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Bohr model

In atomic physics, the Bohr model or Rutherford–Bohr model is an obsolete model of the atom, presented by Niels Bohr and Ernest Rutherford in 1913. It consists of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons. It is analogous to the structure of the Solar System, but with attraction provided by electrostatic force rather than gravity, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values).

In the history of atomic physics, it followed, and ultimately replaced, several earlier models, including Joseph Larmor's Solar System model (1897), Jean Perrin's model (1901), the cubical model (1902), Hantaro Nagaoka's Saturnian model (1904), the plum pudding model (1904), Arthur Haas's quantum model (1910), the Rutherford model (1911), and John William Nicholson's nuclear quantum model (1912). The improvement over the 1911 Rutherford model mainly concerned the new quantum mechanical interpretation introduced by Haas and Nicholson, but forsaking any attempt to explain radiation according to classical physics.

The model's key success lies in explaining the Rydberg formula for hydrogen's spectral emission lines. While the Rydberg formula had been known experimentally, it did not gain a theoretical basis until the Bohr model was introduced. Not only did the Bohr model explain the reasons for the structure of the Rydberg formula, it also provided a justification for the fundamental physical constants that make up the formula's empirical results.

The Bohr model is a relatively primitive model of the hydrogen atom, compared to the valence shell model. As a theory, it can be derived as a first-order approximation of the hydrogen atom using the broader and much more accurate quantum mechanics and thus may be considered to be an obsolete scientific theory. However, because of its simplicity, and its correct results for selected systems (see below for application), the Bohr model is still commonly taught to introduce students to quantum mechanics or energy level diagrams before moving on to the more accurate, but more complex, valence shell atom. A related quantum model was proposed by Arthur Erich Haas in 1910 but was rejected until the 1911 Solvay Congress where it was thoroughly discussed. The quantum theory of the period between Planck's discovery of the quantum (1900) and the advent of a mature quantum mechanics (1925) is often referred to as the old quantum theory.

Origin
In the early 20th century, experiments by Ernest Rutherford established that atoms consisted of a diffuse cloud of negatively charged electrons surrounding a small, dense, positively charged nucleus. Given this experimental data, Rutherford naturally considered a planetary model of the atom, the Rutherford model of 1911. This had electrons orbiting a solar nucleus, but involved a technical difficulty: the laws of classical mechanics (i.e. the Larmor formula) predict that the electron will release electromagnetic radiation while orbiting a nucleus. Because the electron would lose energy, it would rapidly spiral inwards, collapsing into the nucleus on a timescale of around 16 picoseconds. Rutherford's atom model is disastrous because it predicts that all atoms are unstable. Also, as the electron spirals inward, the emission would rapidly increase in frequency due to the orbital period becoming shorter, resulting in electromagnetic radiation with a continuous spectrum. However, late 19th-century experiments with electric discharges had shown that atoms will only emit light (that is, electromagnetic radiation) at certain discrete frequencies. By the early twentieth century, it was expected that the atom would account for the spectral lines. In 1897, Lord Rayleigh analyzed the problem. By 1906, Rayleigh said, "The frequencies observed in the spectrum may not be frequencies of disturbance or of oscillation in the ordinary sense at all, but rather form an essential part of the original constitution of the atom as determined by conditions of stability."

The outline of Bohr's atom came during the proceedings of the first Solvay Conference in 1911 on the subject of Radiation and Quanta, at which Bohr's mentor, Rutherford was present. Max Planck's lecture ended with this remark: "... atoms or electrons subject to the molecular bond would obey the laws of quantum theory". Hendrik Lorentz in the discussion of Planck's lecture raised the question of the composition of the atom based on Thomson's model with a great portion of the discussion around the atomic model developed by Arthur Erich Haas. Lorentz explained that the Planck constant could be taken as determining the size of atoms, or that the size of atoms could be taken to determine the Planck constant. Lorentz included comments regarding the emission and absorption of radiation concluding that "A stationary state will be established in which the number of electrons entering their spheres is equal to the number of those leaving them." In the discussion of what could regulate energy differences between atoms, Max Planck simply stated: "The intermediaries could be the electrons." The discussions outlined the need for the quantum theory to be included in the atom and the difficulties in an atomic theory. Planck in his talk said explicitly: "In order for an oscillator [molecule or atom] to be able to provide radiation in accordance with the equation, it is necessary to introduce into the laws of its operation, as we have already said at the beginning of this Report, a particular physical hypothesis which is, on a fundamental point, in contradiction with classical Mechanics, explicitly or tacitly." Bohr's first paper on his atomic model quotes Planck almost word for word, saying: "Whatever the alteration in the laws of motion of the electrons may be, it seems necessary to introduce in the laws in question a quantity foreign to the classical electrodynamics, i.e. the Planck constant, or as it often is called the elementary quantum of action." Bohr's footnote at the bottom of the page is to the French translation of the 1911 Solvay Congress, proving he patterned his model directly on the proceedings and fundamental principles laid down by Planck, Lorentz, and the quantized Arthur Haas model of the atom which was mentioned seventeen times. Lorentz ended the discussion of Einstein's talk explaining: "The assumption that this energy must be a multiple of $$h\nu$$ leads to the following formula, where $$n$$ is an integer: $$qv^2 = nh\nu$$." Rutherford could have outlined these points to Bohr or given him a copy of the proceedings since he quoted from them and used them as a reference. In a later interview, Bohr said it was very interesting to hear Rutherford's remarks about the Solvay Congress. But Bohr said, "I saw the actual reports" of the Solvay Congress.

Then in 1912, Bohr came across the John William Nicholson theory of the atom model that quantized angular momentum as $$h/2\pi$$. According to a centennial celebration of the Bohr atom in Nature magazine, it was Nicholson who discovered that electrons radiate the spectral lines as they descend towards the nucleus and his theory was both nuclear and quantal. Niels Bohr quoted him in his 1913 paper of the Bohr model of the atom. The importance of the work of Nicholson's nuclear quantum atomic model on Bohr's model has been emphasized by many historians.

Next, Bohr was told by his friend, Hans Hansen, that the Balmer series is calculated using the Balmer formula, an empirical equation discovered by Johann Balmer in 1885 that described wavelengths of some spectral lines of hydrogen. This was further generalized by Johannes Rydberg in 1888, resulting in what is now known as the Rydberg formula. After this, Bohr declared, "everything became clear".

To overcome the problems of Rutherford's atom, in 1913 Niels Bohr put forth three postulates that sum up most of his model:

 * 1) The electron is able to revolve in certain stable orbits around the nucleus without radiating any energy, contrary to what classical electromagnetism suggests. These stable orbits are called stationary orbits and are attained at certain discrete distances from the nucleus. The electron cannot have any other orbit in between the discrete ones.
 * 2) The stationary orbits are attained at distances for which the angular momentum of the revolving electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck constant: $$ m_\mathrm{e} v r = n \hbar $$, where $$n= 1, 2, 3, ...$$ is called the principal quantum number, and $$\hbar = h/2\pi$$. The lowest value of $$n$$ is 1; this gives the smallest possible orbital radius, known as the Bohr radius, of 0.0529 nm for hydrogen. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus. Starting from the angular momentum quantum rule as Bohr admits is previously given by Nicholson in his 1912 paper,   Bohr was able to calculate the energies of the allowed orbits of the hydrogen atom and other hydrogen-like atoms and ions. These orbits are associated with definite energies and are also called energy shells or energy levels. In these orbits, the electron's acceleration does not result in radiation and energy loss. The Bohr model of an atom was based upon Planck's quantum theory of radiation.
 * 3) Electrons can only gain and lose energy by jumping from one allowed orbit to another, absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency $$\nu$$ determined by the energy difference of the levels according to the Planck relation: $$\Delta E = E_2-E_1 = h \nu$$, where $$h$$ is the Planck constant.

Other points are:
 * 1) Like Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect, Bohr's formula assumes that during a quantum jump a discrete amount of energy is radiated. However, unlike Einstein, Bohr stuck to the classical Maxwell theory of the electromagnetic field. Quantization of the electromagnetic field was explained by the discreteness of the atomic energy levels; Bohr did not believe in the existence of photons.
 * 2) According to the Maxwell theory the frequency $$\nu$$ of classical radiation is equal to the rotation frequency $$\nu$$rot of the electron in its orbit, with harmonics at integer multiples of this frequency. This result is obtained from the Bohr model for jumps between energy levels $$E_n$$ and $$E_{n-k}$$ when $$k$$ is much smaller than $$n$$. These jumps reproduce the frequency of the $$k$$-th harmonic of orbit $$n$$. For sufficiently large values of $$n$$ (so-called Rydberg states), the two orbits involved in the emission process have nearly the same rotation frequency, so that the classical orbital frequency is not ambiguous. But for small $$n$$ (or large $$k$$), the radiation frequency has no unambiguous classical interpretation. This marks the birth of the correspondence principle, requiring quantum theory to agree with the classical theory only in the limit of large quantum numbers.
 * 3) The Bohr–Kramers–Slater theory (BKS theory) is a failed attempt to extend the Bohr model, which violates the conservation of energy and momentum in quantum jumps, with the conservation laws only holding on average.

Bohr's condition, that the angular momentum be an integer multiple of $$\hbar$$, was later reinterpreted in 1924 by de Broglie as a standing wave condition: the electron is described by a wave and a whole number of wavelengths must fit along the circumference of the electron's orbit:
 * $$n \lambda = 2 \pi r.$$

According to de Broglie's hypothesis, matter particles such as the electron behave as waves. The de Broglie wavelength of an electron is
 * $$\lambda = \frac{h}{mv},$$

which implies that
 * $$\frac{nh}{mv} = 2 \pi r,$$

or
 * $$\frac{nh}{2 \pi} = mvr,$$

where $$mvr$$ is the angular momentum of the orbiting electron. Writing $$\ell$$ for this angular momentum, the previous equation becomes
 * $$\ell = \frac{nh}{2 \pi},$$

which is Bohr's second postulate.

Bohr described angular momentum of the electron orbit as $$2/h$$ while de Broglie's wavelength of $$\lambda = h/p$$ described $$h$$ divided by the electron momentum. In 1913, however, Bohr justified his rule by appealing to the correspondence principle, without providing any sort of wave interpretation. In 1913, the wave behavior of matter particles such as the electron was not suspected.

In 1925, a new kind of mechanics was proposed, quantum mechanics, in which Bohr's model of electrons traveling in quantized orbits was extended into a more accurate model of electron motion. The new theory was proposed by Werner Heisenberg. Another form of the same theory, wave mechanics, was discovered by the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger independently, and by different reasoning. Schrödinger employed de Broglie's matter waves, but sought wave solutions of a three-dimensional wave equation describing electrons that were constrained to move about the nucleus of a hydrogen-like atom, by being trapped by the potential of the positive nuclear charge.

Electron energy levels
The Bohr model gives almost exact results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. This not only involves one-electron systems such as the hydrogen atom, singly ionized helium, and doubly ionized lithium, but it includes positronium and Rydberg states of any atom where one electron is far away from everything else. It can be used for K-line X-ray transition calculations if other assumptions are added (see Moseley's law below). In high energy physics, it can be used to calculate the masses of heavy quark mesons.

Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions.
 * Classical mechanics
 * The electron is held in a circular orbit by electrostatic attraction. The centripetal force is equal to the Coulomb force.
 * $$ \frac{m_\mathrm{e} v^2}{r} = \frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{r^2},$$
 * where me is the electron's mass, e is the elementary charge, ke is the Coulomb constant and Z is the atom's atomic number. It is assumed here that the mass of the nucleus is much larger than the electron mass (which is a good assumption). This equation determines the electron's speed at any radius:
 * $$ v = \sqrt{\frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{m_\mathrm{e} r}}. $$
 * It also determines the electron's total energy at any radius:
 * $$ E = -\frac{1}{2} m_\mathrm{e} v^2.$$
 * The total energy is negative and inversely proportional to r. This means that it takes energy to pull the orbiting electron away from the proton. For infinite values of r, the energy is zero, corresponding to a motionless electron infinitely far from the proton. The total energy is half the potential energy, the difference being the kinetic energy of the electron. This is also true for noncircular orbits by the virial theorem.

 * A quantum rule
 * The angular momentum is an integer multiple of ħ:
 * $$ m_\mathrm{e} v r = n \hbar.$$

Derivation
If an electron in an atom is moving on an orbit with period T, classically the electromagnetic radiation will repeat itself every orbital period. If the coupling to the electromagnetic field is weak, so that the orbit doesn't decay very much in one cycle, the radiation will be emitted in a pattern which repeats every period, so that the Fourier transform will have frequencies which are only multiples of 1/T. However, in the quantum realm, the quantization of angular momentum leads to discrete energy levels, and the emitted frequencies are quantized according to the energy differences between these levels. This discrete nature of energy levels introduces a fundamental departure from the classical radiation law, giving rise to distinct spectral lines in the emitted radiation.

In quantum mechanics, this emission must be in quanta of light, of frequencies consisting of integer multiples of 1/T, so that classical mechanics is an approximate description at large quantum numbers. This means that the energy level corresponding to a classical orbit of period 1/T must have nearby energy levels which differ in energy by h/T, and they should be equally spaced near that level,

\Delta E_n= \frac{h}{T(E_n)}. $$

Bohr worried whether the energy spacing 1/T should be best calculated with the period of the energy state $$E_n$$, or $$E_{n+1}$$, or some average—in hindsight, this model is only the leading semiclassical approximation.

Bohr considered circular orbits. Classically, these orbits must decay to smaller circles when photons are emitted. The level spacing between circular orbits can be calculated with the correspondence formula. For a hydrogen atom, the classical orbits have a period T determined by Kepler's third law to scale as r3/2. The energy scales as 1/r, so the level spacing formula amounts to

\Delta E \propto \frac{1}{r^{3/2}} \propto E^{3/2}. $$ It is possible to determine the energy levels by recursively stepping down orbit by orbit, but there is a shortcut.

The angular momentum L of the circular orbit scales as $$\sqrt{r}$$. The energy in terms of the angular momentum is then
 * $$E \propto \frac{1}{r} \propto \frac{1}{L^2}.$$

Assuming, with Bohr, that quantized values of L are equally spaced, the spacing between neighboring energies is

\Delta E \propto \frac{1}{(L + \hbar)^2} - \frac{1}{L^2} \approx - \frac{2\hbar}{L^3} \propto - E^{3/2}. $$ This is as desired for equally spaced angular momenta. If one kept track of the constants, the spacing would be ħ, so the angular momentum should be an integer multiple of ħ,

L = \frac{nh}{2\pi} = n \hbar. $$

This is how Bohr arrived at his model.

 * Substituting the expression for the velocity gives an equation for r in terms of n:
 * $$ m_{\text{e}}\sqrt{\dfrac{k_{\text{e}}Ze^2}{m_{\text{e}}r}}r = n\hbar,$$
 * so that the allowed orbit radius at any n is
 * $$ r_n = \frac{n^2\hbar^2}{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2 m_\mathrm{e}}.$$

 * The smallest possible value of r in the hydrogen atom is called the Bohr radius and is equal to:
 * $$r_1 = \frac{\hbar^2}{k_\mathrm{e} e^2 m_\mathrm{e}} \approx 5.29 \times 10^{-11}~\mathrm{m}= 52.9~\mathrm{pm} .$$

 * The energy of the n-th level for any atom is determined by the radius and quantum number:
 * $$ E = -\frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{2r_n} = -\frac{Z^2(k_\mathrm{e} e^2)^2 m_\mathrm{e}}{2\hbar^2 n^2} \approx \frac{-13.6Z^2}{n^2}~\mathrm{eV}.$$

An electron in the lowest energy level of hydrogen therefore has about 13.6 eV less energy than a motionless electron infinitely far from the nucleus. The next energy level is −3.4 eV. The third (3) is −1.51 eV, and so on. For larger values of n, these are also the binding energies of a highly excited atom with one electron in a large circular orbit around the rest of the atom. The hydrogen formula also coincides with the Wallis product.

The combination of natural constants in the energy formula is called the Rydberg energy (RE):
 * $$ R_\mathrm{E} = \frac{ (k_\mathrm{e} e^2)^2 m_\mathrm{e}}{2 \hbar^2}.$$

This expression is clarified by interpreting it in combinations that form more natural units:
 * $$m_\mathrm{e} c^2 $$ is the rest mass energy of the electron (511 keV),
 * $$\frac{k_\mathrm{e} e^2}{\hbar c} = \alpha \approx \frac{1}{137} $$ is the fine-structure constant,
 * $$R_\mathrm{E} = \frac{1}{2} (m_\mathrm{e} c^2) \alpha^2$$.

Since this derivation is with the assumption that the nucleus is orbited by one electron, we can generalize this result by letting the nucleus have a charge q = Ze, where Z is the atomic number. This will now give us energy levels for hydrogenic (hydrogen-like) atoms, which can serve as a rough order-of-magnitude approximation of the actual energy levels. So for nuclei with Z protons, the energy levels are (to a rough approximation):
 * $$ E_n = -\frac{Z^2 R_\mathrm{E}}{n^2}.$$

The actual energy levels cannot be solved analytically for more than one electron (see n-body problem) because the electrons are not only affected by the nucleus but also interact with each other via the Coulomb force.

When Z = 1/α (Z ≈ 137), the motion becomes highly relativistic, and Z2 cancels the α2 in R; the orbit energy begins to be comparable to rest energy. Sufficiently large nuclei, if they were stable, would reduce their charge by creating a bound electron from the vacuum, ejecting the positron to infinity. This is the theoretical phenomenon of electromagnetic charge screening which predicts a maximum nuclear charge. Emission of such positrons has been observed in the collisions of heavy ions to create temporary super-heavy nuclei.

The Bohr formula properly uses the reduced mass of electron and proton in all situations, instead of the mass of the electron,
 * $$m_\text{red} = \frac{m_\mathrm{e} m_\mathrm{p}}{m_\mathrm{e} + m_\mathrm{p}} = m_\mathrm{e} \frac{1}{1 + m_\mathrm{e}/m_\mathrm{p}}.$$

However, these numbers are very nearly the same, due to the much larger mass of the proton, about 1836.1 times the mass of the electron, so that the reduced mass in the system is the mass of the electron multiplied by the constant 1836.1/(1+1836.1) = 0.99946. This fact was historically important in convincing Rutherford of the importance of Bohr's model, for it explained the fact that the frequencies of lines in the spectra for singly ionized helium do not differ from those of hydrogen by a factor of exactly 4, but rather by 4 times the ratio of the reduced mass for the hydrogen vs. the helium systems, which was much closer to the experimental ratio than exactly 4.

For positronium, the formula uses the reduced mass also, but in this case, it is exactly the electron mass divided by 2. For any value of the radius, the electron and the positron are each moving at half the speed around their common center of mass, and each has only one fourth the kinetic energy. The total kinetic energy is half what it would be for a single electron moving around a heavy nucleus.
 * $$ E_n = \frac{R_\mathrm{E}}{2 n^2}$$ (positronium).

Rydberg formula
The Rydberg formula, which was known empirically before Bohr's formula, is seen in Bohr's theory as describing the energies of transitions or quantum jumps between orbital energy levels. Bohr's formula gives the numerical value of the already-known and measured the Rydberg constant, but in terms of more fundamental constants of nature, including the electron's charge and the Planck constant.

When the electron gets moved from its original energy level to a higher one, it then jumps back each level until it comes to the original position, which results in a photon being emitted. Using the derived formula for the different energy levels of hydrogen one may determine the wavelengths of light that a hydrogen atom can emit.

The energy of a photon emitted by a hydrogen atom is given by the difference of two hydrogen energy levels:
 * $$E = E_i - E_f = R_\text{E} \left( \frac{1}{n_f^2} - \frac{1}{n_i^2} \right),$$

where $n_{f}$ is the final energy level, and $n_{i}$ is the initial energy level.

Since the energy of a photon is
 * $$E = \frac{hc}{\lambda},$$

the wavelength of the photon given off is given by
 * $$\frac{1}{\lambda} = R \left( \frac{1}{n_f^2} - \frac{1}{n_i^2} \right).$$

This is known as the Rydberg formula, and the Rydberg constant $R$ is $R_{E}/hc$, or $R_{E}/2\pi$ in natural units. This formula was known in the nineteenth century to scientists studying spectroscopy, but there was no theoretical explanation for this form or a theoretical prediction for the value of $R$, until Bohr. In fact, Bohr's derivation of the Rydberg constant, as well as the concomitant agreement of Bohr's formula with experimentally observed spectral lines of the Lyman ($n_{f}$ =1), Balmer ($n_{f}$ =2), and Paschen ($n_{f}$ =3) series, and successful theoretical prediction of other lines not yet observed, was one reason that his model was immediately accepted.

To apply to atoms with more than one electron, the Rydberg formula can be modified by replacing $Z$ with $Z − b$ or $n$ with $n − b$ where $b$ is constant representing a screening effect due to the inner-shell and other electrons (see Electron shell and the later discussion of the "Shell Model of the Atom" below). This was established empirically before Bohr presented his model.

Shell model (heavier atoms)
Bohr's original three papers in 1913 described mainly the electron configuration in lighter elements. Bohr called his electron shells, "rings" in 1913. Atomic orbitals within shells did not exist at the time of his planetary model. Bohr explains in Part 3 of his famous 1913 paper that the maximum electrons in a shell is eight, writing: "We see, further, that a ring of n electrons cannot rotate in a single ring round a nucleus of charge ne unless n < 8." For smaller atoms, the electron shells would be filled as follows: "rings of electrons will only join together if they contain equal numbers of electrons; and that accordingly the numbers of electrons on inner rings will only be 2, 4, 8". However, in larger atoms the innermost shell would contain eight electrons, "on the other hand, the periodic system of the elements strongly suggests that already in neon N = 10 an inner ring of eight electrons will occur". Bohr wrote "From the above we are led to the following possible scheme for the arrangement of the electrons in light atoms:" In Bohr's third 1913 paper Part III called "Systems Containing Several Nuclei", he says that two atoms form molecules on a symmetrical plane and he reverts to describing hydrogen. The 1913 Bohr model did not discuss higher elements in detail and John William Nicholson was one of the first to prove in 1914 that it couldn't work for lithium, but was an attractive theory for hydrogen and ionized helium.

In 1921, following the work of chemists and others involved in work on the periodic table, Bohr extended the model of hydrogen to give an approximate model for heavier atoms. This gave a physical picture that reproduced many known atomic properties for the first time although these properties were proposed contemporarily with the identical work of chemist Charles Rugeley Bury

Bohr's partner in research during 1914 to 1916 was Walther Kossel who corrected Bohr's work to show that electrons interacted through the outer rings, and Kossel called the rings: "shells". Irving Langmuir is credited with the first viable arrangement of electrons in shells with only two in the first shell and going up to eight in the next according to the octet rule of 1904, although Kossel had already predicted a maximum of eight per shell in 1916. Heavier atoms have more protons in the nucleus, and more electrons to cancel the charge. Bohr took from these chemists the idea that each discrete orbit could only hold a certain number of electrons. Per Kossel, after that the orbit is full, the next level would have to be used. This gives the atom a shell structure designed by Kossel, Langmuir, and Bury, in which each shell corresponds to a Bohr orbit.

This model is even more approximate than the model of hydrogen, because it treats the electrons in each shell as non-interacting. But the repulsions of electrons are taken into account somewhat by the phenomenon of screening. The electrons in outer orbits do not only orbit the nucleus, but they also move around the inner electrons, so the effective charge Z that they feel is reduced by the number of the electrons in the inner orbit.

For example, the lithium atom has two electrons in the lowest 1s orbit, and these orbit at Z = 2. Each one sees the nuclear charge of Z = 3 minus the screening effect of the other, which crudely reduces the nuclear charge by 1 unit. This means that the innermost electrons orbit at approximately 1/2 the Bohr radius. The outermost electron in lithium orbits at roughly the Bohr radius, since the two inner electrons reduce the nuclear charge by 2. This outer electron should be at nearly one Bohr radius from the nucleus. Because the electrons strongly repel each other, the effective charge description is very approximate; the effective charge Z doesn't usually come out to be an integer.

The shell model was able to qualitatively explain many of the mysterious properties of atoms which became codified in the late 19th century in the periodic table of the elements. One property was the size of atoms, which could be determined approximately by measuring the viscosity of gases and density of pure crystalline solids. Atoms tend to get smaller toward the right in the periodic table, and become much larger at the next line of the table. Atoms to the right of the table tend to gain electrons, while atoms to the left tend to lose them. Every element on the last column of the table is chemically inert (noble gas).

In the shell model, this phenomenon is explained by shell-filling. Successive atoms become smaller because they are filling orbits of the same size, until the orbit is full, at which point the next atom in the table has a loosely bound outer electron, causing it to expand. The first Bohr orbit is filled when it has two electrons, which explains why helium is inert. The second orbit allows eight electrons, and when it is full the atom is neon, again inert. The third orbital contains eight again, except that in the more correct Sommerfeld treatment (reproduced in modern quantum mechanics) there are extra "d" electrons. The third orbit may hold an extra 10 d electrons, but these positions are not filled until a few more orbitals from the next level are filled (filling the n=3 d orbitals produces the 10 transition elements). The irregular filling pattern is an effect of interactions between electrons, which are not taken into account in either the Bohr or Sommerfeld models and which are difficult to calculate even in the modern treatment.

Moseley's law and calculation (K-alpha X-ray emission lines)
Niels Bohr said in 1962: "You see actually the Rutherford work was not taken seriously. We cannot understand today, but it was not taken seriously at all. There was no mention of it any place. The great change came from Moseley."

In 1913, Henry Moseley found an empirical relationship between the strongest X-ray line emitted by atoms under electron bombardment (then known as the K-alpha line), and their atomic number $Z$. Moseley's empiric formula was found to be derivable from Rydberg's formula and later Bohr's formula (Moseley actually mentions only Ernest Rutherford and Antonius Van den Broek in terms of models as these had been published before Moseley's work and Moseley's 1913 paper was published the same month as the first Bohr model paper). The two additional assumptions that [1] this X-ray line came from a transition between energy levels with quantum numbers 1 and 2, and [2], that the atomic number $Z$ when used in the formula for atoms heavier than hydrogen, should be diminished by 1, to $(Z − 1)^{2}$.

Moseley wrote to Bohr, puzzled about his results, but Bohr was not able to help. At that time, he thought that the postulated innermost "K" shell of electrons should have at least four electrons, not the two which would have neatly explained the result. So Moseley published his results without a theoretical explanation.

It was Walther Kossel in 1914 and in 1916 who explained that in the periodic table new elements would be created as electrons were added to the outer shell. In Kossel's paper, he writes: "This leads to the conclusion that the electrons, which are added further, should be put into concentric rings or shells, on each of which ... only a certain number of electrons—namely, eight in our case—should be arranged. As soon as one ring or shell is completed, a new one has to be started for the next element; the number of electrons, which are most easily accessible, and lie at the outermost periphery, increases again from element to element and, therefore, in the formation of each new shell the chemical periodicity is repeated." Later, chemist Langmuir realized that the effect was caused by charge screening, with an inner shell containing only 2 electrons. In his 1919 paper, Irving Langmuir postulated the existence of "cells" which could each only contain two electrons each, and these were arranged in "equidistant layers".

In the Moseley experiment, one of the innermost electrons in the atom is knocked out, leaving a vacancy in the lowest Bohr orbit, which contains a single remaining electron. This vacancy is then filled by an electron from the next orbit, which has n=2. But the n=2 electrons see an effective charge of Z − 1, which is the value appropriate for the charge of the nucleus, when a single electron remains in the lowest Bohr orbit to screen the nuclear charge +Z, and lower it by −1 (due to the electron's negative charge screening the nuclear positive charge). The energy gained by an electron dropping from the second shell to the first gives Moseley's law for K-alpha lines,
 * $$E = h\nu = E_i-E_f=R_\mathrm{E} (Z-1)^2 \left( \frac{1}{1^2} - \frac{1}{2^2} \right),$$

or
 * $$f = \nu = R_\mathrm{v} \left( \frac{3}{4}\right) (Z-1)^2 = (2.46 \times 10^{15}~\text{Hz})(Z-1)^2.$$

Here, Rv = RE/h is the Rydberg constant, in terms of frequency equal to 3.28 x 1015 Hz. For values of Z between 11 and 31 this latter relationship had been empirically derived by Moseley, in a simple (linear) plot of the square root of X-ray frequency against atomic number (however, for silver, Z = 47, the experimentally obtained screening term should be replaced by 0.4). Notwithstanding its restricted validity, Moseley's law not only established the objective meaning of atomic number, but as Bohr noted, it also did more than the Rydberg derivation to establish the validity of the Rutherford/Van den Broek/Bohr nuclear model of the atom, with atomic number (place on the periodic table) standing for whole units of nuclear charge. Van den Broek had published his model in January 1913 showing the periodic table was arranged according to charge while Bohr's atomic model was not published until July 1913.

The K-alpha line of Moseley's time is now known to be a pair of close lines, written as (Kα1 and Kα2) in Siegbahn notation.

Shortcomings
The Bohr model gives an incorrect value $L=ħ$ for the ground state orbital angular momentum: The angular momentum in the true ground state is known to be zero from experiment. Although mental pictures fail somewhat at these levels of scale, an electron in the lowest modern "orbital" with no orbital momentum, may be thought of as not to rotate "around" the nucleus at all, but merely to go tightly around it in an ellipse with zero area (this may be pictured as "back and forth", without striking or interacting with the nucleus). This is only reproduced in a more sophisticated semiclassical treatment like Sommerfeld's. Still, even the most sophisticated semiclassical model fails to explain the fact that the lowest energy state is spherically symmetric – it doesn't point in any particular direction.

Nevertheless, in the modern fully quantum treatment in phase space, the proper deformation (careful full extension) of the semi-classical result adjusts the angular momentum value to the correct effective one. As a consequence, the physical ground state expression is obtained through a shift of the vanishing quantum angular momentum expression, which corresponds to spherical symmetry.

In modern quantum mechanics, the electron in hydrogen is a spherical cloud of probability that grows denser near the nucleus. The rate-constant of probability-decay in hydrogen is equal to the inverse of the Bohr radius, but since Bohr worked with circular orbits, not zero area ellipses, the fact that these two numbers exactly agree is considered a "coincidence". (However, many such coincidental agreements are found between the semiclassical vs. full quantum mechanical treatment of the atom; these include identical energy levels in the hydrogen atom and the derivation of a fine-structure constant, which arises from the relativistic Bohr–Sommerfeld model (see below) and which happens to be equal to an entirely different concept, in full modern quantum mechanics).

The Bohr model also has difficulty with, or else fails to explain:

 * Much of the spectra of larger atoms. At best, it can make predictions about the K-alpha and some L-alpha X-ray emission spectra for larger atoms, if two additional ad hoc assumptions are made. Emission spectra for atoms with a single outer-shell electron (atoms in the lithium group) can also be approximately predicted. Also, if the empiric electron–nuclear screening factors for many atoms are known, many other spectral lines can be deduced from the information, in similar atoms of differing elements, via the Ritz–Rydberg combination principles (see Rydberg formula). All these techniques essentially make use of Bohr's Newtonian energy-potential picture of the atom.
 * The relative intensities of spectral lines; although in some simple cases, Bohr's formula or modifications of it, was able to provide reasonable estimates (for example, calculations by Kramers for the Stark effect).
 * The existence of fine structure and hyperfine structure in spectral lines, which are known to be due to a variety of relativistic and subtle effects, as well as complications from electron spin.
 * The Zeeman effect – changes in spectral lines due to external magnetic fields; these are also due to more complicated quantum principles interacting with electron spin and orbital magnetic fields.
 * The model also violates the uncertainty principle in that it considers electrons to have known orbits and locations, two things which cannot be measured simultaneously.
 * Doublets and triplets appear in the spectra of some atoms as very close pairs of lines. Bohr's model cannot say why some energy levels should be very close together.
 * Multi-electron atoms do not have energy levels predicted by the model. It does not work for (neutral) helium.

Refinements

Several enhancements to the Bohr model were proposed, most notably the Sommerfeld or Bohr–Sommerfeld models, which suggested that electrons travel in elliptical orbits around a nucleus instead of the Bohr model's circular orbits. This model supplemented the quantized angular momentum condition of the Bohr model with an additional radial quantization condition, the Wilson–Sommerfeld quantization condition
 * $$\int_0^T p_r \, dq_r = n h,$$

where pr is the radial momentum canonically conjugate to the coordinate qr, which is the radial position, and T is one full orbital period. The integral is the action of action-angle coordinates. This condition, suggested by the correspondence principle, is the only one possible, since the quantum numbers are adiabatic invariants.

The Bohr–Sommerfeld model was fundamentally inconsistent and led to many paradoxes. The magnetic quantum number measured the tilt of the orbital plane relative to the xy plane, and it could only take a few discrete values. This contradicted the obvious fact that an atom could be turned this way and that relative to the coordinates without restriction. The Sommerfeld quantization can be performed in different canonical coordinates and sometimes gives different answers. The incorporation of radiation corrections was difficult, because it required finding action-angle coordinates for a combined radiation/atom system, which is difficult when the radiation is allowed to escape. The whole theory did not extend to non-integrable motions, which meant that many systems could not be treated even in principle. In the end, the model was replaced by the modern quantum-mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom, which was first given by Wolfgang Pauli in 1925, using Heisenberg's matrix mechanics. The current picture of the hydrogen atom is based on the atomic orbitals of wave mechanics, which Erwin Schrödinger developed in 1926.

However, this is not to say that the Bohr–Sommerfeld model was without its successes. Calculations based on the Bohr–Sommerfeld model were able to accurately explain a number of more complex atomic spectral effects. For example, up to first-order perturbations, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics make the same predictions for the spectral line splitting in the Stark effect. At higher-order perturbations, however, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics differ, and measurements of the Stark effect under high field strengths helped confirm the correctness of quantum mechanics over the Bohr model. The prevailing theory behind this difference lies in the shapes of the orbitals of the electrons, which vary according to the energy state of the electron.

The Bohr–Sommerfeld quantization conditions lead to questions in modern mathematics. Consistent semiclassical quantization condition requires a certain type of structure on the phase space, which places topological limitations on the types of symplectic manifolds which can be quantized. In particular, the symplectic form should be the curvature form of a connection of a Hermitian line bundle, which is called a prequantization.

Bohr also updated his model in 1922, assuming that certain numbers of electrons (for example, 2, 8, and 18) correspond to stable "closed shells".

Model of the chemical bond
Niels Bohr proposed a model of the atom and a model of the chemical bond. According to his model for a diatomic molecule, the electrons of the atoms of the molecule form a rotating ring whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the molecule and equidistant from the atomic nuclei. The dynamic equilibrium of the molecular system is achieved through the balance of forces between the forces of attraction of nuclei to the plane of the ring of electrons and the forces of mutual repulsion of the nuclei. The Bohr model of the chemical bond took into account the Coulomb repulsion – the electrons in the ring are at the maximum distance from each other.

title: Bohr model


text:
Bombay Sapphire

Bombay Sapphire is a brand of gin that is distilled by the Bombay Spirits Company, a subsidiary company of Bacardi, at Laverstoke Mill in the village of Laverstoke in the English county of Hampshire.

The brand was first launched in 1986 by English wine-merchant International Distillers & Vintners. In 1997 Diageo sold the brand to Bacardi. Its name originates from the gin and tonic popularised by the Royal Indian Armed Forces during the British Raj in colonial India; "Bombay" refers to the Indian city and "Sapphire" refers to the violet-blue Star of Bombay which was mined from British Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and is now on display at the Smithsonian Institution. Bombay Sapphire is marketed in a flat-sided, sapphire-coloured bottle that bears a picture of Queen Victoria on the label.

The flavouring of the drink comes from a recipe of ten ingredients: almond, lemon peel, liquorice, juniper berries, orris root, angelica, coriander, cassia, cubeb, and grains of paradise. Alcohol brought in from another supplier is evaporated three times using a carterhead still, and the alcohol vapours are passed through a mesh/basket containing the ten botanicals to gain flavour and aroma. This is felt to give the gin a lighter, more floral taste compared to gins created using a copper pot still. Water from Lake Vyrnwy is added to bring the strength of Bombay Sapphire down to 40.0% (UK, the Nordics, several continental European markets, Canada and Australia).

The 47.0% version is the standard for sale at duty-free stores in all markets.

Production
Until 2013, production and bottling of Bombay Sapphire was contracted out by Bacardi to G&J Greenall in Warrington, Cheshire. However, in 2011, plans were announced to move the manufacturing process to a new facility at Laverstoke Mill in Laverstoke, Hampshire. These plans included the restoration of the former Portal's paper mill at the proposed site and the construction of a visitor centre.

Planning permission was granted in February 2012, and the centre opened to the public in the autumn of 2014. The visitor centre included a new construction by Thomas Heatherwick of two glasshouses for plants used as botanicals in the production of Bombay Sapphire gin. As part of the transfer of production, two of Greenall's stills were moved from Warrington to Laverstoke.

After production was shifted to Laverstoke, bottling of the drink remained contracted out by G&J Greenall, with the undiluted gin being tankered to Warrington for dilution and bottling. Bottling has subsequently been shifted to Glasgow.

Varieties
Bacardi also markets Bombay Original London Dry Gin (or Bombay Original Dry). Eight botanical ingredients are used in the production of the Original Dry variety, as opposed to the ten in Bombay Sapphire. Wine Enthusiast preferred it to Bombay Sapphire.

In September 2011, Bombay Sapphire East was launched in test markets in New York and Las Vegas. This variety has another two botanicals, lemongrass and black peppercorns, in addition to the original ten. It is bottled at 42% and was designed to counteract the sweetness of most tonic water.

A special edition of Bombay gin called Star of Bombay was produced in 2015 for the UK market. It is bottled at 47.5% and is distilled from grain. It features bergamot and ambrette seeds in harmony with Bombay's signature botanicals. This version has later been extended to several other markets.

Bombay Bramble is a variety infused with blackberries and raspberries and bottled at 37.5% ABV.

In the summer of 2019, Bacardi launched a limited edition gin called Bombay Sapphire English Estate, which features three additional English-sourced botanicals: Pennyroyal Mint, rosehip and hazelnut. It is bottled at 41%.

Design connection
The brand started a series of design collaborations. Their first step into the design world was a series of advertisements featuring work from currently popular designers. Their works, varying from martini glasses to tiles and cloth patterns, are labelled as "Inspired by Bombay Sapphire". The campaign featured designers such as Marcel Wanders, Yves Behar, Karim Rashid, Ulla Darni, and Dror Benshetrit and performance artist Jurgen Hahn.

From the success of this campaign, the company began a series of events and sponsored locations. The best known is the Bombay Sapphire Designer Glass Competition, held each year, where design students worldwide can participate by designing their own "inspired" martini cocktail glass. The finalists (one from each participating country) are then invited to the yearly Salone del Mobile, an international design fair in Milano, where the winner is chosen.

Bombay Sapphire also endorses glass artists and designers with the Bombay Sapphire Prize, which is awarded yearly to an outstanding design featuring glass. Bombay Sapphire also showcases the designers' work in the Bombay Sapphire endorsed blue room, a design exhibition touring the world each year.

From 2008 the Bombay Sapphire Designer Glass Competition final will be held at 100% Design in London, UK, and the Bombay Sapphire Prize will take place in Milan at the Salone Del Mobile.

Evaluation
Bombay Sapphire has been reviewed by several outside spirit ratings organizations to various degrees of success. Recently, it was awarded a score of 92 (on a 100-point scale) from the Beverage Testing Institute. Ratings aggregator Proof66.com categorizes the Sapphire as a Tier 2 spirit, indicating highly favourable "expert" reviews.

Cultural references

 * Bombay Sapphire was used in the video work Victoria Day (Bombay Sapphire), 2002 by contemporary artists Marina Roy and Abbas Akhavan.
 * Long-time sports radio personality Jim Rome is known for his love of Bombay Sapphire Gin, which he often refers to as "the Magic Blue".
 * American hip-hop artist Wiz Khalifa and his "Taylor Gang" are also known for their love of Bombay Sapphire dry gin.
 * Former Las Vegas, Nevada mayor Oscar Goodman is known for his love of Bombay Sapphire Gin, and he has served as a spokesman for the brand.
 * American musician Robert Earl Keen references "a quart of Bombay gin" in the song "The Road Goes on Forever".
 * American YouTuber/streamer Etika was known for drinking Bombay Sapphire, among other alcoholic drinks, during streams as a way to celebrate donations.
 * In the Netflix series BoJack Horseman a bottle strongly resembling Bombay Sapphire can be seen in Princess Carolyn's office.
 * British rapper Scarlxrd has shown his love for Bombay Sapphire in music videos early on in his career, such as "Glx up"

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bombay Sapphire


text:
Bob Wills

James Robert Wills (March 6, 1905 – May 13, 1975) was an American Western swing musician, songwriter, and bandleader. Considered by music authorities as the founder of Western swing, he was known widely as the King of Western Swing (although Spade Cooley self-promoted the moniker "King of Western Swing" from 1942 to 1969). He was also noted for punctuating his music with his trademark "ah-haa" calls.

Wills formed several bands and played radio stations around the South and West until he formed the Texas Playboys in 1934 with Wills on fiddle, Tommy Duncan on piano and vocals, rhythm guitarist June Whalin, tenor banjoist Johnnie Lee Wills, and Kermit Whalin who played steel guitar and bass. Oklahoma guitar player Eldon Shamblin joined the band in 1937 bringing jazzy influence and arrangements. The band played regularly on Tulsa, Oklahoma, radio station KVOO and added Leon McAuliffe on steel guitar, pianist Al Stricklin, drummer Smokey Dacus, and a horn section that expanded the band's sound. Wills favored jazz-like arrangements and the band found national popularity into the 1940s with such hits as "Steel Guitar Rag", "San Antonio Rose", "Smoke on the Water", "Stars and Stripes on Iwo Jima", and "New Spanish Two Step".

Wills and the Texas Playboys recorded with several publishers and companies, including Vocalion, Okeh, Columbia, and MGM. In 1950, Wills had two top 10 hits, "Ida Red likes the Boogie" and "Faded Love", which were his last hits for a decade. Throughout the 1950s, he struggled with poor health and tenuous finances. He continued to perform frequently despite a decline in the popularity of his earlier hit songs, and the growing popularity of rock and roll. Wills had a heart attack in 1962, and a second one the next year, which forced him to disband the Texas Playboys. Wills continued to perform solo.

The Country Music Hall of Fame inducted Wills in 1968 and the Texas State Legislature honored him for his contribution to American music.

In 1972, Wills accepted a citation from the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers in Nashville. He recorded an album with fan Merle Haggard in 1973. Wills suffered two strokes that left him partially paralyzed, and unable to communicate. He was comatose the last two months of his life, and died in a Fort Worth nursing home in 1975. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inducted Wills and the Texas Playboys in 1999.

Early years
He was born on a cotton farm in Kosse, Texas, to Emma Lee Foley and John Tompkins Wills. His parents were both of primarily English ancestry but had distant Irish ancestry as well. The entire Wills family was musically inclined. His father was a statewide champion fiddle player, and several of his siblings played musical instruments. The family frequently held country dances in their home, and while living in Hall County, Texas, they also played at "ranch dances", which were popular throughout west Texas. In this environment, Wills learned to play the fiddle and the mandolin early.

Wills not only learned traditional music from his family, but he also learned some blues songs directly from African American families who worked in the cotton fields near Lakeview, Texas. As a child, he mainly interacted with African American children, learning their musical styles and dances such as jigs. Aside from his own family, he knew few other white children until he was seven or eight years old.

New Mexico and Texas
The family moved to Hall County in the Texas Panhandle in 1913, and in 1919 they bought a farm between the towns of Lakeview, Texas, and Turkey, Texas. At the age of 16, Wills left the family and hopped a freight train, travelling under the name Jim Rob. He drifted from town to town trying to earn a living for several years, once nearly falling from a moving train.

In his 20s, he attended barber school, married his first wife Edna, and moved first to Roy, New Mexico, then returned to Turkey in Hall County (now considered his home town) to work as a barber at Ham's Barber Shop. He alternated barbering and fiddling even when he moved to Fort Worth, Texas, after leaving Hall County in 1929. There he played in minstrel and medicine shows, and, as with other Texas musicians such as Ocie Stockard, continued to earn money as a barber. He wore blackface makeup to appear in comedy routines, something that was common at the time. Wills played the violin and sang, and had two guitarists and a banjo player with him. "Bob was in blackface and was the comic; he cracked jokes, sang, and did an amazing jig dance."

Since there was already a Jim on the show, the manager began calling him Bob. However, it was as Jim Rob Wills, paired with Herman Arnspiger, that he made his first commercial (though unissued) recordings in November 1929 for Brunswick/Vocalion. Wills quickly became known for being talkative on the bandstand, a tendency he picked up from family, local cowboys, and the style of Black musicians he had heard growing up.

While in Fort Worth, Wills added the "rowdy city blues" of Bessie Smith and Emmett Miller, whom he idolized, to a repertoire of mainly waltzes and breakdowns he had learned from his father, and patterned his vocal style after that of Miller and other performers such as Al Bernard. His 1935 version of "St. Louis Blues" replicates Al Bernard's patter from the 1928 version of the song. He described his love of Bessie Smith's music with an anecdote: "I rode horseback from the place between the rivers to Childress to see Bessie Smith... She was about the greatest thing I had ever heard. In fact, there was no doubt about it. She was the greatest thing I ever heard."

In Fort Worth, Wills met Herman Arnspiger and formed The Wills Fiddle Band. In 1930 Milton Brown joined the group as lead vocalist and brought a sense of innovation and experimentation to the band, which became known as the Aladdin Laddies and then soon renamed itself the Light Crust Doughboys because of radio sponsorship by the makers of Light Crust Flour. Brown left the band in 1932 to form the Musical Brownies, the first true Western swing band. Brown added twin fiddles, tenor banjo and slap bass, pointing the music in the direction of swing, which they played on local radio and at dancehalls.

The Texas Playboys
After forming a new band, The Playboys, and relocating to Waco, Texas, Wills found enough popularity there to decide on a bigger market. They left Waco in January 1934 for Oklahoma City. Wills soon settled the renamed Texas Playboys in Tulsa, Oklahoma, and began broadcasting noon shows over the 50,000-watt KVOO radio station, from the stage of Cain's Ballroom. They also played dances in the evenings. Wills largely sang blues and sentimental ballads. "One Star Rag", "Rat Cheese Under the Hill", "Take Me Back to Tulsa", "Basin Street Blues", "Steel Guitar Rag", and "Trouble in Mind" were some of the songs in the extensive repertory played by Wills and the Playboys.

Wills added a trumpet to the band inadvertently when he hired Everet Stover as an announcer, not knowing that he had played with the New Orleans symphony and had directed the governor's band in Austin. Stover, thinking he had been hired as a trumpeter, began playing with the band, and Wills never stopped him. Although Wills initially disapproved of it, young saxophonist Zeb McNally was eventually hired. Wills hired the young, "modern-style musician" Smoky Dacus as a drummer to balance out the horns.

He continued to expand the lineup through the mid to late 1930s. The addition of steel guitar whiz Leon McAuliffe in March 1935 added not only a formidable instrumentalist, but also a second engaging vocalist. Wills and the Texas Playboys did their first recordings on September 23–25, 1935, in Dallas. Session rosters from 1938 show both lead guitar and electric guitar in addition to guitar and steel guitar in the Texas Playboys recordings. About this time, Wills purchased and performed with an antique Guadagnini violin. The instrument, worth an estimated $7,600 at the time, was purchased for only $1,600. In 1940, "New San Antonio Rose" sold a million records and became the signature song of The Texas Playboys. The "front line" of Wills' orchestra consisted of either fiddles or guitars after 1944.

Film career
In 1940, Wills, along with the Texas Playboys, co-starred with Tex Ritter in Take Me Back to Oklahoma. Altogether, Wills appeared in nineteen films, including The Lone Prairie (1942), Riders of the Northwest Mounted (1943), Saddles and Sagebrush (1943), The Vigilantes Ride (1943), The Last Horseman (1944), Rhythm Round-Up (1945), Blazing the Western Trail (1945), and Lawless Empire (1945).

Swing era
In December 1942, after several band members had left the group, and as World War II raged, Wills joined the Army at the age of 37, but received a medical discharge in 1943. After leaving the Army in 1943, Wills moved to Hollywood and began to reorganize the Texas Playboys. He became an enormous draw in Los Angeles, where many of his fans had relocated during the Great Depression and World War II in search of jobs. Monday through Friday, the band played the noon hour timeslot over KMTR-AM (now KLAC) in Los Angeles. They also played regularly at the Mission Beach Ballroom in San Diego.

He commanded enormous fees playing dances there, and began to make more creative use of electric guitars to replace the big horn sections the Tulsa band had boasted. For a very brief period in 1944, the Wills band included 23 members, and around mid-year he toured Northern California and the Pacific Northwest with 21 pieces in the orchestra. Billboard reported that Wills out-grossed Harry James, Benny Goodman, "both Dorsey brothers bands, et al." at Civic Auditorium in Oakland, California, in January 1944.

Wills and His Texas Playboys began their first cross-country tour in November 1944, and appeared at the Grand Ole Opry on December 30, 1944. According to Opry policy, drums and horns were considered pop instruments, inappropriate to country music. The Opry had two western swing bands on its roster, led by Pee Wee King and Paul Howard. Neither were allowed to use their drummers at the Opry. Wills' band at the time consisted of two fiddlers, two bass fiddles, two electric guitars, electric steel guitar, and a trumpet. Wills's then-drummer was Monte Mountjoy, who played in the Dixieland style. Wills battled Opry officials and refused to perform without his drummer. An attempt to compromise by keeping Mountjoy behind a curtain collapsed when Wills had his drums placed front and center onstage at the last minute.

In 1945, Wills' dances were drawing larger crowds than dances put on by Tommy Dorsey and Benny Goodman. That year, he lived in both Santa Monica and Fresno, California. In 1947, he opened the Wills Point nightclub in Sacramento, California, and continued touring the Southwest and Pacific Northwest from Texas to Washington State. In Sacramento, he broadcast shows over KFBK, a station whose reach encompassed much of the American West. Wills was in such high demand that venues would book him even on weeknights, because they knew the show would still be a draw.

During the postwar period, KGO radio in San Francisco syndicated a Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys show recorded at the Fairmont Hotel. Many of these recordings survive today as the Tiffany Transcriptions and are available on CD. They show off the band's strengths significantly, in part because the group was not confined to the three-minute limits of 78 RPM discs. On April 3, 1948, Wills and the Texas Playboys appeared for the inaugural broadcast of the Louisiana Hayride on KWKH, broadcasting from the Municipal Auditorium in Shreveport, Louisiana.

Wills and the Texas Playboys played dances throughout the West to more than 10,000 people every week. They held dance attendance records at Jantzen Beach in Portland, Oregon; Santa Monica, California; Klamath Falls, Oregon; and at California's Oakland Auditorium, where they drew 19,000 people over two nights. Wills recalled the early days of what became known as Western swing music in a 1949 interview: "Here's the way I figure it. We sure not tryin' to take credit for swingin' it."

Still a binge drinker, Wills became increasingly unreliable in the late 1940s, causing a rift with Tommy Duncan (who bore the brunt of audience anger when Wills's binges prevented him from appearing). It ended when he fired Duncan in the fall of 1948.

Later years
Having lived a lavish lifestyle in California, Wills moved back to Oklahoma City in 1949, then went back on the road to maintain his payroll and Wills Point. He opened a second club, the Bob Wills Ranch House in Dallas, Texas. Turning the club over to managers, later revealed to be dishonest, left Wills in desperate financial straits with heavy debts to the IRS for back taxes. This caused him to sell many assets, including the rights to "New San Antonio Rose".

In 1950, Wills had two top 10 hits, "Ida Red Likes the Boogie" and "Faded Love". After 1950, radio stations began to increasingly specialize in one form or another of commercially popular music. Although usually labelled "country and western", Wills did not fit into the style played on popular country and western stations, which typically played music in the Nashville sound. Neither did he fit into the conventional sound of pop stations, although he played a good deal of pop music.

Wills continued to appear at the Bostonia Ballroom in San Diego throughout the 1950s. He continued to tour and record through the 1950s into the early 1960s despite the fact that Western Swing's popularity, even in the Southwest, had greatly diminished. Charles R. Townsend described his drop in popularity: Bob could draw "a thousand people on Monday night between 1950 and 1952, but he could not do that by 1956. Entertainment habits had changed."

On Wills' return to Tulsa late in 1957, Jim Downing of the Tulsa Tribune wrote an article headlined "Wills Brothers Together Again: Bob Back with Heavy Beat". The article quotes Wills as saying "Rock and roll? Why, man, that's the same kind of music we've been playin' since 1928! ... We didn't call it rock and roll back when we introduced it as our style back in 1928, and we don't call it rock and roll the way we play it now. But it's just basic rhythm and has gone by a lot of different names in my time. It's the same, whether you just follow a drum beat like in Africa or surround it with a lot of instruments. The rhythm's what's important." The use of amplified guitars accentuates Wills's claim; some Bob Wills recordings from the 1930s and 1940s sound similar to rock and roll records of the 1950s.

Even a 1958 return to KVOO, where his younger brother Johnnie Lee Wills had maintained the family's presence, did not produce the success he hoped. He appeared twice on ABC-TV's Jubilee USA and kept the band on the road into the 1960s. After two heart attacks, in 1965 he dissolved the Texas Playboys (who briefly continued as an independent unit) to perform solo with house bands. While he did well in Las Vegas and other areas, and made records for the Kapp Records label, he was largely a forgotten figure—even though inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1968. A 1969 stroke left his right side paralyzed, ending his active career. He did, however, recover sufficiently to appear in a wheelchair at various Wills tributes held in the early 1970s. A revival of interest in his music, spurred by Merle Haggard's 1970 album A Tribute to the Best Damn Fiddle Player in the World, led to a 1973 reunion album, teaming Wills, who spoke with difficulty, with key members of the early band, as well as Haggard.

Wills died in Fort Worth of pneumonia on May 13, 1975.

Personal life
Bob Wills was married six times and divorced five times. He was twice married to, and twice divorced from, Mary Helen Brown, the widow of Wills' ex-band member Milton Brown.
 * Edna Posey, married 1926, divorced 1935 (one daughter, Robbie Joe Wills)
 * Ruth McMaster, married 1936, divorced 1936
 * Mary Helen Brown, married 1938, divorced 1938, remarried 1938, divorced 1939
 * Mary Louise Parker, married 1939, divorced 1939 (one daughter, Rosetta Wills)
 * Betty Anderson, married 1942 (four children, James Robert II, Carolyn, Diane, and Cindy Wills)

Legacy
Wills' style influenced performers Buck Owens, Merle Haggard, and The Strangers and helped to spawn a style of music now known as the Bakersfield Sound. (Bakersfield, California, was one of Wills' regular stops in his heyday). A 1970 tribute album by Haggard, A Tribute to the Best Damn Fiddle Player in the World (or, My Salute to Bob Wills) directed a wider audience to Wills's music, as did the appearance of younger "revival" bands like Asleep at the Wheel and Commander Cody and His Lost Planet Airmen plus the growing popularity of longtime Wills disciple and fan Willie Nelson. By 1971, Wills recovered sufficiently to travel occasionally and appear at tribute concerts. In 1973, he participated in a final reunion session with members of some of the Texas Playboys from the 1930s to the 1960s. Merle Haggard was invited to play at this reunion. The session, scheduled for two days, took place in December 1973, with the album to be titled For the Last Time. Wills, speaking or attempting to holler, appeared on a couple tracks from the first day's session but suffered a stroke overnight. He had a more severe one a few days later. The musicians completed the album without him. Wills by then was comatose. He lingered until his death on May 13, 1975.

Reviewing For the Last Time in Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981), Robert Christgau wrote: "This double-LP doesn't represent the band at its peak. But though earlier recordings of most of these classic tunes are at least marginally sharper, it certainly captures the relaxed, playful, eclectic Western swing groove that Wills invited in the '30s."

In addition to being inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1968, Wills was inducted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1970, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in the Early Influence category along with the Texas Playboys in 1999, and received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2007.

From 1974 until his 2002 death, Waylon Jennings performed a song he had written called "Bob Wills Is Still the King". Released as the B-side of a single that was a double-sided hit, it went to number one on the country charts. The song has become a staple of classic country radio station formats. In addition, The Rolling Stones performed this song live in Austin, Texas, at Zilker Park on their A Bigger Bang Tour, a shout-out to Wills. This performance was included on their subsequent DVD The Biggest Bang. In a 1968 issue of Guitar Player, rock guitarist Jimi Hendrix said of Wills and the Playboys: "I dig them. The Grand Ole Opry used to come on, and I used to watch that. They used to have some pretty heavy cats, some heavy guitar players." In fact, Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys only performed on the Opry twice: in 1944 and 1948. Hendrix almost surely referred to Nashville guitarists.

Wills ranked #27 in CMT's 40 Greatest Men in Country Music in 2003.

Wills' upbeat 1938 song Ida Red was Chuck Berry's primary inspiration for creating his first rock-and-roll hit "Maybellene".

Fats Domino once remarked that he patterned his 1960 rhythm section after that of Bob Wills.

During the 49th Grammy Awards in 2007, Carrie Underwood performed his song "San Antonio Rose". Today, George Strait performs Wills' music on concert tours and records songs influenced by Wills and his Texas-style swing.

The Austin-based Western swing band Asleep at the Wheel have honored Wills' music since the band's inception, mostly notably with their continuing performances of the musical drama A Ride with Bob, which debuted in Austin in March 2005 to coincide with celebrations of Wills' 100th birthday.

The Bob Wills Birthday Celebration is held every year in March at the Cain's Ballroom in Tulsa, Oklahoma, with a Western swing concert and dance.

In 2004, a documentary film about his life and music, titled Fiddlin' Man: The Life and Music of Bob Wills, was released by VIEW Inc.

In 2011, Proper Records released an album by Hot Club of Cowtown titled What Makes Bob Holler: A Tribute to Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys and the Texas Legislature adopted a resolution designating western swing as the official State Music of Texas.

The Greenville Chamber of Commerce hosts an annual Bob Wills Fiddle Festival and Contest in downtown Greenville, Texas, in November.

Bob Wills was honored in Episode 2 of Ken Burns' 2019 series on PBS called Country Music.

In 2021, Wills was inducted into the Texas Cowboy Hall of Fame.

title: Bob Wills


text:
Badtrans

BadTrans is a malicious Microsoft Windows computer worm distributed by e-mail. Because of a known vulnerability in older versions of Internet Explorer, some email programs, such as Microsoft's Outlook Express and Microsoft Outlook programs, may install and execute the worm as soon as the e-mail message is viewed.

Once executed, the worm replicates by sending copies of itself to other e-mail addresses found on the host's machine, and installs a keystroke logger, which then captures everything typed on the affected computer. Badtrans then transmits the data to one of several e-mail addresses.

Among the e-mail addresses that received the keyloggers were free addresses at Excite, Yahoo, and IJustGotFired.com.

The target address at IJustGotFired began receiving emails at 3:23pm on November 24, 2001. Once the account exceeded its quotas, it was automatically disabled, but the messages were still saved as they arrived. The address received over 100,000 keylogs in the first day alone.

In mid-December, the FBI contacted Rudy Rucker, Jr., owner of MonkeyBrains, and requested a copy of the keylogged data. All of that data was stolen from the victims of the worm; it includes no information about the creator of Badtrans. Instead of complying with the FBI request, MonkeyBrains published a database website, https://web.archive.org/web/20070621140432/https://badtrans.monkeybrains.net/ for the public to determine if a given address has been compromised. The database does not reveal the actual passwords or keylogged data.

title: Badtrans


text:
User:Brent Simpson

I am a Custodian (Admin) on Wikiversity and I'm also a Sysop for the WikiEducator project.

Wikipedia contributions:

 * Bob Wills
 * Gram Parsons
 * Waiheke Island

Mostly editing now under the username Countrymike.

see also: http://auckland.wiki.org.nz

title: User:Brent Simpson


text:
Barış Manço

Mehmet Barış Manço (born Tosun Yusuf Mehmet Barış Manço; 2 January 1943 – 1 February 1999), better known by his stage name Barış Manço, was a Turkish rock musician, singer, composer, actor, television producer and show host. Beginning his musical career while attending Galatasaray High School, he was a pioneer of rock music in Turkey and one of the founders of the Anatolian rock genre. Manço composed around 200 songs and is among the best-selling Turkish artists to date and the winner of the most awards. Many of his songs were translated into other languages including English, French, Japanese, Greek, Italian, Bulgarian, Romanian, Persian, Hebrew, Urdu, Arabic, and German. Through his TV programme, 7'den 77'ye (From 7 to 77), Manço travelled the world and visited many countries. He remains one of Turkey's most popular public figures long after his death.

Early life and career
Barış Manço was born in Üsküdar, Istanbul, Turkey on 2 January 1943. Born in Adana, his mother Rikkat Uyanık, was a famous singer in the early 1940s. His older brother, who was born during World War II, was named Savaş ("War" in Turkish) while he was named Barış ("Peace" in Turkish) by his parents to celebrate the end of the war. At birth, he was additionally named Tosun Yusuf after his deceased uncle Yusuf nicknamed Tosun (literally: Joseph the Sturdy). However, this name was erased just before he attended primary school.

In primary school, his head was shaved to prevent head lice, a serious threat at the time, which he often cited as among the reasons for his later signature long hair (although at the time long hair was fashionable).

During his time at Galatasaray High School (and later in Şişli Terakki High School) in the 1950s he formed his first band, Kafadarlar (The Buddies), allegedly after seeing Erkin Koray's band - all students at the nearby Deutsche Schule Istanbul (İstanbul Alman Lisesi) - performing. Prof. Dr. Asaf Savaş Akat, a famous economist in Turkey, played saxophone, while guitarist Ender Enön made his own guitar because it was difficult to find a real one on the market in those years.

In 1962 and 1963, with his next band, Harmoniler (The Harmonies), he recorded cover versions of some popular American twist songs and rearrangements of Turkish folk songs in rock and roll form, thus marking the beginning of the Anatolian rock movement, a synthesis of Turkish folk music and rock. In this period, his key visual and musical influence was Elvis Presley.

After graduating from high school in 1963, he moved to Europe, traveling to Paris and Liège where he formed bands with local musicians and recorded some singles mainly in English and French but also in Turkish. Then, in 1964, he resumed his studies at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Liège, Belgium. He toured with his band Les Mistigris (not related to Mistigris) in Germany, Belgium, France and Turkey until 1967.

In 1967, he suffered a serious car accident, after which he started to grow his signature moustache to conceal his scar.

Frustrated by the difficulties of working with musicians from different nationalities, he formed Kaygısızlar (The Carefrees), featuring Mazhar Alanson and Fuat Güner, future members of the band MFÖ. He recorded several singles and toured with the band, both domestically and internationally, until the band members protested that they did not want to live abroad.

In 1970, he formed Barış Manço Ve... (Barış Manço and...) again with foreign musicians, to record his first hit single, Dağlar Dağlar (Mountains, Mountains!), which was a success in both Turkey and Belgium, selling over 700,000 copies. It remains one of his most popular songs.

1970s
After the success of Dağlar Dağlar, Manço recorded a couple of singles with Moğollar (The Mongols), another influential Turkish Anatolian rock band. He then decided to return to Turkey where he recorded with the reformed Kaygısızlar for a short period. In 1971, his early works were compiled under his first full-length album Dünden Bugüne (From Yesterday to Today), today commonly referred to as Dağlar Dağlar.

In 1972, he formed the legendary Kurtalan Ekspres that would accompany him until his death. While continuing to release singles, in 1975 he also released his first non-compilation LP 2023, a concept album that included many instrumental pieces.

In a last attempt to achieve international success, he released an LP simply entitled Baris Mancho (1976), a strange transcription of his name. It was mostly completed with the George Hayes Orchestra on the CBS Records label in Europe and South Africa. Although the album did not bring him the fame he was hoping for, it did top the charts in Romania and Morocco. The following year, the album was released in Turkey under the title Nick the Chopper. In 1975 he starred in the movie Baba Bizi Eversene (Father Make Us Marry), the only movie he starred in during his career. Its music is a compilation of tracks composed by Barış Manço and Kurtalan Ekspres.

From 1977 to 1980, he released three more albums in Turkey, partly consisting of compilations of older singles, namely Sakla Samanı Gelir Zamanı (1977), Yeni Bir Gün (A New Day, 1979) and ''20. Sanat Yılı Disko Manço (1980), all following a similar sound to 2023''. All these albums are now rarities, but most of the material is available in later compilations Ben Bilirim and Sarı Çizmeli Mehmet Ağa.

1980s
In 1981, Manço released Sözüm Meclisten Dışarı with Kurtalan Ekspres. It contained many hit songs including "Alla Beni Pulla Beni", "Arkadaşım Eşek (My Friend the Donkey", "Gülpembe (Pink Rose)", "Halhal" and "Dönence" among others. The album remains one of their most popular works and boosted Manço's popularity during the 1980s.

"Arkadaşım Eşek" quickly grew very popular with children (the song is about rural nostalgia and was not initially intended as a children's song) and he went on to write many other songs primarily for children, becoming an icon among Turkish children in the 1980s and 1990s.

On the other hand, "Gülpembe", a requiem for Manço's grandmother composed by Kurtalan Ekspres bassist Ahmet Güvenç, attracted older listeners and is probably Manço's most popular song, "Dağlar Dağlar" being its only real competition.

In 1983, Estağfurullah, Ne Haddimize was released. It contained the hit songs "Halil İbrahim Sofrası (Halil İbrahim's Dinner Table)" and "Kol Düğmeleri" (Sleeve Buttons), a new version of the artist's first song. "Halil İbrahim Sofrası" exemplified Manço's typically moralistic lyrics, a rare feature in Turkish pop music.

In 1985, 24 Ayar Manço (24 Carat Manço) which included "Gibi Gibi" and a long conceptual song "Lahburger" was released. It marked the beginning of a shift in Manço's sound characterised by the heavy use of synthesisers and drum machines in contrast with older works made up of a group-oriented, rock-based sound. In subsequent years, Manço released Değmesin Yağlı Boya (1986, A Touch of Oil Paint), Sahibinden İhtiyaçtan (1988) and Darısı Başınıza (1989), all containing a couple of hit songs and demonstrating his new sound.

7'den 77'ye and 1990s

In 1988, 7'den 77'ye (From 7 to 77), a TV show directed and presented by Manço, began to run on TRT 1, the Turkish state television channel. It was a combined music, talk show, and documentary programme which was a major hit during the eight years it was on air. Manço traveled to almost 150 countries for the show. "Adam Olacak Çocuk (The Child Will Become A Man)", a section of the show dedicated to children, strengthened Manço's popularity among younger audiences.

Although his fame continued in the 1990s thanks to the success of his TV show, which was popular with all age groups, his music in this period was not as successful as it had been in previous decades. The albums Mega Manço (1992, Great Manço) and Müsadenizle Çocuklar (1995) were considered the weakest offerings of his career despite the limited success of the 1992 children's hit Ayı (The Bear). On the other hand, in 1995 he toured in Japan with Kurtalan Ekspres, which leding to Live In Japan (1996), his only live album. He released two albums in that country and gained recognition as "the man who writes songs about vegetables", referring to "Domates, Biber, Patlıcan" ("Tomato, Pepper, Aubergine") and "Nane, Limon Kabuğu" (Mint, Lemon Rind), two of his hit songs from the 1980s.

Death

On 1 February 1999, Barış Manço died of a sudden heart attack before the release of his newly completed last work Mançoloji (Mançology or Manchology) (1999), a double album containing new recordings of his hit songs along with an unfinished instrumental song "40. Yıl" (The 40th Year), celebrating his 40th year in music. His sudden death caused almost unanimous shock in Turkey with millions of people mourning and tens of thousands of people attending his funeral.

He was interred in Kanlıca Cemetery in Istanbul.

Legacy
Barış Manço was one of Turkey's most influential pop musicians. In his early career he and his different bands contributed to the Turkish rock movement by combining traditional Turkish folk music with rock influences, which is still one of the main characteristics of much Turkish pop music.

His image, featuring long hair, a moustache and several outsized rings, moderated the reaction of otherwise conservative Turkish public opinion.

Manço pioneered the progressive rock-influenced Anatolian rock movement of the 1970s and his experimentation with electronic instruments a decade later contributed to the sound of Turkish popular music in the 1990s.

His lyrics, covering diverse themes but mostly presenting a somewhat modernised version of the "aşık" (wandering folk poets) tradition, were marginal to the pop music scene of the 1980s which was mostly dominated by love songs.

In 2002, a tribute album was released under the name Yüreğimdeki Barış Şarkıları ("Songs of Barış (Peace) In My Heart"), featuring fifteen popular Turkish artists from such diverse genres as arabesque, and pop and rock (both Anatolian and western style), demonstrating his wide range of influences.

On 2 January 2013, Google Doodle celebrated Barış Manço's 70th birthday.

Albums

 * Dünden Bugüne (1972) (Sayan)
 * 2023 (1975) (Yavuz Plak)
 * Sakla Samanı Gelir Zamanı (1976) (Yavuz)
 * Baris Mancho, released as Nick The Chopper in Turkey (1976) (CBS Disques/Grammofoonplaten S.A.B.V., CBS 81784, Yavuz LP)
 * Yeni Bir Gün (1979) (Yavuz ve Burç Plakçılık)
 * 20 Sanat Yılı Disco Manço (1980) (Türküola)
 * Sözüm Meclisten Dışarı (1981) (Türküola)
 * Estağfurullah ... Ne Haddimize! (1983) (Türküola)
 * 24 Ayar Manço (1985) (Emre Plakçılık)
 * Değmesin Yağlı Boya (1986) (Emre Plakçılık)
 * 30 Sanat Yılı Fulaksesuar Manço - Sahibinden İhtiyaçtan (1988) (Emre Plakçılık)
 * Darısı Başınıza (1989) (Yavuz ve Burç Plakçılık)
 * Mega Manço (1992) (Emre Plak)
 * Müsaadenizle Çocuklar (1995) (Emre Plak)
 * Barış Manço Live In Japan (1996) (Emre Plak)
 * Mançoloji (1999) (Emre Plak)
 * Barış Manço Golden Rollers (2018) (Tunas Tunes)
 * Manlac Blues 9 - Demo 1965 - 1966 Volume 1  (2019) (Tunas Tunes)

Singles
With Harmoniler
 * Twistin USA / The Jet (1962) (Grafson MGG 515)
 * Do The Twist / Let's Twist again (1962) (Grafson MGG 516)
 * Cit Cit Twist / Dream Girl (1963) (Grafson MGG 566)

With Jacques Denjean Orchestra
 * Baby Sitter / Quelle Peste / Jenny Jenny / Un Autre Amour Que Toi (1964) (Rigolo 18.726)

With Les Mistigris
 * Il Arrivera / Une Fille (1966) (Sahibinin Sesi 45-AX 3092)
 * Bien Fait Pour Toi / Aman Avcı Vurma Beni (1966) (Sahibinin Sesi 45-AX 3093)
 * Bizim Gibi / Big Boss Man / Seher Vakti / Good Golly Miss Molly (1967) (Sayan)

With Kaygısızlar With Barış Manço Ve
 * Kol Düğmeleri / Big Boss Man / Seher Vakti / Good Golly Miss Molly (1967) (Sayan FS-144)
 * Kızılcıklar / I'll Go Crazy (1968) (Sayan FS-171)
 * Bebek / Keep Lookin' (1968) (Sayan FS-179)
 * Karanlıklar İçinde / Trip - To a Fair (1968) (Sayan FS-180)
 * Boğaziçi / Flower of Love (1968) (Sayan FS-194)
 * Runaway / Unutamıyorum (1969) (Sayan FS-199)
 * Aglama Değmez Hayat / Kirpiklerin Ok Ok Eyle (1969) (Sayan FS 204)
 * Kağızman / Anadolu (1969) (Sayan FS 213)
 * Derule / Küçük Bir Gece Müziği (1970) (Sayan FS-223)
 * Dağlar Dağlar 1 / Dağlar Dağlar 2 (1970) (Sayan 229)

With Moğollar
 * İşte Hendek İşte Deve / Katip Arzuhalim Yaz Yare Boyle (1971) (Sayan FS-266)

With Moğollar / Kaygısızlar
 * Bin Boğanın Kızı / Ay Osman (1971) (Sayan FS-271)

With Kaygısızlar / Les Mistigris
 * Fil ile Kurbağa / Je te Retrouverais (1972) (Sayan FS 279)

With Kurtalan Ekspres
 * Ölüm Allah'ın Emri / Gamzedeyim Deva Bulmam (1972) (Yavuz YA 1544)
 * Lambaya Püf De / Kalk Gidelim Küheylan (1973) (Yavuz YA 1548)
 * Gönül Dağı / Hey Koca Topcu Genç Osman (1973) (Yavuz YA 1554)
 * Nazar Eyle Nazar Eyle / Gülme Ha Gülme (1974) (Yavuz YA 1562)
 * Bir Bahar Akşamı / Estergon Kalesi (1974) (Yavuz YA 1569)
 * Ben Bilirim /2023 (1975) (Yavuz Plak YA 1573)
 * Çay Elinden Öteye Rezil Dede / Vur Ha Vur (1976) (Yavuz Plak YA 1580)
 * Ride On Miranda (1976) (CBS / Sony Music)
 * Blue Morning Angel (1976) (CBS / Sony Music)
 * Tell Me Old Man (1976) (CBS / Sony Music)

With George Hayes Orchestra / Kurtalan Ekspres
 * Nick the Chopper / Lonely Man (1977) (Yavuz YA 1584)

With Kurtalan Ekspres
 * Hal Hal / Eğri Eğri Doğru Doğru Eğri Büğrü Ama Yine De Doğru (1981) (Türküola 239)

Filmography

 * Baba Bizi Eversene (1975)

title: Barış Manço


text:
Talk:Binary and

Shouldn't this article be titled "Boolean and"?

 * The distinction I'd like to make is that boolean operations work with truth values. Binary operations can work with single digits (which are equivalent to truth values) but also on binary numbers comprised of more bits. --Robbe

 * When the operation is done on binary numbers (>1), that's called Bitwise AND, isn't it? Torzsmokus 13:40, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

Merge with Logical conjunction
There is no article for Binary OR; the OR redirects to Logical disjunction. The Binary AND is just an implementation of Logical conjunction in the numbers 0 and 1. I do not see how having a separate page for a Binary AND is necessary. It should just be a section in Logical conjunction. What more can be added about Binary AND that does not actually belong in Logical conjunction?  Liuyuan Chen  00:35, 16 September 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Binary and


text:
Blitz BASIC

Blitz BASIC is the programming language dialect of the first Blitz compilers, devised by New Zealand-based developer Mark Sibly. Being derived from BASIC, Blitz syntax was designed to be easy to pick up for beginners first learning to program. The languages are game-programming oriented but are often found general purpose enough to be used for most types of application. The Blitz language evolved as new products were released, with recent incarnations offering support for more advanced programming techniques such as object-orientation and multithreading. This led to the languages losing their BASIC moniker in later years.

History
The first iteration of the Blitz language was created for the Amiga platform and published by the Australian firm Memory and Storage Technology. Returning to New Zealand, Blitz BASIC 2 was published several years later (around 1993 according this press release ) by Acid Software (a local Amiga game publisher). Since then, Blitz compilers have been released on several platforms. Following the demise of the Amiga as a commercially viable platform, the Blitz BASIC 2 source code was released to the Amiga community. Development continues to this day under the name AmiBlitz.

BlitzBasic
Idigicon published BlitzBasic for Microsoft Windows in October 2000. The language included a built-in API for performing basic 2D graphics and audio operations. Following the release of Blitz3D, BlitzBasic is often synonymously referred to as Blitz2D.

Recognition of BlitzBasic increased when a limited range of "free" versions were distributed in popular UK computer magazines such as PC Format. This resulted in a legal dispute between the developer and publisher which was eventually resolved amicably.

BlitzPlus
In February 2003, Blitz Research Ltd. released BlitzPlus also for Microsoft Windows. It lacked the 3D engine of Blitz3D, but did bring new features to the 2D side of the language by implementing limited Microsoft Windows control support for creating native GUIs. Backwards compatibility of the 2D engine was also extended, allowing compiled BlitzPlus games and applications to run on systems that might only have DirectX 1.

BlitzMax
The first BlitzMax compiler was released in December 2004 for Mac OS X. This made it the first Blitz dialect that could be compiled on *nix platforms. Compilers for Microsoft Windows and Linux were subsequently released in May 2005. BlitzMax brought the largest change of language structure to the modern range of Blitz products by extending the type system to include object-oriented concepts and modifying the graphics API to better suit OpenGL. BlitzMax was also the first of the Blitz languages to represent strings internally using UCS-2, allowing native-support for string literals composed of non-ASCII characters.

BlitzMax's platform-agnostic command-set allows developers to compile and run source code on multiple platforms. However the official compiler and build chain will only generate binaries for the platform that it is executing on. Unofficially, users have been able to get Linux and Mac OS X to cross-compile to the Windows platform.

BlitzMax is also the first modular version of the Blitz languages, improving the extensibility of the command-set. In addition, all of the standard modules shipped with the compiler are open-source and so can be tweaked and recompiled by the programmer if necessary. The official BlitzMax cross-platform GUI module (known as MaxGUI) allows developers to write GUI interfaces for their applications on Linux (FLTK), Mac (Cocoa) and Windows. Various user-contributed modules extend the use of the language by wrapping such libraries as wxWidgets, Cairo, and Fontconfig as well as a selection of database modules. There are also a selection of third-party 3D modules available namely MiniB3D - an open-source OpenGL engine which can be compiled and used on all three of BlitzMax's supported platforms.

In October 2007, BlitzMax 1.26 was released which included the addition of a reflection module. BlitzMax 1.32 shipped new threading and Lua scripting modules and most of the standard library functions have been updated so that they are unicode friendly.

Blitz3D SDK
Blitz3D SDK is a 3D graphics engine based on the engine in Blitz3D. It was marketed for use with C++, C#, BlitzMax, and PureBasic, however it could also be used with other languages that follow compatible calling conventions.

Max3D module
In 2008, the source code to Max3D - a C++-based cross-platform 3D engine - was released under a BSD license. This engine focused on OpenGL but had an abstract backend for other graphics drivers (such as DirectX) and made use of several open-source libraries, namely Assimp, Boost, and ODE.

Despite the excitement in the Blitz community of Max3D being the eagerly awaited successor to Blitz3D, interest and support died off soon after the source code was released and eventually development came to a halt. There is no indication that Blitz Research will pick up the project again.

Open-source release
BlitzPlus was released as open-source on 28 April 2014 under the zlib license on GitHub. Blitz3D followed soon after and was released as Open Source on 3 August 2014. BlitzMax was later released as Open Source on 21 September 2015.

Reception
Blitz Basic 2.1 was well received by Amiga magazines. CU Amiga highlighted its ability to create AmigaOS compliant applications and games (unlike AMOS Basic) and Amiga Shopper called it a powerful programming language.

Examples
A "Hello, World!" program that prints to the screen, waits until a key is pressed, and then terminates: Program that demonstrates the declaration of variables using the three main data types (strings, integers and floats) and printing them onto the screen:

Program that creates a windowed application that shows the current time in binary and decimal format. See below for the BlitzMax and BlitzBasic versions:

Software written using BlitzBasic

 * Eschalon: Book I - BlitzMax
 * Eschalon: Book II - BlitzMax
 * Fairway Solitaire - BlitzMax
 * GridWars - BlitzMax
 * TVTower (open source clone of MadTV) - BlitzMax
 * Platypus - Blitz2D (Mac port, BlitzMax)
 * SCP – Containment Breach - Blitz3D
 * Worms - originally titled Total Wormage and developed in Blitz Basic on the Amiga before its commercial release

Legacy
In 2011, BRL released a new cross-platform programming language called Monkey and its first official module called Mojo. Monkey has a similar syntax to BlitzMax, but instead of compiling direct to assembly code, it translates Monkey source files directly into source code for a chosen language, framework or platform e.g. Windows, Mac OS X, iOS, Android, HTML5, and Adobe Flash.

Since 2015 development of Monkey X has been halted in favour of Monkey 2, an updated version of the language by Mark Sibly.

title: Blitz BASIC


text:
Bliss bibliographic classification

The Bliss bibliographic classification (BC) is a library classification system that was created by Henry E. Bliss (1870–1955) and published in four volumes between 1940 and 1953. Although originally devised in the United States, it was more commonly adopted by British libraries. A second edition of the system (BC2) has been in ongoing development in Britain since 1977.

Origins of the system
Henry E. Bliss began working on the Bliss Classification system while working at the City College of New York Library as Assistant Librarian. He was a critic of Melvil Dewey's work with the Dewey Decimal System and believed that organization of titles needed to be done with an intellectual mind frame. Being overly pragmatic or simply alphabetical, would be inadequate. In fact, Bliss is the only theorist who created an organizational scheme based on societal needs. Bliss wanted a classification system that would provide distinct rules yet still be adaptable to whatever kind of collection a library might have, as different libraries have different needs. His solution was the concept of "alternative location," in which a particular subject could be put in more than one place, as long as the library made a specific choice and used it consistently.

Bliss discusses his theories and basis of organization for the Bliss Classification for the first time in his 1910 article, "A Modern Classification for Libraries, with Simple Notation, Mnemonics, and Alternatives". This publication followed his 1908 reclassification of the City College collection. His work, Organization of Knowledge and the System of the Sciences was published in four volumes between 1940 and 1953.

The four broad underlying policies of the BC system are: Bliss deliberately avoided the use of the decimal point because of his objection to Dewey's system. Instead he used capital and lower-case letters, numerals, and every typographical symbol available on his extensive and somewhat eccentric typewriter.
 * alternative location
 * brief, concise notation
 * organizing knowledge according to academic expertise
 * subjects moving gradually from topic to topic as they naturally related to one another.

Single letter codes refer to broad subject areas and further letters are added to refer to increasingly specific subdisciplines. For example, at Lancaster University:
 * T 	Economics
 * TD 	Business Economics
 * TDG 	Management of Industry

Adoption and change to BC2
In 1967 the Bliss Classification Association was formed. Its first publication was the Abridged Bliss Classification (ABC), intended for school libraries. In 1977 it began to publish and maintain a revised version of Bliss's system, the Bliss Bibliographic Classification (Second Edition) or BC2. This retains only the broad outlines of Bliss's scheme, replacing most of the detailed notation with a new scheme based on the principles of faceted classification. 15 of approximately 28 volumes of schedules have so far been published. A revision of this nature has been considered by some to be a completely new system.

The City College library in New York continued to use Bliss's system until 1967, when it switched to the Library of Congress system. It had become too expensive to train new staff members to use BC, and too expensive to maintain in general. Much of the Bliss stacks remain, however, as no-one has re-cataloged the books.

The case was different, however, in Britain. BC proved more popular there and also spread to other English-speaking countries. Part of the reason for its success was that libraries in teachers’ colleges liked the way Bliss had organized the subject areas on teaching and education. By the mid-1950s the system was being used in at least sixty British libraries and in a hundred by the 1970s. The Bliss Classification system has been found to be successful in academic, specialty, government, and law libraries. It has also found success in libraries outside of the United States of America, as many of these libraries do not have a history of using either the Dewey Decimal, or the Library of Congress classification system.

The general organizational pattern for classifying titles in the BC2 method are:
 * Agents
 * Operations
 * Properties
 * Materials
 * Processes
 * Parts
 * Types
 * Thing itself

Classifications (BC2)
The Class Schedule is:

 * 2/9 - Generalia, Phenomena, Knowledge, Information science & technology
 * A/AL - Philosophy & Logic
 * AM/AX - Mathematics, Probability, Statistics
 * AY/B - General science, Physics
 * C - Chemistry
 * D - Space and Earth sciences
 * DG/DY - Earth sciences (includes Geology & Geography)
 * E/GQ - Biological sciences
 * GR/GZ - Applied biological sciences: agriculture and ecology
 * H - Physical Anthropology, Human biology, Health sciences
 * I - Psychology & Psychiatry
 * J - Education
 * K - Society (includes Social sciences, sociology & social anthropology)
 * L/O - History (including area studies, travel and topography, and biography)
 * LA - Archaeology
 * P - Religion, Occult, Morals and ethics
 * Q - Social welfare & Criminology
 * R - Politics & Public administration
 * S - Law
 * T - Economics & Management of economic enterprises
 * U/V - Technology and useful arts (including household management and services)
 * W - The Arts
 * WV/WX - Music
 * X/Y - Language and literature
 * ZA/ZW - Museology

title: Bliss bibliographic classification