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Crowded House

Crowded House are a rock band, formed in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, in 1985. Its founding members were New Zealander Neil Finn (vocalist, guitarist, primary songwriter) and Australians Paul Hester (drums) and Nick Seymour (bass). Later band members included Finn's brother Tim who was in their former band together Split Enz, sons Liam and Elroy, as well as Americans Mark Hart and Matt Sherrod, with Neil Finn and Seymour being the sole constant members.

Originally active from 1985 to 1996, Crowded House had consistent commercial and critical success in Australia and New Zealand. They achieved success in the United States with their self-titled debut album, which provided the Top Ten hits "Don't Dream It's Over" and "Something So Strong". Further international success came in the UK, Europe, and South Africa in the early 1990s with their third and fourth albums (Woodface and Together Alone) and the compilation album Recurring Dream, which included the hits "Fall at Your Feet", "Weather with You", "Distant Sun", "Locked Out", "Instinct", and "Not the Girl You Think You Are". Neil and Tim Finn were each awarded an OBE in June 1993 for their contributions to the music of New Zealand.

Crowded House disbanded in 1996 following several farewell concerts that year, including the "Farewell to the World" concerts in Melbourne and Sydney. Hester died by suicide in 2005. A year later, the group re-formed with drummer Matt Sherrod and released two further albums (Time on Earth and Intriguer), each of which reached number one in Australia. The band went on another hiatus, and reunited in 2020 with a new line-up featuring Neil Finn, Nick Seymour, Mitchell Froom, and Finn's sons Liam and Elroy. Their most recent album, Gravity Stairs, was released in 2024.

As of 2021, Crowded House have sold over 15 million albums worldwide. In November 2016, the band was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame.

History
Neil Finn (vocals, guitar, piano) and drummer Paul Hester (The Cheks, Deckchairs Overboard) were former members of New Zealand band Split Enz, which spent part of 1975–6 in Australia and several years in England. Neil Finn is the younger brother of Split Enz founding member Tim Finn, who joined Crowded House in 1990 on vocals, guitars, and keyboards for the album Woodface. Bassist Nick Seymour (Plays with Marionettes, Bang, The Horla) is the younger brother of singer-songwriter and guitarist Mark Seymour of Australian rock group Hunters & Collectors.

Formation and name change (1984–1986)
Finn and Hester decided to form a new band during the first Split Enz farewell tour, "Enz with a Bang", in late 1984. Seymour approached Finn during the after party for the Melbourne show and asked if he could audition for the new band. The Mullanes formed in Melbourne in early 1985 with Finn, Hester, Seymour, and guitarist Craig Hooper (The Reels) and first performed on 11 June. They secured a record contract with Capitol Records, but Hooper left the band before the remaining trio moved to Los Angeles to record their debut album.

At Capitol's behest, the band's name was changed to Crowded House, which alluded to the lack of space at the small Hollywood Hills house they shared during the recording of the album Crowded House. Former Split Enz keyboardist Eddie Rayner produced the track "Can't Carry On" and was asked to join the band. He toured with them in 1988, but was unable to become a full member due to family commitments.

Early albums (1986–1990)
Thanks to their Split Enz connection, the newly formed Crowded House had an established Australasian fanbase. They began by playing at festivals in Australia and New Zealand and released their debut album, Crowded House, in August 1986. Capitol Records initially failed to see the band's potential and gave them only low-key promotion, forcing the band to play at small venues to try to gain attention. The album's first single, "Mean to Me", reached the Australian Kent Music Report Singles Chart top 30 in June. It failed to chart in the US, but moderate American airplay introduced US listeners to the group.

The next single, "Don't Dream It's Over", was released in October 1986 and proved an international hit, reaching number two on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number one in Canada. New Zealand radio stations initially gave the song little support until months later when it became internationally successful. Ultimately, the song reached number one on the New Zealand singles chart and number eight in Australia. It remains the group's most commercially successful song.

In March 1987, the group were awarded "Best New Talent", along with "Song of the Year" and "Best Video" awards for "Don't Dream It's Over", at the inaugural ARIA Music Awards. The video also earned the group the MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist that year. The song has often been covered by other artists and gave Paul Young a hit single in 1991. It was also used for a New Zealand Tourism Board advertisement in its "100% Pure New Zealand" worldwide promotion from October 2005. In May 2001, "Don't Dream it's Over" was voted seventh in a poll of the best Australian songs of all time by the Australasian Performing Right Association.

In June 1987, nearly a year after its release, Crowded House finally reached number one on the Kent Music Report Album Charts. It also reached number three in New Zealand and number twelve in the US. The follow-up to "Don't Dream it's Over", "Something So Strong", was another global smash, reaching the Top 10 in New Zealand America, and Canada. "World Where You Live" and "Now We're Getting Somewhere" were also released as singles with chart success.

As the band's primary songwriter, Neil Finn was under pressure to create a second album to match their debut and the band joked that one potential title for the new release was Mediocre Follow-Up. Eventually titled Temple of Low Men, their second album was released in July 1988 with strong promotion by Capitol Records. The album did not fare as well as their debut in the US, only reaching number 40 and selling around 200,000 copies, but it achieved Australasian success, reaching number one in Australia and number two in New Zealand. The first single "Better Be Home Soon" peaked at number two on both Australian and New Zealand singles charts and reached top 50 in the US, though the following four singles were less successful.

Crowded House undertook a short tour of Australia and Canada to promote the album, with Eddie Rayner on keyboards. Multi-instrumentalist Mark Hart, who would eventually become a full band member, replaced Rayner in January 1989. After the tour, Finn fired Seymour from the band. Music journalist Ed Nimmervoll claimed that Seymour's temporary departure was because Finn blamed him for causing his writer's block; however, Finn cited "artistic differences" as the reason. Seymour said that after a month he contacted Finn and they agreed that he would return to the band.

Early 1990s (1991–1994)
Crowded House took a break after the Canadian leg of the Temple of Low Men tour. Neil Finn and his brother Tim recorded songs they had co-written for their own album, Finn. Following the recording sessions with Tim, Neil began writing and recording a third Crowded House album with Hester and Seymour, but these tracks were rejected by the record company, so Neil asked Tim if Crowded House could use the Finn songs. Tim jokingly agreed on the proviso that he become a member, which Neil apparently took literally. With Tim as an official member, the band returned to the studio.

The new tracks, as well as some from the previously rejected recordings were combined to make Woodface, which was released in July 1991. The album features eight tracks co-written by Neil and Tim, which feature the brothers harmonising on lead vocals, except on the sombre "All I Ask" on which Tim sang lead. The track was later used on AIDS awareness commercials in Australia. Five of the album's tracks were Neil's solo compositions and two were by Hester, the exuberant "Italian Plastic", which became a crowd favourite at concerts and the hidden track "I'm Still Here".

"Chocolate Cake", a humorous comment on American excesses that was not taken well by some US critics and sections of the American public was released in June 1991 as the first single. Perhaps unsurprisingly it failed to chart in the US; however, it reached number two on Billboard's Modern Rock Tracks chart. The song peaked at number seven in New Zealand and reached the top 20 in Australia. The second single, "Fall at Your Feet", was less successful in Australia and New Zealand but did at least reach the US Hot 100. The album reached number one in New Zealand, number two in Australia, number six in the UK and made the top 20 in several European countries. The third single from Woodface, "Weather With You", peaked at No. 7 in early 1992 giving the band their highest UK chart placement. By contrast, the album had limited success in the US, only reaching number 83 on the Billboard 200 Album Chart and selling 225,000 copies.

Despite the success of the album, Tim Finn left Crowded House suddenly part-way through the UK leg of the Woodface tour, a few hours before the band were due to play at King Tut's Club in Glasgow on 1 November 1991. Neil Finn noted that "on stage, it just didn’t feel right for us or him. We’re very off-the-cuff and conversational, whereas Tim is into creating a spectacle and the two approaches don’t get all that well... We’d all open our mouths at the same time and then stop and go, Oh, after you. From Tim’s point of view it was quite a relief to put it all on the table, I think. For half the set he was standing there with his acoustic guitar, not really feeling part of it." Paul Hester commented that "both sides felt good about parting before it could get ugly."

Performances on the UK tour, at the Town and Country Club in London, were recorded live and given a limited release in Australia, while individual songs from those shows were released as B-sides of singles in some countries. In June 1993 the New Zealand Government recommended that the Queen award an OBE to Neil and Tim Finn for their contribution to the music of New Zealand.

For their fourth album, Together Alone, Crowded House used producer Martin Glover (aka "Youth") and invited touring musician Mark Hart (guitar and keyboards) to become a permanent band member. The album was recorded at Karekare Beach, New Zealand, which gave its name to the opening track, "Kare Kare". The album was released in October 1993 and sold well internationally on the strength of lead single "Distant Sun" and followup "Private Universe". It topped the New Zealand Album Chart, reached number 2 in Australia and number 4 in the UK. "Locked Out" was the album's first US single and received airplay on MTV and VH1. This track and "My Sharona" by The Knack, which were both included on the soundtrack of the film Reality Bites, were bundled together on a jukebox single to promote the film soundtrack.

Saying farewell (1994–1996)
Crowded House were midway through a US tour when Paul Hester quit the band on 15 April 1994. He flew home to Melbourne to await the birth of his first child and indicated that he required more time with his family. Wally Ingram, drummer for support act Sheryl Crow, temporarily filled in until a replacement, Peter Jones (ex-Harem Scarem, Vince Jones, Kate Ceberano's Septet) was found. After the tour, the Finn Brothers released their album Finn in November 1995. In June 1996, at a press conference to announce the release of their greatest hits album Recurring Dream, Neil revealed that Crowded House were to disband. The June 1996 concerts in Europe and Canada were to be their final performances.

Recurring Dream contained four songs from each of the band's studio albums, along with three new songs. The album debuted at number one in Australia, New Zealand and the UK in July 1996. Early copies included a bonus CD of live material. The album's three new songs, which were released as singles, were "Instinct", "Not the Girl You Think You Are" and "Everything Is Good for You", which featured backing vocals from Pearl Jam's Eddie Vedder. Paul Hester returned to the band to play drums on the three new tracks.

Worried that their goodbye had been too low-key and had disregarded their home fans, the band performed the Farewell to the World concert on the steps of the Sydney Opera House on 24 November 1996, which raised funds for the Sydney Children's Hospital. The concert featured the line-up of Neil Finn, Nick Seymour, Mark Hart and Paul Hester. Tim Finn and Peter Jones both made guest appearances. Support bands on the day were Custard, Powderfinger and You Am I. The concert had one of the highest live audiences in Australian history with the crowd being estimated at between 120,000 and 250,000 people. Farewell to the World was released on VHS in December 1996. In 2007, a double CD and a DVD were issued to commemorate the concert's tenth anniversary. The DVD featured newly recorded audio commentary by Finn, Hart and Seymour and other new bonus material.

Between farewell and reunion (1996–2006)
Following the 1996 break-up of Crowded House, the members embarked upon a variety of projects. Neil Finn released two solo studio albums, Try Whistling This (1998) and One Nil (2001), as well as two live albums, Sessions at West 54th (2000) and 7 Worlds Collide (2001). 7 Worlds Collide saw him performing with guest musicians including Eddie Vedder, Johnny Marr, Ed O'Brien and Phil Selway of Radiohead, Tim Finn, Sebastian Steinberg, Lisa Germano and Betchadupa (featuring his son Liam Finn). A double CD and DVD of the shows were released in November 2001.

Tim Finn had resumed his solo career after leaving the group in 1992 and he also worked with Neil on a second Finn Brothers album, Everyone Is Here, which was released in 2004. Paul Hester joined The Finn Brothers on stage for three songs at their Palais Theatre show in Melbourne at the end of 2004. Nick Seymour also joined them on stage in Dublin, where he was living, in 2004. Peter Jones and Nick Seymour joined Australian group Deadstar for their second album, Milk, in 1997. Seymour later worked as a record producer in Dublin, producing Irish group Bell X1's debut album, Neither Am I in 2000. Mark Hart rejoined Supertramp in the late 1990s and later toured with Ringo Starr & His All-Starr Band. In 2001 he released a solo album, Nada Sonata.

Paul Hester worked with children's entertainers The Wiggles, playing "Paul the Cook". He also had his own ABC show Hessie's Shed in Australia from late 1997. He formed the band Largest Living Things, which was the name rejected by Capitol Records in favour of Crowded House. It was on Hessie's Shed that Finn, Hester and Seymour last shared a stage, on an episode filmed as part of Finn's promotion for his solo album Try Whistling This in 1998. Finn and Hester performed "Not the Girl You Think You Are" with Largest Living Things, before being joined by Seymour for "Sister Madly" and a version of Paul Kelly's "Leaps and Bounds", which also featured Kelly on vocals. In late 2003, Hester hosted the series Music Max's Sessions. Hester and Seymour were reunited when they both joined singer-songwriter Matt O'Donnell's Melbourne-based group Tarmac Adam. The band released one album, 2003's Handheld Torch, which was produced by Seymour.

In May 1999, Crowded House issued a compilation of unreleased songs, Afterglow, which included the track "Recurring Dream", recorded when the group were still called The Mullanes and included Craig Hooper on guitar. The album's liner notes included information about the songs, written by music journalist David Hepworth. Some limited-release versions included a second CD with songwriting commentary by Finn. The liner notes confirmed that Crowded House had no plans to reunite at that time. A 2003 compilation album, Classic Masters, was released only in the US, while 2005 saw the release of the album She Will Have Her Way, a collection of cover versions of Crowded House, Split Enz, Tim Finn and Finn Brothers songs by Australasian female artists. The album reached the top 5 in Australia and New Zealand.

On 26 March 2005, Paul Hester was found dead. He had committed suicide by hanging himself from a tree in a park near his home in Melbourne. He was 46 years old. His obituary in The Sydney Morning Herald stated that he had fought "a long battle with depression." Following the news of Hester's death, Nick Seymour joined The Finn Brothers on stage at the Royal Albert Hall in London, where the three played in memory of Hester. A snare drum with a top hat on it stood at the front of the stage as a tribute. Writing in 2010 Neil Finn said, "When we lost Paul it was like someone pulled the rug out from underneath everything, a terrible jolt out of the dark blue. He was the best drummer I had ever played with and for many years, my closest friend."

Reunion and Time on Earth (2006–2009)
In 2006 Neil Finn asked Nick Seymour to play bass on his third solo album. Seymour agreed and the two joined up with producer and multi-instrumentalist Ethan Johns to begin recording. As the recording sessions progressed it was decided that the album would be issued under the Crowded House band name, rather than as a Neil Finn solo album. In January 2007, the group publicly announced their reformation and on 23 February, after 20 days of auditions, former Beck drummer Matt Sherrod joined Finn, Seymour and Mark Hart to complete the new line up. As Sherrod and Hart had not participated in the initial sessions, four new tracks were recorded with producer Steve Lillywhite including the album's first single "Don't Stop Now".

On 17 March 2007 the band played a live show at their rehearsal studio in front of around fifty fans, friends and family. The performance was streamed live as a webcast. The two-and-a-half-hour set included some new tracks, including "Silent House" co-written by Finn with the Dixie Chicks. A concert onboard The Thekla, moored in Bristol, followed on 19 March. Crowded House played at the Marquee Theatre in Tempe, Arizona on 26 April as a warm-up for their appearance at the Coachella Festival on 29 April in Indio, California. They played at the Australian Live Earth concert in Sydney on 7 July. The next day, Finn and Seymour were interviewed on Rove Live and the band, with Hart and Sherrod, performed "Don't Stop Now" to promote the new album, which was titled Time on Earth. The single was a minor hit in Australia and the UK. The album was released worldwide in June and July. It topped the album chart in New Zealand and made number 2 in Australia and number 3 in the UK.

On 6 December 2008 Crowded House played the Homebake festival in Sydney, with warm up gigs at small venues in Hobart, Melbourne and Sydney. For these shows the band were augmented by multi-instrumentalist Don McGlashan and Neil's younger son, Elroy Finn, on guitar. On 14 March 2009 the band joined Neil's older son, Liam Finn, on stage for three songs at the Sound Relief concert in Melbourne.

Intriguer, second split and Sydney Opera House shows (2009–2018)
Crowded House began recording their follow-up to Time on Earth in April 2009, at Finn's own Roundhead Studios. The album, Intriguer, was produced by Jim Scott who had worked on The Sun Came Out by Neil's 7 Worlds Collide project. In August 2009, Finn travelled to Los Angeles to record some overdubs at Jim Scott's Los Angeles studio before they began mixing tracks. The album was released in June 2010, in time for the band's appearance at the West Coast Blues & Roots Festival near Perth. Finn stated that the album contains some, "Unexpected twists and turns" and some songs that, "Sound like nothing we've done before." Intriguer topped the Australian album chart, reached number 3 in New Zealand and number 12 in the UK.

Crowded House undertook an extensive world tour in 2010 in support of Intriguer. This was the first album where the band regularly interacted with fans via the internet on their own re-launched website, Twitter and Facebook. The band sold recordings of the shows on the Intriguer tour on USB flash drives and made individual live tracks available for free download.

A new compilation album, The Very Very Best of Crowded House, was released in October 2010 to celebrate the band's 25th anniversary. It includes 19 of the band's greatest hits and is also available in a box set with a 25 track DVD of their music videos. A deluxe digital version, available for download only, has 32 tracks including a rare 1987 live recording of the band's version of the Hunters & Collectors song "Throw Your Arms Around Me". No mention of this album has been made on the band's official website or Twitter page, which suggests that they are not involved with its release.

Following the success of the album She Will Have Her Way in 2005, a second album of cover versions of Finn Brothers songs (including Crowded House songs) was released on 12 November 2010. Entitled He Will Have His Way, all tracks are performed by Australasian male artists.

In November 2011 an Australian tour featured artists involved with the "She Will Have Her Way" and "He Will Have His Way" projects, including Paul Dempsey, Clare Bowditch, Seeker Lover Keeper (Sarah Blasko, Sally Seltmann and Holly Throsby), Alexander Gow (Oh Mercy) and Lior. The band played what would be their last concert for over five years at the A Day on the Green festival in Auckland on 27 February 2011.

Former Crowded House drummer Peter Jones died from brain cancer on 18 May 2012, aged 49. A statement issued by the band described him as, "A warm-hearted, funny and talented man, who was a valuable member of Crowded House."

In September 2015, the song "Help is Coming" from the Afterglow album, was released as a download and limited edition 7" single to raise money for the charity Save the Children. The B-side, "Anthem", was a previously-unreleased track, recorded at the same demo session as "Help is Coming" in 1995, with vocals added in 2015. Peter Jones plays drums on both songs. The money will be used to provide shelter, water, sanitation and hygiene for refugees in Syria, Lebanon and Iraq. Neil Finn said of "Help Is Coming"..."It was always a song about refugees, even if at the time I was thinking about the immigrants setting off on ships from Europe to America, looking for a better life for their families. There is such a huge scale and urgency to the current refugee crises that barely a day goes by without some crushing image or news account to confront us. We can't be silent any more."

Neil Finn confirmed in a 2016 interview with the Dutch newspaper Volkskrant that Crowded House had been on indefinite hiatus since the end of the Intriguer tour. Later that year, however, he and Seymour announced a series of concerts at the Sydney Opera House to mark the 20th anniversary of the Farewell to the World show (24 November 1996). The band, with the same lineup as its initial reunion and Tim Finn as guest, performed four shows between 24 and 27 November 2016. Around the same time, each of the band's 7 studio albums (including the rarities collection Afterglow) was reissued in deluxe 2-CD format with bonus tracks including demos, live recordings, alternate mixes, b-sides and outtakes.

In April 2018, Neil Finn joined Fleetwood Mac, along with Mike Campbell of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, as a full-time member in the wake of Lindsey Buckingham's departure from the band.

Reformation, new line-up and Dreamers Are Waiting (2019–2023)
In August 2019, Crowded House announced a reunion show at the 2020 Byron Bay Bluesfest. Shortly afterwards, Mark Hart announced that he would not be involved in the group's reunion. Finn confirmed Hart's departure on his podcast Fangradio, noting that he "love[s] Hart dearly as a friend, as a contributor and a collaborator" and that "all will be revealed... trust that good thought and good heart gets put into all of these decisions." In December 2019, Neil Finn announced that the new Crowded House line-up would consist of himself, Seymour, the band's original producer Mitchell Froom and his sons Liam and Elroy. He added that they were making a new studio album, the first since 2010's Intriguer. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the band's planned 2020 concerts have had to be rescheduled to 2021, and later again to 2022.

On 15 October 2020, the band released "Whatever You Want", the first single from the band in over a decade. The band also shared an accompanying music video, starring Mac DeMarco.

On 17 February 2021, the band shared another single, "To the Island." The track serves as the second single to the band's seventh studio album, Dreamers Are Waiting, which was announced on the same day for release on 4 June 2021. The band supported the single with a national tour of New Zealand in March 2021.

On 19 August 2021, the band performed their single “To the Island” on CBS's The Late Show with Stephen Colbert. On 2 December 2021, the band announced that it will be touring Australia in 2022, with 6 shows around the country, including the 2022 Bluesfest lineup. On 24 June 2022, the band played at Glastonbury Festival. In May 2023, Crowded House tour North America for the promotion of the album Dreamers Are Waiting.

Gravity Stairs (2024–present)
In February 2024, Crowded House released "Oh Hi" from their eighth album Gravity Stairs, which in turn was released on 31 May 2024. They also announced a New Zealand and Australian tour beginning in November that year.

Songwriting and musical influences
As the primary songwriter for the band, Neil Finn has always set the tone for the band's sound. AllMusic said that Finn "has consistently proven his knack for crafting high-quality songs that combine irresistible melodies with meticulous lyrical detail." Neil's brother Tim was an early and important musical influence. Neil first saw Tim play with Split Enz in 1972, and said "that performance and those first songs made a lasting impression on me." His mother was another significant musical influence, encouraging him to listen to a variety of genres, including Irish folk music and Māori music. She would play piano at family parties and encourage Neil and Tim to accompany her.

Album covers, costumes and set design
Bassist Nick Seymour, who is also an artist, designed or co-designed all of the band's album covers and interior artwork. He also designed some of the costumes worn by the group, notably those from the cover of the group's debut album Crowded House. Seymour collaborated with Finn and Hester on the set design of some of their early music videos, including "Don't Dream It's Over" and "Better Be Home Soon". Since the band reunited, Seymour has again designed their album covers.

The majority of the covers for the band's singles were not designed by Seymour. The artwork for "Pineapple Head" was created by Reg Mombassa of Mental As Anything. For the first four albums Mombassa and Noel Crombie, who had been the main designer of Split Enz's artwork, assisted Seymour in creating sets and costumes. For the Farewell to the World concerts Crombie designed the set, while Mombassa and Seymour designed promotional materials and artwork.

Discography
Studio albums
 * Crowded House (1986)
 * Temple of Low Men (1988)
 * Woodface (1991)
 * Together Alone (1993)
 * Time on Earth (2007)
 * Intriguer (2010)
 * Dreamers Are Waiting (2021)
 * Gravity Stairs (2024)

Awards
Crowded House has won several national and international awards. In Australia, the group has won 13 ARIA Awards from 36 nominations, including the inaugural Best New Talent in 1987. The majority of their wins were for their first two albums, Crowded House and Temple of Low Men. They won eight APRA Awards from eleven nominations and were nominated for The New Zealand Silver Scroll for "Don't Stop Now" in 2007. "Don't Dream It's Over" was named the seventh best Australian song of all time in 2001.

In 1987, Crowded House won the American MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist for their song "Don't Dream It's Over", which was also nominated for three other awards. In 1994, the group was named International Group of the Year at the BRIT Awards. In 2009, "Don't Dream It's Over" was ranked number fifty on the Triple J Hottest 100 of All Time, voted by the Australian public.

In November 2016 Crowded House was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame, 30 years after their formation.

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Colette

Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette (28 January 1873 – 3 August 1954), known mononymously as Colette, was a French author and woman of letters. She was also a mime, actress, and journalist. Colette is best known in the English-speaking world for her 1944 novella Gigi, which was the basis for the 1958 film and the 1973 stage production of the same name. Her short story collection The Tendrils of the Vine is also famous in France.

Early life
Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette was born on 28 January 1873 in the village of Saint-Sauveur-en-Puisaye in the department of Yonne, Burgundy. Her parents were war hero and tax collector Jules-Joseph Colette (1829–1905) and his wife Adèle Eugénie Sidonie ("Sido"), née Landoy (1835–1912). Jules-Joseph Colette was a Zouave of the Saint-Cyr military school. A war hero who had lost a leg in the Second Italian War of Independence, he was awarded a post as tax collector in the village of Saint-Sauveur-en-Puisaye where his children were born. Colette had three older siblings: maternal half-sister, Juliette (1860–1908), maternal half-brother, Achille (1863–1913), and full brother, Léopold (1866–?). Colette attended a public school from the ages of 6 to 17. The family was initially well off, but poor financial management substantially reduced their income.

Career
In 1893, Colette married Henry Gauthier-Villars (1859–1931), an author and publisher who used the pen name "Willy." Her first four novels – the four Claudine stories: Claudine à l'école (1900), Claudine à Paris (1901), Claudine en ménage (1902), and Claudine s'en va (1903) – appeared under his name. (The four are published in English as Claudine at School, Claudine in Paris, Claudine Married, and Claudine and Annie.) The novels chart the coming of age and young adulthood of their titular heroine, Claudine, from an unconventional 15-year old in a Burgundian village to a doyenne of the literary salons of turn-of-the-century Paris. The story they tell is semi-autobiographical, although Claudine, unlike Colette, is motherless.

The marriage to Gauthier-Villars allowed Colette to devote her time to writing. She later said she would never have become a writer if it had not been for Willy. Fourteen years older than his wife and one of the most notorious libertines in Paris, he introduced his wife into avant-garde intellectual and artistic circles and encouraged her lesbian dalliances. And it was he who chose the titillating subject matter of the Claudine novels: "the secondary myth of Sappho... the girls' school or convent ruled by a seductive female teacher." Willy "locked her [Colette] in her room until she produced enough pages to suit him."

Post divorce
Colette and Willy separated in 1906, although their divorce was not final until 1910. Colette had no access to the sizable earnings of the Claudine books – the copyright belonged to Willy – and until 1912 she initiated a stage career in music halls across France, sometimes playing Claudine in sketches from her own novels, earning barely enough to survive and often hungry and ill. To make ends meet, she turned more seriously to journalism in the 1910s. Around this time she also became an avid amateur photographer. This period of her life is recalled in La Vagabonde (1910), which deals with women's independence in a male society, a theme to which she would regularly return in future works.

During these years she embarked on a series of relationships with other women, notably with Natalie Clifford Barney and with Mathilde de Morny, the Marquise de Belbeuf ("Max"), with whom she sometimes shared the stage. On 3 January 1907, an onstage kiss between Max and Colette in a pantomime entitled "Rêve d'Égypte" caused a near-riot, and as a result, they were no longer able to live together openly, although their relationship continued for another five years.

In 1912, Colette married Henry de Jouvenel, the editor of Le Matin. A daughter, Colette de Jouvenel, nicknamed Bel-Gazou, was born to them in 1913.

1920s and 1930s

In 1920, Colette published Chéri, portraying love between an older woman and a much younger man. Chéri is the lover of Léa, a wealthy courtesan; Léa is devastated when Chéri marries a girl his own age and delighted when he returns to her, but after one final night together, she sends him away again.

Colette's marriage to Jouvenel ended in divorce in 1924, due partly to his infidelities and partly to her affair with her 16-year-old stepson, Bertrand de Jouvenel. In 1925, she met Maurice Goudeket, who became her final husband; the couple stayed together until her death.

Colette was by then an established writer (The Vagabond had received three votes for the prestigious Prix Goncourt). The decades of the 1920s and 1930s were her most productive and innovative period. Set mostly in Burgundy or Paris during the Belle Époque, her work focused on married life and sexuality. It was frequently quasi-autobiographical: Chéri (1920) and Le Blé en Herbe (1923) both deal with love between an aging woman and a very young man, a situation reflecting her relationship with Bertrand de Jouvenel and with her third husband, Goudeket, who was 16 years her junior. La Naissance du Jour (1928) is her explicit criticism of the conventional lives of women, expressed through a meditation on age and the renunciation of love by the character of her mother, Sido.

By this time Colette was frequently acclaimed as France's greatest woman writer. "It... has no plot, and yet tells of three lives all that should be known", wrote Janet Flanner of Sido (Colette) (1929). "Once again, and at greater length than usual, she has been hailed for her genius, humanities and perfect prose by those literary journals which years ago... lifted nothing at all in her direction except the finger of scorn."

During the 1920s she was associated with the Jewish-Algerian writer Elissa Rhaïs, who adopted a Muslim persona to market her novels.

Last years, 1940–1954
Colette was 67 years old when France was occupied by the Germans. She remained in Paris, in her apartment in the Palais-Royal. Her husband Maurice Goudeket, who was Jewish, was arrested by the Gestapo in December 1941, and although he was released after seven weeks through the intervention of the French wife of the German ambassador, Colette lived through the rest of the war years with the anxiety of a possible second arrest. During the Occupation she produced two volumes of memoirs, Journal à Rebours (1941) and De ma Fenêtre (1942); the two were issued in English in 1975 as Looking Backwards. She wrote lifestyle articles for several pro-Nazi newspapers. These, and her novel Julie de Carneilhan (1941), contain many anti-Semitic slurs.

In 1944, Colette published what became her most famous work, Gigi, which tells the story of the 16-year-old Gilberte ("Gigi") Alvar. Born into a family of demimondaines, Gigi is trained as a courtesan to captivate a wealthy lover but defies the tradition by marrying him instead. In 1949 it was made into a French film starring Danièle Delorme and Gaby Morlay, then in 1951 adapted for the stage with the then-unknown Audrey Hepburn (picked by Colette personally) in the title role. The 1958 Hollywood musical movie, starring Leslie Caron and Louis Jourdan, with a screenplay by Alan Jay Lerner and a score by Lerner and Frederick Loewe, won the Academy Award for Best Picture.

In the postwar years, Colette became a famous public figure. She had become crippled by arthritis and was cared for by Goudeket, who supervised the preparation of her Œuvres Complètes (1948–1950). She continued to write during those years and published L'Etoile Vesper (1946) and Le Fanal Bleu (1949), in which she reflected on the problems of a writer whose inspiration is primarily autobiographical. She was nominated by Claude Farrère for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948.

Journalism
Colette's first pieces of journalism (1895-1900) were written in collaboration with her husband, Gauthier-Villars—music reviews for La Cocarde, a daily founded by Maurice Barres and a series of pieces for La Fronde. Following her divorce from Gauthier-Villars in 1910, she wrote independently for a wide variety of publications, gaining considerable renown for her articles covering social trends, theater, fashion, and film, as well as crime reporting. In December 1910, Colette agreed to write a regular column in the Paris daily, Le Matin -- at first under a pseudonym, then as "Colette Willy." One of her editors was Henry de Jouvenel, whom she married in 1912. By 1912, Colette had taught herself to be a reporter: "You have to see and not invent, you have to touch, not imagine .. because, when you see the sheets [at a crime scene] drenched in fresh blood, they are a color you could never invent." In 1914, Colette was named Le Matin's literary editor. Colette's separation from Jouvenel in 1923 forced her to sever ties with Le Matin. Over the next three decades her articles appeared in over two dozen publications, including Vogue, Le Figaro, and Paris-Soir. During the German Occupation of France, Colette continued contributing to daily and weekly publications, a number of them collaborationist and pro-Nazi, including Le Petit Parisien, which became pro-Vichy after January 1941, and La Gerbe, a pro-Nazi weekly. Though her articles were not political in nature, Colette was sharply criticized at the time for lending her prestige to these publications and implicitly accommodating herself to the Vichy regime. Her November 26, 1942 article, "Ma Bourgogne Pauvre" ("My Poor Burgundy") has been singled out by some historians as tacitly accepting some ultra-nationalist goals that hardline Vichyist writers espoused. After 1945, her journalism was sporadic, and her final pieces were more personal essays than reported stories. Over the course of her writing career, Colette published over 1200 articles for newspapers, magazines, and journals.

Death and legacy
Upon her death, on 3 August 1954, she was refused a religious funeral by the Catholic Church on account of her divorces, but given a state funeral, the first French woman of letters to be granted the honour, and interred in Père-Lachaise cemetery.

Colette was elected to the Belgian Royal Academy (1935), the Académie Goncourt (1945, and President in 1949), and a Chevalier (1920) and Grand Officer (1953) of the Légion d'honneur.

Colette's numerous biographers have proposed widely differing interpretations of her life and work over the decades. Initially considered a limited if talented novelist (despite the outspoken admiration in her lifetime of figures such as André Gide and Henry de Montherlant), she has been increasingly recognised as an important voice in women's writing. Before Colette's death, Katherine Anne Porter wrote in the New York Times that Colette "is the greatest living French writer of fiction; and that she was while Gide and Proust still lived."

Singer-songwriter Rosanne Cash paid tribute to the writer in the song, "The Summer I Read Colette", on her 1996 album 10 Song Demo.

Truman Capote wrote an essay in 1970 about meeting her, called "The White Rose". It tells how, when she saw him admiring a paperweight on a table (the "white rose" of the title), she insisted he take it; Capote initially refused the gift, but “…when I protested that I couldn’t accept as a present something she so clearly adored, [she replied] 'My dear, really there is no point in giving a gift unless one also treasures it oneself.'”

"Lucette Stranded on the Island" by Julia Holter, from her 2015 album Have You in My Wilderness, is based on a minor character from Colette's short story Chance Acquaintances.

In the 1991 film Becoming Colette, Colette is played by the French actress Mathilda May. In the 2018 film Colette, the title character is played by Keira Knightley. Both films focus on Colette's life in her twenties, her marriage to her first husband, and the publication of her first novels under his name.

Notable works

 * Claudine à l'école (1900, translated as Claudine at School)
 * Claudine à Paris (1901, translated as Claudine in Paris)
 * Claudine en ménage (1902, translated as Claudine Married)
 * Claudine s'en va (1903, translated as Claudine and Annie)
 * Dialogues de bêtes (1904)
 * La Retraite sentimentale (1907)
 * Les Vrilles de la vigne (1908)
 * La Vagabonde (1910)
 * L'Envers du music hall (1913)
 * L'Entrave (1913, translated as The Shackle)
 * La Paix chez les bêtes (1916)
 * L'Enfant et les sortilèges (1917, Ravel opera libretto)
 * Mitsou (1919)
 * Chéri (1920)
 * La Maison de Claudine (1922, translated as The House of Claudine)
 * L'Autre Femme (1922, translated as The Other Woman)
 * Le Blé en herbe (1923, translated as Ripening Seed)
 * La Fin de Chéri (1926, translated as The Last of Chéri or The End of Chéri)
 * La Naissance du jour (1928, translated as Break of Day)
 * Sido (1929)
 * La Seconde (1929, translated as The Other One)
 * Le Pur et l'Impur (1932, translated as The Pure and the Impure)
 * La Chatte (1933)
 * Duo (1934)
 * Julie de Carneilhan (1941)
 * Le Képi (1943)
 * Gigi (1944)
 * Paris de ma fenêtre (1944)
 * L'Étoile Vesper (1946)
 * Le Fanal Bleu (1949, translated as The Blue Lantern)
 * Paradis terrestre, with photographs by Izis Bidermanas (1953)

Source:

Filmography

 * La Vagabonde (film), directed by Solange Térac (France, 1932, based on the novel The Vagabond)
 * Claudine à l'école (1937 film), directed by Serge de Poligny (France, 1937, based on the novel Claudine at School)
 * Gigi, directed by Jacqueline Audry (France, 1949, based on the novella Gigi)
 * Julie de Carneilhan, directed by Jacques Manuel (France, 1950, based on the novel Julie de Carneilhan)
 * Minne (film), directed by Jacqueline Audry (France, 1950, based on the novel L'Ingénue libertine)
 * Chéri, directed by Pierre Billon (France, 1950, based on the novel Chéri)
 * Le Blé en herbe, directed by Claude Autant-Lara (France, 1954, based on the novel Green Wheat)
 * Mitsou, directed by Jacqueline Audry (France, 1956, based on the novella Mitsou)
 * NBC Matinee Theater: The Vagabond (1958, TV series episode, based on the novel The Vagabond)
 * Gigi, directed by Vincente Minnelli (1958, based on the novella Gigi)
 * Chéri, directed by François Chatel (France, 1962, TV film, based on the novel Chéri)
 * The Gentle Libertine or How Young Girls Grow Wise, directed by Robert Kitts (UK, 1967, TV film, based on the novel L'Ingénue libertine)
 * Away from It All: The Ripening Seed, directed by Mischa Scorer (UK, 1973, TV series episode, based on the novel Green Wheat)
 * Chéri, directed by Claude Whatham (UK, 1973, TV miniseries, based on the novel Chéri)
 * La Seconde, directed by Hervé Bromberger (France, 1973, TV film, based on the novel La Seconde)
 * Claudine (miniseries), directed by Édouard Molinaro (France, 1978, TV miniseries, based on the Claudine novels)
 * La Naissance du jour (film), directed by Jacques Demy (France, 1980, TV film, based on the novel Break of Day)
 * Emmenez-moi au théâtre: Chéri, directed by Yves-André Hubert (France, 1984, TV series episode, based on the novel Chéri)
 * Gigi, directed by Jeannette Hubert (France, 1987, TV film, based on the novella Gigi)
 * Julie de Carneilhan, directed by Christopher Frank (France, 1990, TV film, based on the novel Julie de Carneilhan)
 * Le Blé en herbe, directed by Serge Meynard (France, 1990, TV film, based on the novel Green Wheat)
 * La Seconde, directed by Christopher Frank (France, 1990, TV film, based on the novel La Seconde)
 * Duo, directed by Claude Santelli (France, 1990, TV film, based on the novel Duo)
 * Bella Vista, directed by Alfredo Arias (France, 1992, TV film, based on the short story Bella-Vista)
 * Mademoiselle Gigi, directed by Caroline Huppert (France, 2006, TV film, based on the novella Gigi)
 * Chéri, directed by Stephen Frears (UK, 2009, based on the novel Chéri)

Screenwriter

 * 1934: Lake of Ladies (dir. Marc Allégret)
 * 1935: Divine (dir. Max Ophüls)

Films about Colette

 * , directed by Yannick Bellon (France, 1952, short documentary)
 * Becoming Colette, directed by Danny Huston (1991), with Mathilda May as Colette
 * Colette, une femme libre, directed by Nadine Trintignant (France, 2004, TV film), with Marie Trintignant as Colette
 * Colette, directed by Wash Westmoreland (2018), with Keira Knightley as Colette
 * Colette, l'insoumise, directed by Cécile Denjean (France, 2018, documentary)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Colette


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Talk:Celts

Celtic technology
There really should be a section on ancient Celtic technological innovation. The Belgae were responsible for developing the heavy plough, that could tackle heavier clay soils. The Celts were reported by the Romans to be the originators or iron rimmed wheels - where a hot iron tyre was shrunk onto a spoked wheel. They are also described as the originators of iron helmets and mail armour, and the Celtiberians were responsible for the prototypes of the Roman gladius hispaniensis sword. Decorative enamelling of metalwork is also a notable Celtic technology. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Urselius (talk • contribs) 14:42, 7 April 2022 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 10 January 2024
The Celts. Cain-Kain-qayin Dissendance (Theory)

Eve and adam sons: The names Cain and Abel are Latin/English transliterations of the Greek names as found in the Septuagint (2,000 year old Greek translation of the Hebrew). In Greek, Cain is Καιν (Kain) and Abel is Αβελ (Abel). These are in turn Greek transliterations of the Hebrew. In Hebrew Cain is קין (qayin) and Abel is חבל (havel) 2603:8001:AD00:8EFC:5D75:86BC:F26D:881C (talk) 08:47, 10 January 2024 (UTC)
 * ❌ - You have not described what edit you would like to be made, nor provided any reliable secondary sources for any such claim. Sirfurboy🏄 (talk) 09:51, 10 January 2024 (UTC)

THE CELTS ARE.
"The Balts ARE", "The Slavs ARE" but "The Celts were"? Every other European ethno-linguistic group has a single article discussing them as a modern people but the Celts have two, one which speaks of us in the past tense and another which also quotes racists who deny our very existence. 84.203.151.5 (talk) 03:10, 17 February 2024 (UTC)
 * This article does not discuss them as a modern people. The existence of a current Celtic ethno-linguistic group, or at least a monolithic one, is very questionable. Most scholars are reluctant to accept it. I think you'll find many other nations have similar divisions - Germany, Italy, Belgium etc etc. Johnbod (talk) 04:17, 17 February 2024 (UTC)

M269
M269 spread in Late Neolithic, this should be indicated in the map caption. --95.24.68.172 (talk) 04:56, 24 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Celts


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Charles Alston

Charles Henry Alston (November 28, 1907 – April 27, 1977) was an American painter, sculptor, illustrator, muralist and teacher who lived and worked in the New York City neighborhood of Harlem. Alston was active in the Harlem Renaissance; Alston was the first African-American supervisor for the Works Progress Administration's Federal Art Project. Alston designed and painted murals at the Harlem Hospital and the Golden State Mutual Life Insurance Building. In 1990, Alston's bust of Martin Luther King Jr. became the first image of an African American displayed at the White House.

Early life
Charles Henry Alston was born on November 28, 1907, in Charlotte, North Carolina, to Reverend Primus Priss Alston and Anna Elizabeth (Miller) Alston, as the youngest of five children. Three survived past infancy: Charles, his older sister Rousmaniere and his older brother Wendell. His father had been born into slavery in 1851 in Pittsboro, North Carolina. After the Civil War, he gained an education and graduated from St. Augustine's College in Raleigh. He became a prominent minister and founder of St. Michael's Episcopal Church, with an African-American congregation. The senior Alston was described as a "race man": an African American who dedicated his skills to the furtherance of the Black race. Reverend Alston met his wife when she was a student at his school. Charles was nicknamed "Spinky" by his father, and kept the nickname as an adult. In 1910, when Charles was three, his father died suddenly of a cerebral hemorrhage. Locals described his father as the "Booker T. Washington of Charlotte".

In 1913, Anna Alston married Harry Bearden, Romare Bearden's uncle, making Charles and Romare cousins. The two Bearden families lived across the street from each other; the friendship between Romare and Charles would last a lifetime.

As a child, Alston was inspired by his older brother Wendell's drawings of trains and cars, which the young artist copied. Alston also played with clay, creating a sculpture of North Carolina. As an adult he reflected on his memories of sculpting with clay as a child: "I'd get buckets of it and put it through strainers and make things out of it. I think that's the first art experience I remember, making things." His mother was a skilled embroiderer and took up painting at the age of 75. His father was also good at drawing, having wooed Alston's mother Anna with small sketches in the medians of letters he wrote her.

In 1915, the Bearden/Alston family moved to New York, as many African-American families did during the Great Migration. Alston's step-father, Henry Bearden, left before his wife and children in order to get work. He secured a job overseeing elevator operations and the newsstand staff at the Bretton Hotel in the Upper West Side. The family lived in Harlem and was considered middle-class. During the Great Depression, the people of Harlem suffered economically. The "stoic strength" seen within the community was later expressed in Charles’ fine art. At Public School 179 in Manhattan, the boy's artistic abilities were recognized and he was asked to draw all of the school posters during his years there.

In 1917, Harry and Anna Bearden had a daughter together, Aida C. Bearden, who would later marry operatic baritone Lawrence Whisonant.

Higher education
Alston graduated from DeWitt Clinton High School, where he was nominated for academic excellence and was the art editor of the school's magazine, The Magpie. He was a member of the Arista - National Honor Society and also studied drawing and anatomy at the Saturday school of the National Academy of Art. In high school he was given his first oil paints and learned about his aunt Bessye Bearden's art salons, which stars like Duke Ellington and Langston Hughes attended. After graduating in 1925, he attended Columbia University, turning down a scholarship to the Yale School of Fine Arts.

Alston entered the pre-architectural program but lost interest after realizing what difficulties many African-American architects had in the field. After also taking classes in pre-med, he decided that math, physics and chemistry "was not just my bag", and he entered the fine arts program. During his time at Columbia, Alston joined Alpha Phi Alpha, worked on the university's Columbia Daily Spectator, and drew cartoons for the school's magazine Jester. He also explored Harlem restaurants and clubs, where his love for jazz and black music would be fostered. In 1929, he graduated and received the Arthur Wesley Dow fellowship to study at Teachers College, where he obtained his Master's in 1931.

Later life
For the years 1942 and 1943 Alston was stationed in the army at Fort Huachuca in Arizona. While working on a mural project at Harlem Hospital, he met Myra Adele Logan, then an surgical intern at the hospital. They were married on April 8, 1944. Their home, which included his studio, was on Edgecombe Avenue near Highbridge Park. The couple lived close to family; at their frequent gatherings Alston enjoyed cooking and Myra played piano. During the 1940s Alston also took occasional art classes, studying under Alexander Kostellow.

On April 27, 1977, Alston died after a long bout with cancer, just months after his wife died from lung cancer. His memorial service was held at St. Martins Episcopal Church in New York City, on May 21, 1977.

Professional career
While obtaining his master's degree, Alston was the boys’ work director at the Utopia Children's House, started by James Lesesne Wells. He also began teaching at the Harlem Community Art Center, founded by Augusta Savage in the basement of what is now the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. Alston's teaching style was influenced by the work of John Dewey, Arthur Wesley Dow, and Thomas Munro. During this period, Alston began to teach the 10-year-old Jacob Lawrence, whom he strongly influenced. Alston was introduced to African art by the poet Alain Locke. In the late 1920s, Alston joined Bearden and other black artists who refused to exhibit in William E. Harmon Foundation shows, which featured all-black artists in their traveling exhibits. Alston and his friends thought the exhibits were curated for a white audience, a form of segregation which the men protested. They did not want to be set aside but exhibited on the same level as art peers of every skin color.

In 1938, the Rosenwald Fund provided money for Alston to travel to the South, which was his first return there since leaving as a child. His travel with Giles Hubert, an inspector for the Farm Security Administration, gave him access to certain situations and he photographed many aspects of rural life. These photographs served as the basis for a series of genre portraits depicting southern black life. In 1940, he completed Tobacco Farmer, the portrait of a young black farmer in white overalls and a blue shirt with a youthful yet serious look upon his face, sitting in front of the landscape and buildings he works on and in. That same year Alston received a second round of funding from the Rosenwald Fund to travel South, and he spent extended time at Atlanta University.

During the 1930s and early 1940s, Alston created illustrations for magazines such as Fortune, Mademoiselle, The New Yorker, Melody Maker and others. He also designed album covers for artists such as Duke Ellington and Coleman Hawkins, as well as book covers for Eudora Welty and Langston Hughes. Alston became staff artist at the Office of War Information and Public Relations in 1940, creating drawings of notable African Americans. These images were used in over 200 black newspapers across the country by the government to "foster goodwill with the black citizenry."

Alston left commercial work to focus on his own artwork, and 1950 he became the first African-American instructor at the Art Students League, where he remained on faculty until 1971. In 1950, his Painting was exhibited at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and his artwork was one of the few pieces purchased by the museum. He landed his first solo exhibition in 1953 at the John Heller Gallery, which represented artists such as Roy Lichtenstein. He exhibited there five times from 1953 to 1958.

In 1956, Alston became the first African-American instructor at the Museum of Modern Art, where he taught for a year before going to Belgium on behalf of MoMA and the United States Department of State. He coordinated the children's community center at Expo 58. In 1958, he was awarded a grant from and was elected as a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters.

In 1963, Alston co-founded Spiral with his cousin Romare Bearden and Hale Woodruff. Spiral served as a collective of conversation and artistic exploration for a large group of artists who "addressed how black artists should relate to American society in a time of segregation." Artists and arts supporters gathered for Spiral, such as Emma Amos, Perry Ferguson and Merton Simpson. This group served as the 1960s version of the 306 Group. Alston was described as an "intellectual activist", and in 1968 he spoke at Columbia about his activism. In the mid-1960s, Spiral organized an exhibition of black and white artworks, but the exhibition was never officially sponsored by the group, due to internal disagreements.

In 1968, Alston received a presidential appointment from Lyndon Johnson to the National Council of Culture and the Arts. Mayor John Lindsay appointed him to the New York City Art Commission in 1969.

In 1973, he was made full professor at City College of New York, where he had taught since 1968. In 1975, he was awarded the first Distinguished Alumni Award from Teachers College. The Art Student's League created a 21-year merit scholarship in 1977 under Alston's name to commemorate each year of his tenure.

Painting a person and a culture
Alston shared studio space with Henry Bannarn at 306 W. 141st Street, which served as an open space for artists, photographers, musicians, writers and the like. Other artists held studio space at 306, such as Jacob Lawrence, Addison Bates and his brother Leon. During this time Alston founded the Harlem Artists Guild with Savage and Elba Lightfoot to work toward equality in Works Progress Administration art programs in New York. During the early years of 306, Alston focused on mastering portraiture. His early works such as Portrait of a Man (1929) show Alston's detailed and realistic style depicted through pastels and charcoals, inspired by the style of Winold Reiss. In his Girl in a Red Dress (1934) and The Blue Shirt (1935), Alston used modern and innovative techniques for his portraits of young individuals in Harlem. Blue Shirt is thought to be a portrait of Jacob Lawrence. During this time he also created Man Seated with Travel Bag (c. 1938–40), showing the seedy and bleak environment, contrasting with work like the racially charged Vaudeville (c. 1930) and its caricature style of a man in blackface.

Inspired by his trip south, Alston began his "family series" in the 1940s. Intensity and angularity come through in the faces of the youth in his portraits Untitled (Portrait of a Girl) and Untitled (Portrait of a Boy). These works also show the influence that African sculpture had on his portraiture, with Portrait of a Boy showing more cubist features. Later family portraits show Alston's exploration of religious symbolism, color, form and space. His family group portraits are often faceless, which Alston states is the way that white America views blacks. Paintings such as Family (1955) show a woman seated and a man standing with two children – the parents seem almost solemn while the children are described as hopeful and with a use of color made famous by Cézanne. In Family Group (c. 1950) Alston's use of gray and ochre tones brings together the parents and son as if one with geometric patterns connecting them together as if a puzzle. The simplicity of the look, style and emotion upon the family is reflective and probably inspired by Alston's trip south. His work during this time has been described as being "characterized by his reductive use of form combined with a sun-hued" palette. During this time he also started to experiment with ink and wash painting, which is seen in work such as Portrait of a Woman (1955), as well as creating portraits to illustrate the music surrounding him in Harlem. Blues Singer #4 shows a female singer on stage with a white flower on her shoulder and a bold red dress. Girl in a Red Dress is thought to be Bessie Smith, whom he drew many times when she was recording and performing. Jazz was an important influence in Alston's work and social life, which he expressed in such works as Jazz (1950) and Harlem at Night.

The 1960s civil rights movement influenced his work deeply, and he made artworks expressing feelings related to inequality and race relations in the United States. One of his few religious artworks was Christ Head (1960), which had an angular "Modiglianiesque" portrait of Jesus Christ. Seven years later he created You never really meant it, did you, Mr. Charlie? which, in a similar style as Christ Head, shows a black man standing against a red sky "looking as frustrated as any individual can look", according to Alston.

Modernism
Experimenting with the use of negative space and organic forms in the late 1940s, by the mid-1950s Alston began creating notably modernist style paintings. Woman with Flowers (1949) has been described as a tribute to Modigliani. Ceremonial (1950) shows that he was influenced by African art. Untitled works during this era show his use of color overlay, using muted colors to create simple layered abstracts of still lifes. Symbol (1953) relates to Picasso's Guernica, which was a favorite work of Alston's.

His final work of the 1950s, Walking, was inspired by the Montgomery bus boycott. It is taken to represent "the surge of energy among African Americans to organize in their struggle for full equality." Alston is quoted as saying, "The idea of a march was growing....It was in the air...and this painting just came. I called it Walking on purpose. It wasn't the militancy that you saw later. It was a very definite walk-not going back, no hesitation."

Black and white
The civil rights movement of the 1960s was a major influence on Alston. In the late 1950s, he began working in black and white, which he continued up until the mid-1960s, and the period is considered one of his most powerful. Some of the works are simple abstracts of black ink on white paper, similar to a Rorschach test. Untitled (c. 1960s) shows a boxing match, with an attempt to express the drama of the fight through few brushstrokes. Alston worked with oil-on-Masonite during this period as well, using impasto, cream, and ochre to create a moody cave-like artwork. Black and White #1 (1959) is one of Alston's more "monumental" works. Gray, white and black come together to fight for space on an abstract canvas, in a softer form than the more harsh Franz Kline. Alston continued to explore the relationship between monochromatic hues throughout the series which Wardlaw describes as "some of the most profoundly beautiful works of twentieth-century American art."

Murals
Charles Alston's early mural work was inspired by the work of Aaron Douglas, Diego Rivera and José Clemente Orozco. He met Orozco when they did mural work in New York. In 1943, Alston was elected to the board of directors of the National Society of Mural Painters. He created murals for the Harlem Hospital, Golden State Mutual, American Museum of Natural History, Public School 154, the Bronx Family and Criminal Court, and the Abraham Lincoln High School in Brooklyn, New York.

Harlem Hospital Murals
Originally hired as an easel painter, in 1935 Alston became the first African-American supervisor to work for the Works Progress Administration's Federal Art Project (FAP) in New York. This was his first mural. At this time he was awarded Works Progress Administration Project Number 1262 – an opportunity to oversee a group of artists creating murals and to supervise their painting for the Harlem Hospital. It was the first government commission ever awarded to African-American artists, who included Beauford Delaney, Seabrook Powell and Vertis Hayes. He also had the chance to create and paint his own contribution to the collection: Magic in Medicine and Modern Medicine. These paintings were part of a diptych completed in 1936 depicting the history of medicine in the African-American community and Beauford Delaney served as assistant. When creating the murals, Alston was inspired by the work of Aaron Douglas, who a year earlier had created the public art piece Aspects of Negro Life for the New York Public Library. He had researched traditional African culture, including traditional African medicine. Magic in Medicine, which depicts African culture and holistic healing, is considered one of "America's first public scenes of Africa". All of the mural sketches submitted were accepted by the FAP; however, hospital superintendent Lawrence T. Dermody and commissioner of hospitals S.S. Goldwater rejected four proposals, due to what they said was an excessive amount of African-American representation in the works. The artists fought their response, writing letters to gain support. Four years later they succeeded in gaining the right to complete the murals. The sketches for Magic in Medicine and Modern Medicine were exhibited in the Museum of Modern Art's "New Horizons in American Art".

Condition
Alston's murals were hung in the Women's Pavilion of the hospital over uncapped radiators, which caused the paintings to deteriorate from the steam. Plans failed to recap the radiators. In 1959, Alston estimated, in a letter to the New York State Department of Public Works, that the conservation would cost $1,500 but the funds were never acquired. In 1968, after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., Alston was asked to create another mural for the hospital, to be placed in a pavilion named after the slain civil rights movement leader. It was to be titled Man Emerging from the Darkness of Poverty and Ignorance into the Light of a Better World.

One year after Alston's death in 1977, a group of artists and historians, including the renowned painter and collagist Romare Bearden and art historian Greta Berman, together with administrators from the hospital, and from the New York City Art Commission, examined the murals, and presented a proposal for their restoration to then-mayor Ed Koch. The request was approved, and conservator Alan Farancz set to work in 1979, rescuing the murals from further decay. Many years passed, and the murals began to deteriorate again – especially the Alston works, which continued to suffer effects from the radiators. In 1991, the Municipal Art Society's Adopt-a-Mural program was launched, and the Harlem Hospital murals were chosen for further restoration (Greta Berman. Personal experience). A grant from Alston's sister Rousmaniere Wilson and step-sister Aida Bearden Winters assisted in completing a restoration of the works in 1993. In 2005, Harlem Hospital announced a $2 million project to conserve Alston's murals and three other pieces in the original commissioned project as part of a $225 million hospital expansion.

Golden State Mutual murals
In the late 1940s, Alston became involved in a mural project commissioned by Golden State Mutual Life Insurance Company, which asked the artists to create work related to African-American contributions to the settling of California. Alston worked with Hale Woodruff on the murals in a large studio space in New York; they used ladders to reach the upper parts of the canvas. The artworks, which are considered "priceless contributions to American narrative art", consist of two panels: Exploration and Colonization by Alston and Settlement and Development by Woodruff. Alston's piece covers the period of 1527 to 1850. Images of mountain man James Beckwourth, Biddy Mason, and William Leidesdorff are portrayed in the well-detailed historical mural. Both artists kept in contact with African Americans on the West Coast during creation of the murals, which influenced their content and depictions. The murals were unveiled in 1949, and have been on display in the lobby of the Golden State Mutual Headquarters.

Due to economic downturn in the early 21st century, Golden State was forced to sell their entire art collection to ward off its mounting debts. As of spring 2011 the National Museum of African American History and Culture had offered $750,000 to purchase the artworks. This generated controversy, as the artworks have been estimated to be worth at least $5 million. Supporters tried to protect the murals by gaining city landmark protections by the Los Angeles Conservancy. The state of California had declined philanthropic proposals to keep the murals in their original location, and the Smithsonian Institution withdrew their offer. The disposition of the murals are subject to a court case over jurisdiction, which was unresolved in the spring of 2011. This was resolved later in 2011 when the Golden State Mutual Life Insurance building was added to the National Register of Historic Places. The building was purchased by Community Impact Development, a partnership formed to provide a new home for the South Central Los Angeles Regional Center, an agency that provides services to people with developmental disabilities. The building was renovated in 2015. The murals remain in the lobby.

Sculpture
Alston also created sculptures. Head of a Woman (1957) shows his shift toward a "reductive and modern approach to sculpture....where facial features were suggested rather than fully formulated in three dimensions,". In 1970, Alston was commissioned by the Community Church of New York to create a bust of Martin Luther King Jr. for $5,000, with only five copies produced. In 1990, Alston's bronze bust of Martin Luther King Jr. (1970), became the first image of an African American to be displayed in the White House. When Barack Obama became the first black president in 2009, he brought the bust of Martin Luther King Jr. into the Oval Office, replacing a bust of Winston Churchill. This marked the first time an image of an African American was displayed in the president's work quarters. Furthermore, the bust became a predominant work seen in official portraits of visiting dignitaries. Now, a second copy of the famous Martin Luther King Jr. bust is displayed in Washington for the public to view up close.

World War II propaganda
During World War II, scholars have theorized that the black press strived to appeal to the black readers, while also appeasing the U.S. government by supporting the war. Alston produced over one hundred government propagandistic illustrations that supported the national position on the war for the U.S. Office of War Information. Simultaneously, the cartoons were targeted to a black audience, designed exclusively for publication in the weekly black newspapers to address specific, controversial issues in the black community.

Reception
Art critic Emily Genauer stated that Alston "refused to be pigeonholed", regarding his varied exploration in his artwork. Patron Lemoine Deleaver Pierce said of Alston's work: "Never thought of as an innovative artist, Alston generally ignored popular art trends and violated many mainstream art conventions; he produced abstract and figurative paintings often simultaneously, refusing to be stylistically consistent, and during his 40-year career he worked prolifically and unapologetically in both commercial and fine art." Romare Bearden described Alston as "...one of the most versatile artists whose enormous skill led him to a diversity of styles..." Bearden also describes the professionalism and impact that Alston had on Harlem and the African-American community: "'was a consummate artist and a voice in the development of African American art who never doubted the excellence of all people's sensitivity and creative ability. During his long professional career, Alston significantly enriched the cultural life of Harlem. In a profound sense, he was a man who built bridges between Black artists in varying fields, and between other Americans." Writer June Jordan described Alston as "an American artist of first magnitude, and he is a Black American artist of undisturbed integrity."

Major exhibitions

 * A Force for Change, group show, 2009, Spertus Museum, Chicago
 * Canvasing the Movement, group show, 2009, Reginald F. Lewis Museum of Maryland African American History & Culture
 * On Higher Ground: Selections From the Walter O. Evans Collection, group show, 2001, Henry Ford Museum, Michigan
 * Rhapsodies in Black: Art of the Harlem Renaissance, group show, 1998, Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
 * In the Spirit of Resistance: African-American Modernists and the Mexican Muralist School, group show, 1996, The Studio Museum in Harlem, New York
 * Charles Alston: Artist and Teacher, 1990, Kenkeleba Gallery, New York
 * Masters and Pupils: The Education of the Black Artist in New York, 1986, Jamaica Arts Center, New York
 * Hundred Anniversary Exhibition of Paintings and Sculpture, 1975, Art Students League of New York, New York
 * Solo exhibition, 1969, Huntington Hartford Gallery of Modern Art, New York.
 * Solo exhibition, 1968, Fairleigh Dickinson University, New Jersey
 * A Tribute to Negro Artists in Honor of the 100th Anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation, group show, 1963, Albany Institute of History and Art

Major collections

 * Hampton University
 * Harmon and Harriet Kelly Foundation for the Arts
 * National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
 * Kalamazoo Institute of Arts, Kalamazoo, Michigan
 * National Gallery of Art
 * National Museum of African American History and Culture
 * Whitney Museum of American Art

title: Charles Alston


text:
Chromatin

Chromatin is a complex of DNA and protein found in eukaryotic cells. The primary function is to package long DNA molecules into more compact, denser structures. This prevents the strands from becoming tangled and also plays important roles in reinforcing the DNA during cell division, preventing DNA damage, and regulating gene expression and DNA replication. During mitosis and meiosis, chromatin facilitates proper segregation of the chromosomes in anaphase; the characteristic shapes of chromosomes visible during this stage are the result of DNA being coiled into highly condensed chromatin.

The primary protein components of chromatin are histones. An octamer of two sets of four histone cores (Histone H2A, Histone H2B, Histone H3, and Histone H4) bind to DNA and function as "anchors" around which the strands are wound. In general, there are three levels of chromatin organization:

 * 1) DNA wraps around histone proteins, forming nucleosomes and the so-called beads on a string structure (euchromatin).
 * 2) Multiple histones wrap into a 30-nanometer fiber consisting of nucleosome arrays in their most compact form (heterochromatin).
 * 3) Higher-level DNA supercoiling of the 30 nm fiber produces the metaphase chromosome (during mitosis and meiosis).

Many organisms, however, do not follow this organization scheme. For example, spermatozoa and avian red blood cells have more tightly packed chromatin than most eukaryotic cells, and trypanosomatid protozoa do not condense their chromatin into visible chromosomes at all. Prokaryotic cells have entirely different structures for organizing their DNA (the prokaryotic chromosome equivalent is called a genophore and is localized within the nucleoid region).

The overall structure of the chromatin network further depends on the stage of the cell cycle. During interphase, the chromatin is structurally loose to allow access to RNA and DNA polymerases that transcribe and replicate the DNA. The local structure of chromatin during interphase depends on the specific genes present in the DNA. Regions of DNA containing genes which are actively transcribed ("turned on") are less tightly compacted and closely associated with RNA polymerases in a structure known as euchromatin, while regions containing inactive genes ("turned off") are generally more condensed and associated with structural proteins in heterochromatin. Epigenetic modification of the structural proteins in chromatin via methylation and acetylation also alters local chromatin structure and therefore gene expression. There is limited understanding of chromatin structure and it is active area of research in molecular biology.

Dynamic chromatin structure and hierarchy
Chromatin undergoes various structural changes during a cell cycle. Histone proteins are the basic packers and arrangers of chromatin and can be modified by various post-translational modifications to alter chromatin packing (histone modification). Most modifications occur on histone tails. The positively charged histone cores only partially counteract the negative charge of the DNA phosphate backbone resulting in a negative net charge of the overall structure. An imbalance of charge within the polymer causes electrostatic repulsion between neighboring chromatin regions that promote interactions with positively charged proteins, molecules, and cations. As these modifications occur, the electrostatic environment surrounding the chromatin will flux and the level of chromatin compaction will alter. The consequences in terms of chromatin accessibility and compaction depend both on the modified amino acid and the type of modification. For example, histone acetylation results in loosening and increased accessibility of chromatin for replication and transcription. Lysine trimethylation can either lead to increased transcriptional activity (trimethylation of histone H3 lysine 4) or transcriptional repression and chromatin compaction (trimethylation of histone H3, lysine 9 or lysine 27). Several studies suggested that different modifications could occur simultaneously. For example, it was proposed that a bivalent structure (with trimethylation of both lysine 4 and 27 on histone H3) is involved in early mammalian development. Another study tested the role of acetylation of histone 4 on lysine 16 on chromatin structure and found that homogeneous acetylation inhibited 30 nm chromatin formation and blocked adenosine triphosphate remodeling. This singular modification changed the dynamics of the chromatin which shows that acetylation of H4 at K16 is vital for proper intra- and inter- functionality of chromatin structure.

Polycomb-group proteins play a role in regulating genes through modulation of chromatin structure.

For additional information, see Chromatin variant, Histone modifications in chromatin regulation and RNA polymerase control by chromatin structure.

Structure of DNA

In nature, DNA can form three structures, A-, B-, and Z-DNA. A- and B-DNA are very similar, forming right-handed helices, whereas Z-DNA is a left-handed helix with a zig-zag phosphate backbone. Z-DNA is thought to play a specific role in chromatin structure and transcription because of the properties of the junction between B- and Z-DNA.

At the junction of B- and Z-DNA, one pair of bases is flipped out from normal bonding. These play a dual role of a site of recognition by many proteins and as a sink for torsional stress from RNA polymerase or nucleosome binding.DNA bases are stored as a code structure with four chemical bases such as “Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T)”. The order and sequences of these chemical structures of DNA are reflected as information available for the creation and control of human organisms. “A with T and C with G” pairing up to build the DNA base pair. Sugar and phosphate molecules are also paired with these bases, making DNA nucleotides arrange 2 long spiral strands unitedly called “double helix”. In eukaryotes, DNA consists of a cell nucleus and the DNA is providing strength and direction to the mechanism of heredity. Moreover, between the nitrogenous bonds of the 2 DNA, homogenous bonds are forming.

Nucleosomes and beads-on-a-string
The basic repeat element of chromatin is the nucleosome, interconnected by sections of linker DNA, a far shorter arrangement than pure DNA in solution.

In addition to core histones, a linker histone H1 exists that contacts the exit/entry of the DNA strand on the nucleosome. The nucleosome core particle, together with histone H1, is known as a chromatosome. Nucleosomes, with about 20 to 60 base pairs of linker DNA, can form, under non-physiological conditions, an approximately 11 nm beads on a string fibre.

The nucleosomes bind DNA non-specifically, as required by their function in general DNA packaging. There are, however, large DNA sequence preferences that govern nucleosome positioning. This is due primarily to the varying physical properties of different DNA sequences: For instance, adenine (A), and thymine (T) is more favorably compressed into the inner minor grooves. This means nucleosomes can bind preferentially at one position approximately every 10 base pairs (the helical repeat of DNA)- where the DNA is rotated to maximise the number of A and T bases that will lie in the inner minor groove. (See nucleic acid structure.)

30-nm chromatin fiber in mitosis
With addition of H1, during mitosis the beads-on-a-string structure can coil into a 30 nm-diameter helical structure known as the 30 nm fibre or filament. The precise structure of the chromatin fiber in the cell is not known in detail.

This level of chromatin structure is thought to be the form of heterochromatin, which contains mostly transcriptionally silent genes. Electron microscopy studies have demonstrated that the 30 nm fiber is highly dynamic such that it unfolds into a 10 nm fiber beads-on-a-string structure when transversed by an RNA polymerase engaged in transcription.

[[File:ChromatinFibers.png|thumb|left|250px|Four proposed structures of the 30 nm chromatin filament for DNA repeat length per nucleosomes ranging from 177 to 207 bp.

Linker DNA in yellow and nucleosomal DNA in pink.]] The existing models commonly accept that the nucleosomes lie perpendicular to the axis of the fibre, with linker histones arranged internally. A stable 30 nm fibre relies on the regular positioning of nucleosomes along DNA. Linker DNA is relatively resistant to bending and rotation. This makes the length of linker DNA critical to the stability of the fibre, requiring nucleosomes to be separated by lengths that permit rotation and folding into the required orientation without excessive stress to the DNA. In this view, different lengths of the linker DNA should produce different folding topologies of the chromatin fiber. Recent theoretical work, based on electron-microscopy images of reconstituted fibers supports this view.

DNA loops
The beads-on-a-string chromatin structure has a tendency to form loops. These loops allow interactions between different regions of DNA by bringing them closer to each other, which increases the efficiency of gene interactions. This process is dynamic, with loops forming and disappearing. The loops are regulated by two main elements: There are many other elements involved. For example, Jpx regulates the binding sites of CTCF molecules along the DNA fiber.
 * Cohesins, protein complexes that generate loops by extrusion of the DNA fiber through the ring-like structure of the complex itself.
 * CTCF, a transcription factor that limits the frontier of the DNA loop. To stop the growth of a loop, two CTCF molecules must be positioned in opposite directions to block the movement of the cohesin ring (see video).

Spatial organization of chromatin in the cell nucleus
The spatial arrangement of the chromatin within the nucleus is not random - specific regions of the chromatin can be found in certain territories. Territories are, for example, the lamina-associated domains (LADs), and the topologically associating domains (TADs), which are bound together by protein complexes. Currently, polymer models such as the Strings & Binders Switch (SBS) model and the Dynamic Loop (DL) model are used to describe the folding of chromatin within the nucleus. The arrangement of chromatin within the nucleus may also play a role in nuclear stress and restoring nuclear membrane deformation by mechanical stress. When chromatin is condensed, the nucleus becomes more rigid. When chromatin is decondensed, the nucleus becomes more elastic with less force exerted on the inner nuclear membrane. This observation sheds light on other possible cellular functions of chromatin organization outside of genomic regulation.

Cell-cycle dependent structural organization

 * 1) Interphase: The structure of chromatin during interphase of mitosis is optimized to allow simple access of transcription and DNA repair factors to the DNA while compacting the DNA into the nucleus. The structure varies depending on the access required to the DNA. Genes that require regular access by RNA polymerase require the looser structure provided by euchromatin.
 * 2) Metaphase: The metaphase structure of chromatin differs vastly to that of interphase. It is optimised for physical strength and manageability, forming the classic chromosome structure seen in karyotypes. The structure of the condensed chromatin is thought to be loops of 30 nm fibre to a central scaffold of proteins. It is, however, not well-characterised. Chromosome scaffolds play an important role to hold the chromatin into compact chromosomes. Loops of 30 nm structure further condense with scaffold, into higher order structures. Chromosome scaffolds are made of proteins including condensin, type IIA topoisomerase  and kinesin family member 4 (KIF4). The physical strength of chromatin is vital for this stage of division to prevent shear damage to the DNA as the daughter chromosomes are separated. To maximise strength the composition of the chromatin changes as it approaches the centromere, primarily through alternative histone H1 analogues. During mitosis, although most of the chromatin is tightly compacted, there are small regions that are not as tightly compacted. These regions often correspond to promoter regions of genes that were active in that cell type prior to chromatin formation. The lack of compaction of these regions is called bookmarking, which is an epigenetic mechanism believed to be important for transmitting to daughter cells the "memory" of which genes were active prior to entry into mitosis. This bookmarking mechanism is needed to help transmit this memory because transcription ceases during mitosis.

Chromatin and bursts of transcription
Chromatin and its interaction with enzymes has been researched, and a conclusion being made is that it is relevant and an important factor in gene expression. Vincent G. Allfrey, a professor at Rockefeller University, stated that RNA synthesis is related to histone acetylation. The lysine amino acid attached to the end of the histones is positively charged. The acetylation of these tails would make the chromatin ends neutral, allowing for DNA access.

When the chromatin decondenses, the DNA is open to entry of molecular machinery. Fluctuations between open and closed chromatin may contribute to the discontinuity of transcription, or transcriptional bursting. Other factors are probably involved, such as the association and dissociation of transcription factor complexes with chromatin. Specifically, RNA polymerase and transcriptional proteins have been shown to congregate into droplets via phase separation, and recent studies have suggested that 10 nm chromatin demonstrates liquid-like behavior increasing the targetability of genomic DNA. The interactions between linker histones and disordered tail regions act as an electrostatic glue organizing large-scale chromatin into a dynamic, liquid-like domain. Decreased chromatin compaction comes with increased chromatin mobility and easier transcriptional access to DNA. The phenomenon, as opposed to simple probabilistic models of transcription, can account for the high variability in gene expression occurring between cells in isogenic populations.

Alternative chromatin organizations
During metazoan spermiogenesis, the spermatid's chromatin is remodeled into a more spaced-packaged, widened, almost crystal-like structure. This process is associated with the cessation of transcription and involves nuclear protein exchange. The histones are mostly displaced, and replaced by protamines (small, arginine-rich proteins). It is proposed that in yeast, regions devoid of histones become very fragile after transcription; HMO1, an HMG-box protein, helps in stabilizing nucleosomes-free chromatin.

Chromatin and DNA repair
A variety of internal and external agents can cause DNA damage in cells. Many factors influence how the repair route is selected, including the cell cycle phase and chromatin segment where the break occurred. In terms of initiating 5’ end DNA repair, the p53 binding protein 1 (53BP1) and BRCA1 are important protein components that influence double-strand break repair pathway selection. The 53BP1 complex attaches to chromatin near DNA breaks and activates downstream factors such as Rap1-Interacting Factor 1 (RIF1) and shieldin, which protects DNA ends against nucleolytic destruction. DNA damage process occurs within the condition of chromatin, and the constantly changing chromatin environment has a large effect on it. Accessing and repairing the damaged cell of DNA, the genome condenses into chromatin and repairing it through modifying the histone residues. Through altering the chromatin structure, histones residues are adding chemical groups namely phosphate, acetyl and one or more methyl groups and these control the expressions of gene building by proteins to acquire DNA. Moreover, resynthesis of the delighted zone, DNA will be repaired by processing and restructuring the damaged bases. In order to maintain genomic integrity, “homologous recombination and classical non-homologous end joining process” has been followed by DNA to be repaired.

The packaging of eukaryotic DNA into chromatin presents a barrier to all DNA-based processes that require recruitment of enzymes to their sites of action. To allow the critical cellular process of DNA repair, the chromatin must be remodeled. In eukaryotes, ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling complexes and histone-modifying enzymes are two predominant factors employed to accomplish this remodeling process.

Chromatin relaxation occurs rapidly at the site of DNA damage. This process is initiated by PARP1 protein that starts to appear at DNA damage in less than a second, with half maximum accumulation within 1.6 seconds after the damage occurs. Next the chromatin remodeler Alc1 quickly attaches to the product of PARP1, and completes arrival at the DNA damage within 10 seconds of the damage. About half of the maximum chromatin relaxation, presumably due to action of Alc1, occurs by 10 seconds. This then allows recruitment of the DNA repair enzyme MRE11, to initiate DNA repair, within 13 seconds.

γH2AX, the phosphorylated form of H2AX is also involved in the early steps leading to chromatin decondensation after DNA damage occurrence. The histone variant H2AX constitutes about 10% of the H2A histones in human chromatin. γH2AX (H2AX phosphorylated on serine 139) can be detected as soon as 20 seconds after irradiation of cells (with DNA double-strand break formation), and half maximum accumulation of γH2AX occurs in one minute. The extent of chromatin with phosphorylated γH2AX is about two million base pairs at the site of a DNA double-strand break. γH2AX does not, itself, cause chromatin decondensation, but within 30 seconds of irradiation, RNF8 protein can be detected in association with γH2AX. RNF8 mediates extensive chromatin decondensation, through its subsequent interaction with CHD4, a component of the nucleosome remodeling and deacetylase complex NuRD.

After undergoing relaxation subsequent to DNA damage, followed by DNA repair, chromatin recovers to a compaction state close to its pre-damage level after about 20 min.

Methods to investigate chromatin

 * 1) ChIP-seq (Chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing) is recognized as the vastly utilized chromatin identification method it has been using the antibodies that actively selected, identify and combine with proteins including "histones, histone restructuring, transaction factors and cofactors". This has been providing data about the state of chromatin and the transaction of a gene by trimming "oligonucleotides" that are unbound. Chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing aimed against different histone modifications, can be used to identify chromatin states throughout the genome. Different modifications have been linked to various states of chromatin.
 * 2) DNase-seq (DNase I hypersensitive sites Sequencing) uses the sensitivity of accessible regions in the genome to the DNase I enzyme to map open or accessible regions in the genome.
 * 3) FAIRE-seq (Formaldehyde-Assisted Isolation of Regulatory Elements sequencing) uses the chemical properties of protein-bound DNA in a two-phase separation method to extract  nucleosome depleted regions from the genome.
 * 4) ATAC-seq (Assay for Transposable Accessible Chromatin sequencing) uses the Tn5 transposase to integrate (synthetic) transposons into accessible regions of the genome consequentially highlighting the localisation of nucleosomes and transcription factors across the genome.
 * 5) DNA footprinting is a method aimed at identifying protein-bound DNA. It uses labeling and fragmentation coupled to gel electrophoresis to identify areas of the genome that have been bound by proteins.
 * 6) MNase-seq (Micrococcal Nuclease sequencing) uses the micrococcal nuclease enzyme to identify nucleosome positioning throughout the genome.
 * 7) Chromosome conformation capture determines the spatial organization of chromatin in the nucleus, by inferring genomic locations that physically interact.
 * 8) MACC profiling (Micrococcal nuclease ACCessibility profiling) uses titration series of chromatin digests with micrococcal nuclease to identify chromatin accessibility as well as to map nucleosomes and non-histone DNA-binding proteins in both open and closed regions of the genome.

Chromatin and knots
It has been a puzzle how decondensed interphase chromosomes remain essentially unknotted. The natural expectation is that in the presence of type II DNA topoisomerases that permit passages of double-stranded DNA regions through each other, all chromosomes should reach the state of topological equilibrium. The topological equilibrium in highly crowded interphase chromosomes forming chromosome territories would result in formation of highly knotted chromatin fibres. However, Chromosome Conformation Capture (3C) methods revealed that the decay of contacts with the genomic distance in interphase chromosomes is practically the same as in the crumpled globule state that is formed when long polymers condense without formation of any knots. To remove knots from highly crowded chromatin, one would need an active process that should not only provide the energy to move the system from the state of topological equilibrium but also guide topoisomerase-mediated passages in such a way that knots would be efficiently unknotted instead of making the knots even more complex. It has been shown that the process of chromatin-loop extrusion is ideally suited to actively unknot chromatin fibres in interphase chromosomes.

Chromatin: alternative definitions
The term, introduced by Walther Flemming, has multiple meanings:
 * 1) Simple and concise definition: Chromatin is a macromolecular complex of a DNA macromolecule and protein macromolecules (and RNA). The proteins package and arrange the DNA and control its functions within the cell nucleus.
 * 2) A biochemists' operational definition: Chromatin is the DNA/protein/RNA complex extracted from eukaryotic lysed interphase nuclei. Just which of the multitudinous substances present in a nucleus will constitute a part of the extracted material partly depends on the technique each researcher uses. Furthermore, the composition and properties of chromatin vary from one cell type to another, during the development of a specific cell type, and at different stages in the cell cycle.
 * 3) The DNA + histone = chromatin definition: The DNA double helix in the cell nucleus is packaged by special proteins termed histones. The formed protein/DNA complex is called chromatin. The basic structural unit of chromatin is the nucleosome.

The first definition allows for "chromatins" to be defined in other domains of life like bacteria and archaea, using any DNA-binding proteins that condenses the molecule. These proteins are usually referred to nucleoid-associated proteins (NAPs); examples include AsnC/LrpC with HU. In addition, some archaea do produce nucleosomes from proteins homologous to eukaryotic histones.

Chromatin Remodeling:

Chromatin remodeling can result from covalent modification of histones that physically remodel, move or remove nucleosomes. Studies of Sanosaka et al 2022, says that Chromatin remodeler CHD7 regulate cell type-specific gene expression in human neural crest cells.

Additional sources

 * Cooper, Geoffrey M. 2000. The Cell, 2nd edition, A Molecular Approach. Chapter 4.2 Chromosomes and Chromatin.
 * Cremer, T. 1985. Von der Zellenlehre zur Chromosomentheorie: Naturwissenschaftliche Erkenntnis und Theorienwechsel in der frühen Zell- und Vererbungsforschung, Veröffentlichungen aus der Forschungsstelle für Theoretische Pathologie der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften. Springer-Vlg., Berlin, Heidelberg.
 * Elgin, S. C. R. (ed.). 1995. Chromatin Structure and Gene Expression, vol. 9. IRL Press, Oxford, New York, Tokyo.
 * Pollard, T., and W. Earnshaw. 2002. Cell Biology. Saunders.
 * Saumweber, H. 1987. Arrangement of Chromosomes in Interphase Cell Nuclei, p. 223-234. In W. Hennig (ed.), Structure and Function of Eucaryotic Chromosomes, vol. 14. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg.
 * Van Holde KE. 1989. Chromatin. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-96694-3.
 * Van Holde, K., J. Zlatanova, G. Arents, and E. Moudrianakis. 1995. Elements of chromatin structure: histones, nucleosomes, and fibres, p. 1-26. In S. C. R. Elgin (ed.), Chromatin structure and gene expression. IRL Press at Oxford University Press, Oxford.
 * Pollard, T., and W. Earnshaw. 2002. Cell Biology. Saunders.
 * Saumweber, H. 1987. Arrangement of Chromosomes in Interphase Cell Nuclei, p. 223-234. In W. Hennig (ed.), Structure and Function of Eucaryotic Chromosomes, vol. 14. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg.
 * Van Holde KE. 1989. Chromatin. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-96694-3.
 * Van Holde, K., J. Zlatanova, G. Arents, and E. Moudrianakis. 1995. Elements of chromatin structure: histones, nucleosomes, and fibres, p. 1-26. In S. C. R. Elgin (ed.), Chromatin structure and gene expression. IRL Press at Oxford University Press, Oxford.
 * Van Holde KE. 1989. Chromatin. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-96694-3.
 * Van Holde, K., J. Zlatanova, G. Arents, and E. Moudrianakis. 1995. Elements of chromatin structure: histones, nucleosomes, and fibres, p. 1-26. In S. C. R. Elgin (ed.), Chromatin structure and gene expression. IRL Press at Oxford University Press, Oxford.
 * Van Holde, K., J. Zlatanova, G. Arents, and E. Moudrianakis. 1995. Elements of chromatin structure: histones, nucleosomes, and fibres, p. 1-26. In S. C. R. Elgin (ed.), Chromatin structure and gene expression. IRL Press at Oxford University Press, Oxford.

title: Chromatin