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Transport in Ethiopia

Transport in Ethiopia is overseen by the Ministry of Transport and Communications. Over the last years, the Ethiopian federal authorities have significantly increased funding for rail and road construction to build an infrastructure, that allows better economic development.

Railways
Ethiopia is building a standard gauge railway network, the National Railway Network of Ethiopia, planned to consist of up to 6,000 km of railways in a number of years. The railway network serves a strategic goal to allow Ethiopia a sustainable and stable economic development. By 2030, the Ethiopian government hopes to invest about $65 billion into its transportation. The railway network's primary purpose is then both to connect landlocked Ethiopia to the world market by ensuring a seamless access to one or several sea ports for trade and for transporting most imports and exports. The rail transport of goods appears favorable – if compared to road transport – in terms of volume, costs, safety and speed of transportation for both imports and exports. The primary port for Ethiopia is the Port of Djibouti in Djibouti. More than 95% of Ethiopia's trade passes through Djibouti.

The port of Djibouti is served by one international railway, the electrified standard gauge 756 km long Addis Ababa – Djibouti Railway (of which 656 km run in Ethiopia). This railway has officially been opened in October 2016 but it is in trial service with no regular traffic in 2017. Once operational by the end of 2017 or in 2018, it will allow passenger transport and a travel time from Addis Ababa to Djibouti City in less than twelve hours with a designated speed of 120 km/hour.

Another railway, the Awash – Hara Gebeya Railway will go into trial service over its first 270 km in 2018. This second railway links Addis Ababa and the Addis Ababa – Djibouti Railway with the north of Ethiopia. Once operational over its first 270 km, possibly 2018 or 2019, it will allow both freight and passenger transport. A train ride from Addis Ababa to the twin cities of Kombolcha and Dessie will be possible in around six hours with a designated speed of 120 km/hour.

Roads

Road projects now represent around a quarter of the annual infrastructure budget of the Ethiopian federal government. Additionally, through the Road Sector Development Program (RSDP), the government has earmarked $4 billion to construct, repair and upgrade roads over the next decade.

As the first part of a 10-year to 15 year Road Sector Development Program, between 1997 and 2002 the Ethiopian government began a sustained effort to improve its infrastructure of roads. As a result, as of 2002 Ethiopia has a total (federal and regional) 33,297 km of roads, both paved and gravel. The share of federally managed roads in good quality improved from 14% in 1995 to 31% in 2002 as a result of this program, and to 89% in 2009 the road density increased from 21 km per 1000 km2 (in 1995) to 889 per 1000 km2 (in 2009) however, this is much greater than the average of 50 km per 1000 km2 for Africa.

The Ethiopian government had begun the second part of the Road Sector Development Program, which was completed in 2007. This had involved the upgrading or construction of over 7,500 km of roads, with the goal of improving the average road density for Ethiopia to 35 km per 1000 km2, and reducing the proportion of the country area that is more than 5 km from an all-weather road from 75% to 70%.

In 2024, the Ministry of Transport and Communications announced that they will ban combustion engined vehicle imports. As of February 2024, the date and details of the ban have not been released.

According to the Government of Ethiopia, it has spent over 600 billion birr (US$50 billion, €30 billion) on infrastructure since 1990.
 * total (regional and federal): 144,391 km (2009)
 * asphalt: 120,381 km (2009) (89% of the roads in Ethiopia are asphalt)
 * gravel: 11,023 km (2009) (11% of the roads in Ethiopia are gravel)
 * maintained by Regional government: 86,580 km (2009)

Major roads include: No 1: north east from Addis Ababa 853 km via Adama and Awash to Bure on Eritrean border No 2: north from Addis Ababa 1071 km via Dessie, Mek'ele and Adigrat to Axum No 3: north west from Addis Ababa across the Blue Nile at Dejen and again at Bahir Dar east around Lake Tana 737 km to Gondar. Designated part of the Cairo-Cape Town Trans-African Highway 4 (TAH 4) No 4: west from Addis Ababa 445 km via Nekemte to Gimbi No 5: west from Addis Ababa 510 km via Jimma to Metu No 6: south west from Jimma 216 km to Mizan Teferi No 7: south from Mojo 432 km via Shashamane and Sodo to Arba Minch. Part of road between Mojo and Shashamane is designated part of the Cairo-Cape Town Trans-African Highway 4 (TAH 4) No 8: south from Shashamane 214 km via Awasa to Hagere Mariam. Designated part of the Cairo-Cape Town Trans-African Highway 4 (TAH 4) No 9: south from Adama 77 km to Asella No 10: east from Awash 572 km via Harar and Jijiga to Degehabur

Expressways
The Addis Ababa–Adama Expressway was completed in 2014 as the first expressway in Ethiopia. In December 2015, construction began on a second expressway between Awasa and Mojo, where it will connect to the existing expressway.

In addition, the Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) has undertaken a three-year project to upgrade over 370 km of roads in the country. Contracts have been signed with the Ethiopian Defense Construction, China Railway Engineering, Eney Construction, China Wuyi, Yotek Construction and FAL General Contractor.

Dangers of vehicular transport
It is said that Ethiopia has the highest rates of traffic fatalities per vehicle in the world. This is due to many factors. For example, the roads are poorly maintained, lightened and marked; which are major factors in road accidents. Another major factor is the people themselves, who ignore the rules of the road. Their disregard of road safety puts every other driver at risk. Due to this, foreigners are advised to keep a safe distance from the car in front of them because the driving is unpredictable; anything can happen in the blink of an eye. Even the surroundings involving transport can be incredibly dangerous. For example, there are instances when carjackings and robberies occur on highways or streets that are away from the public eye. Due to this, people are forced to be highly alert of their surroundings, such as checking to make sure no one is lurking around their vehicle before entering and avoiding nighttime travel.

Ports and harbours

Ethiopia is landlocked and was by agreement with Eritrea using the ports of Asseb and Massawa until 1997; since the Eritrean-Ethiopian War, Ethiopia has used the port of Djibouti for nearly all of its imports. Ethiopia increasingly relies on inland dry ports for distributing cargo, after cargo arrived from Djibouti. The main Ethiopian dry port is Modjo dry port.

Merchant marine
The Baro River is the only river used for transport.

Total: 9 ships (with a volume of or over) / (2003 est.) ships by type: cargo ship 7; container ship 1; petroleum tanker 1; roll-on/roll-off ship 3 (1999 est.), 1 (2003 est.)

Airports
As of 2021, Ethiopia has 57 airports, of which 17 have paved runways. The Addis Ababa Airport is the largest airport in Ethiopia and one of Africa's biggest and busiest. It is the main hub of Ethiopian Airlines, the national airline that serves destinations in Ethiopia and throughout the African continent, as well as nonstop service to Asia, Europe, North America and South America. The airport is also the base of the Ethiopian Aviation Academy. As of June 2018, nearly 450 flights per day were departing from and arriving at the airport. In 2018, about 12 million passengers were carried on domestic and international flights.

total: 14 over 3,047 m: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 5 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (2003 est.)
 * Paved runways

total: 68 over 3,047 m: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 914 to 1,523 m: 27 under 914 m: 23 (2003 est.)
 * Unpaved runways

title: Transport in Ethiopia


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Ethiopian National Defense Force

The Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) (የኢፌዲሪ መከላከያ ሠራዊት) is the military force of Ethiopia. Civilian control of the military is carried out through the Ministry of Defense, which oversees the Ground Forces, Air Force, Naval Force as well as the Defense Industry Sector.

History
The Ethiopian army's origins and military traditions date back to the earliest history of Ethiopia. Due to Ethiopia's location between the Middle East and Africa, it has long been in the middle of Eastern and Western politics and has been subject to foreign invasion and aggression. In 1579, the Ottoman Empire's attempt to expand from a coastal base at Massawa during the Ottoman conquest of Habesh was defeated. The Army of the Ethiopian Empire was also able to defeat the Egyptians in 1876 at Gura, led by Ethiopian Emperor Yohannes IV. Clapham wrote in the 1980s that the "Abyssinians [had suffered] from a 'superiority complex' which may be traced to Gundet, Gura and Adwa".

Following the order of the emperor of Ethiopia, Nikolay Leontiev directly organized the first battalion of the regular Ethiopian army in February 1899. Leontiev formed the first regular battalion, the kernel of which became the company of volunteers from the former Senegal shooters, which he chose and invited from Western Africa, with the training of the Russian and French officers. The first Ethiopian military band was organized at the same time.

Battle of Adwa
The Battle of Adwa is the best-known victory of Ethiopian forces over foreign invaders. It maintained Ethiopia's existence as an independent state. Fought on 1 March 1896 against the Kingdom of Italy near the town of Adwa, it was the decisive battle of the First Italo–Ethiopian War. Assisted by all of the major nobles of Ethiopia, including Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, Ras Makonnen, Ras Mengesha Yohannes, Mikael of Wollo, and Menelik II struck a powerful blow against the Italian army.

The Ethiopian army had been able to execute the strategic plan of Menelik's headquarters, despite a feudal system of organization and adverse circumstances. A special role was played by the Russian military advisers and the volunteers of Leontiev's mission.

Secondly, the Ethiopian army was based on a feudal system of organization, and as a result, nearly the entire army was a peasant militia. Russian military experts advising Menelik II suggested trying to achieve full battle collision with Italians, to neutralize the superior firepower of their opponent and potentially nullify their problems with arms, training, and organization, rather than engaging in a campaign of harassment. In the battle that ensued wave upon wave of Menelik's warriors successfully attacked the Italians.

Preserving Ethiopian independence
During the Scramble for Africa, Ethiopia remained the only nation that had not been colonized by European colonial powers, due in part to their defeat of Italy in the First Italo-Ethiopian War. However, with Ethiopia surrounded by European colonies, the necessity of ensuring that the Ethiopian army was well-maintained became apparent to the Ethiopian government. The Ethiopian government trained its troops to a very high degree, with Imperial Russian Army officer Alexander Bulatovich writing thus:

"Many consider the Ethiopian army to be undisciplined. They think that it is not in any condition to withstand a serious fight with a well-organized European army, claiming that the recent war with Italy doesn't prove anything. I will not begin to guess the future and will say only this. Over the course of four months, I watched this army closely. It is unique in the world. And I can bear witness to the fact that it is not quite so chaotic as it seems at first glance, and that on the contrary, it is profoundly disciplined, though in its own unique way. For every Abyssinian, war is normal business, and military skills and rules of army life in the field enter in the flesh and blood of each of them, just as do the main principles of tactics. On the march, each soldier knows how to arrange necessary comforts for himself and to conserve his strength; but on the other hand, when necessary, he shows such endurance and is capable of action in conditions which are difficult even to imagine. You see remarkable expediency in all the actions and skills of this army, and each soldier has an amazingly intelligent attitude toward managing the mission of the battle. Despite such qualities, because of its impetuousness, it is much more difficult to control this army than a well-drilled European army, and I can only marvel at and admire the skill of its leaders and chiefs, of which there is no shortage."

In obedience to the agreement with Russia and the order of Menelik II, First Ethiopian officers began to be trained at the First Russian cadet school in 1901. 30 to 40 Ethiopian officers were trained in Russia from 1901 until 1913.

Under Haile Selassie I

Under the regency of Tafari Mekonnen, the army was modernized. He created an Imperial Bodyguard, the Kebur Zabagna, in 1917 from the earlier Mahal Safari who had traditionally attended the Ethiopian Emperor. Its elite was trained at the French Saint-Cyr military academy or by Belgian military advisers. He also created his own military school at Holeta in January 1935.

Ethiopian military aviation efforts were initiated in 1929 when Tafari Mekonnen hired two French pilots and purchased four French biplanes. By the time of the Italian invasion of 1935, the air force had four pilots and thirteen aircraft.

However, these efforts were not sufficient nor instituted in enough time to stop the rising tide of Italian fascism. Ethiopia was invaded and occupied by Italy during the Italian invasion of Ethiopia of 1935–36, marked for Ethiopia's first time being occupied by a foreign power. Ethiopia's patriots managed to resist and defeat the fascist Italian force after the 1941 East African Campaign of World War II with the help of British, South African and Nigerian forces. This made Ethiopia the only country in Africa that has never been colonized. After the Italians had been driven from the country, a British Military Mission to Ethiopia (BMME), under Major General Stephen Butler, was established to reorganize the Ethiopian Army. The Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement of 1944 removed the BMME from the jurisdiction of East Africa Command at Nairobi and made it responsible to the Ethiopian Minister of War.

Ethiopia bought twenty AH-IV tankettes from Czechoslovakia in the late 1940s. They were based on the Romanian R-1 variant and arrived in Djibouti on 9 May 1950 after which they were carried by rail to Addis Ababa. They were used until the 1980s when they participated in the fighting against Somalia.

Korean War

In keeping with the principle of collective security, for which Haile Selassie was an outspoken proponent, Ethiopia sent a contingent under General Mulugeta Buli, known as the Kagnew Battalion, to take part in the Korean War. It was attached to the American 7th Infantry Division, and fought in several engagements including the Battle of Pork Chop Hill. 3,518 Ethiopian troops served in the war, of which 121 were killed and 536 wounded.

On May 22, 1953, a U.S.-Ethiopian Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement was signed. A U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group was dispatched to Ethiopia and began its work by reorganizing the army into three divisions. On 25 September 1953, Selassie created the Imperial Ministry of National Defense that unified the Army, Air Force, and Navy. By 1956, the First Division had its headquarters at Addis Ababa (First, Second, Third Brigades, 5,300 strong); the Second Division was headquartered at Asmara, with the Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth, and Twelfth Brigades (4,500 strong); and Third Division Harar (with the Fourth, Ninth, Tenth, and Eleventh Brigades, 6,890 strong) respectively. The three divisions had a total of 16,832 troops. In May 1959, the Emperor established the Imperial Territorial Army as a reserve force that provided military training to civil servants.

In 1960 the U.S. Army Area Handbook for Ethiopia described the very personalized command arrangements then used by the Emperor: "The Emperor is by constitutional provision Commander-in-Chief, and to him are reserved all rights respecting the size of the forces and their organization and command, together with the power to appoint, promote, transfer and dismiss military officers. He seeks the advice and consent of Parliament in declaring war. Traditionally, he assumes personal command of the forces in time of war.'"

The Office of the Chief of Staff of the Imperial Ethiopian Armed Forces directed the Commanders of the Army, Air Force, and Navy, and the three army divisions were directly responsible to the Commander of the Army. The three divisions seemingly included the Third Division in the Ogaden, seen as a hardship post. While technically the Imperial Bodyguard (Kebur Zabagna) was responsible to the Army Commander, in reality, its commander received his orders directly from the Emperor.

Balambaras Abebe Aregai was one of the noted patriotic resistance leaders of Shoa (central Ethiopia) that rose to preeminence in the post-liberation period. He became Ras, a general and minister of defense of the Imperial Ethiopian Armed Forces until his death in the 1960 Ethiopian coup attempt.

Ethiopia contributed troops for the United Nations operation in the Congo – the United Nations Operation in the Congo - from July 1960. By 20 July 1960, 3,500 troops for ONUC had arrived in the Congo. The 3,500 consisted of 460 troops from Ethiopia (later to grow into the Tekil Brigade) as well as troops from Ghana, Morocco and Tunisia. Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie raised some 3,000 Imperial Bodyguard personnel- about 10 percent of the Ethiopian army's entire strength at that time-and made it part of the UN peacekeeping force in the Congo, along with an air force squadron. This volunteer battalion from the Imperial Bodyguard were authorized by the Emperor. The Tekil (or "Tekel") Brigade was stationed in Stanleyville.

Aman Mikael Andom commanded the Third Division during the 1964 Ethiopian–Somali Border War. He later became chief of staff of the Armed Forces in July 1974, and then Minister of Defense. He then became chairman of the Derg from September to December 1974.

Emperor Haile Selassie divided the Ethiopian military into separate commands. The US Army Handbook for Ethiopia notes that each service was provided with training and equipped from different foreign countries "to assure reliability and retention of power." The military consisted of the following: Imperial Bodyguard (also known as the "First Division", 8,000 men); three army divisions; services which included the Airborne, Engineers, and Signal Corps; the Territorial Army (5,000 men); and the police (28,000 men).

Among reported U.S. equipment deliveries to Ethiopia were 120 M59 and 39 M75 armored personnel carriers.

Seizure of power by the Derg 1974 and aftermath
The Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police, and Territorial Army, or the Derg (Amharic "Committee"), was officially announced 28 June 1974 by a group of military officers to maintain law and order due to the powerlessness of the civilian government following widespread mutiny in the armed forces of Ethiopia earlier that year. Its members were not directly involved in those mutinies, nor was this the first military committee organized to support the administration of Prime Minister Endelkachew Makonnen: Alem Zewde Tessema had established the Armed Forces Coordinated Committee on 23 March. However, over the following month's radicals in the Ethiopian military came to believe he was acting on behalf of the hated aristocracy, and when a group of notables petitioned for the release of several government ministers and officials who were under arrest for corruption and other crimes, three days later the Derg was announced.

The Derg, which originally consisted of soldiers at the capital, broadened its membership by including representatives from the 40 units of the Ethiopian Army, Air Force, Navy, Kebur Zabagna (Imperial Guard), Territorial Army and Police: each unit was expected to send three representatives, who were supposed to be privates, NCOs, and junior officers up to the rank of major. According to Bahru Zewde, "senior officers were deemed too compromised by close association to the regime."

The committee elected Major Mengistu Haile Mariam as its chairman and Major Atnafu Abate as its vice-chairman. The Derg was initially supposed to study various military units' grievances, investigate abuses by senior officers and staff, and root out corruption in the military. In the months following its founding, the power of the Derg steadily increased. In July 1974 the Derg obtained key concessions from the Emperor, Haile Selassie, which included the power to arrest not only military officers but government officials at every level. Soon both former Prime Ministers Tsehafi Taezaz Aklilu Habte-Wold, and Endelkachew Makonnen, along with most of their cabinets, most regional governors, many senior military officers, and officials of the Imperial court found themselves imprisoned.

When the Derg gained control of Ethiopia, they lessened their reliance on the West. Instead, they began to draw their equipment and their sources for organizational and training methods from the Soviet Union and other Comecon countries, especially Cuba. During this period, Ethiopian forces were often locked in counter-insurgency campaigns against various guerrilla groups. They honed both conventional and guerrilla tactics during campaigns in Eritrea, and by repelling an invasion launched by Somalia in the 1977–1978 Ogaden War.

The Ethiopian army grew considerably under the Derg (1974–1987), and the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia under Mengistu (1987–1991), especially during the latter regime. The Library of Congress estimated forces underarms in 1974 at 41,000. By July 1975 the International Institute for Strategic Studies was listing a mechanised division in addition to three infantry divisions. Ayele writes that in November 1975, the "Nabalbal" ("Flame") force was created, subdivided into battalion-sized units of 400. Each battalion-sized unit was known as a hayl (force), and 20 were created within sixteen months. The "Nabalbal" units entered combat in 1977. When Ethiopian intelligence sources discovered Somali planning to seize the Ogaden, militia brigades were also created; first 30, then a total of 61 brigades totaling 143,350 by 1977–78. It appears that there were five regular line divisions active by the time of the 1977 Ogaden War, and the Library of Congress estimated the force size at the time as 53,500. With significant Soviet assistance, after that point the army's size grew rapidly; in 1979 it was estimated at 65,000. The 18th and 19th Mountain Infantry Divisions were then established in 1979-80 originally to seize Nakfa, in the Sahel Mountains, one of the remaining strongholds of the Eritrean insurgents. By the beginning of 1981 recruitment for the 21st and 22nd Mountain Infantry Divisions was underway; soon afterward, preparations for the large Operation Red Star were stepping up.

In April 1988 the Derg reorganized the army. The restoration of relations with Somalia meant that forces could be transferred from the First Revolutionary Army in the Ogaden, to the Second and Third Revolutionary Armies, the Third (TRA) being responsible for the provinces of Assab, Tigray, Wello, Gondar, and Gojjam. The very small Fourth Revolutionary Army became responsible for protecting the border with Kenya and those with Somalia and Sudan. In the place of the previous commands, thirteen corps were established instead, distributed amongst the army headquarters. Intensive efforts were made to enlist additional personnel. Total manpower after the reorganization reached a reported 388,000.

In May 1988 the Derg decided that before it could concentrate on destroying the EPLF, it would have to first eliminate the TPLF. Thus Operation Adwa was devised to seize the main TPLF base at Adi Ramets in Gondar Province. The Third Revolutionary Army's 603rd and 604th Corps were to play the main role, while the 605th Corps secured the rear, in Wello. The TRA's command structure was disrupted when Major General Mulatu Negash, the army commander, was supplanted by the arrival of Mengistu's favorite, Captain Lagesse Asfaw.

Cuba provided a significant influx of military advisors and troops over this period, with the largest escalation during the Ogaden War with Somalia, supported by a Soviet airlift:
 * 1977–1978: 17,000 (Ogaden War)
 * 1978: 12,000
 * 1984: 3,000
 * 1989: All forces withdrawn

1990-91 Order of Battle
Gebru Tareke listed Ethiopian ground forces in 1990 as comprising four revolutionary armies organized as task forces, eleven corps, twenty-four infantry divisions, and four mountain divisions, reinforced by five mechanized divisions, two airborne divisions, and ninety-five brigades, including four mechanized brigades, three artillery brigades, four tank brigades, twelve special commandos and para commandos brigades – including the Spartakiad, which became operational in 1987 under the preparation and guidance of North Koreans – seven BM-rocket battalions, and ten brigades of paramilitary forces.

Forces underarms were estimated at 230,000 in early 1991. Mengistu's People's Militia had also grown to about 200,000 members. The mechanized forces of the army comprised 1,200 T-54/55, 100 T-62 tanks, and 1,100 armored personnel carriers (APCs), but readiness was estimated to be only about 30 percent operational, because of the withdrawal of financial support, lack of maintenance expertise and parts from the Soviet Union, Cuba, and other nations. The army commands consisted of the:

 * First Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Harar, 1988: 601st and 602nd Corps)
 * Second Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Asmera, 1988: 606th-610th Corps)
 * Third Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Kombolcha, 1988: 603rd, 604th, 605th Corps)
 * Fourth Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Nekemte, 1988: 611th, 612th, 614th Corps)
 * Fifth Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Gondar)

To these armies were assigned the operational forces of the army, comprising:

 * 31 infantry divisions. The 30th and 31st Infantry Divisions were the last formed, circa November–December 1989. There were also the 102nd Airborne Division and 103rd Commando Divisions, which began training in January 1987.
 * 32 tank battalions
 * 40 artillery battalions
 * 12 air defense battalions
 * 8 commando brigades

Ethiopian soldiers have also committed many atrocities in the region of Tigray. They have used food and rape as weapons of war.

From 1991
In 1991 Mengistu's government was overcome by the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ, former EPLF), Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) and other opposition factions. After the defeat of the military government, the provisional government disbanded the former national army and relied on its own guerrilla fighters. In 1993, however, the Tigrayan-led government announced plans to create a multi-ethnic defense force. This process entailed the creation of a new professional army and officer class and the demobilization of many of the irregulars who had fought against the military government. With the collapse of the Soviet Union Ethiopia again turned to the Western powers for alliance and assistance. However, many Tigrayan officers remained in command positions. This transformation was still underway when war with Eritrea broke out in 1998, a development that saw the ranks of the armed forces swell along with defense expenditures.

Although the armed forces have significant battlefield experience, their militia orientation has complicated the transition to a structured, integrated military. Ranks and conventional units were only adopted in 1996. A United States-assisted effort to restructure the armed forces was interrupted by mobilization for the war with Eritrea.

The Ethiopia-Eritrea war
The former allies EPRDF and PFDJ (former EPLF) led their countries Ethiopia and Eritrea, respectively, into the Eritrean-Ethiopian War of 1998. The war was fought over the disputed region of Badme. During the course of the war, some commanders and pilots from the former army and air force were recalled to duty. These officers helped turn the tide decisively against Eritrea in 2000. Following the war's end, the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission, a body founded by the UN, established that the Badme region had in fact belonged to Eritrea. Although the two countries are now at peace, Ethiopia rejected the results of the international court's decision, and continued to occupy Badme. Most observers agree that Ethiopia's rejection of international law, coupled with the high numbers of soldiers maintained on the border by each side – a debilitatingly high number, particularly for the Eritrean side – means that the two countries are effectively still in conflict.

After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Ethiopian army began to train with the U.S. Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) established in Djibouti. Ethiopia allowed the US to station military advisors at Camp Hurso. Part of the training at Camp Hurso has included U.S. Army elements, including 4th Battalion, 31st Infantry, training the 12th, 13th and 14th Division Reconnaissance Companies, which from July 2003 were being formed into a new Ethiopian anti-terrorism battalion.

Ogaden
Government forces have been engaged in a battle against Ogaden insurgents led by the Ogaden National Liberation Front.

Somalia
Ethiopian troops invaded Somalia in 2006 on the pretext of security concerns over Ogaden.

In December 2006, the ENDF entered Somalia to confront the Islamic Courts Union, initially winning the Battle of Baidoa. This led to the seizure of Mogadishu by Ethiopian troops and TFG militias and subsequent heavy fighting there. After the Islamists split into two groups, moderate Islamists led by Sharif Sheikh Ahmed signed a UN backed peace deal with the TFG and established a larger government in Mogadishu. Ethiopian troops withdrew as part of the terms of the peace deal. Gabre Heard commanded the forces in Somalia.

The force of about 3,000 Ethiopian troops faced war crimes allegations by rights groups. The Transitional Federal Government who invited them were also accused of human rights abuses and war crimes including murder, rape, assault, and looting by human rights groups

In their December 2008 report 'So much to Fear' Human Rights Watch warned that since the Ethiopians had intervened in 2006 Somalia was facing a humanitarian catastrophe on a scale not witnessed since the early 1990s. They went on to accuse the TFG of terrorizing the citizens of Mogadishu and the Ethiopian soldiers for increasing violent criminality.

Analysts suggested that the move was primarily motivated by financial considerations, with the Ethiopian forces' operational costs now slated to be under AMISOM's allowance budget. It is believed that the Ethiopian military's long experience in Somali territory, its equipment such as helicopters, and the potential for closer coordination will help the allied forces advance their territorial gains. As of 2014, the Ethiopian troops in Somalia have been integrated into the AMISOM peacekeeping force. According to Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesperson Ambassador Dina Mufti, the Ethiopian military's decision to join AMISOM is intended to render the peacekeeping operation more secure.

The Northern War
On 8 November 2020, ENDF troops backed by militias from the Amhara and the Eritrean Defence Forces regions were deployed to the Tigray Region in response to a coordinated 'preemptive strike' by TPLF against the Northern Command of ENDF. Since the beginning of the conflict, ENDF personnel has been accused of involvement in alleged war crimes against civilians in the Tigray Region. These mere accusations include rape and other gender based violence, as well as extrajudicial killings in Hagere Selam, Hitsats, Humera, Debre Abbay, and other areas where the conflict is ongoing. The prime minister of Ethiopia, Abiy Ahmed, has publicly acknowledged the possibility of war crimes taking place within the Tigray Region. Abiy did not however link these actions to the Ethiopian military, and instead cited such reports were likely "propaganda of exaggeration" by the Tigray People's Liberation Front, currently opposing federal forces in the northern region.

The Italian weekly magazine Panorama published a graphic video in which Amharic-speaking ENDF soldiers killed a group of 9 people in Humera in August 2021 and then put their bodies on fire. The video also shows torturing of one man by soldiers, then tying him up, preparing to throw him in the river.

The professional army of ENDF took significant casualties during the war, forcing the ENDF to rely on citizen soldiers until it was prepared for a counter-offensive, while it retreated from the northern part of Ethiopia. When the ENDF took high casualties and the need for more manpower arouse, the government started recruiting soldiers en-masse, with The Prime Minister himself leading by example the recruitment effort as well as the war from the frontlines, this happened during the TDF–OLA joint offensive which threatened Addis Abeba. Human wave attacks accusations were made during the war on the ENDF, such tactics are usually very costly in human life. In addition, in the lead-up and early on in the war, tigrayan military officers of the ENDF—which had constituted 80% of the officer corps of the ENDF—had defected to the TPLF. This greatly reducing the amount of capable COs and NCOs. This all indicates that the ENDF is coming out of the war enlarged in size, but with significant leadership/officer shortages that raises questions for the future, as in, can the ENDF control the regional militias that has sprung up and that could pose future threats to Ethiopia. With already signs of tensions arising between the central government and militias, with militias such as Fano, where the government arrested 4,000 militia members due to its "illegal activities". The ENDF has significant challenges coming out of the Northern war, such as coping with potential loss of leadership due to casualties, logistics or equipment losses.

Size and strength
The size of the ENDF has fluctuated significantly since the end of the Ethiopia-Eritrea war in 2000. In 2002 the Ethiopian Defense Forces had a strength of approximately 250,000-350,000 troops. This was roughly the same number maintained during the Derg regime that fell to the rebel forces in 1991. However, that number was later reduced, and in January 2007, during the War in Somalia, Ethiopian forces were said to comprise about 300,000 troops. In 2012, the IISS estimated that the ground forces had 135,000 personnel and the air force 3,000.

As of 2012, the ENDF consists of two separate branches: the Ground Forces and the Ethiopian Air Force. Ethiopia has several defense industrial organizations that produce and overhaul different weapons systems. Most of these were built under the Derg regime which planned a large military industrial complex. The ENDF relies on voluntary military service of people above 18 years of age. Although there is no compulsory military service, armed forces may conduct call-ups when necessary and compliance is compulsory.

Modern day Ethiopia, being a landlocked country, has no active navy. Ethiopia reacquired a coastline on the Red Sea in 1950 and created the Ethiopian Navy in 1955. Eritrean independence in 1991 left Ethiopia landlocked again, but the Ethiopian Navy continued to operate from foreign ports until it finally was disbanded in 1996.

In June 2018, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed called for the eventual reconstitution of the Ethiopian Navy as part of a wider program of security sector reforms, saying that "we should build our naval force capacity in the future".

In March 2019, Abiy Ahmed signed defense accords with France's Emmanuel Macron, including on support in establishing a naval component.

The Ethiopian Navy is based in Djibouti, and its headquarters is in Bahir Dar, Ethiopia.

Peacekeeping
Ethiopia has served in various United Nations and African Union peacekeeping missions. These have included Ivory Coast, on the Burundi border, and in Rwanda.

Two major previous Ethiopian missions were in Liberia and Darfur. The United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) was established by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1509, of 19 September 2003, to support the implementation of the ceasefire agreement and the peace process, protect United Nations staff, facilities and civilians, support humanitarian and human rights activities; as well as assist in national security reform, including national police training and formation of a new, restructured military. In November 2007, nearly 1,800 Ethiopian troops serving with the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) were presented with UN Peacekeeping medals for their "invaluable contribution to the peace process." Up to three Ethiopian battalions used to constitute Sector 4 of the UN Mission, covering the southern part of the country. The mission ended in 2018.

Many thousands of Ethiopian peacekeepers were also involved in the hybrid United Nations–African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID) in western Sudan. The Security Council authorized a force of about 26,000 uniformed personnel. The Darfur mission was shut down in 2020–21.

Ethiopia also provides the entire force for the UN's Abyei mission, the United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei. An Ethiopian officer commands the force.

The National Defense Day
The National Defense Day is celebrated annually as the holiday of the ENDF on October 26. The day celebrates the establishment of Ministry of Defense for the first time in Ethiopian history, on 26 October 1907. It is celebrated for four days.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ethiopian National Defense Force


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Foreign relations of Ethiopia

The foreign relations of Ethiopia refers to overall diplomatic relationship of Ethiopia. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs oversees foreign relations and diplomatic missions of the country.

Ethiopia is one of few early African countries admitted to the League of Nations, becoming a member on 28 September 1923, and was one of the founding members of the United Nations. During the Scramble for Africa, Ethiopia had maintained its full sovereignty over European colonial power and fought the First Italo-Ethiopian War in 1895–96. However, the League did not protect in accord with the envisaged "collective security" of the country, resulted Italy's occupation of Ethiopia for 5 years (1936–1941).

From 1950s, Ethiopia participated to UN peacekeeping missions such as in Korean War and Congo Crisis. Virtually, Ethiopia maintains diplomatic relations to most countries, and is non-permanent member of the UN Security Council.

Land of Punt
Punt (2500 BCE – 980 BCE) was predominantly a trading centre dominated by Ancient Egypt to Horn of Africa. Trading commodities includes exports of Egypt; one of the most essential was incense, which was mainly used for religious rituals for embalming corpse. Other were ivory, spices, hides and exotic animals that convey route to coast of Ethiopia, thus Ethiopia has been an integral part of Punt. Egyptian expedition to southeastern African region was generally commenced in the second millennium BC, after stabilizing relations with kingdoms of today's Sudan, the Kush, Napata and Meroë.

South Arabia
Some theorists hypothesized Ancient South Arabian people migrated out of Africa to the strait Bab-el-Mandeb when its sea level decreased to current status. When their civilization came to appear from 4th millennium BC, onward Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf, adaptation of Semitic language was from end of Mediterranean, though they used Canaanite alphabet developed from Syria or Palestine during second millennium BC. Apparently, these languages similarity compared to Hebrew and Phoenician alphabets, even though lacked scholarly consensus. By 500 BC, it was widely spoken such as the Ge'ez language.

Writing system through inscription on stone often detailed historical rival kingdoms in the region, most notability the Saba, Qataban, Himyar, Hadhramaut, Ma'in and others. In 1959, American archeologists collected numerous artifacts and body of inscriptions in the area, belonging to primary sources. The inscription not only detailed about South Arabia, but also the early Ethiopian history associated with Kingdom of Aksum and its rulers.

Kingdom of Aksum
The Kingdom of Aksum has been a great power in classic Africa; once it has been referenced by Persian prophet Mani in the 3rd century and Greco-Roman trading guide Periplus of the Erythraean Sea in first century. Axum maintained well-defined foreign relations with powerful realms in the era. According to Stuart Munro-Hay witness, the Aksumite had several account of ambassadors that had delegation with neighboring powers. Occasionally, Aksumite contact with foreign powers also attested by archaeological or scarce finds.

Egypt
Aksumite relations with pre-Roman Egypt was ostensibly uncertain. However, it was considered that Aksumite contact were also existed during the fall of Ptolemaic dynasty with Cleopatra death in 30 BC. Few artifacts were uncovered from Egypt such as cippus of Horus given to Bruce, and illustrated by him, and a few amulet figurines of blue faience or cornaline found at various sites of Ethiopia. Other include the double-uraeus, perhaps brought from Meroë.

Another discoveries are an inscription of Ptolemy III copied by Kosmas at Adulis and ankh'-sign engraved on one of the stelae. During King Ezana's reign, he expedited to the Nile after Meroë was entirely sacked. After its successor Noba emerged, it behaved badly to consign Aksumite ambassadors punished with military expedition. An aggressive mistreatment was objected by tribes such as the Mangurto, the Barya, and the Khasa by asking support, either regarded Aksum would an aide of Noba or possibly a suzerain. Ezana's expedition also attacked Kasu, the remnants of Meroitic state. Nuba, Kasu, and Beja were integral to Ezana's kingdom. Meroitic artifacts have been found in Ethiopian location Addi Galamo (Atse Dera) such as bronze bowls, which was brought from Roman Egypt. It was possibly made up of diorite thumb-ring found by the BIEA expedition at Aksum, and corna line amulet of Harpocrates with typical double-uraeus of the Meroites.

South Arabia
Saba, Himyar and Hadhramawit kingdom commonly known as South Arabian states—had special relations with Ethiopia. Culturally, linguistically, and socially, Aksumite civilization completely inspired by those overseas. While Aksumite intervention to states generally uncertain, it was viable to have a military expedition beginning in 3rd century. During the period of GDRT and Adhebah reign, (’DBH), Aksumite commenced a military treaty with Saba and then with Hadhramawit in the first half of third century.

During Adhebah period, Shamir called Himyar prince Dhu-Raydan sent military aid from Aksum. Later, Aksumite king adopted nominally "king of Saba and Himyar", asserting suzerainty. Foreign contact also continued during the fifth and early sixth centuries between the two sides of Red Sea. Byzantine scholar Procopius told the voyage of crossing Red Sea for five days and nights and that "the harbor of the Homeritae from which they are accustomed to putting to sea is called Boulikas", presumably somewhere near Mukha, and " at the end of the sail across the sea they always put in at the harbor of the Adulitae" at the reign of King Kaleb.

Arabian titles were experienced in South Arabia during Kaleb's reign; after his viceroy deposed by Jewish Himyar king Yusuf Asar, Yemen was no longer requisite to Aksum. The event led Aksumite to decline its dominion. An inscription dated to 543 AD mentioned that the new king named Abraha dealing with the restoration of great dam at Marib, and mentioned embassies from various foreign countries such as Aksum, Rome, Persia and various Arab groups. Procopius noted that Abreha was subordinated by Kaleb, a period which unbeknownst to Abreha regaining the kingdom reputations and he received little damage.

Middle Ages
Foreign relations in the Middle Ages have impacted by an interaction with Iberian countries—Spain and Portugal—especially the latter had considerable power on internal affairs. Portuguese influence spanned from 1500 to 1672, they had an interest of spreading Jesuit order from 1556 to 1632. According to their narrative effluence, the Portuguese authors underscored their involvement to Ethiopia, but overturned to smoothly decay. Portuguese authors works notably Francisco Álvares, Miguel de Castanhoso, and Pedro Páez survived to this day. Prester John, a fabulous Christian king, spurred the Portuguese to pursue Ethiopia whose kingdom they equates with Garden of Eden. According to the legend, he was born about 1460 and last seen in 1526. There is also speculation about his age where he lived for fifteen or twenty seven years beyond 1526.

Pero da Covilhã profoundly marched overland into the Ethiopian Highlands about the end of 1492 or beginning of 1493, characterized by conquest and superiority. He sent an information to Lisbon a few years later that contributed Vasco da Gama mobilisation to African southern cap into the Indian Ocean. The Portuguese navy almost dominated the coastline of Eastern Hemisphere.

In the early 15th century, Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since the Aksumite era. Atse Dawit I first made contact with the Republic of Venice by requesting for religious artifacts and craftsmen. A letter from Henry IV of England to the Ethiopian Emperor survives. In 1428, Yeshaq I sent two emissaries to Alfonso V of Aragon, who sent his own emissaries that failed to complete the return trip home to Aragon.

The first continuous relations with a European country began in 1508 with Portugal under Dawit II (Lebna Dengel), who had just inherited the throne from his father. In 1487, King John II of Portugal sent two emissaries to the Orient, Pero da Covilhã and Afonso de Paiva; Afonso would die on this mission. By the end of Middle Ages, the Ethiopian Empire was in a 13 year long war with neighboring Muslim states, and a Portuguese expedition force was sent from Goa, India to aid the Ethiopian Army due to an ongoing rivalry with the Ottoman Empire, who provided logistical support to the Adal Sultanate.

Gondarine period
Since 16th century, Roman Catholicism and the Jesuits increasingly influenced on state power. Besides, the Oromo migrations had vital role in the northern Ethiopia. Among other Jesuit, Spanish Jesuit Pedro Paez had favorable relations to the Emperors of Ethiopia like Za Dengel and Susenyos I, the latter promulgated that Roman Catholicism state administrative to the Empire in 1622 on behalf of Orthodox Tewahedo Church, resulted in grave conflict for the years.

The reign of Emperor Fasilides in 1632 arranged this status by restoring Orthodox Tewahedo state leadership and expelled Jesuits from his land. After founding Gondar in 1636, Ethiopia then prospered again with the beginning of "Gondarine period" characterized as relatively peaceful governance. However, few Franciscan and Capuchin friars said to be lived during the 18th century such as Franciscan Giuseppe Maria di Gerusalemme, Remedius Prutky (who left credible records to the city).

Architecture of this period was slightly influenced by the remnant Jesuits, but also the presence of Arab, Indians (brought by the Jesuits) as well as Turkish in Ottoman occupied northern area had involvement. One of the example is  castles in Fasil Ghebbi.

Post-Zemene Mesafint
Emperor Tewodros II reinstated the imperial power and foreign relations. His connection of Queen Victoria and other European leaders unfavorable when he sent unresponsive letter to the Queen, eventually leading to brief war with the British Empire. The British sent 13,000 soldiers, 26,000 men for logistical support and 40,000 animals including war elephants from India during their expedition, resulting in Tewodros suicide at Magdala in 1868. Not only modernized the empire, but he also paved the way of coherence the succession for subsequent emperors. Ethiopia was briefly isolated from world power in the post-Zemene Mesafint period; Emperor Yohannes IV faced Egyptian invasion as they laid linkage of Suez Canal to Massawa, and opening road between Addi Quala and Gundet used to penetrate the Ethiopian Empire. Yohannes IV on other side was reluctant to improve the road from the Ethiopian Highland to the coast of Red Sea. According to British assistant John Kirkham, he "preferred to keep his money hoarded up". Likewise, German traveller Gerhard Rohlfs asserted that he wanted to build churches rather than roads. Road working, on the sides, was completed by Swedish missionaries at Monkulu. British traveller Augustus B. Wylde supposed that Abyssinians were "in fear of foreign invasion" where lastly commented "I suppose they are right".

Wylde noted that the first Ethiopian diaspora took place in mid-1880s, who had been from Massawa to Europe, adapting European trousers. This was strictly outlawed by the Emperor. The empire nonetheless, was surged into modernization by foreign contribution, numerous missionary schools were expanded by Swedish Protestants at Monkulu and the French Lazarist at Keren, the later described by Wylde "a very useful education" with "very well conducted". Ethiopia had received broad European population in the 19th-century: Jean Baraglion of French origin who had lived for over a decade and according to Wylde, he enjoyed monopoly at Adwa. Despite rejoice, Baraglion encountered at least two rivals, a Hungarian named André who made an artificial limbs, and a Greek who have lived to Shewa over several years.

Menelik II
Ethiopia had strong diplomatic relations under Emperor Menelik II with Britain, France and Italy, the latter pursued hegemony to Ethiopian Empire after establishing colony in Eritrea (1882). The British and French rival with Italy due to insecurity with their respective protectorate in East Africa. However, both feared the process of Menelik's Expansions. In 1891, the British policy makers sent a circular note to the other world powers concerning the large portion of Nile Valley belonged to Ethiopia, "the activities and the pretension of the Negus were practically enough in themselves to bring the British to the support of Italian policy in East Africa." On 2 May 1889, the Treaty of Wuchale was signed between Ethiopia and Italy with respective bilingual version. The treaty was signed after the Italian occupation of Eritrea and aimed to create friendship with both countries. The Amharic and Italian language, however confused by Article 17 in which Menelik denounced in 1893, resulting Italy's threatening over the status of newly formed boundary. In 1895, the First Italo-Ethiopian War began, ending with Italy's defeat at Battle of Adwa by Ethiopian troops who were assisted logistically by Menelik. By early 1900, European agencies opened legation in Addis Ababa and had huge impact on investment in the country's infrastructure (schools, banks, road, railway etc.).

Haile Selassie
During Haile Selassie coronation in 1930, emissaries from the United States, Egypt, Turkey, Sweden, Belgium, and Japan were also presented. Since then, he led the forefront diplomatic relations of Ethiopia with world powers. In 1930s, Ethiopia faced Italian renewed imperialist design. Together with the failure of the League of Nations envision of Ethiopia's "collective security", Italy invaded Ethiopia again in October 1935, culminating in the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. In May 1936, Mussolini declared Ethiopia as part of Italian East Africa by merging with Eritrea and Somaliland. Haile Selassie fled to England's Fairfield House, Bath, and delivered an address that made him a worldwide figure, and the 1935 Time Man of the Year.

On 10 June 1940, Mussolini declared war on France and Britain and attacked British and Commonwealth forces in Egypt, Sudan, Kenya and British Somaliland. In January 1941, the British army together with Arbegnoch ("the Patriots") and Gideon Force occupied Ethiopia. On 5 May, Haile Selassie with auspice of Ethiopian Free Forces entered Addis Ababa and reclaimed his throne while the war continued until November. After their defeat, the Italian began guerrilla offensive in Ethiopia that lasted until the Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces in September 1943. On 31 January 1942, the British and Ethiopia signed Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement which Britain recognized Ethiopian sovereignty, except military occupation of Ogaden with their colony in Somaliland and the former Italian colony of Somaliland, creating a single polity. Ethiopians discontent about the privilege of military administration of some south-eastern region until formal agreement signed on 19 December 1944 that ended British advantage in the Ethiopian regions. The Italian Republic signed peace treaty on 10 February 1947 that recognized Ethiopia's sovereignty with agreement to pay $25,000,000 in reparations.

In 1952, Eritrea federated with Ethiopia with majority vote in the United Nations and this attitude declined by 1961, culminating in the Eritrean War of Independence since armed forces formed such as the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF). Oppositions against Haile Selassie came to existence with students began marching through 1960s and early 1970s, chanting "land for tiller" and embracing several Marxist-Leninist theme. Haile Selassie deposed on 12 September 1974 by officers of Ethiopian Army led by Aman Andom named Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police and Territorial Army. The committee renamed itself Provisional Military Administrative Council known as the Derg after abolishing the Ethiopian Empire in March 1975.

The Derg era
The Derg aligned itself with Soviet bloc—had similar Marxist Leninist policy on Ethiopia. The Derg suffered from internal insurgency and ambivalent relations with neighboring countries such as Eritrea and Somalia. In 1977, the Ogaden War was fought between the Derg supported by Cuba, Soviet Union and South Yemen, and Somalia with the United States and Egypt. Although ending on 15 March 1978, the relations between Ethiopia and Somalia marred with political dispute with involvement of the Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF) in relations of the disputed Ogaden region. By the 1990, the Derg and Soviet Union relations was deteriorated after Mengistu Haile Mariam banned the Ethiopian media to use the term glasnost and perestroika, defying Mikhail Gorbachev who was believed has not fondness for him. By early 1990, Mengistu helped emigration of the Ethiopian Jews to Israel by which many Jewish organizations and US Congress discerned Mengistu's task in the lobbying effort.

Federal Democratic Republic era
After defeating the Derg in 1991, the newly formed coalition the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), led by President and later Prime Minister Meles Zenawi, experienced opposition from factions in Somalia as well as within the country; in May 1991, a pan-Islamist Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya (Islamic Unity) established to consolidate Somalia's power in the Greater Somalia. Relations with Eritrea was somewhat better intensified after its UN-sponsored session from Ethiopia in May 1993.

Later in 1998, their relations was deteriorated after large-scale Eritrean mechanized force penetrated to Badme region, triggering the Eritrean–Ethiopian War. Both countries spent favorable amount of armaments ahead of the war and suffered reportedly 100,000 casualties combined as a direct consequence thereof, excluding indeterminate number of refugees. In December 2000, the two countries government signed Algiers Agreement which finalized the war and created binding judicial commissions, the Eritrea–Ethiopia Border Commission and the Eritrean–Ethiopian Claims Commissions, to oversee the disputed border and related claims. Since then, there was elevated tensions with border conflict and stalemate what is described "war footing" and "no-war-no-peace" with absence of foreign and domestic policy domination. This was ended after Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed came to power in 2018, signed the 2018 Eritrea–Ethiopia summit on 8–9 July.

Meles' government relations with Djibouti was friendly as Djibouti accessed Port of Djibouti to Ethiopia. Ethiopia had 90% imports arrived from Port of Djibouti and 95% of Djiboutian regional exports. In 2006, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) virtually controlled the whole of southern Somalia and successfully united Mogadishu and imposed Shari'a law. With support of the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia, Ethiopia, under UN peacekeeping mission against War on Terrorism, attacked ICU. The ICU's split eventually led to the formation of Al-Shabaab, regrouping to continue the insurgency against TFG and Ethiopian military presence in Somalia.

In May 2010, the Nile Basin Initiative was signed by five upstream countries such as Ethiopia, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, and Rwanda and Burundi as Egypt considerate as breach to the 1929 Anglo-Egyptian treaty that gave its right to share water. On 2 April 2011, the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) inaugurated construction expected producing 15,000 megawatts of power within 10 years, spending 12 billion dollars of strategy to improve power generating capabilities. Egypt and Sudan continued objecting the filling of the dam in 2020.

Under Abiy Ahmed premiership since 2018, Ethiopia repleted its relations Somalia and Eritrea. In October 2018, Ethiopia signed peace agreement with the rebel faction ONLF ending 34 year long conflict since 1984. ONLF has clashed with the Ethiopian troops to contain vast oil and gas deposits, where Chinese oil firms developing two gas field in the area. In 2007, ONLF launched deadly attack against Chinese-run oil field which killed 65 Ethiopians and 9 Chinese nationals.

During the Tigray War, Ethiopia was allied to countries such as Turkey, United Arab Emirates and Iran who supplied drones to the Ethiopian government. With involvement of Eritrean Defence Forces (EDF), the US President Joe Biden designated six targets of sanction per Executive Order 14046, which was signed in September 2021.

Diplomatic relations
List of countries which Ethiopia maintains diplomatic relations with:

Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Foreign relations are upheld by Ministry of Foreign Affairs with the ability and capacity to marshal strategic partners for the continent and the region; to play a central role in Ethiopia's growth into a democratic developmental state and in the achievement of peace and stability in the Horn of Africa.

United Nations
Ethiopia was admitted to the League of Nations on 28 September 1923, becoming one of few African countries to do so due to not colonized by European powers during the 19th century Scramble for Africa. The League envisaged the membership for Ethiopia's "collective security" and protection against external attacks. The League however was unable to maintain Ethiopia's sovereignty as Japan invaded Manchuria, which Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1936.

After its resumption of independence after World War II, Ethiopia was one of the founding members of the United Nations. Since the 1950s, Ethiopia has keeping UN peacekeeping missions toward Korean War and Congo Crisis and some African states like Rwanda and Burundi in 1990s. Ethiopia has now over 80,000 peacekeeping forces that are active.

The UN delivers development and humanitarian plan in Ethiopia with 28 representatives of funds and specialized agencies in the UN Country Team (UNCT). Ethiopia is non-permanent member of the UN Security Council which has close cooperation with the regional organizations the African Union and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD).

European Union
Ethiopia has strong relations to the European Union while the EU funding financed by the European Development Fund (EDF) with objectives of resilience. Their relations has been defined by Cotonou Agreement article 8 to 13 with strong bilateral partners and dialogue regarding sustainable development on diverse aspect of the country.

In addition, the EU is the second largest trade partner for Ethiopia with total expenditure of 4.1 billion euro; exports representing 12% while Ethiopia exports representing 26% of worldwide exports in 2016. This has been compared to China (8%), Somalia (14%) and Kuwait (13%).

African Union
Ethiopia is one of founding African states of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) (now the African Union) on 25 May 1963 under Emperor Haile Selassie, headquartered in Addis Ababa. At the time, the organization evolved up to 54 African states, except Morocco.

The country is driving force of maintaining UN-AU peacekeeping missions, especially in the Horn of Africa region. The AU does not readily aggregate the preference of each member states. Therefore, every AU norms, institution and overlaps as consensus stated in the AU Constitution Act and its various decision and policy making, and implementation organs. As such, the AU offers for member states like Ethiopia to influence and impact on policy internally and regionally. Today, Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa is home of major organizations such as African Union, Pan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa and African Standby Force.

BRICS
In 2023, Ethiopia was invited to join BRICS during the group’s 15th Summit and became a member of the organisation in January 2024.

title: Foreign relations of Ethiopia


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Europa Island

Europa Island (Île Europa, ), in Malagasy Nosy Ampela is a 28 km2 low-lying tropical atoll in the Mozambique Channel, about a third of the way from southern Madagascar to southern Mozambique. The island had never been inhabited until 1820, when the French family of Rosier moved to it. The island officially became a possession of France in 1897, though it is claimed by Madagascar.

The island, garrisoned by a detachment from Réunion, has a weather station and is visited by scientists. Though uninhabited now, it is part of the Scattered Islands of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands administrative region.

Europa Island was the setting of "Search in the Deep", a 1968 episode of The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau, partly focusing on the breeding habits of the green sea turtle.

Description
Europa is 6 km in diameter, with a maximum altitude of 6 m, and has 22.2 km of coastline. It is surrounded by coral beaches and a fringing reef and encloses a mangrove lagoon of around 9 km2 and open to the sea on one side.

There are no ports or harbours but anchorage is possible offshore. Its exclusive economic zone, contiguous with that of Bassas da India, is 127300 km2. The airstrip is 1500 m metres long.

Ecology
The island is a nature reserve. Its vegetation consists of dry forest, scrub, Euphorbia, the mangrove swamp, and the remains of a sisal plantation. It is one of the world's largest nesting sites for green sea turtles. It is also home to goats introduced by settlers in the late 18th century.

The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because it supports a large and diverse population of breeding seabirds and other waterbirds. It is the only known breeding site outside Aldabra and Madagascar for Malagasy pond herons. Seabirds include the second largest colony in the western Indian Ocean of great frigatebirds (with up to 1100 pairs), Audubon's shearwaters (up to 100 pairs, probably of the subspecies Puffinus lherminieri bailloni previously considered endemic to the Mascarene Islands), dimorphic egrets and Caspian terns.

Europa is home to an endemic subspecies of white-tailed tropicbird (Phaethon lepturus europae), three kinds of landbird (including an endemic subspecies of the Malagasy white-eye) and its own species of hissing cockroach.

Climate
Europa Island's climate is affected by the Agulhas Current with water temperatures usually above 30 C, southeast trade winds during the (austral) winter and occasional cyclones. The climate can be described as a semi-arid and tropical combination with wet summers and dry winters.

History
While the island has probably been sighted by navigators since at least the 16th century, it takes its name from the British ship Europa, which visited it in December 1774. Ruins and graves on Europa island attest to several attempts at settlement from the 1860s to the 1920s. For example, the French Rosiers family moved to the island in 1860, but subsequently abandoned it.

title: Europa Island