5771 (2010–11) =

5770 (2009–10) =

5769 (2008–09) =

...

5761 (2000–01) =

5760 (1999–2000) =

Similar systems
The Abjad numerals are equivalent to the Hebrew numerals up to 400. The Greek numerals differ from the Hebrew ones from 90 upwards because in the Greek alphabet there is no equivalent for tsade.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hebrew numerals


text:
Hydroxy

Hydroxy can refer to:
 * In chemical nomenclature, the prefix "hydroxy-" shows the presence of a hydroxyl functional group (−OH).
 * An abbreviation for the medication hydroxyzine, which is commonly sold under the brand names Atarax, Ucerax, Serecid, and Vistaril.
 * Hydroxy gas, a nickname for oxyhydrogen, a combination of hydrogen and oxygen gas produced from the electrolysis of water.

title: Hydroxy


text:
Talk:Hydroxy

Merge with hydroxyl?? -- Quantockgoblin 21:37, 20 March 2007 (UTC)

I changed "alcohol functional group" to "hydroxyl functional group", since the term alcohol is not appropriate for inorganic chemistry, where the hydroxy prefix is sometimes applied. --Matt Stoker

suggest move/merge
Should this page be moved or merged with Hydroxyl, which already encompasses the hydroxyl radical and the OH functional group? In its present form, this article would serve better as a dictionary page. --Zolot 00:55, 7 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Since it is a disambiguation page pointing to Hydroxyl, it the merge suggestion is no longer needed.--DoSiDo 18:31, 23 September 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hydroxy


text:
Hero

A hero (feminine: heroine) is a real person or a main fictional character who, in the face of danger, combats adversity through feats of ingenuity, courage, or strength. The original hero type of classical epics did such things for the sake of glory and honor. Post-classical and modern heroes, on the other hand, perform great deeds or selfless acts for the common good instead of the classical goal of wealth, pride, and fame. The antonym of hero is villain. Other terms associated with the concept of hero may include good guy or white hat.

In classical literature, the hero is the main or revered character in heroic epic poetry celebrated through ancient legends of a people, often striving for military conquest and living by a continually flawed personal honor code. The definition of a hero has changed throughout time. Merriam Webster dictionary defines a hero as "a person who is admired for great or brave acts or fine qualities". Examples of heroes range from mythological figures, such as Gilgamesh, Achilles and Iphigenia, to historical and modern figures, such as Joan of Arc, Giuseppe Garibaldi, Sophie Scholl, Alvin York, Audie Murphy, and Chuck Yeager, and fictional "superheroes", including Superman, Spider-Man, Batman, and Captain America.

Etymology
The word hero comes from the Greek ἥρως (hērōs), "hero" (literally "protector" or "defender"), particularly one such as Heracles with divine ancestry or later given divine honors. Before the decipherment of Linear B the original form of the word was assumed to be *ἥρωϝ-, hērōw-, but the Mycenaean compound ti-ri-se-ro-e demonstrates the absence of -w-. Hero as a name appears in pre-Homeric Greek mythology, wherein Hero was a priestess of the goddess Aphrodite, in a myth that has been referred to often in literature.

According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, the Proto-Indo-European root is *ser meaning "to protect". According to Eric Partridge in Origins, the Greek word hērōs "is akin to" the Latin seruāre, meaning to safeguard. Partridge concludes, "The basic sense of both Hera and hero would therefore be 'protector'." R. S. P. Beekes rejects an Indo-European derivation and asserts that the word has a Pre-Greek origin. Hera was a Greek goddess with many attributes, including protection and her worship appears to have similar proto-Indo-European origins.

Antiquity
A classical hero is considered to be a "warrior who lives and dies in the pursuit of honor" and asserts their greatness by "the brilliancy and efficiency with which they kill". Each classical hero's life focuses on fighting, which occurs in war or during an epic quest. Classical heroes are commonly semi-divine and extraordinarily gifted, such as Achilles, evolving into heroic characters through their perilous circumstances. While these heroes are incredibly resourceful and skilled, they are often foolhardy, court disaster, risk their followers' lives for trivial matters, and behave arrogantly in a childlike manner. During classical times, people regarded heroes with the highest esteem and utmost importance, explaining their prominence within epic literature. The appearance of these mortal figures marks a revolution of audiences and writers turning away from immortal gods to mortal mankind, whose heroic moments of glory survive in the memory of their descendants, extending their legacy.

Hector was a Trojan prince and the greatest fighter for Troy in the Trojan War, which is known primarily through Homer's Iliad. Hector acted as leader of the Trojans and their allies in the defense of Troy, "killing 31,000 Greek fighters," offers Hyginus. Hector was known not only for his courage, but also for his noble and courtly nature. Indeed, Homer places Hector as peace-loving, thoughtful, as well as bold, a good son, husband and father, and without darker motives. However, his familial values conflict greatly with his heroic aspirations in the Iliad, as he cannot be both the protector of Troy and a father to his child. Hector is ultimately betrayed by the deities when Athena appears disguised as his ally Deiphobus and convinces him to challenge Achilles, leading to his death at the hands of a superior warrior. Achilles was a Greek hero who was considered the most formidable military fighter in the entire Trojan War and the central character of the Iliad. He was the child of Thetis and Peleus, making him a demi-god. He wielded superhuman strength on the battlefield and was blessed with a close relationship to the deities. Achilles famously refused to fight after his dishonoring at the hands of Agamemnon, and only returned to the war due to unadulterated rage after Hector killed his beloved companion Patroclus. Achilles was known for uncontrollable rage that defined many of his bloodthirsty actions, such as defiling Hector's corpse by dragging it around the city of Troy. Achilles plays a tragic role in the Iliad brought about by constant de-humanization throughout the epic, having his menis (wrath) overpower his philos (love).

Heroes in myth often had close but conflicted relationships with the deities. Thus, Heracles's name means "the glory of Hera", even though he was tormented all his life by Hera, the Queen of the Greek deities. Perhaps the most striking example is the Athenian king Erechtheus, whom Poseidon killed for choosing Athena rather than him as the city's patron deity. When the Athenians worshiped Erechtheus on the Acropolis, they invoked him as Poseidon Erechtheus.

Fate, or destiny, plays a massive role in the stories of classical heroes. The classical hero's heroic significance stems from battlefield conquests, an inherently dangerous action. The deities in Greek mythology, when interacting with the heroes, often foreshadow the hero's eventual death on the battlefield. Countless heroes and deities go to great lengths to alter their pre-destined fates, but with no success, as none, neither human or immortal can change their prescribed outcomes by the three powerful Fates. The most characteristic example of this is found in Oedipus Rex. After learning that his son, Oedipus, will end up killing him, the King of Thebes, Laius, takes huge steps to assure his son's death by removing him from the kingdom. When Oedipus encounters his father when his father was unknown to him in a dispute on the road many years later, Oedipus slays him without an afterthought. The lack of recognition enabled Oedipus to slay his father, ironically further binding his father to his fate.

Stories of heroism may serve as moral examples. However, classical heroes often did not embody the Christian notion of an upstanding, perfectly moral hero. For example, Achilles's character-issues of hateful rage lead to merciless slaughter and his overwhelming pride lead to him only joining the Trojan War because he did not want his soldiers to win all of the glory. Classical heroes, regardless of their morality, were placed in religion. In classical antiquity, cults that venerated deified heroes such as Heracles, Perseus, and Achilles played an important role in Ancient Greek religion. These ancient Greek hero cults worshipped heroes from oral epic tradition, with these heroes often bestowing blessings, especially healing ones, on individuals.

Myth and monomyth
The concept of the "Mythic Hero Archetype" was first developed by Lord Raglan in his 1936 book, The Hero, A Study in Tradition, Myth and Drama. It is a set of 22 common traits that he said were shared by many heroes in various cultures, myths, and religions throughout history and worldwide. Raglan argued that the higher the score, the more likely the figure is mythical. The concept of a story archetype of the standard monomythical "hero's quest" that was reputed to be pervasive across all cultures is somewhat controversial. Expounded mainly by Joseph Campbell in his 1949 work The Hero with a Thousand Faces, it illustrates several uniting themes of hero stories that hold similar ideas of what a hero represents despite vastly different cultures and beliefs. The monomyth or Hero's Journey consists of three separate stages: the Departure, Initiation, and Return. Within these stages, there are several archetypes that the hero of either gender may follow, including the call to adventure (which they may initially refuse), supernatural aid, proceeding down a road of trials, achieving a realization about themselves (or an apotheosis), and attaining the freedom to live through their quest or journey. Campbell offered examples of stories with similar themes, such as Krishna, Buddha, Apollonius of Tyana, and Jesus. One of the themes he explores is the androgynous hero, who combines male and female traits, such as Bodhisattva: "The first wonder to be noted here is the androgynous character of the Bodhisattva: masculine Avalokiteshvara, feminine Kwan Yin." In his 1968 book, The Masks of God: Occidental Mythology, Campbell writes, "It is clear that, whether accurate or not as to biographical detail, the moving legend of the Crucified and Risen Christ was fit to bring a new warmth, immediacy, and humanity, to the old motifs of the beloved Tammuz, Adonis, and Osiris cycles."

Slavic fairy tales
Vladimir Propp, in his analysis of Russian fairy tales, concluded that a fairy tale had only eight dramatis personæ, of which one was the hero, and his analysis has been widely applied to non-Russian folklore. The actions that fall into such a hero's sphere include: Propp distinguished between seekers and victim-heroes. A villain could initiate the issue by kidnapping the hero or driving him out; these were victim-heroes. On the other hand, an antagonist could rob the hero, or kidnap someone close to him, or, without the villain's intervention, the hero could realize that he lacked something and set out to find it; these heroes are seekers. Victims may appear in tales with seeker heroes, but the tale does not follow them both.
 * 1) Departure on a quest
 * 2) Reacting to the test of a donor
 * 3) Marrying a princess (or similar figure)

Historical studies

The philosopher Hegel gave a central role to the "hero", personalized by Napoleon, as the incarnation of a particular culture's Volksgeist and thus of the general Zeitgeist. Thomas Carlyle's 1841 work, On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History, also accorded an essential function to heroes and great men in history. Carlyle centered history on the biographies of individuals, as in Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches and History of Frederick the Great. His heroes were not only political and military figures, the founders or topplers of states, but also religious figures, poets, authors, and captains of industry.

Explicit defenses of Carlyle's position were rare in the second part of the 20th century. Most in the philosophy of history school contend that the motive forces in history may best be described only with a wider lens than the one that Carlyle used for his portraits. For example, Karl Marx argued that history was determined by the massive social forces at play in "class struggles", not by the individuals by whom these forces are played out. After Marx, Herbert Spencer wrote at the end of the 19th century: "You must admit that the genesis of the great man depends on the long series of complex influences which has produced the race in which he appears, and the social state into which that race has slowly grown...[b]efore he can remake his society, his society must make him." Michel Foucault argued in his analysis of societal communication and debate that history was mainly the "science of the sovereign", until its inversion by the "historical and political popular discourse".

Modern examples of the typical hero are, Minnie Vautrin, Norman Bethune, Alan Turing, Raoul Wallenberg, Chiune Sugihara, Martin Luther King Jr., Mother Teresa, Nelson Mandela, Oswaldo Payá, Óscar Elías Biscet, and Aung San Suu Kyi.

The Annales school, led by Lucien Febvre, Marc Bloch, and Fernand Braudel, would contest the exaggeration of the role of individual subjects in history. Indeed, Braudel distinguished various time scales, one accorded to the life of an individual, another accorded to the life of a few human generations, and the last one to civilizations, in which geography, economics, and demography play a role considerably more decisive than that of individual subjects.

Among noticeable events in the studies of the role of the hero and great man in history one should mention Sidney Hook's book (1943) The Hero in History. In the second half of the twentieth century such male-focused theory has been contested, among others by feminists writers such as Judith Fetterley in The Resisting Reader (1977) and literary theorist Nancy K. Miller, The Heroine's Text: Readings in the French and English Novel, 1722–1782.

In the epoch of globalization an individual may change the development of the country and of the whole world, so this gives reasons to some scholars to suggest returning to the problem of the role of the hero in history from the viewpoint of modern historical knowledge and using up-to-date methods of historical analysis.

Within the frameworks of developing counterfactual history, attempts are made to examine some hypothetical scenarios of historical development. The hero attracts much attention because most of those scenarios are based on the suppositions: what would have happened if this or that historical individual had or had not been alive.

Modern fiction
The word "hero" (or "heroine" in modern times), is sometimes used to describe the protagonist or the romantic interest of a story, a usage which may conflict with the superhuman expectations of heroism. A good example is Anna Karenina, the lead character in the novel of the same title by Leo Tolstoy. In modern literature the hero is more and more a problematic concept. In 1848, for example, William Makepeace Thackeray gave Vanity Fair the subtitle, A Novel without a Hero, and imagined a world in which no sympathetic character was to be found. Vanity Fair is a satirical representation of the absence of truly moral heroes in the modern world. The story focuses on the characters, Emmy Sedley and Becky Sharpe (the latter as the clearly defined anti-hero), with the plot focused on the eventual marriage of these two characters to rich men, revealing character flaws as the story progresses. Even the most sympathetic characters, such as Captain Dobbin, are susceptible to weakness, as he is often narcissistic and melancholic.

The larger-than-life hero is a more common feature of fantasy (particularly in comic books and epic fantasy) than more realist works. However, these larger-than life figures remain prevalent in society. The superhero genre is a multibillion-dollar industry that includes comic books, movies, toys, and video games. Superheroes usually possess extraordinary talents and powers that no living human could ever possess. The superhero stories often pit a super villain against the hero, with the hero fighting the crime caused by the super villain. Examples of long-running superheroes include Superman, Wonder Woman, Batman, and Spider-Man.

Research indicates that male writers are more likely to make heroines superhuman, whereas female writers tend to make heroines ordinary humans, as well as making their male heroes more powerful than their heroines, possibly due to sex differences in valued traits.

Psychology
Social psychology has begun paying attention to heroes and heroism. Zeno Franco and Philip Zimbardo point out differences between heroism and altruism, and they offer evidence that observer perceptions of unjustified risk play a role above and beyond risk type in determining the ascription of heroic status.

Psychologists have also identified the traits of heroes. Elaine Kinsella and her colleagues have identified 12 central traits of heroism, which consist of brave, moral integrity, conviction, courageous, self-sacrifice, protecting, honest, selfless, determined, saves others, inspiring, and helpful. Scott Allison and George Goethals uncovered evidence for "the great eight traits" of heroes consisting of wise, strong, resilient, reliable, charismatic, caring, selfless, and inspiring. These researchers have also identified four primary functions of heroism. Heroes give us wisdom; they enhance us; they provide moral modeling; and they offer protection.

An evolutionary psychology explanation for heroic risk-taking is that it is a costly signal demonstrating the ability of the hero. It may be seen as one form of altruism for which there are several other evolutionary explanations as well.

Roma Chatterji has suggested that the hero or more generally protagonist is first and foremost a symbolic representation of the person who is experiencing the story while reading, listening, or watching; thus the relevance of the hero to the individual relies a great deal on how much similarity there is between them and the character. Chatterji suggested that one reason for the hero-as-self interpretation of stories and myths is the human inability to view the world from any perspective but a personal one.

In the Pulitzer Prize-winning book, The Denial of Death, Ernest Becker argues that human civilization is ultimately an elaborate, symbolic defense mechanism against the knowledge of our mortality, which in turn acts as the emotional and intellectual response to our basic survival mechanism. Becker explains that a basic duality in human life exists between the physical world of objects and a symbolic world of human meaning. Thus, since humanity has a dualistic nature consisting of a physical self and a symbolic self, he asserts that humans are able to transcend the dilemma of mortality through heroism, by focusing attention mainly on the symbolic self. This symbolic self-focus takes the form of an individual's "immortality project" (or "causa sui project"), which is essentially a symbolic belief-system that ensures that one is believed superior to physical reality. By successfully living under the terms of the immortality project, people feel they can become heroic and, henceforth, part of something eternal; something that will never die as compared to their physical body. This he asserts, in turn, gives people the feeling that their lives have meaning, a purpose, and are significant in the grand scheme of things. Another theme running throughout the book is that humanity's traditional "hero-systems", such as religion, are no longer convincing in the age of reason. Science attempts to serve as an immortality project, something that Becker believes it can never do, because it is unable to provide agreeable, absolute meanings to human life. The book states that we need new convincing "illusions" that enable people to feel heroic in ways that are agreeable. Becker, however, does not provide any definitive answer, mainly because he believes that there is no perfect solution. Instead, he hopes that gradual realization of humanity's innate motivations, namely death, may help to bring about a better world. Terror Management Theory (TMT) has generated evidence supporting this perspective.

Mental and physical integration
Examining the success of resistance fighters on Crete during the Nazi occupation in WWII, author and endurance researcher C. McDougall drew connections to the Ancient Greek heroes and a culture of integrated physical self-mastery, training, and mental conditioning that fostered confidence to take action, and made it possible for individuals to accomplish feats of great prowess, even under the harshest of conditions. The skills established an "...ability to unleash tremendous resources of strength, endurance, and agility that many people don't realize they already have." McDougall cites examples of heroic acts, including a scholium to Pindar's Fifth Nemean Ode: "Much weaker in strength than the Minotaur, Theseus fought with it and won using pankration, as he had no knife." Pankration is an ancient Greek term meaning "total power and knowledge," one "...associated with gods and heroes...who conquer by tapping every talent."

title: Hero


text:
Talk:Hero

"Heros (tv)" listed at Redirects for discussion
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect Heros (tv). The discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2020 August 29 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Shhhnotsoloud (talk) 08:26, 29 August 2020 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Heroes (disambiguation) which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 22:02, 29 August 2020 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Algreen11.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 20:11, 19 January 2022 (UTC)

"Yamagato Fellowship" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Yamagato Fellowship and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 July 8 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. TraderCharlotte (talk) 03:34, 8 July 2022 (UTC)

Etymology
Per this blog post by Peter Gainsford (top of page for Google Scholar/ORCID links) the whole section on etymology is wrong and needs attention from someone who knows Greek. CohenTheBohemian (talk) 13:34, 23 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hero


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Talk:Hellenic Greece

Depopulation
The evidence for the depopulation of Greece during the Dark Age (ack! ack!) is very mixed. The 1980s archaeology (I haven't really kept up that well since then) was tending to think that it was an administrative breakdown with no necessary depopulation. --MichaelTinkler

Last I had heard, there was no evidence for an invasion associated with the downfall of the Mycenaeans (whereas earlier a Dorian invasion was canon), but the city centres like Athens and Mycenae still decreased considerably in size. I am not really sure, though.

It depended on which area of Greece. Certainly in Crete there was a decline in population after the Mycenaean period for that island, yet other areas of Greece remained relatively stable. When presenting a paper on this during a seminar, I came to the conclusion that drought, not necessarily widespread destruction normally attributed to a "Doric" invasion, was responsible for population declines. Iam 01:36, Mar 31, 2004 (UTC)

yep, cities decreased whatever the cause, but the area surveys are not revealing any reduction in farming sites, the bulk of the population anyway. It's tricky evidence to work with. Useful synthesis of a lot of this is The Other Greeks, Victor Davis Hanson, ISBN: 0520209354 --MichaelTinkler - I seem to remember a not-too-recent book review of someone claiming that literacy was perhaps NOT lost, but i didn't read the book so I don't know. I put 'illiteracy' into the 'dark age' sentence because it's certainly part of the standard narrative. --MichaelTinkler

Certainly the old Mycenaean scripts had been lost, hadn't they? The Greeks come out of the dark ages with a brand new Phoenician derived alphabet, and never look back.
 * Here it is - ain't Amazon wonderful? - Greek Writing from Knossos to Homer : A Linguistic Interpretation of the Origin of the Greek Alphabet and the Continuity of Ancient Greek Literacy, Roger D. Woodard, Oxford Univ. Press.  Not that I read it, but I remembered the claim.  Hmmm.  No need to worry about it until someone inserts it. --MichaelTinkler

''However, Greek democracy would not be considered such by modern definitions. Under this system only the sons of citizens could vote, provided they were at least 18 years old and had been born in Athens.''

I took this out, because I don't think it's true that most people count democracy as involving universal suffrage. Slaves couldn't vote in early America either.

But most people don't consider early America to be democratic either... Lir 05:19 Oct 27, 2002 (UTC)

Most people do where I am, and some quick searching on the web reveals a great deal of references to Jefferson and such as having created the American democracy. So if "modern sense" means the sense people are using the word in today, Athens or at least the early US should qualify. --JG

I would say that given the strict definition of democracy, "rule by the mob", America is admirably overqualified as a democracy. user:sjc

Macedonia
If i may be allowed to do so i would like to point out the fact that Macedonia was from the dawn of history up until today the nothern region of Greece, inhabitet by people who concidered themselfes as Greek as the Athenians did if not more. There is various historical evidence not only supporting this view but making it an undeniable fact (eg Alexander the Great,historic facts about Thraceans etc). Later on and mainly during the 20th century Slavic populations and their goverments claimed the name (and territory) of Macedonia for themselfs using nothing more than circumstantial evidence only proving the expantion of Greek civilazation to the north! Unfortunately lack of immediate responce from the greek side has brought us to today where the former Jugoslavic territory of Skopje is named FYROM with the m shamefully standing for Macedonia.

Being so far amazed with the quality of information in your on line encyclopedia i and with me every person with respect to historic trouth would deeply appreciate any attempt of your side to reconsider or look deeper into the facts and restore any mistakes.

-one of your readers from Greece-

An explanation of what you're looking at would be helpful. This page only mentions Macedonia once, stating that it conquered Greece, which is mostly true and has no real implications as to whether it is part of Greece or not.

The statement sometimes made that the ancient Macedonians weren't Greeks is false, and if you can point to a place where wikipedia says this, I will gladly fix it. However, it isn't entirely correct to say that they were Greeks, either. People can't be divided cleanly into races, especially not when they have been mingling back and forth over thousands of years. Ancient Macedonia was probably populated by a mix of Greeks, Thracians, Illyrians, and others, predominantly speaking a dialect of Greek that was somewhat different from the ones to the south. They had a lot of Greek influences on their culture, but the southerners still regarded them as being somewhat less Greek, especially when it was politically convenient. The kings could point out Greek ancestors, but so could many rulers throughout the area, for instance in Lycia and even Persia. Even so, they were thought more Greek than the people they ruled over.

The slavic-speaking Macedonians are not the same as these ancient people. I don't think we can fairly say that they aren't Macedonians, however, which is an entirely political question that really has nothing to do with the ancient civilization. No people on earth is the same as it was 2000 years ago. Any propaganda spread about the ancient rights of either Greeks or Macedonians to the area, accordingly, does not belong in wikipedia, and should not impact treatment of the region's history.

Classical Greece?
A common term I've heard is "Classical Era". Does that refer to this era? I think it refers to the period of Athenian "high culture" (Parthenon, etc.), so think the answer is yes, but am not entirely sure. If so, should Classical Greece be redirected and something added here? --Delirium 11:34, Nov 11, 2003 (UTC)

The title of this article is absurd: "Hellenic Greece" is a tautology like "British Britain." If it is intended that this should be an article about Greece between the Mycenaean and Hellenistic periods, it should be called Ancient Greece or Classical Greece. The former is more common although the latter is more technically correct. Unless anyone violently objects I will move the article. Adam 01:30, 31 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Having now read the other articles in the History of Greece series I now think this article is redundant and ought to be abolished. It contains very basic information all of which can be found in a better form elsewhere. Adam 02:15, 31 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Hellenic era is the standard term for the period in Greek history between the Mycenaeans and Hellenistic successors, even if it doesn't make much sense in terms of etymology. I'll agree, though, that Hellenic Greece is a little odd.  It's not the equivalent of British Britain, but it may be the equivalent of Roman Rome.

As indicated, my doubts about the name are now secondary to my doubts about the content. The simplest way to resolve both is to scrap this article and redirect it to History of Greece so the reader can find what they are looking for. Adam 03:19, 31 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Coming to this discussion late (as seems to be my habit), I believe we shouldn't toss out the idea of an article covering Ancient Greek History between the Mycenaean period & the period of Alexander the Great. I notice that there is an existing redirect called "Hellenic civilization", which could be a good title avoiding the issue of pleonasm (i.e., "British Britain"); the following period would then be called Hellenistic civilization -- which would be more accurate than "Hellenistic Greece" because it should cover Greece, the Hellenized Near East & the Successor kingdoms. But at the present time I understand there's not enough written to separate out the various subperiods of Ancient Greek History, so as long as that redirect exists, I'll be lnking to it with my edits. -- llywrch 18:26, 1 Apr 2004 (UTC)

redirect?
Shouldn't this page redirect to Hellenistic Greece? --Phil1988 (talk) 13:51, 12 July 2010 (UTC)

To dab or not to dab
If you see this as a concise broad concept article, that's fine with me. You should know, though, that popups tells editors that this is a disambiguation page complete with choices of links with which to replace this title. At present, all article and portal links to this page have been disambiguated, and the only links to this page are user and project pages. So if you take the time to link other articles to this page, there will probably be others who will use popups to disambiguate those links. Joys! –  Paine Ellsworth   C LIMAX ! 21:11, 2 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Hello. I don't have strong opinions about this, but at present it's just not a dab. A dab page would say: Hellenic Greece is either a), b) or c). But the article reads: Hellenic Greece comprises both a) and b). So it's an explanation of the concept, almost dictionary-like, rather than a dab page. Hence why I removed the tag. --Midas02 (talk) 21:21, 2 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Your argument is strong; however, if you're going to get this off the popups list as a dab page, then it may have to lose some of its "conciseness". In other words, a correctly formatted (this page is formatted like a dab page) broad concept article should be written that links to Archaic and Classical Greece as related terms.  As far as the popups problem goes, I'm not sure how to get a page off that list.  I recently came across a full-fledged article that was rather lengthy, and yet it still appeared on popups as a dab page.  It may have been a dab page at one time and apparently nobody took it off the popups list when its broad concept article was written.  In any case, happy editing! –   Paine Ellsworth   C LIMAX ! 22:14, 2 December 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hellenic Greece


text:
Hydroxide

Hydroxide is a diatomic anion with chemical formula OH−. It consists of an oxygen and hydrogen atom held together by a single covalent bond, and carries a negative electric charge. It is an important but usually minor constituent of water. It functions as a base, a ligand, a nucleophile, and a catalyst. The hydroxide ion forms salts, some of which dissociate in aqueous solution, liberating solvated hydroxide ions. Sodium hydroxide is a multi-million-ton per annum commodity chemical. The corresponding electrically neutral compound HO• is the hydroxyl radical. The corresponding covalently bound group –OH of atoms is the hydroxy group. Both the hydroxide ion and hydroxy group are nucleophiles and can act as catalysts in organic chemistry.

Many inorganic substances which bear the word hydroxide in their names are not ionic compounds of the hydroxide ion, but covalent compounds which contain hydroxy groups.

Hydroxide ion
The hydroxide ion is naturally produced from water by the self-ionization reaction:
 * H3O+ + OH− 2H2O

The equilibrium constant for this reaction, defined as
 * Kw = [H+][OH−]

has a value close to 10−14 at 25 °C, so the concentration of hydroxide ions in pure water is close to 10−7 mol∙dm−3, to satisfy the equal charge constraint. The pH of a solution is equal to the decimal cologarithm of the hydrogen cation concentration; the pH of pure water is close to 7 at ambient temperatures. The concentration of hydroxide ions can be expressed in terms of pOH, which is close to (14 − pH), so the pOH of pure water is also close to 7. Addition of a base to water will reduce the hydrogen cation concentration and therefore increase the hydroxide ion concentration (decrease pH, increase pOH) even if the base does not itself contain hydroxide. For example, ammonia solutions have a pH greater than 7 due to the reaction NH3 + H+, which decreases the hydrogen cation concentration, which increases the hydroxide ion concentration. pOH can be kept at a nearly constant value with various buffer solutions.

In an aqueous solution the hydroxide ion is a base in the Brønsted–Lowry sense as it can accept a proton from a Brønsted–Lowry acid to form a water molecule. It can also act as a Lewis base by donating a pair of electrons to a Lewis acid. In aqueous solution both hydrogen and hydroxide ions are strongly solvated, with hydrogen bonds between oxygen and hydrogen atoms. Indeed, the bihydroxide ion has been characterized in the solid state. This compound is centrosymmetric and has a very short hydrogen bond (114.5 pm) that is similar to the length in the bifluoride ion (114 pm). In aqueous solution the hydroxide ion forms strong hydrogen bonds with water molecules. A consequence of this is that concentrated solutions of sodium hydroxide have high viscosity due to the formation of an extended network of hydrogen bonds as in hydrogen fluoride solutions.

In solution, exposed to air, the hydroxide ion reacts rapidly with atmospheric carbon dioxide, acting as an acid, to form, initially, the bicarbonate ion.
 * OH− + CO2

The equilibrium constant for this reaction can be specified either as a reaction with dissolved carbon dioxide or as a reaction with carbon dioxide gas (see Carbonic acid for values and details). At neutral or acid pH, the reaction is slow, but is catalyzed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which effectively creates hydroxide ions at the active site.

Solutions containing the hydroxide ion attack glass. In this case, the silicates in glass are acting as acids. Basic hydroxides, whether solids or in solution, are stored in airtight plastic containers.

The hydroxide ion can function as a typical electron-pair donor ligand, forming such complexes as tetrahydroxoaluminate/tetrahydroxidoaluminate [Al(OH)4]−. It is also often found in mixed-ligand complexes of the type [MLx(OH)y]z+, where L is a ligand. The hydroxide ion often serves as a bridging ligand, donating one pair of electrons to each of the atoms being bridged. As illustrated by [Pb2(OH)]3+, metal hydroxides are often written in a simplified format. It can even act as a 3-electron-pair donor, as in the tetramer [PtMe3(OH)]4.

When bound to a strongly electron-withdrawing metal centre, hydroxide ligands tend to ionise into oxide ligands. For example, the bichromate ion [HCrO4]− dissociates according to
 * [O3CrO–H]− [CrO4]2− + H+

with a pKa of about 5.9.

Vibrational spectra
The infrared spectra of compounds containing the OH functional group have strong absorption bands in the region centered around 3500 cm−1. The high frequency of molecular vibration is a consequence of the small mass of the hydrogen atom as compared to the mass of the oxygen atom, and this makes detection of hydroxyl groups by infrared spectroscopy relatively easy. A band due to an OH group tends to be sharp. However, the band width increases when the OH group is involved in hydrogen bonding. A water molecule has an HOH bending mode at about 1600 cm−1, so the absence of this band can be used to distinguish an OH group from a water molecule.

When the OH group is bound to a metal ion in a coordination complex, an M−OH bending mode can be observed. For example, in [Sn(OH)6]2− it occurs at 1065 cm−1. The bending mode for a bridging hydroxide tends to be at a lower frequency as in [(bipyridine)Cu(OH)2Cu(bipyridine)]2+ (955 cm−1). M−OH stretching vibrations occur below about 600 cm−1. For example, the tetrahedral ion [Zn(OH)4]2− has bands at 470 cm−1 (Raman-active, polarized) and 420 cm−1 (infrared). The same ion has a (HO)–Zn–(OH) bending vibration at 300 cm−1.

Applications
Sodium hydroxide solutions, also known as lye and caustic soda, are used in the manufacture of pulp and paper, textiles, drinking water, soaps and detergents, and as a drain cleaner. Worldwide production in 2004 was approximately 60 million tonnes. The principal method of manufacture is the chloralkali process.

Solutions containing the hydroxide ion are generated when a salt of a weak acid is dissolved in water. Sodium carbonate is used as an alkali, for example, by virtue of the hydrolysis reaction
 * + H2O  + OH−      (pKa2= 10.33 at 25 °C and zero ionic strength)

Although the base strength of sodium carbonate solutions is lower than a concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, it has the advantage of being a solid. It is also manufactured on a vast scale (42 million tonnes in 2005) by the Solvay process. An example of the use of sodium carbonate as an alkali is when washing soda (another name for sodium carbonate) acts on insoluble esters, such as triglycerides, commonly known as fats, to hydrolyze them and make them soluble.

Bauxite, a basic hydroxide of aluminium, is the principal ore from which the metal is manufactured. Similarly, goethite (α-FeO(OH)) and lepidocrocite (γ-FeO(OH)), basic hydroxides of iron, are among the principal ores used for the manufacture of metallic iron.

Alkali metals
Aside from NaOH and KOH, which enjoy very large scale applications, the hydroxides of the other alkali metals also are useful. Lithium hydroxide is a strong base, with a pKb of −0.36. Lithium hydroxide is used in breathing gas purification systems for spacecraft, submarines, and rebreathers to remove carbon dioxide from exhaled gas.
 * 2 LiOH + CO2 → Li2CO3 + H2O

The hydroxide of lithium is preferred to that of sodium because of its lower mass. Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and the hydroxides of the other alkali metals are also strong bases.

Alkaline earth metals
Beryllium hydroxide Be(OH)2 is amphoteric. The hydroxide itself is insoluble in water, with a solubility product log K*sp of −11.7. Addition of acid gives soluble hydrolysis products, including the trimeric ion [Be3(OH)3(H2O)6]3+, which has OH groups bridging between pairs of beryllium ions making a 6-membered ring. At very low pH the aqua ion [Be(H2O)4]2+ is formed. Addition of hydroxide to Be(OH)2 gives the soluble tetrahydroxoberyllate or tetrahydroxidoberyllate anion, [Be(OH)4]2−.

The solubility in water of the other hydroxides in this group increases with increasing atomic number. Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 is a strong base (up to the limit of its solubility, which is very low in pure water), as are the hydroxides of the heavier alkaline earths: calcium hydroxide, strontium hydroxide, and barium hydroxide. A solution or suspension of calcium hydroxide is known as limewater and can be used to test for the weak acid carbon dioxide. The reaction Ca(OH)2 + CO2 Ca2+ +  + OH− illustrates the basicity of calcium hydroxide. Soda lime, which is a mixture of the strong bases NaOH and KOH with Ca(OH)2, is used as a CO2 absorbent.

Boron group elements
The simplest hydroxide of boron B(OH)3, known as boric acid, is an acid. Unlike the hydroxides of the alkali and alkaline earth hydroxides, it does not dissociate in aqueous solution. Instead, it reacts with water molecules acting as a Lewis acid, releasing protons.
 * B(OH)3 + H2O tetrahydroxyborate + H+

A variety of oxyanions of boron are known, which, in the protonated form, contain hydroxide groups. Aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3 is amphoteric and dissolves in alkaline solution.
 * Al(OH)3 (solid) + OH− (aq) aluminate (aq)

In the Bayer process for the production of pure aluminium oxide from bauxite minerals this equilibrium is manipulated by careful control of temperature and alkali concentration. In the first phase, aluminium dissolves in hot alkaline solution as, but other hydroxides usually present in the mineral, such as iron hydroxides, do not dissolve because they are not amphoteric. After removal of the insolubles, the so-called red mud, pure aluminium hydroxide is made to precipitate by reducing the temperature and adding water to the extract, which, by diluting the alkali, lowers the pH of the solution. Basic aluminium hydroxide AlO(OH), which may be present in bauxite, is also amphoteric.

In mildly acidic solutions, the hydroxo/hydroxido complexes formed by aluminium are somewhat different from those of boron, reflecting the greater size of Al(III) vs. B(III). The concentration of the species [Al13(OH)32]7+ is very dependent on the total aluminium concentration. Various other hydroxo complexes are found in crystalline compounds. Perhaps the most important is the basic hydroxide AlO(OH), a polymeric material known by the names of the mineral forms boehmite or diaspore, depending on crystal structure. Gallium hydroxide, indium hydroxide, and thallium(III) hydroxide are also amphoteric. Thallium(I) hydroxide is a strong base.

Carbon group elements
Carbon forms no simple hydroxides. The hypothetical compound C(OH)4 (orthocarbonic acid or methanetetrol) is unstable in aqueous solution:

 * C(OH)4 → + H3O+
 * + H+ H2CO3

Carbon dioxide is also known as carbonic anhydride, meaning that it forms by dehydration of carbonic acid H2CO3 (OC(OH)2).

Silicic acid is the name given to a variety of compounds with a generic formula [SiOx(OH)4−2x]n. Orthosilicic acid has been identified in very dilute aqueous solution. It is a weak acid with pKa1 = 9.84, pKa2 = 13.2 at 25 °C. It is usually written as H4SiO4, but the formula Si(OH)4 is generally accepted. Other silicic acids such as metasilicic acid (H2SiO3), disilicic acid (H2Si2O5), and pyrosilicic acid (H6Si2O7) have been characterized. These acids also have hydroxide groups attached to the silicon; the formulas suggest that these acids are protonated forms of polyoxyanions.

Few hydroxo complexes of germanium have been characterized. Tin(II) hydroxide Sn(OH)2 was prepared in anhydrous media. When tin(II) oxide is treated with alkali the pyramidal hydroxo complex is formed. When solutions containing this ion are acidified, the ion [Sn3(OH)4]2+ is formed together with some basic hydroxo complexes. The structure of [Sn3(OH)4]2+ has a triangle of tin atoms connected by bridging hydroxide groups. Tin(IV) hydroxide is unknown but can be regarded as the hypothetical acid from which stannates, with a formula [Sn(OH)6]2−, are derived by reaction with the (Lewis) basic hydroxide ion.

Hydrolysis of Pb2+ in aqueous solution is accompanied by the formation of various hydroxo-containing complexes, some of which are insoluble. The basic hydroxo complex [Pb6O(OH)6]4+ is a cluster of six lead centres with metal–metal bonds surrounding a central oxide ion. The six hydroxide groups lie on the faces of the two external Pb4 tetrahedra. In strongly alkaline solutions soluble plumbate ions are formed, including [Pb(OH)6]2−.

Other main-group elements
In the higher oxidation states of the pnictogens, chalcogens, halogens, and noble gases there are oxoacids in which the central atom is attached to oxide ions and hydroxide ions. Examples include phosphoric acid H3PO4, and sulfuric acid H2SO4. In these compounds one or more hydroxide groups can dissociate with the liberation of hydrogen cations as in a standard Brønsted–Lowry acid. Many oxoacids of sulfur are known and all feature OH groups that can dissociate.

Telluric acid is often written with the formula H2TeO4·2H2O but is better described structurally as Te(OH)6.

Ortho-periodic acid can lose all its protons, eventually forming the periodate ion [IO4]−. It can also be protonated in strongly acidic conditions to give the octahedral ion [I(OH)6]+, completing the isoelectronic series, [E(OH)6]z, E = Sn, Sb, Te, I; z = −2, −1, 0, +1. Other acids of iodine(VII) that contain hydroxide groups are known, in particular in salts such as the mesoperiodate ion that occurs in K4[I2O8(OH)2]·8H2O.

As is common outside of the alkali metals, hydroxides of the elements in lower oxidation states are complicated. For example, phosphorous acid H3PO3 predominantly has the structure OP(H)(OH)2, in equilibrium with a small amount of P(OH)3.

The oxoacids of chlorine, bromine, and iodine have the formula O$1⁄[OH^{−}]$A(OH), where n is the oxidation number: +1, +3, +5, or +7, and A = Cl, Br, or I. The only oxoacid of fluorine is F(OH), hypofluorous acid. When these acids are neutralized the hydrogen atom is removed from the hydroxide group.

Transition and post-transition metals
The hydroxides of the transition metals and post-transition metals usually have the metal in the +2 (M = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn) or +3 (M = Fe, Ru, Rh, Ir) oxidation state. None are soluble in water, and many are poorly defined. One complicating feature of the hydroxides is their tendency to undergo further condensation to the oxides, a process called olation. Hydroxides of metals in the +1 oxidation state are also poorly defined or unstable. For example, silver hydroxide Ag(OH) decomposes spontaneously to the oxide (Ag2O). Copper(I) and gold(I) hydroxides are also unstable, although stable adducts of CuOH and AuOH are known. The polymeric compounds M(OH)2 and M(OH)3 are in general prepared by increasing the pH of an aqueous solutions of the corresponding metal cations until the hydroxide precipitates out of solution. On the converse, the hydroxides dissolve in acidic solution. Zinc hydroxide Zn(OH)2 is amphoteric, forming the tetrahydroxidozincate ion in strongly alkaline solution.

Numerous mixed ligand complexes of these metals with the hydroxide ion exist. In fact, these are in general better defined than the simpler derivatives. Many can be made by deprotonation of the corresponding metal aquo complex.
 * LnM(OH2) + B LnM(OH) + BH+ (L = ligand, B = base)

Vanadic acid H3VO4 shows similarities with phosphoric acid H3PO4 though it has a much more complex vanadate oxoanion chemistry. Chromic acid H2CrO4, has similarities with sulfuric acid H2SO4; for example, both form acid salts A+[HMO4]−. Some metals, e.g. V, Cr, Nb, Ta, Mo, W, tend to exist in high oxidation states. Rather than forming hydroxides in aqueous solution, they convert to oxo clusters by the process of olation, forming polyoxometalates.

Basic salts containing hydroxide
In some cases, the products of partial hydrolysis of metal ion, described above, can be found in crystalline compounds. A striking example is found with zirconium(IV). Because of the high oxidation state, salts of Zr4+ are extensively hydrolyzed in water even at low pH. The compound originally formulated as ZrOCl2·8H2O was found to be the chloride salt of a tetrameric cation [Zr4(OH)8(H2O)16]8+ in which there is a square of Zr4+ ions with two hydroxide groups bridging between Zr atoms on each side of the square and with four water molecules attached to each Zr atom.

The mineral malachite is a typical example of a basic carbonate. The formula, Cu2CO3(OH)2 shows that it is halfway between copper carbonate and copper hydroxide. Indeed, in the past the formula was written as CuCO3·Cu(OH)2. The crystal structure is made up of copper, carbonate and hydroxide ions. The mineral atacamite is an example of a basic chloride. It has the formula, Cu2Cl(OH)3. In this case the composition is nearer to that of the hydroxide than that of the chloride CuCl2·3Cu(OH)2. Copper forms hydroxyphosphate (libethenite), arsenate (olivenite), sulfate (brochantite), and nitrate compounds. White lead is a basic lead carbonate, (PbCO3)2·Pb(OH)2, which has been used as a white pigment because of its opaque quality, though its use is now restricted because it can be a source for lead poisoning.

Structural chemistry
The hydroxide ion appears to rotate freely in crystals of the heavier alkali metal hydroxides at higher temperatures so as to present itself as a spherical ion, with an effective ionic radius of about 153 pm. Thus, the high-temperature forms of KOH and NaOH have the sodium chloride structure, which gradually freezes in a monoclinically distorted sodium chloride structure at temperatures below about 300 °C. The OH groups still rotate even at room temperature around their symmetry axes and, therefore, cannot be detected by X-ray diffraction. The room-temperature form of NaOH has the thallium iodide structure. LiOH, however, has a layered structure, made up of tetrahedral Li(OH)4 and (OH)Li4 units. This is consistent with the weakly basic character of LiOH in solution, indicating that the Li–OH bond has much covalent character.

The hydroxide ion displays cylindrical symmetry in hydroxides of divalent metals Ca, Cd, Mn, Fe, and Co. For example, magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 (brucite) crystallizes with the cadmium iodide layer structure, with a kind of close-packing of magnesium and hydroxide ions.

The amphoteric hydroxide Al(OH)3 has four major crystalline forms: gibbsite (most stable), bayerite, nordstrandite, and doyleite. All these polymorphs are built up of double layers of hydroxide ions – the aluminium atoms on two-thirds of the octahedral holes between the two layers – and differ only in the stacking sequence of the layers. The structures are similar to the brucite structure. However, whereas the brucite structure can be described as a close-packed structure in gibbsite the OH groups on the underside of one layer rest on the groups of the layer below. This arrangement led to the suggestion that there are directional bonds between OH groups in adjacent layers. This is an unusual form of hydrogen bonding since the two hydroxide ion involved would be expected to point away from each other. The hydrogen atoms have been located by neutron diffraction experiments on α-AlO(OH) (diaspore). The O–H–O distance is very short, at 265 pm; the hydrogen is not equidistant between the oxygen atoms and the short OH bond makes an angle of 12° with the O–O line. A similar type of hydrogen bond has been proposed for other amphoteric hydroxides, including Be(OH)2, Zn(OH)2, and Fe(OH)3.

A number of mixed hydroxides are known with stoichiometry A3MIII(OH)6, A2MIV(OH)6, and AMV(OH)6. As the formula suggests these substances contain M(OH)6 octahedral structural units. Layered double hydroxides may be represented by the formula. Most commonly, z = 2, and M2+ = Ca2+, Mg2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, or Zn2+; hence q = x.

In organic reactions
Potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide are two well-known reagents in organic chemistry.

Base catalysis
The hydroxide ion may act as a base catalyst. The base abstracts a proton from a weak acid to give an intermediate that goes on to react with another reagent. Common substrates for proton abstraction are alcohols, phenols, amines, and carbon acids. The pKa value for dissociation of a C–H bond is extremely high, but the pKa alpha hydrogens of a carbonyl compound are about 3 log units lower. Typical pKa values are 16.7 for acetaldehyde and 19 for acetone. Dissociation can occur in the presence of a suitable base.
 * RC(O)CH2R' + B RC(O)CH−R' + BH+

The base should have a pKa value not less than about 4 log units smaller, or the equilibrium will lie almost completely to the left.

The hydroxide ion by itself is not a strong enough base, but it can be converted in one by adding sodium hydroxide to ethanol
 * OH− + EtOH EtO− + H2O

to produce the ethoxide ion. The pKa for self-dissociation of ethanol is about 16, so the alkoxide ion is a strong enough base. The addition of an alcohol to an aldehyde to form a hemiacetal is an example of a reaction that can be catalyzed by the presence of hydroxide. Hydroxide can also act as a Lewis-base catalyst.

As a nucleophilic reagent
The hydroxide ion is intermediate in nucleophilicity between the fluoride ion F−, and the amide ion. Ester hydrolysis under alkaline conditions (also known as base hydrolysis)
 * R1C(O)OR2 + OH− R1CO(O)H + −OR2  R1CO2− + HOR2

is an example of a nucleophilic acyl substitution with the hydroxide ion acting as a nucleophile.

Early methods for manufacturing soap treated triglycerides from animal fat (the ester) with lye.

Other cases where hydroxide can act as a nucleophilic reagent are amide hydrolysis, the Cannizzaro reaction, nucleophilic aliphatic substitution, nucleophilic aromatic substitution, and in elimination reactions. The reaction medium for KOH and NaOH is usually water but with a phase-transfer catalyst the hydroxide anion can be shuttled into an organic solvent as well, for example in the generation of the reactive intermediate dichlorocarbene.

title: Hydroxide


text:
H. R. Giger

Hans Ruedi Giger (5 February 1940 – 12 May 2014) was a Swiss artist best known for his airbrushed images that blended human physiques with machines, an art style known as "biomechanical". Giger later abandoned airbrush for pastels, markers and ink. He was part of the special effects team that won an Academy Award for the visual design of Ridley Scott's 1979 sci-fi horror film Alien, and was responsible for creating the titular Alien itself. His work is on permanent display at the H.R. Giger Museum in Gruyères, Switzerland. His style has been adapted to many forms of media, including album covers, furniture, tattoos and video games.

Early life
Giger was born in 1940 in Chur, the capital city of Graubünden, the largest and easternmost Swiss canton. His father, a pharmacist, viewed art as a "breadless profession" and strongly encouraged him to enter pharmacy. He moved to Zürich in 1962 where he studied architecture and industrial design at the School of Applied Arts until 1970.

Career
Giger's first success occurred when H. H. Kunz, co-owner of Switzerland's first poster publishing company, printed and distributed Giger's first posters, beginning in 1969.

Giger's style and thematic execution were influential. He was part of the special effects team that won an Academy Award for Best Achievement in Visual Effects for their design work on the film Alien. His design for the Alien was inspired by his painting Necronom IV and earned him the Oscar in 1980. His books of paintings, particularly Necronomicon and Necronomicon II (1985) and the frequent appearance of his art in Omni magazine contributed to his rise to international prominence. Giger was admitted to the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame in 2013. He is also well known for artwork on several music recording albums including Danzig III: How The Gods Kill by Danzig, Brain Salad Surgery by Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Attahk by Magma, Heartwork by Carcass, To Mega Therion by Celtic Frost, Eparistera Daimones and Melana Chasmata by Triptykon, Deborah Harry's KooKoo, Atomic Playboys by Steve Stevens, and Frankenchrist by the Dead Kennedys.

In 1998, Giger acquired the Saint-Germain Castle in Gruyères, Switzerland, which now houses the H.R. Giger Museum, a permanent repository of his work.

Personal life
Giger had a relationship with Swiss actress Li Tobler until she died by suicide in 1975. Tobler's image appears in many of his paintings. He married Mia Bonzanigo in 1979; they divorced a year and a half later.

Giger lived and worked in Zürich with his second wife, Carmen Maria Scheifele Giger, who is the director of the H.R. Giger Museum.

On 12 May 2014, Giger died in a Zürich hospital after suffering injuries from a fall.

Style
Giger started with small ink drawings before progressing to oil paintings. For most of his career, he worked predominantly in airbrush, creating monochromatic canvasses depicting surreal, nightmarish dreamscapes. He also worked with pastels, markers and ink.

Giger's most distinctive stylistic innovation was that of a representation of human bodies and machines in cold, interconnected relationships, which he described as "biomechanical". His main influences were painters Dado, Ernst Fuchs, and Salvador Dalí. He was introduced to Dali by painter Robert Venosa. Giger was also influenced by Polish sculptor Stanislaw Szukalski, and by painters Austin Osman Spare and Mati Klarwein, and was a personal friend of Timothy Leary. He studied interior and industrial design at the School of Commercial Art in Zurich from 1962 to 1965, and made his first paintings as art therapy.

Other works
Giger directed a number of films, including Swiss Made (1968), Tagtraum (1973), Giger's Necronomicon (1975) and Giger's Alien (1979).

Giger created furniture designs, particularly the Harkonnen Capo Chair for a film of the novel Dune that was to be directed by Alejandro Jodorowsky. Many years later, David Lynch directed the film, using only rough concepts by Giger. Giger had wished to work with Lynch, as he stated in one of his books that Lynch's film Eraserhead was closer than even Giger's own films to realizing his vision.

Giger also applied his biomechanical style to interior design. One "Giger Bar" appeared in Tokyo, but the realization of his designs was a great disappointment to him, since the Japanese organization behind the venture did not wait for his final designs, and instead used Giger's rough preliminary sketches. For that reason Giger disowned the Tokyo bar. The two Giger Bars in his native Switzerland, in Gruyères and Chur, were built under Giger's close supervision and they accurately reflect his original concepts. At The Limelight in Manhattan, Giger's artwork was licensed to decorate the VIP room, the uppermost chapel of the landmarked church, but it was never intended to be a permanent installation and bore no similarity to the bars in Switzerland. The arrangement was terminated after two years when the Limelight closed.

Giger's art has greatly influenced tattooists and fetishists worldwide. Under a licensing deal Ibanez guitars released an H. R. Giger signature series: the Ibanez ICHRG2, an Ibanez Iceman, features "NY City VI", the Ibanez RGTHRG1 has "NY City XI" printed on it, the S Series SHRG1Z has a metal-coated engraving of "Biomechanical Matrix" on it, and a 4-string SRX bass, SRXHRG1, has "N.Y. City X" on it.

Giger is often referred to in popular culture, especially in science fiction and cyberpunk. William Gibson (who wrote an early script for Alien 3) seems particularly fascinated: A minor character in Virtual Light, Lowell, is described as having New York XXIV tattooed across his back, and in Idoru a secondary character, Yamazaki, describes the buildings of nanotech Japan as Giger-esque.

Films

 * Alien (designed, among other things, the Alien creature, "The Derelict" and the "Space Jockey")
 * Aliens (credited for the creation of the creature only)
 * Alien 3 (designed the dog-like Alien bodyshape, plus a number of unused concepts, many mentioned on the special features disc of Alien 3, despite not being credited in the theatrical version)
 * Alien Resurrection (credited for the creation of the creature only)
 * Alien vs. Predator (credited for the creation of the creature only)
 * Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem (credited for the creation of the creature only)
 * Poltergeist II: The Other Side
 * Killer Condom (creative consultant, set design)
 * Species (designed Sil, and the Ghost Train in a dream sequence)
 * Species II (the film includes Eve, based on creature Sil from the first Species film)
 * Future-Kill (designed artwork for the movie poster)
 * Tokyo: The Last Megalopolis (creature designs)
 * Prometheus (The 2012 film includes "The Derelict" spacecraft and the "Space Jockey" designs from the first Alien film, as well as a "Temple" design from the failed Jodorowsky Dune project and original extraterrestrial murals created exclusively for Prometheus, based in conceptual art from Alien. Unlike Alien Resurrection, the Prometheus film credited H. R. Giger with the original designs.)
 * Alien: Covenant (the 2017 film includes the Alien creature, "The Derelict" spacecraft and the "Space Jockey" designs from the first Alien film)

Work for recording artists

 * Celtic Frost: To Mega Therion
 * Magma: Attahk
 * Emerson, Lake & Palmer: Brain Salad Surgery
 * Floh de Cologne: Mumien
 * Steve Stevens' Atomic Playboys
 * Deborah Harry, portraits for KooKoo album cover and videos "Backfired" and "Now I Know You Know"
 * hide: Hide Your Face
 * Carcass: Heartwork
 * Danzig: Danzig III: How the Gods Kill
 * Dead Kennedys' album Frankenchrist, Poster insert of Landscape XX (which led to an obscenity trial)
 * Atrocity – Hallucinations
 * Korn's Jonathan Davis commissioned Giger to design and sculpt a microphone stand, with the requirement that it be biomechanical, erotic, and movable. The contract allowed for five aluminium microphone stands to be made, but Davis purchased only two of the three to which he was entitled. The design of the microphone stand was later adapted to Giger's Nubian Queen, transforming it into a fine art sculpture.
 * Helped to design the first professional video clip of "Böhse Onkelz" called "Dunkler Ort" (dark location) from their album Ein böses Märchen ... aus tausend finsteren Nächten, which was released in 2000.
 * Ibanez Guitars released a series of H. R. Giger Signature Models with artwork on the body.
 * Triptykon: Eparistera Daimones
 * Triptykon: Melana Chasmata

Interior decoration

 * Giger Bars in Switzerland's Chur and Gruyères
 * Maison d'Ailleurs (House of Elsewhere) in Yverdon-les-Bains

Video games

 * Dark Seed and its sequel, Dark Seed II, both adventure games for the Amiga, Macintosh, and PC, were developed by Cyberdreams and directly based on Giger's input.

Recognition
Giger was awarded the Inkpot Award in 1979.

In addition to his awards, Giger was recognized by a variety of festivals and institutions. On the one year anniversary of his death, the Museum of Arts and Design in New York City staged the series The Unseen Cinema of HR Giger in May 2015.

Dark Star: H. R. Giger's World, a biographical documentary by Belinda Sallin, debuted 27 September 2014 in Zurich, Switzerland.

In July 2018, the asteroid 109712 Giger was named in his memory.

title: H. R. Giger