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Canon law

Canon law (from κανών, kanon, a 'straight measuring rod, ruler') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by ecclesiastical authority (church leadership) for the government of a Christian organization or church and its members. It is the internal ecclesiastical law, or operational policy, governing the Catholic Church (both the Latin Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches), the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the individual national churches within the Anglican Communion. The way that such church law is legislated, interpreted and at times adjudicated varies widely among these four bodies of churches. In all three traditions, a canon was originally a rule adopted by a church council; these canons formed the foundation of canon law.

Etymology
Greek kanon / κανών, Arabic qaanoon / قانون, Hebrew kaneh / קָנֶה, 'straight'; a rule, code, standard, or measure; the root meaning in all these languages is 'reed'; see also the Romance-language ancestors of the English word cane.

In the fourth century, the First Council of Nicaea (325) calls canons the disciplinary measures of the church: the term canon, κανὠν, means in Greek, a rule. There is a very early distinction between the rules enacted by the church and the legislative measures taken by the state called leges, Latin for laws.

Apostolic Canons
The Apostolic Canons or Ecclesiastical Canons of the Same Holy Apostles is a collection of ancient ecclesiastical decrees (eighty-five in the Eastern, fifty in the Western Church) concerning the government and discipline of the Early Christian Church, incorporated with the Apostolic Constitutions which are part of the Ante-Nicene Fathers.

Catholic Church
In the Catholic Church, canon law is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the church's hierarchical authorities to regulate its external organization and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the church. It was the first modern Western legal system and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West.

In the Latin Church, positive ecclesiastical laws, based directly or indirectly upon immutable divine law or natural law, derive formal authority in the case of universal laws from the supreme legislator (i.e., the Supreme Pontiff), who possesses the totality of legislative, executive, and judicial power in his person, while particular laws derive formal authority from a legislator inferior to the supreme legislator. The actual subject material of the canons is not just doctrinal or moral in nature, but all-encompassing of the human condition, and therefore extending beyond what is taken as revealed truth.

The Catholic Church also includes the main five rites (groups) of churches which are in full union with the Holy See and the Latin Church: All of these church groups are in full communion with the Supreme Pontiff and are subject to the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches.
 * 1) Alexandrian Rite Churches which include the Coptic Catholic Church, Eritrean Catholic Church, and Ethiopian Catholic Church.
 * 2) West Syriac Rite which includes the Maronite Church, Syriac Catholic Church and the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church.
 * 3) Armenian Rite Church which includes the Armenian Catholic Church.
 * 4) Byzantine Rite Churches which include the Albanian Greek Catholic Church, Belarusian Greek Catholic Church, Bulgarian Greek Catholic Church, Greek Catholic Church of Croatia and Serbia, Greek Byzantine Catholic Church, Hungarian Greek Catholic Church, Italo-Albanian Catholic Church, Macedonian Greek Catholic Church, Melkite Greek Catholic Church, Romanian Greek Catholic Church, Russian Greek Catholic Church, Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church, Slovak Greek Catholic Church and Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church.
 * 5) East Syriac Rite Churches which includes the Chaldean Catholic Church and Syro-Malabar Church.

History, sources of law, and codifications

The Catholic Church has what is claimed to be the oldest continuously functioning internal legal system in Western Europe, much later than Roman law but predating the evolution of modern European civil law traditions. What some might describe as "canons" adopted by the Apostles at the Council of Jerusalem in the first century would later be developed into a highly complex legal system encapsulating not just norms of the New Testament, but some elements of the Hebrew (Old Testament), Roman, Visigothic, Saxon, and Celtic legal traditions.

The history of Latin canon law can be divided into four periods: the jus antiquum, the jus novum, the jus novissimum and the Code of Canon Law. In relation to the Code, history can be divided into the jus vetus (all law before the Code) and the jus novum (the law of the Code, or jus codicis).

The canon law of the Eastern Catholic Churches, which had developed some different disciplines and practices, underwent its own process of codification, resulting in the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches promulgated in 1990 by Pope John Paul II.

Catholic canon law as legal system
Roman Catholic canon law is a fully developed legal system, with all the necessary elements: courts, lawyers, judges, a fully articulated legal code, principles of legal interpretation, and coercive penalties, though it lacks civilly-binding force in most secular jurisdictions. One example where conflict between secular and canon law occurred was in the English legal system, as well as systems, such as the U.S., that derived from it. Here criminals could apply for the benefit of clergy. Being in holy orders, or fraudulently claiming to be, meant that criminals could opt to be tried by ecclesiastical rather than secular courts. The ecclesiastical courts were generally more lenient. Under the Tudors, the scope of clerical benefit was steadily reduced by Henry VII, Henry VIII, and Elizabeth I. The papacy disputed secular authority over priests' criminal offenses. The benefit of clergy was systematically removed from English legal systems over the next 200 years, although it still occurred in South Carolina in 1827. In English Law, the use of this mechanism, which by that point was a legal fiction used for first offenders, was abolished by the Criminal Law Act 1827.

The academic degrees in Catholic canon law are the J.C.B. (Juris Canonici Baccalaureatus, Bachelor of Canon Law, normally taken as a graduate degree), J.C.L. (Juris Canonici Licentiatus, Licentiate of Canon Law) and the J.C.D. (Juris Canonici Doctor, Doctor of Canon Law). Because of its specialized nature, advanced degrees in civil law or theology are normal prerequisites for the study of canon law.

Much of Catholic canon law's legislative style was adapted from the Roman Code of Justinian. As a result, Roman ecclesiastical courts tend to follow the Roman Law style of continental Europe with some variation, featuring collegiate panels of judges and an investigative form of proceeding, called "inquisitorial", from the Latin "inquirere", to enquire. This is in contrast to the adversarial form of proceeding found in the common law system of English and U.S. law, which features such things as juries and single judges.

The institutions and practices of Catholic canon law paralleled the legal development of much of Europe, and consequently, both modern civil law and common law bear the influences of canon law. As Edson Luiz Sampel, a Brazilian expert in Catholic canon law, says, canon law is contained in the genesis of various institutes of civil law, such as the law in continental Europe and Latin American countries. Indirectly, canon law has significant influence in contemporary society.

Catholic Canonical jurisprudential theory generally follows the principles of Aristotelian-Thomistic legal philosophy. While the term "law" is never explicitly defined in the Catholic Code of Canon Law, the Catechism of the Catholic Church cites Aquinas in defining law as "an ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by the one who is in charge of the community" and reformulates it as "a rule of conduct enacted by competent authority for the sake of the common good".

Code for the Eastern Churches
The law of the Eastern Catholic Churches in full communion with the Roman papacy was in much the same state as that of the Latin Church before 1917; much more diversity in legislation existed in the various Eastern Catholic Churches. Each had its own special law, in which custom still played an important part. One major difference in Eastern Europe however, specifically in the Eastern Orthodox Christian churches, was in regards to divorce. Divorce started to slowly be allowed in specific instances such as adultery being committed, abuse, abandonment, impotence, and barrenness being the primary justifications for divorce. Eventually, the church began to allow remarriage to occur (for both spouses) post-divorce. In 1929 Pius XI informed the Eastern Churches of his intention to work out a Code for the whole of the Eastern Church. The publication of these Codes for the Eastern Churches regarding the law of persons was made between 1949 through 1958 but finalized nearly 30 years later.

The first Code of Canon Law (1917) was exclusively for the Latin Church, with application to the Eastern Churches only "in cases which pertain to their very nature". After the Second Vatican Council (1962 - 1965), the Vatican produced the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches which became the first code of Eastern Catholic Canon Law.

Eastern Orthodox Church
The Eastern Orthodox Church, principally through the work of 18th-century Athonite monastic scholar Nicodemus the Hagiorite, has compiled canons and commentaries upon them in a work known as the Pēdálion (Πηδάλιον, 'Rudder'), so named because it is meant to "steer" the church in her discipline. The dogmatic determinations of the Councils are to be applied rigorously since they are considered to be essential for the church's unity and the faithful preservation of the Gospel.

Anglican Communion
In the Church of England, the ecclesiastical courts that formerly decided many matters such as disputes relating to marriage, divorce, wills, and defamation, still have jurisdiction of certain church-related matters (e.g. discipline of clergy, alteration of church property, and issues related to churchyards). Their separate status dates back to the 12th century when the Normans split them off from the mixed secular/religious county and local courts used by the Saxons. In contrast to the other courts of England, the law used in ecclesiastical matters is at least partially a civil law system, not common law, although heavily governed by parliamentary statutes. Since the Reformation, ecclesiastical courts in England have been royal courts. The teaching of canon law at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge was abrogated by Henry VIII; thereafter practitioners in the ecclesiastical courts were trained in civil law, receiving a Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.) degree from Oxford, or a Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) degree from Cambridge. Such lawyers (called "doctors" and "civilians") were centered at "Doctors Commons", a few streets south of St Paul's Cathedral in London, where they monopolized probate, matrimonial, and admiralty cases until their jurisdiction was removed to the common law courts in the mid-19th century.

Other churches in the Anglican Communion around the world (e.g., the Episcopal Church in the United States and the Anglican Church of Canada) still function under their own private systems of canon law.

In 2002 a Legal Advisors Consultation meeting at Canterbury concluded:"(1) There are principles of canon law common to the churches within the Anglican Communion; (2) Their existence can be factually established; (3) Each province or church contributes through its own legal system to the principles of canon law common within the Communion; (4) these principles have strong persuasive authority and are fundamental to the self-understanding of each of the member churches; (5) These principles have a living force, and contain within themselves the possibility for further development; and (6) The existence of the principles both demonstrates and promotes unity in the Communion."

Presbyterian and Reformed churches
In Presbyterian and Reformed churches, canon law is known as "practice and procedure" or "church order", and includes the church's laws respecting its government, discipline, legal practice, and worship.

Roman canon law had been criticized by the Presbyterians as early as 1572 in the Admonition to Parliament. The protest centered on the standard defense that canon law could be retained so long as it did not contradict the civil law. According to Polly Ha, the Reformed church government refuted this, claiming that the bishops had been enforcing canon law for 1500 years.

Lutheranism
The Book of Concord is the historic doctrinal statement of the Lutheran Church, consisting of ten credal documents recognized as authoritative in Lutheranism since the 16th century. However, the Book of Concord is a confessional document (stating orthodox belief) rather than a book of ecclesiastical rules or discipline, like canon law. Each Lutheran national church establishes its own system of church order and discipline, though these are referred to as "canons".

United Methodist Church
The Book of Discipline contains the laws, rules, policies, and guidelines for The United Methodist Church. Its latest edition was published in 2016.

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Talk:Lists of universities and colleges

Untitled
A very good "College and University" list can be found at http://www.mit.edu:8001/people/cdemello/univ.html which was built up by Christina DeMello in 1995. I'll contact her to ask her if
 * we are allowed to copy her list to this project
 * if she is willing to help us on building up this list here at wikipedia.

Tobias Hoevekamp
 * There's no reason why we can use the list data itself. It's simply an alphabetical listing of colleges and universities, which cannot be put under copyright. As long as we don't make an exact copy of her layout, we can import the list. --Stephen Gilbert

What do other people think of reorganizing this in a roughly hierarchical format, such as Country->State or Province->City->Institution? It makes more sense to me than a flat alphabetical list. -- Claudine

Very good idea. --css

There's nothing to say we can't do both an alphabetical and a geographical index. if I was looking one up by name, I may not know where the university physically is. Like National University, doesn't exactly tell me that it is in San Diego California....

I would think the browser's 'find in page' facility would obviate the need for a flat alphabetical list.

I've organised the list by country at Claudine/Demo - perhaps it doesn't need further subdivision at this stage.

 * I think it looks much nicer. It'll encourage people to list the universities near them. --DanKeshet

Part of the point of wiki is that we can have multiple indexing schemes on whatever set of pages.

Thanks for the comments so far. I'm still not sure how multiple indexing schemes would be implemented. I've added a Colleges_and_universities/ByCountry subpage, but this means people adding a university have to add it to two pages. Is there a better way? I still have a lot to learn about wiki concepts. --Claudine

Yes, it means someone would have to add it to two pages. I suppose what we really need is, as well as the wiki, some auxiliary databases, of things like unis, people, etc., and then to get multiple category schemes just run different reports on the databases... everyone will probably say my idea is too far-fetched though... Anyway, hi Claudine. -- Simon J Kissane

I've taken the raw list data from DeMello's pages and wikified it. I'll be putting it up within the next day or so, but I'm going to need help editing. I currently have it organized in a separated alphabetical list and by country. --Stephen Gilbert

Thank you to Stephen for beefing up the list! I think Simon's idea (hi Simon!) has some potential but does anyone have any idea how it could be put in practice? For the time being I think new schools should still be added to both the main (alphabetical) and geographical ones.

Magnus Manske is currently working on new Wikipedia software (tentatively named Pediawiki). It is a wiki script written in PHP that would interact with an SQL database. So, a database-driven Wikipedia is in the works, but it might be a while.

For now, I think the alphabetical and by country lists are the way to go. I have the large alphabetical list divided up by country as well, but it needs a little work before I post it. It might be a bit of a nightmare to maintain both, but if at least three of us work on it, we can give it a go. --Stephen Gilbert

Do we really want a Wikipedia entry for every college and university in the world? There are 3000 or so just in the United States (sorry to be US-centric, but I don't have even ballpark numbers for other countries).

If we're going to do this, though, we should do it right--there's no point to entries that contain nothing but a link to the school's homepage. -- Vicki Rosenzweig
 * Yep, that's what I'm aiming for, anyway: an article for every college and university in the world. It's going to take a while... --Stephen Gilbert

I was just looking at the letter "U" list with over 700 items, most of them begining with something like "University of ...". It seems to me that we would do better to move these to the letter for the meaningful word in the name. Thus University of Colorado should be in the "C" list.

Also, are we insisting on the English form of the name? I've just seen a few appear under the Catalan word "Universitat". Eclecticology, Thursday, July 11, 2002

Get with the times, "under construction" signs are so last year :) Excised text follows. -- Tim Starling 09:06, Sep 13, 2003 (UTC)

There's still much more to do (please help!):

 * There are many non-English schools that should have the accented characters inserted in a similar manner:  Abo Akademi University  should become  Åbo Akademi University .
 * Each school should have its city and country listed next to link. I know darn well you Americans are going to list the city and state for American schools, but c'est la vie. For schools that have the same names, the city should be included in the link (for example,  American University, Cairo  and  American University, Paris
 * Schools that aren't in the list should be added, and those that no longer exist or have changed their names should be removed (and relisted as necessary).
 * Write articles about your favorite universities! There's a lot to cover!

English names or local names for universities ?
I had thought of editing some pages related to French universities and institutions, and I feel that some coherence should first be given to the choice of name to be used for each of these. See a bit above a similar remark (dated July 2002) about Catalan universities.

Reading Naming_conventions_%28use_English%29 and its discussion page (notably the paragraph about parliaments or political parties) I am rather more puzzled than I could be before.

If I browse through various pro country university lists, I can only discover that there has been no common policy as what to do with university names, e.g.

 * for Germany or Italy, the English name is systematically used, with a redirection from the local name ;

 * for Belgium, the English name redirects to the local name, as well in French speaking or Dutch speaking Belgium ;

 * in French speaking Canada, there are entries for University of Montreal and for Laval University, but on the other hand for Université de Sherbrooke and Université du Québec ;

 * in France, the Grandes Écoles like École Polytechnique seem systematically described under their French name, while universities proper seem to be ordered under their English name (e.g. University of Poitiers) (very few are already in the Wikipedia).

The page List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U is a special mess, with its mix of translated names (e.g. "university of Modena") and native names (e.g. "universita degli Studi di Pavia").

I think that some more precise instructions should be precious to future editors. --French Tourist 21:46, 30 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Poll on University Naming Conventions
A new survey has been created to assess consensus with respect to university naming conventions, specifically regarding the usage of terms like "University of Texas" vs. "University of Texas at Austin". The poll addresses this issue both in the specific case of the "University of Maryland" and proposes an amendment to Naming conventions which could impact a large number of additional pages. It doesn't directly impact this page, but I figure that people editting here may be interested in the topic. Dragons flight 17:56, Mar 27, 2005 (UTC)

Art colleges
Would anyone be interested in helping to complile a list of Art Colleges? There appears to be none as yet, and I believe it would be most usefull. Cageybee 19:26, 26 December 2006 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Columbanus

Columbanus (Columbán; 543 – 23 November 615) was an Irish missionary notable for founding a number of monasteries after 590 in the Frankish and Lombard kingdoms, most notably Luxeuil Abbey in present-day France and Bobbio Abbey in present-day Italy.

Columbanus taught an Irish monastic rule and penitential practices for those repenting of sins, which emphasised private confession to a priest, followed by penances imposed by the priest in reparation for the sins. Columbanus is one of the earliest identifiable Hiberno-Latin writers.

Biography and Early Life
Columbanus (the Latinised form of Colmán, meaning little dove) was born in Leinster, Ireland in 543. After his conception, his mother was said to have had a vision of her child's "remarkable genius".

He was first educated under Abbot Sinell of Cluaninis, whose monastery was on an island of the River Erne, in modern County Fermanagh. Under Sinell's instruction, Columbanus composed a commentary on the Psalms.

Columbanus then moved to Bangor Abbey where he studied to become a teacher of the Bible. He was well-educated in the areas of grammar, rhetoric, geometry, and the Holy Scriptures. Abbot Comgall taught him Greek and Latin. He stayed at Bangor until c. 590, when Comgall reluctantly gave him permission to travel to the continent.

Frankish Gaul (c. 590 – 610)
Columbanus set sail with twelve companions: Attala, Columbanus the Younger, Gallus, Domgal, Cummain, Eogain, Eunan, Gurgano, Libran, Lua, Sigisbert and Waldoleno. They crossed the channel via Cornwall and landed in Saint-Malo, Brittany.

Columbanus then entered Burgundian France. Jonas writes that:"At that time, either because of the numerous enemies from without, or on account of the carelessness of the bishops, the Christian faith had almost departed from that country. The creed alone remained. But the saving grace of penance and the longing to root out the lusts of the flesh were to be found only in a few. Everywhere that he went the noble man [Columbanus] preached the Gospel. And it pleased the people because his teaching was adorned by eloquence and enforced by examples of virtue."Columbanus and his companions were welcomed by King Guntram of Burgundy, who granted them land at Anegray, where they converted a ruined Roman fortress into a school. Despite its remote location in the Vosges Mountains, the school rapidly attracted so many students that they moved to a new site at Luxeuil and then established a second school at Fontaines. These schools remained under Columbanus' authority, and their rules of life reflected the Celtic tradition in which he had been educated.

As these communities expanded and drew more pilgrims, Columbanus sought greater solitude. Often he would withdraw to a cave seven miles away, with a single companion who acted as messenger between himself and his companions.

Conflict with Frankish Bishops
Tensions arose in 603 CE when St. Columbanus and his followers argued with Frankish bishops over the exact date of Easter. (St. Columbanus celebrated Easter according to Celtic rites and the Celtic Christian calendar.)

The Frankish bishops may have feared his growing influence. During the first half of the sixth century, the councils of Gaul had given to bishops absolute authority over religious communities. Celtic Christians, Columbanus and his monks used the Irish Easter calculation, a version of Bishop Augustalis's 84-year computus for determining the date of Easter (quartodecimanism), whereas the Franks had adopted the Victorian cycle of 532 years. The bishops objected to the newcomers' continued observance of their own dating, which – among other issues – caused the end of Lent to differ. They also complained about the distinct Irish tonsure.

In 602, the bishops assembled to judge Columbanus, but he did not appear before them as requested. Instead, he sent a letter to the prelates – a strange mixture of freedom, reverence, and charity – admonishing them to hold synods more frequently, and advising them to pay more attention to matters of equal importance to that of the date of Easter. In defence of his following his traditional paschal cycle, he wrote:

"I am not the author of this divergence. I came as a poor stranger into these parts for the cause of Christ, Our Saviour. One thing alone I ask of you, holy Fathers, permit me to live in silence in these forests, near the bones of seventeen of my brethren now dead."

When the bishops refused to abandon the matter, Columbanus appealed directly to Pope Gregory I. In the third and only surviving letter, he asks "the holy Pope, his Father" to provide "the strong support of his authority" and to render a "verdict of his favour", apologising for "presuming to argue as it were, with him who sits in the chair of Peter, Apostle and Bearer of the Keys". None of the letters were answered, most likely due to the pope's death in 604.

Columbanus then sent a letter to Gregory's successor, Pope Boniface IV, asking him to confirm the tradition of his elders – if it was not contrary to the Faith – so that he and his monks could follow the rites of their ancestors. Before Boniface responded, Columbanus moved outside the jurisdiction of the Frankish bishops. As the Easter issue appears to end around that time, Columbanus may have stopped celebrating Irish date of Easter after moving to Italy.

Conflict with Brunhilda of Austrasia
Columbanus was also involved in a dispute with members of the Burgundian dynasty. Upon the death of King Guntram of Burgundy, the succession passed to his nephew, Childebert II, the son of his brother Sigebert and Sigebert's wife Brunhilda of Austrasia. When Childebert II died, his territories were divided between his two sons: Theuderic II inherited the Kingdom of Burgundy and Theudebert II inherited the Kingdom of Austrasia. Both were minors and Brunhilda, their grandmother, ruled as their regents.

Theuderic II "very often visited" Columbanus, but when Columbanus rebuked him for having a concubine, Brunhilda became his bitterest foe because she feared the loss of her influence if Theuderic II married. Brunhilda incited the court and Catholic bishops against Columbanus and Theuderic II confronted Columbanus at Luxeuil, accusing him of violating the "common customs" and "not allowing all Christians" in the monastery. Columbanus asserted his independence to run the monastery without interference and was imprisoned at Besançon for execution.

Columbanus escaped and returned to Luxeuil. When the king and his grandmother found out, they sent soldiers to drive him back to Ireland by force, separating him from his monks by insisting that only those from Ireland could accompany him into exile.

Columbanus was taken to Nevers, then travelled by boat down the Loire river to the coast. At Tours he visited the tomb of Martin of Tours, and sent a message to Theuderic II indicating that within three years he and his children would perish. When he arrived at Nantes, he wrote a letter before embarkation to his fellow monks at Luxeuil monastery. The letter urged his brethren to obey Attala, who stayed behind as abbot of the monastic community.

The letter concludes:

"They come to tell me the ship is ready. The end of my parchment compels me to finish my letter. Love is not orderly; it is this which has made it confused. Farewell, dear hearts of mine; pray for me that I may live in God."

Soon after the ship set sail from Nantes, a severe storm drove the vessel back ashore. Convinced that his holy passenger caused the tempest, the captain refused further attempts to transport the monk. Columbanus found sanctuary with Chlothar II of Neustria at Soissons, who gave him an escort to the court of King Theudebert II of Austrasia.

The Alps (611–612)
Columbanus arrived at Theudebert II's court in Metz in 611, where members of the Luxeuil school met him and Theudebert II granted them land at Bregenz. They travelled up the Rhine via Mainz to the lands of the Suebi and Alemanni in the northern Alps, intending to preach the Gospel to these people. He followed the Rhine river and its tributaries, the Aar and the Limmat, and then on to Lake Zurich. Columbanus chose the village of Tuggen as his initial community, but the work was not successful. He continued north-east by way of Arbon to Bregenz on Lake Constance. Here he found an oratory dedicated to Aurelia of Strasbourg containing three brass images of their tutelary deities. Columbanus commanded Gallus, who knew the local language, to preach to the inhabitants, and many were converted. The three brass images were destroyed, and Columbanus blessed the little church, placing the relics of Aurelia beneath the altar. A monastery was erected, Mehrerau Abbey, and the brethren observed their regular life. Columbanus stayed in Bregenz for about one year.

In the spring of 612, war broke out between Austrasia and Burgundy and Theudebert II was resoundingly beaten by Theuderic II. Austrasia was subsumed under the kingdom of Burgundy and Columbanus was again vulnerable to Theuderic II's opprobrium. When Columbanus' students began to be murdered in the woods, Columbanus decided to cross the Alps into Lombardy.

Gallus remained in this area until his death in 646. About seventy years later at the place of Gallus' cell the Abbey of Saint Gall was founded. The city of St. Gallen originated as an adjoining settlement of the abbey.

Lombardy (612–615)
Columbanus arrived in Milan in 612 and was welcomed by King Agilulf and Queen Theodelinda of the Lombards. He immediately began refuting the teachings of Arianism, which had enjoyed a degree of acceptance in Italy. He wrote a treatise against Arianism, which has since been lost. In 614, Agilulf granted Columbanus land for a school at the site of a ruined church at Bobbio.

At the king's request, Columbanus wrote a letter to Pope Boniface IV on the controversy over the Three Chapters – writings by Syrian bishops suspected of Nestorianism, which had been condemned in the fifth century as heresy. Pope Gregory I had tolerated in Lombardy those persons who defended the Three Letters, among them King Agilulf. Columbanus agreed to take up the issue on behalf of the king. The letter has a diplomatic tone and begins with an apology that a "foolish Scot" (Scottus, Irishman) would be writing for a Lombard king. After acquainting the pope with the imputations brought against him, he entreats the pontiff to prove his orthodoxy and assemble a council. When critiquing Boniface, he writes that his freedom of speech is consistent with the custom of his country. Some of the language used in the letter might now be regarded as disrespectful, but in that time, faith and austerity could be more indulgent. Columbanus was tactful when making critiques, as he begins the letter expresses with the most affectionate and impassioned devotion to the Holy See.

"We Irish, though dwelling at the far ends of the earth, are all disciples of Saint Peter and Saint Paul ... we are bound to the Chair of Peter, and although Rome is great and renowned, through that Chair alone is she looked on as great and illustrious among us ... On account of the two Apostles of Christ, you are almost celestial, and Rome is the head of the whole world, and of the Churches."

Later, he reveals charges against the Papacy so as to encourage Boniface to make concessions:

"For, as I hear, you are alleged to favour heretics—God forbid men should believe that this has been, is, or shall be true. For they say that Eutyches, Nestorius, and Dioscorus, old heretics as we know, were favoured at some Council, at the fifth, by Vigilius. Here, as they say, is the cause of the whole calumny; if, as is reported, you also favour thus, or if you know that even (Pope) Vigilius himself died under such a taint, why do you repeat his name against your conscience? Already it is your fault if you have erred from the true belief and made your first faith void; justly do your subordinates oppose you, and justly do they hold no communion with you."

Columbanus' deference towards Rome is sufficiently clear, calling the pope "his Lord and Father in Christ", the "Chosen Watchman", and the "First Pastor, set higher than all mortals", also asserting that "we Irish, inhabitants of the world’s edge, are disciples of Saints Peter and Paul and of all the disciples" and that "the unity of faith has produced in the whole world a unity of power and privilege."

King Agilulf gave Columbanus a tract of land called Bobbio between Milan and Genoa near the Trebbia river, situated in a defile of the Apennine Mountains, to be used as a base for the conversion of the Lombard people. The area contained a ruined church and wastelands known as Ebovium, which had formed part of the lands of the papacy prior to the Lombard invasion. Columbanus wanted this secluded place, for while enthusiastic in the instruction of the Lombards he preferred solitude for his monks and himself. Next to the little church, which was dedicated to Peter the Apostle, Columbanus erected a monastery in 614. Bobbio Abbey at its foundation followed the Rule of Saint Columbanus, based on the monastic practices of Celtic Christianity. For centuries it remained the stronghold of orthodoxy in northern Italy.

Death
During the last year of his life, Columbanus received messenges from King Chlothar II, inviting him to return to Burgundy, now that his enemies were dead. Columbanus did not return, but requested that the king should always protect his monks at Luxeuil Abbey. He prepared for death by retiring to his cave on the mountainside overlooking the Trebbia river, where, according to a tradition, he had dedicated an oratory to Our Lady. Columbanus died at Bobbio on 21 November 615 and is buried there.

Rule of Saint Columbanus
The Rule of Saint Columbanus embodied the customs of Bangor Abbey and other Irish monasteries. Much shorter than the Rule of Saint Benedict, the Rule of Saint Columbanus consists of ten chapters, on the subjects of obedience, silence, food, poverty, humility, chastity, choir offices, discretion, mortification, and perfection.

In the first chapter, Columbanus introduces the great principle of his Rule: obedience, absolute and unreserved. The words of seniors should always be obeyed, just as "Christ obeyed the Father up to death for us". One manifestation of this obedience was constant hard labour designed to subdue the flesh, exercise the will in daily self-denial, and set an example of industry in cultivation of the soil. The least deviation from the Rule entailed corporal punishment, or a severe form of fasting. In the second chapter, Columbanus instructs that the rule of silence be "carefully observed", since it is written: "But the nurture of righteousness is silence and peace". He also warns, "Justly will they be damned who would not say just things when they could, but preferred to say with garrulous loquacity what is evil". In the third chapter, Columbanus instructs, "Let the monks' food be poor and taken in the evening, such as to avoid repletion, and their drink such as to avoid intoxication, so that it may both maintain life and not harm". Columbanus continues:

"For indeed those who desire eternal rewards must only consider usefulness and use. Use of life must be moderated just as toil must be moderated, since this is true discretion, that the possibility of spiritual progress may be kept with a temperance that punishes the flesh. For if temperance exceeds measure, it will be a vice and not a virtue; for virtue maintains and retains many goods. Therefore we must fast daily, just as we must feed daily; and while we must eat daily, we must gratify the body more poorly and sparingly ..."

In the fourth chapter, Columbanus presents the virtue of poverty and of overcoming greed, and that monks should be satisfied with "small possessions of utter need, knowing that greed is a leprosy for monks". Columbanus also instructs that "nakedness and disdain of riches are the first perfection of monks, but the second is the purging of vices, the third the most perfect and perpetual love of God and unceasing affection for things divine, which follows on the forgetfulness of earthly things. Since this is so, we have need of few things, according to the word of the Lord, or even of one." In the fifth chapter, Columbanus warns against vanity, reminding the monks of Jesus' warning in Luke 16:15: "You are the ones who justify yourselves in the eyes of others, but God knows your hearts. What people value highly is detestable in God's sight." In the sixth chapter, Columbanus instructs that "a monk's chastity is indeed judged in his thoughts" and warns, "What profit is it if he be virgin in body, if he be not virgin in mind? For God, being Spirit."

In the seventh chapter, Columbanus instituted a service of perpetual prayer, known as laus perennis, by which choir succeeded choir, both day and night. In the eighth chapter, Columbanus stresses the importance of discretion in the lives of monks to avoid "the downfall of some, who beginning without discretion and passing their time without a sobering knowledge, have been unable to complete a praiseworthy life". Monks are instructed to pray to God to "illumine this way, surrounded on every side by the world's thickest darkness". Columbanus continues:

"So discretion has got its name from discerning, for the reason that it discerns in us between good and evil, and also between the moderate and the complete. For from the beginning either class has been divided like light and darkness, that is, good and evil, after evil began through the devil's agency to exist by the corruption of good, but through God's agency Who first illumines and then divides. Thus righteous Abel chose the good, but unrighteous Cain fell upon evil."

In the ninth chapter, Columbanus presents mortification as an essential element in the lives of monks, who are instructed, "Do nothing without counsel." Monks are warned to "beware of a proud independence, and learn true lowliness as they obey without murmuring and hesitation". According to the Rule, there are three components to mortification: "not to disagree in mind, not to speak as one pleases with the tongue, not to go anywhere with complete freedom". This mirrors the words of Jesus, "For I have come down from heaven not to do my will but to do the will of him who sent me." (John 6:38) In the tenth and final chapter, Columbanus regulates forms of penance (often corporal) for offences, and it is here that the Rule of Saint Columbanus differs significantly from that of Saint Benedict.

The Communal Rule of Columbanus required monks to fast every day until None or 3 p.m.; this was later relaxed and observed on designated days. Columbanus' Rule regarding diet was very strict. Monks were to eat a limited diet of beans, vegetables, flour mixed with water and small bread of a loaf, taken in the evenings.

The habit of the monks consisted of a tunic of undyed wool, over which was worn the cuculla, or cowl, of the same material. A great deal of time was devoted to various kinds of manual labour, not unlike the life in monasteries of other rules. The Rule of Saint Columbanus was approved of by the Fourth Council of Mâcon in 627, but it was superseded at the close of the century by the Rule of Saint Benedict. For several centuries in some of the greater monasteries the two rules were observed conjointly.

Character
Columbanus did not lead a perfect life. According to Jonas and other sources, he could be impetuous and even headstrong, for by nature he was eager, passionate, and dauntless. These qualities were both the source of his power and the cause of his mistakes. His virtues, however, were quite remarkable. Like many saints, he had a great love for God's creatures. Stories claim that as he walked in the woods, it was not uncommon for birds to land on his shoulders to be caressed, or for squirrels to run down from the trees and nestle in the folds of his cowl. Although a strong defender of Irish traditions, he never wavered in showing deep respect for the Holy See as the supreme authority. His influence in Europe was due to the conversions he effected and to the rule that he composed. It may be that the example and success of Columba in Caledonia inspired him to similar exertions. The life of Columbanus stands as the prototype of missionary activity in Europe, followed by such men as Kilian, Vergilius of Salzburg, Donatus of Fiesole, Wilfrid, Willibrord, Suitbert of Kaiserwerdt, Boniface, and Ursicinus of Saint-Ursanne.

Miracles
The following are the principal miracles attributed to his intercession:
 * 1) Procuring food for a sick monk and curing the wife of his benefactor
 * 2) Escaping injury while surrounded by wolves
 * 3) Causing a bear to evacuate a cave at his biddings
 * 4) Producing a spring of water near his cave
 * 5) Replenishing the Luxeuil granary
 * 6) Multiplying bread and beer for his community
 * 7) Curing sick monks, who rose from their beds at his request to reap the harvest
 * 8) Giving sight to a blind man at Orleans
 * 9) Destroying with his breath a cauldron of beer prepared for a pagan festival
 * 10) Taming a bear and yoking it to a plough

Jonas relates the occurrence of a miracle during Columbanus' time in Bregenz, when that region was experiencing a period of severe famine. "Although they were without food, they were bold and unterrified in their faith, so that they obtained food from the Lord. After their bodies had been exhausted by three days of fasting, they found so great an abundance of birds, just as the quails formerly covered the camp of the children of Israel, that the whole country near there was filled with birds. The man of God knew that this food had been scattered on the ground for his own safety and that of his brethren, and that the birds had come only because he was there. He ordered his followers first to render grateful praises to the Creator, and then to take the birds as food. And it was a wonderful and stupendous miracle; for the birds were seized according to the father's commands and did not attempt to fly away. The manna of birds remained for three days. On the fourth day, a priest from an adjacent city, warned by divine inspiration, sent a supply of grain to Saint Columban. When the supply of grain arrived, the Omnipotent, who had furnished the winged food to those in want, immediately commanded the phalanxes of birds to depart. We learned this from Eustasius, who was present with the others, under the command of the servant of God. He said that no one of them remembered ever having seen birds of such a kind before; and the food was of so pleasant savor that it surpassed royal viands. Oh, wonderful gift of divine mercy!"

Legacy
Historian Alexander O'Hara states that Columbanus had a "very strong sense of Irish identity ... He's the first person to write about Irish identity, he's the first Irish person that we have a body of literary work from, so even on that point of view he’s very important in terms of Irish identity." In 1950 a congress celebrating the 1,400th anniversary of his birth took place in Luxeuil, France. It was attended by Robert Schuman, Seán MacBride, the future Pope John XXIII, and John A. Costello who said "All statesmen of today might well turn their thoughts to St Columban and his teaching. History records that it was by men like him that civilisation was saved in the 6th century."

Columbanus is also remembered as the first Irish person to be the subject of a biography. An Italian monk named Jonas of Bobbio wrote a biography of him some twenty years after Columbanus’ death. His use of the phrase in 600 AD totius Europae (all of Europe) in a letter to Pope Gregory the Great is the first known use of the expression.

At Saint-Malo in Brittany, there is a granite cross bearing Columbanus's name to which people once came to pray for rain in times of drought. The nearby village of Saint-Coulomb commemorates him in name.

In France, the ruins of Columbanus' first monastery at Annegray are legally protected through the efforts of the Association Internationale des Amis de St Columban, which purchased the site in 1959. The association also owns and protects the site containing the cave, which served as Columbanus' cell, and the holy well that he created nearby. At Luxeuil-les-Bains, the Basilica of Saint Peter stands on the site of Columbanus' first church. A statue near the entrance, unveiled in 1947, shows him denouncing the immoral life of King Theuderic II. Formally an abbey church, the basilica contains old monastic buildings, which have been used as a minor seminary since the nineteenth century. It is dedicated to Columbanus and houses a bronze statue of him in its courtyard.

Luxeuil Abbey, described in the Catholic Encyclopedia as "the nursery of saints and apostles", produced sixty-three apostles who carried his rule, together with the Gospel, into France, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. These disciples of Columbanus are credited with founding more than a hundred different monasteries. The canton and town still bearing the name of St. Gallen testify to how well one of his disciples succeeded.

Bobbio Abbey became a renowned center of learning in the Early Middle Ages, so famous that it rivaled the monastic community at Monte Cassino in wealth and prestige. St. Attala continued St. Columbanus' work at Bobbio, proselytizing and collecting religious texts for the abbey's library. In Lombardy, San Colombano al Lambro in Milan, San Colombano Belmonte in Turin, and San Colombano Certénoli in Genoa all take their names from the saint.

In 2024, the XXV International Meeting of Columban Associations for the “Columban’s Day 2024” took place in Piacenza, Italy. The Holy Father said Columbanus enhanced the Catholic Church. “The life and labours of the Columban monks proved decisive for the preservation and renewal of European culture,” he said.

The Missionary Society of Saint Columban, founded in 1916, and the Missionary Sisters of St. Columban, founded in 1924, are both dedicated to Columbanus.

Veneration
The remains of Columbanus are preserved in the crypt at Bobbio Abbey. Many miracles have been credited to his intercession. In 1482, the relics were placed in a new shrine and laid beneath the altar of the crypt. The sacristy at Bobbio possesses a portion of the skull of Columbanus, his knife, wooden cup, bell, and an ancient water vessel, formerly containing sacred relics and said to have been given to him by Pope Gregory I. According to some authorities, twelve teeth of Columbanus were taken from the tomb in the fifteenth century and kept in the treasury, but these have since disappeared.

Columbanus is named in the Roman Martyrology on 23 November, which is his feast day in Ireland. His feast is observed by the Benedictines on 21 November. In art, Columbanus is represented bearded bearing the monastic cowl, holding in his hand a book with an Irish satchel, and standing in the midst of wolves. Sometimes he is depicted in the attitude of taming a bear, or with sun-beams over his head.

An Anglican bishop suggested Columbanus as a patron of motorcyclists because of his extensive travels through Europe during his lifetime. His patronage was declared by the Vatican in 2002.

title: Columbanus


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Concord, New Hampshire

Concord is the capital city of the U.S. state of New Hampshire and the seat of Merrimack County. As of the 2020 census the population was 43,976, making it the 3rd most populous city in New Hampshire after Manchester and Nashua.

The area was first settled by Europeans in 1659. On January 17, 1725, the Province of Massachusetts Bay granted the Concord area as the Plantation of Penacook, and it was incorporated on February 9, 1734 as the Town of Rumford. Governor Benning Wentworth gave the city its current name in 1765 following a boundary dispute with the neighboring town of Bow; the name was meant to signify the new harmony between the two towns. In 1808, Concord was named the official seat of state government, and the State House was completed in 1819; it remains the oldest U.S. state capitol wherein the legislature meets in its original chambers.

Concord is entirely within the Merrimack River watershed and the city is centered on the river. The Merrimack runs from northwest to southeast through the city. The city's eastern boundary is formed by the Soucook River, which separates Concord from the town of Pembroke. The Turkey River passes through the southwestern quarter of the city. The city consists of its downtown, including the North End and South End neighborhoods, along with the four villages of Penacook, Concord Heights, East Concord, and West Concord. Penacook sits along the Contoocook River, just before it flows into the Merrimack.

As of 2020, the top employer in the city was the State of New Hampshire, and the largest private employer was Concord Hospital. Concord is home to the University of New Hampshire School of Law, New Hampshire's only law school; St. Paul's School, a private preparatory school; NHTI, a two-year community college; the New Hampshire Police Academy; and the New Hampshire Fire Academy. Concord's Old North Cemetery is the final resting place of Franklin Pierce, 14th President of the United States.

Interstate 89 and Interstate 93 are the two main interstate highways serving the city, and general aviation access is via Concord Municipal Airport. The nearest airport with commercial air service is Manchester–Boston Regional Airport, 23 mi to the south. There has been no passenger rail service to Concord since 1981. Historically, the Boston and Maine Railroad served the city.

History
The area that would become Concord was originally settled thousands of years ago by Abenaki Native Americans called the Pennacook. The tribe fished for migrating salmon, sturgeon, and alewives with nets strung across the rapids of the Merrimack River. The stream was also the transportation route for their birch bark canoes, which could travel from Lake Winnipesaukee to the Atlantic Ocean. The broad sweep of the Merrimack River valley floodplain provided good soil for farming beans, gourds, pumpkins, melons and maize.

The area was first settled by Europeans in 1659 as Penacook, after the Abenaki word "pannukog" meaning "bend in the river," referencing the steep bends of the Merrimack River through the area. On January 17, 1725, the Province of Massachusetts Bay, which then claimed territories west of the Merrimack, granted the Concord area as the Plantation of Penacook. It was settled between 1725 and 1727 by Captain Ebenezer Eastman and others from Haverhill, Massachusetts. On February 9, 1734, the town was incorporated as "Rumford", from which Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, would take his title. It was renamed "Concord" in 1765 by Governor Benning Wentworth following a bitter boundary dispute between Rumford and the town of Bow; the city name was meant to reflect the new concord, or harmony, between the disputant towns. Citizens displaced by the resulting border adjustment were given land elsewhere as compensation. In 1779, New Pennacook Plantation was granted to Timothy Walker Jr. and his associates at what would be incorporated in 1800 as Rumford, Maine, the site of Pennacook Falls.

Concord grew in prominence throughout the 18th century, and some of the earliest houses from this period survive at the northern end of Main Street. In the years following the Revolution, Concord's central geographical location made it a logical choice for the state capital, particularly after Samuel Blodget in 1807 opened a canal and lock system to allow vessels passage around the Amoskeag Falls downriver, connecting Concord with Boston by way of the Middlesex Canal. In 1808, Concord was named the official seat of state government, and in 1816 architect Stuart Park was commissioned to design a new capitol building for the state legislature on land sold to the state by local Quakers. Construction on the State House was completed in 1819, and it remains the oldest capitol in the nation in which the state's legislative branches meet in their original chambers. Concord was also named the seat of Merrimack County in 1823, and the Merrimack County Courthouse was constructed in 1857 in the North End at the site of the Old Town House.

In the early 19th century, much of the city's economy was dominated by furniture-making, printing, and granite quarrying; granite had become a popular building material for many monumental halls in the early United States, and Concord granite was used in the construction of both the New Hampshire State House and the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. In 1828, Lewis Downing joined J. Stephens Abbot to form Abbot and Downing. Their most famous product was their Concord coach, widely used in the development of the American West, and their enterprise largely boosted and changed the city economy in the mid-19th century. In subsequent years, Concord would also become a hub for the railroad industry, with Penacook a textile manufacturing center using water power from the Contoocook River. The city also around this time started to become a center for the emerging healthcare industry, with New Hampshire State Hospital opening in 1842 as one of the first psychiatric hospitals in the United States. The State Hospital continued to expand throughout the following decades, and in 1891 Concord Hospital opened its doors as Margaret Pillsbury General Hospital, the first general hospital in the state of New Hampshire.

Concord's economy changed once again in the 20th century with the declining railroad and textile industry. The city developed into a center for national politics due to New Hampshire's first-in-the-nation primary, and many presidential candidates still visit the Concord area during campaign season. The city also developed an identity within the emerging space industry, with the McAuliffe-Shepard Discovery Center opening in 1990 to commemorate Alan Shepard, the first American in space from nearby Derry, and Christa McAuliffe, a teacher at Concord High School who died in the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. Today, Concord remains a center for politics, law, healthcare, and insurance companies.

Geography
Concord is located in south-central New Hampshire at 43.20667°N, -71.53806°W (43.2070, −71.5371). It is 38 mi north of the Massachusetts border, 40 mi west of the Maine border, 54 mi east of the Vermont border, and 170 mi south of the Canadian border at Pittsburg.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 174.0 sqkm. 165.7 sqkm of it are land and 8.4 sqkm of it are water, comprising 4.81% of the city. Concord is drained by the Merrimack River. Penacook Lake, the largest lake in the city and its main source of water, is in the west. The highest point in Concord is 860 ft above sea level on Oak Hill, just west of the hill's 970 ft summit in neighboring Loudon.

Concord lies fully within the Merrimack River watershed and is centered on the river, which runs from northwest to southeast through the city. Downtown is located on a low terrace to the west of the river, with residential neighborhoods climbing hills to the west and extending southwards towards the town of Bow. To the east of the Merrimack, atop a 100 ft bluff, is a flat, sandy plain known as Concord Heights, which has seen most of the city's commercial development since 1960. The eastern boundary of Concord (with the town of Pembroke) is formed by the Soucook River, a tributary of the Merrimack. The Turkey River winds through the southwestern quarter of the city, passing through the campus of St. Paul's School before entering the Merrimack River in Bow. In the northern part of the city, the Contoocook River enters the Merrimack at the village of Penacook.

Concord is 16 mi north of Manchester, New Hampshire's largest city, and 66 mi north of Boston.

Villages
The city of Concord is made up of its downtown, including its North End and South End neighborhoods, plus the four distinct villages of Penacook, Concord Heights, East Concord, and West Concord.

Adjacent municipalities

 * Canterbury (north)
 * Loudon (northeast)
 * Pembroke (southeast)
 * Bow (south)
 * Hopkinton (west)
 * Webster (northwest)
 * Boscawen (north-northwest)

Climate
Concord, as with much of New England, is within the humid continental climate zone (Köppen Dfb), with long, cold, snowy winters, warm (and at times humid) summers, and relatively brief autumns and springs. In winter, successive storms deliver moderate to at times heavy snowfall amounts, contributing to the relatively reliable snow cover. In addition, lows reach below 0 °F on an average 15 nights per year, and the city straddles the border between USDA Hardiness Zone 5b and 6a. However, thaws are frequent, with one to three days per month with 50 °F+ highs from December to February. Summer can bring stretches of humid conditions as well as thunderstorms, and there is an average of 12 days of 90 °F+ highs annually. The window for freezing temperatures on average begins on September 27 and expires on May 14.

The monthly daily average temperature range from 20.6 °F in January to 70.0 °F in July. Temperature extremes have ranged from -37 °F in February 1943 to 102 °F in July 1966.

Demographics
As of the census of 2020, there were 43,976 people residing in the city. The population density was 687.7 /mi2. At the 2010 Census there were 42,695 residents and 10,052 families in the city, as well as 18,852 housing units at an average density of 293.2 /mi2. The racial makeup of the city in 2020 was 84.5% White, 4.9% Black or African American, 1.0% Native American, 4.9% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.4% from some other race, and 1.8% from two or more races. 4.9% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

In 2010 there were 17,592 households, out of which 28.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.3% were headed by married couples living together, 11.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.9% were non-families. 33.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.0% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26, and the average family size was 2.90.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 20.7% under the age of 18, 9.3% from 18 to 24, 28.0% from 25 to 44, 28.2% from 45 to 64, and 13.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39.4 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.9 males.

For the period 2009–2011, the estimated median annual income for a household in the city was $52,695, and the median income for a family was $73,457. Male full-time workers had a median income of $49,228 versus $38,782 for females. The per capita income for the city was $29,296. About 5.5% of families and 10.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.4% of those under age 18 and 5.5% of those age 65 or over.

Top employers
In 2020, the top employer in the city remained the State of New Hampshire, with over 6,000 employed workers, while the largest private employer was Concord Hospital, with just under 3,000 employees. According to the City of Concord's Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top 10 employers in the city for the Fiscal Year 2020 were:

Highways
Interstate 89 and Interstate 93 are the two main interstate highways serving Concord, and join just south of the city limits. Interstate 89 links Concord with Lebanon and the state of Vermont to the northwest, while Interstate 93 connects the city to Plymouth, Littleton, and the White Mountains to the north and Manchester and Boston to the south. Interstate 393 is a spur highway leading east from Concord and merging with U.S. Route 4 as a direct route to New Hampshire's Seacoast region. North-south U.S. Route 3 serves as Concord's Main Street, while U.S. Route 202 and New Hampshire Route 9 cross the city from east to west. State routes 13 and 132 also serve the city: Route 13 leads southwest out of Concord towards Goffstown and Milford, while Route 132 travels north parallel to Interstate 93. New Hampshire Route 106 passes through the easternmost part of Concord, crossing I-393 and NH 9 before crossing the Soucook River south into the town of Pembroke. To the north, NH 106 leads to Loudon, Belmont and Laconia.

Railroads
Historically, Concord served as an important railroad terminal and station for the Boston and Maine Railroad. The former Concord Station was located at what is now a Burlington department store on Storrs Street. The station itself was built in 1860, but the fourth and most famous iteration of the station was built in 1885, which had a brick head house designed by Bradford L. Gilbert. The head house was demolished in 1959 and replaced by a smaller "McGinnis Era" station. By 1967, all passenger rail services to Concord had been discontinued. For 13 months from 1980 to 1981, MBTA Commuter Rail ran two round trips a day between Boston and Concord. The service was discontinued after federal funding was pulled by the Reagan administration. Since then, there has not been any passenger rail service to Concord.

In 2021, Amtrak announced their plan to implement new service between Boston and Concord by 2035.

Bus
Local bus service is provided by Concord Area Transit (CAT), with three routes through the city. Regional bus service provided by Concord Coach Lines and Greyhound Lines is available from the Concord Transportation Center at 30 Stickney Avenue next to Exit 14 on Interstate 93, with service south to Boston and points in between, as well as north to Littleton and northeast to Berlin.

Other modes
General aviation services are available through Concord Municipal Airport, located 2 mi east of downtown. There is no commercial air service within the city limits; the nearest such airport is Manchester–Boston Regional Airport, 23 mi to the south.

Complete Streets Improvement Project
Concord's downtown underwent a significant renovation between 2015 and 2016, during the city's "Complete Streets Improvement Project". At a proposed cost of $12 million, the project promised to deliver on categories of maintenance to aging infrastructure, improved accessibility, increased sustainability, a safer experience for walkers, bikers and motorists alike, and to stimulate economic growth in an increasingly idle downtown. The main infrastructural change was reducing the four-lane street (two in each direction) to two lanes plus a turning lane in the center. The freed-up space would contribute to extra width for bikes to ride in either direction, increased curb size and an added median where there is no need for a turning lane. Concord opted to add shared lane markings for bikes, rather than a dedicated protected bike lane.

By adding curb space, this project created new opportunities for pedestrians to enjoy the downtown. Many power lines were buried, and street trees, colorful benches, art installations, and other green spaces were added, all allowing people to reclaim a space long dominated by cars. Main Street underwent serious traffic calming, including a road diet, increased diagonal parking, widening sidewalks, adding shared lane markings, adding trees, texturing medians and coloring crosswalks red. Another aspect of the new construction was adding heated sidewalk capabilities, utilizing excess steam from the local Concord Steam plant, and minimizing sand and snow blowing needed during the winter months.

Funding for Complete Streets came from a combination of $4,710,000 from a USDOT TIGER grant and the rest from the City of Concord. The project was initially proposed as costing $7,850,000, but ran over budget due to overambitious ideas. After scrapping some of the most expensive offenders, the budget ended up at $14.2 million, with the project actually coming in $1.1 million below that. Although adding final aesthetic touches with the extra money were debated, the city council ended up deciding to save for financially straining years ahead. The design was carried out by McFarland Johnson, IBI Group, and City of Concord Engineering.

Government
Concord is governed via the council-manager system. The city council consists of a mayor and 14 councilors, ten of which are elected to two-year terms representing each of the city wards, while the other four are elected at-large to four-year terms. The mayor is elected directly every two years. The current mayor as of 2024 is Byron Champlin, who was elected on November 7, 2023, with more than 75% of the vote.

According to the Concord city charter, the mayor chairs the council, however has very few formal powers over the day-to-day management of the city. The actual operations of the city are overseen by the city manager, currently Thomas J. Aspell, Jr. The current police chief is Bradley S. Osgood.

In the New Hampshire Senate, Concord is in the 15th District, represented by Democrat Becky Whitley since December 2020. On the New Hampshire Executive Council, Concord is in the 2nd District, represented by Cinde Warmington, the sole Democrat on the council. In the United States House of Representatives, Concord is in New Hampshire's 2nd congressional district, represented by Democrat Ann McLane Kuster.

New Hampshire Department of Corrections operates the New Hampshire State Prison for Men and New Hampshire State Prison for Women in Concord.

Concord leans strongly Democratic in presidential elections; the last Republican nominee to carry the city was then Vice President George H. W. Bush in 1988. Voter turnout was 72.7% in the 2020 general election, down from 76.2% in 2016, but still above the 2020 national turnout of 66.7%.

Media
Newspapers and journals
 * Concord Monitor (daily)
 * Concord NH Patch (daily)
 * New Hampshire Bulletin (daily)
 * The Concord Insider (weekly)
 * The Hippo (weekly)

Radio
 * WKXL 1450 AM (News Talk Information)
 * WNHN-LP 94.7 FM (Jazz, Blues, Progressive Talk)
 * WEVO 89.1 FM (Public radio)
 * WJYY 105.5 FM (Top 40)
 * WAKC 102.3 FM (Contemporary Christian)
 * WICX 102.7 FM (Catholic Radio)

The city is otherwise served by Manchester area stations. New Hampshire Public Radio is headquartered in Concord.

Television
 * WPXG-TV (Channel 21) (Ion Television)
 * Concord TV Public-access television cable TV station

Sites of interest

The New Hampshire State House, designed by architect Stuart Park and constructed between 1815 and 1818, is the oldest state house in which the legislature meets in its original chambers. The building was remodeled in 1866, and the third story and west wing were added in 1910.

Across from the State House is the Eagle Hotel on Main Street, which has been a downtown landmark since its opening in 1827. U.S. Presidents Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford Hayes, and Benjamin Harrison all dined there, and Franklin Pierce spent the night before departing for his inauguration. Other well-known guests included Jefferson Davis, Charles Lindbergh, Eleanor Roosevelt, Richard M. Nixon (who carried New Hampshire in all three of his presidential bids), and Thomas E. Dewey. The hotel closed in 1961.

South from the Eagle Hotel on Main Street is Phenix Hall, which replaced "Old" Phenix Hall, which burned in 1893. Both the old and new buildings featured multi-purpose auditoriums used for political speeches, theater productions, and fairs. Abraham Lincoln spoke at the old hall in 1860; Theodore Roosevelt, at the new hall in 1912.

North on Main Street is the Walker-Woodman House, also known as the Reverend Timothy Walker House, the oldest standing two-story house in Concord. It was built for the Reverend Timothy Walker between 1733 and 1735.

On the north end of Main Street is the Pierce Manse, in which President Franklin Pierce lived in Concord before and following his presidency. The mid-1830s Greek Revival house was moved from Montgomery Street to North Main Street in 1971 to prevent its demolition.

Beaver Meadow Golf Course, located in the northern part of Concord, is one of the oldest golf courses in New England. Besides this golf course, other important sporting venues in Concord include Everett Arena and Memorial Field.

The SNOB (Somewhat North Of Boston) Film Festival, started in the fall of 2002, brings independent films and filmmakers to Concord and has provided an outlet for local filmmakers to display their films. SNOB Film Festival was a catalyst for the building in 2007 of Red River Theatres, a locally owned, nonprofit, independent cinema named after the 1948 film featuring John Wayne.

Other sites of interest include the Capitol Center for the Arts, the New Hampshire Historical Society, which has two facilities in Concord, and the McAuliffe-Shepard Discovery Center, a science museum named after Christa McAuliffe, the Concord teacher who died during the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986, and Alan Shepard, the Derry-born astronaut who was the second person and first American in space as well as the fifth and oldest person to walk on the Moon.

Public schools
Concord's public schools are within the Concord School District, except for schools in the Penacook area of the city, which are within the Merrimack Valley School District, a district which also includes several towns north of Concord. The only public high school in the Concord School District is Concord High School, which had about 1,450 students as of Fall 2023. The only public middle school in the Concord School District is Rundlett Middle School, which had roughly 770 students as of Fall 2023. Concord School District's elementary schools underwent a major re-configuration in 2012, with three newly constructed schools opening and replacing six previous schools. Kimball School and Walker School were replaced by Christa McAuliffe School on the Kimball School site, Conant School (and Rumford School, which closed a year earlier) were replaced by Abbot-Downing School at the Conant site, and Eastman and Dame schools were replaced by Mill Brook School, serving kindergarten through grade two, located next to Broken Ground Elementary School, serving grades three to five. Beaver Meadow School, the remaining elementary school, was unaffected by the changes.

Concord schools in the Merrimack Valley School District include Merrimack Valley High School and Merrimack Valley Middle School, which are adjacent to each other and to Rolfe Park in Penacook village, and Penacook Elementary School, just south of the village.

Private and charter schools
Concord has two parochial schools, Bishop Brady High School and Saint John Regional School.

Other area private schools include Concord Christian Academy, Parker Academy, Trinity Christian School, and Shaker Road School. Also in Concord is St. Paul's School, a boarding school located in the city's West End neighborhood.

Post-secondary schools
Concord is home to New Hampshire Technical Institute, the city's primary community college, and Granite State College, which offers online two-year and four-year degrees. The University of New Hampshire School of Law is located near downtown, and the Franklin Pierce University Doctorate of Physical Therapy program also has a location in the city. Concord Hospital recently announced plans to open a joint program with the New England College School of Nursing as part of their Bachelor of Nursing degree. Concord is also a major clinical site of Dartmouth College's Geisel School of Medicine, New Hampshire's only medical school.

title: Concord, New Hampshire


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Chlorophyceae

The Chlorophyceae are one of the classes of green algae, distinguished mainly on the basis of ultrastructural morphology. They are usually green due to the dominance of pigments chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. The chloroplast may be discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral- or ribbon-shaped in different species. Most of the members have one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids located in the chloroplast. Pyrenoids contain protein besides starch. Some green algae may store food in the form of oil droplets. They usually have a cell wall made up of an inner layer of cellulose and outer layer of pectose.

General characteristics

 * the body may be unicellular, colonial, filamentous or multicellular.
 * They are usually green due to the presence of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and beta-carotene.
 * The chloroplast may be discoid, cup-shaped (e.g. Chlamydomonas), spiral or ribbon shaped
 * Most chlorophytes have one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids (central proteinaceous body covered with a starch sheath) that are localised around the chloroplast.
 * The inner cell wall layer is made of cellulose and the outer layer of pectose.
 * Asexual reproduction is by zoospores. They are flagellates produced from the parent cells by mitosis. Also by aplanospores, hypnospores, akinetes, Palmella stage, etc.
 * Sexual reproduction of Chlorophyceae is isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous.
 * The chlorophycean CW clade, and chlorophycean DO clade, are defined by the arrangement of their flagella. Members of the CW clade have flagella that are displaced in a "clockwise" (CW, 1–7 o'clock) direction e.g. Chlamydomonadales. Members of the DO clade have flagella that are "directly opposed" (DO, 12–6 o'clock) e.g. Sphaeropleales.

Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction usually takes place by fragmentation. Asexual reproduction is by flagellated zoospores. And haplospore, perennation (akinate and palmella stage). Asexual reproduction by mitospore absent in spyrogyra. Sexual reproduction shows considerable variation in the type and formation of sex cells and it may be isogamous e.g. Chlamydomonas, Ulothrix, anisogamous e.g. Chlamydomonas, Eudorina or Oogamous e.g. Chlamydomonas, Volvox. Chlamydomonas has all three types of sexual reproduction. They share many similarities with the higher plants, including the presence of asymmetrical flagellated cells, the breakdown of the nuclear envelope at mitosis, and the presence of phytochromes, flavonoids, and the chemical precursors to the cuticle.

The sole method of reproduction in Chlorella is asexual and azoosporic. The content of the cell divides into 2,4 (B), 8(C) sometimes daughter protoplasts. Each daughter protoplast rounds off to form a non-motile spore. These autospores (spores having the same distinctive shape as the parent cell) are liberated by the rupture of the parent cell wall (D). On release each autospore grows to become a new individual. The presence of sulphur in the culture medium is considered essential for cell division. It takes place even in the dark with sulphur alone as the source material but under light conditions nitrogen also required in addition. Pearsal and Loose (1937) reported the occurrence of motile cells in Chlorella. Bendix (1964) also observed that Chlorella produces motile cells which might be gametes. These observations have an important bearing on the concept of the life cycle of Chlorella, which at present is considered to be strictly asexual in character.

Asexual reproduction in Chlorella ellipsoides has been studied in detail and the following four phases have been observed during the asexual reproduction.

(i) Growth Phase - During this phase the cells grow in size by utilizing the photosynthetic products.

(ii) Ripening phase - In this phase the cells mature and prepare themselves for division.

(iii) Post ripening phase - During this phase, each mature cell divides twice either in dark or in light. The cells formed in dark are known as dark to light phase, cells again grow in size.

(iv) Division Phase - During this phase the parent cell wall ruptures and unicells are released.

Orders
, AlgaeBase accepted the following orders in the class Chlorophyceae:
 * Chaetopeltidales C.J.O'Kelly, Shin Watanabe, & G.L.Floyd – 16 species
 * Chaetophorales Wille – 225 species
 * Chlamydomonadales F.E.Fritsch (also known as Volvocales) – 1793 species
 * Oedogoniales Heering – 792 species
 * Sphaeropleales Luerssen – 941 species

Along with these genera, AlgaeBase recognizes several taxa that are incertae sedis (i.e. unplaced to an order):
 * Dangeardinellaceae Ettl - 1 species

Other orders that have been recognized include:
 * Dunaliellales – Dunaliella and Dunaliellaceae are placed in Chlamydomonadales by AlgaeBase
 * Chlorococcales – Chlorococcum and Chlorococcaceae are placed in Chlamydomonadales by AlgaeBase
 * Microsporales – Microspora and Microsporaceae are placed in Sphaeropleales by AlgaeBase
 * Tetrasporales – Tetraspora and Tetrasporaceae are placed in Chlamydomonadales by AlgaeBase

In older classifications, the term Chlorophyceae is sometimes used to apply to all the green algae except the Charales, and the internal division is considerably different.

title: Chlorophyceae


text:
Cyril

Cyril (also Cyrillus or Cyryl) is a masculine given name. It is derived from the Greek name Κύριλλος (Kýrillos), meaning 'lordly, masterful', which in turn derives from Greek κυριος (kýrios) 'lord'. There are various variant forms of the name Cyril such as Cyrill, Cyrille, Ciril, Kirill, Kiryl, Kirillos, Kyrylo, Kiril, Kiro, Kyril, Kyrill and Quirrel.

It may also refer to:

Christian patriarchs or bishops

 * Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 313 – 386), theologian and bishop
 * Cyril of Alexandria (c. 376 – 444), Patriarch of Alexandria
 * Cyril the Philosopher (826–869), co-invented the Slavic alphabet (Glagolitic) and translated the Bible into Old Church Slavonic; namesake of the Cyrillic alphabet
 * Pope Cyril II of Alexandria, reigned 1078–1092
 * Greek Patriarch Cyril II of Alexandria, reigned in the 12th century
 * Cyril of Turaw (1130–1182), Belarusian bishop and orthodox saint
 * Pope Cyril III of Alexandria, reigned 1235–1243
 * Cyril, Metropolitan of Moscow (died 1572), Metropolitan of Moscow and all Rus' from 1568 to 1572
 * Cyril Lucaris (Patriarch Cyril I of Constantinople), reigned for six terms between 1612 and 1638
 * Cyril II of Constantinople, patriarch in 1633, 1635–1636, 1638–1639
 * Patriarch Cyril III of Constantinople, patriarch in 1652 and 1654
 * Cyril IV of Constantinople, patriarch 1711–1713
 * Cyril V Zaim, Melkite patriarch of Antioch died 1720
 * Cyril VI Tanas, Melkite patriarch of Antioch 1724–1760
 * Patriarch Cyril V of Constantinople, patriarch in 1748–1751, 1752–1757
 * Cyril VII Siaj, Melkite patriarch of Antioch 1794–1796
 * Patriarch Cyril VI of Constantinople, patriarch in 1813–1818
 * Cyril, Metropolitan of Belgrade, Metropolitan of Belgrade during 1825–1827
 * Patriarch Cyril II of Jerusalem, reigned 1845–1875
 * Patriarch Cyril VII of Constantinople, patriarch in 1855–1860
 * Pope Cyril IV of Alexandria, reigned 1854–1861
 * Pope Cyril V of Alexandria, reigned 1874–1921
 * Cyril VIII Jaha, Melkite patriarch of Antioch 1902–1916
 * Cyril IX Moghabghab, Melkite patriarch of Antioch 1925–1946
 * Patriarch Cyril of Bulgaria, reigned 1953–1971
 * Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria, reigned 1959–1971

Other individuals

 * Cyrillus, 5th-century Greek jurist
 * Cyril Abiteboul (born 1977), French motor racing engineer and manager, formerly the managing director of Renault Sport F1 Team
 * Cyril Almeida, Pakistani journalist
 * Cyril Eugene Attygalle, Sri Lankan Sinhala politician
 * Cyril Benson, founder of British company Bensons for Beds
 * Cyril Bourlon de Rouvre (born 1945), French businessman and politician
 * Sir Cyril Burt (1883–1971), psychologist
 * Cyril Connolly (1903–1974), English literary critic and writer
 * Cyril Delevanti (1889–1975), British actor
 * Cyril Despres (born 1974), French motorcycle rider
 * Cyril De Zoysa (1896–1978), Sri Lankan businessman and Buddhist revivalist
 * Cyril Dissanayaka, Sri Lankan Sinhala senior police officer
 * Cyril Dodd (1844–1913), British politician
 * Cyril Domoraud (born 1971), Ivorian football player (senior career 1992–2008) who played for the Côte d'Ivoire national team (1995–2006)
 * Cyril Fernando (1895–1974), Sri Lankan Sinhala clinician and researcher
 * Cyril Fletcher (1913–2005), English comedian, actor and businessman
 * Ciryl Gane (born 1990), French mixed martial artist, former interim UFC heavyweight champion
 * Cyril Gautier (born 1987), French racing cyclist
 * Cyril Goulden (1897–1981), Welsh/Canadian geneticist, statistician, and agronomist
 * Cyril Grayson (born 1993), American football player
 * Cyril Haran (1931–2014), Gaelic footballer and manager, priest, scholar and schoolteacher
 * Cyril Stanley Harrison (1915–1998), English cricketer
 * Cyril Leo Heraclius, Prince Toumanoff (born Toumanishvili) (1913–1997), Russian-born historian and genealogist who was a Professor Emeritus at Georgetown University
 * Cyril Herath (died 2011), Inspector-General of Sri Lanka Police from 1985 to 1988
 * Cyril Jordan (born 1948), American guitarist and founder of the Flamin' Groovies
 * Cyril Keeper (born 1943), Canadian politician
 * Cyril Knowles (1944–1991), English footballer
 * C. M. Kornbluth (1923–1958), American science fiction author
 * Cyril Lawrence (1920–2020), English footballer
 * Cyril Lewis (1909–1999), Welsh footballer
 * Sister M. Cyril Mooney (1936–2023), educational innovator in India
 * Cyril Nicholas (1898–1961), Sri Lankan Burgher army captain, civil servant, and forester
 * Elder Cyril Pavlov (1919–2017), Russian Orthodox Christian monk, mystic and wonder-worker
 * Cyril Pearl (1904–1987), Australian journalist
 * Cyril Perkins (1911–2013), English cricketer
 * Cyril C. Perera (1923–2016), Sri Lankan Sinhala author, translator of world literature into Sinhala
 * Cyril E. S. Perera (1892–1968), Sri Lankan Sinhala member of the Ceylon House of Representatives
 * Cyril Pinto Jayatilake Seneviratne (1918–1984), Sri Lankan Sinhala military officer and politician
 * Cyril Ponnamperuma (1923–1994), Sri Lankan Sinhala scientist in the fields of chemical evolution and the origin of life
 * Cyril Ramaphosa (born 1952), South African president, businessman, and trade unionist
 * Cyril Ranatunga, Sri Lankan Sinhala army general
 * Cyril Richardson (born 1990), American football player
 * Cyril Riley, known mononymously as Cyril, an Australian musician, best known for his version of "Stumblin' In"
 * Cyril Rioli (born 1989), Australian rules footballer
 * Cyril Smith (1928–2010), English Liberal politician
 * Cyril Symes (born 1943), Canadian politician
 * Cyril Takayama (born 1973), American-Japanese magician
 * Cyril Wickramage (born 1932), Sri Lankan Sinhala actor, director, and vocalist

Fictional characters

 * Cyril "Blakey" Blake, the bus depot inspector from the 1970s British comedy TV series On the Buses
 * Cyril Fielding, character in E. M. Forster's novel A Passage to India
 * Cyril Figgis, character in the TV series Archer
 * Cyril Gray, character from the film Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang, played by Eros Vlahos
 * Cyril Kinnear, the menacing and urbane mastermind from the 1971 British crime film Get Carter
 * Cyril Orchard, the murder victim in the 1948 Nero Wolfe mystery And Be a Villain
 * Cyril Playfair, the reverend from the 1952 film The Quiet Man
 * Cyril Proudbottom, Mr. Toad's horse from the 1949 film The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad
 * Cyril O'Reily, character from television series Oz
 * Cyril Sneer, the villain aardvark of the 1980s cartoon series The Raccoons
 * Cyril Woodcock, from the film Phantom Thread, played by Lesley Manville
 * Cyril the Fogman, a character from the television series Thomas & Friends
 * Cyril, a character from Doctor Who
 * Cyril, a character from Fire Emblem: Three Houses
 * Cyril the Ice Dragon, from The Legend of Spyro
 * Cyril the Squirrel, from Maisy
 * Cyril, the main character in The Heart's Invisible Furies by John Boyne
 * Cyril, a giant squirrel kaiju from Rampage: Total Destruction
 * Cyril Bassington-Bassington, from "Jeeves and the Chump Cyril"

title: Cyril