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Professional certification

Professional certification, trade certification, or professional designation, often called simply certification or qualification, is a designation earned by a person to assure qualification to perform a job or task. Not all certifications that use post-nominal letters are an acknowledgement of educational achievement, or an agency appointed to safeguard the public interest.

Overview
A certification is a third-party attestation of an individual's level of knowledge or proficiency in a certain industry or profession. They are granted by authorities in the field, such as professional societies and universities, or by private certificate-granting agencies. Most certifications are time-limited; some expire after a period of time (e.g., the lifetime of a product that requires certification for use), while others can be renewed indefinitely as long as certain requirements are met. Renewal usually requires ongoing education to remain up-to-date on advancements in the field, evidenced by earning the specified number of continuing education credits (CECs), or continuing education units (CEUs), from approved professional development courses.

Many certification programs are affiliated with professional associations, trade organizations, or private vendors interested in raising industry standards. Certification programs are often created or endorsed by professional associations, but are typically completely independent from membership organizations. Certifications are very common in fields such as aviation, construction, technology, environment, and other industrial sectors, as well as healthcare, business, real estate, and finance.

According to The Guide to National Professional Certification Programs (1997) by Phillip Barnhart, "certifications are portable, since they do not depend on one company's definition of a certain job" and they provide potential employers with "an impartial, third-party endorsement of an individual's professional knowledge and experience".

Certification is different from professional licensure. In the United States, licenses are typically issued by state agencies, whereas certifications are usually awarded by professional societies or educational institutes. Obtaining a certificate is voluntary in some fields, but in others, certification from a government-accredited agency may be legally required to perform certain jobs or tasks. In other countries, licenses are typically granted by professional societies or universities and require a certificate after about three to five years and so on thereafter. The assessment process for certification may be more comprehensive than that of licensure, though sometimes the assessment process is very similar or even the same, despite differing in terms of legal status.

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) defines the standard for being a certifying agency as meeting the following two requirements:
 * 1) Delivering an assessment based on industry knowledge that is independent from training courses or course providers
 * 2) Granting a time-limited credential to anyone who meets the assessment standards

The Institute for Credentialing Excellence (ICE) is a U.S.-based organization that sets standards for the accreditation of personnel certification and certificate programs based on the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, a joint publication of the American Educational Research Association (AERA), the American Psychological Association (APA), and the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME). Many members of the Association of Test Publishers (ATP) are also certification organizations.

Categorization
There are three general types of certification. Listed in order of development level and portability, they are: corporate (internal), product-specific, and profession-wide.

Corporate, or "internal" certifications, are made by a corporation or low-stakes organization for internal purposes. For example, a corporation might require a one-day training course for all sales personnel, after which they receive a certificate. While this certificate has limited portability – to other corporations, for example – it is the most simple to develop.

Product-specific certifications are more involved, and are intended to be referenced to a product across all applications. This approach is very prevalent in the information technology (IT) industry, where personnel are certified on a version of software or hardware. This type of certification is portable across locations (for example, different corporations that use that software), but not across other products. Another example could be the certifications issued for shipping personnel, which are under international standards even for the recognition of the certification body, under the International Maritime Organization (IMO).

The most general type of certification is profession-wide. Certification in the medical profession is often offered by particular specialties. In order to apply professional standards, increase the level of practice, and protect the public, a professional organization might establish a certification. This is intended to be portable to all places a certified professional might work. Of course, this generalization increases the cost of such a program; the process to establish a legally defensible assessment of an entire profession is very extensive. An example of this is a certified public accountant (CPA), which would not be certified for just one corporation or one piece of accountancy software but for general work in the profession.

Professional certificates awarded by tertiary education providers
Many tertiary education providers grant professional certificates as an award for the completion of an educational program. The curriculum of a professional certificate is most often in a focused subject matter. Many professional certificates have the same curriculum as master's degrees in the same subject. Many other professional certificates offer the same courses as master's degrees in the same subject, but require the student to take fewer total courses to complete the program. Some professional certificates have a curriculum that more closely resembles a baccalaureate major in the same field. The typical professional certificate program is between 200 and 300 class-hours in size. It is uncommon for a program to be larger or smaller than that. Most professional certificate programs are open enrollment, but some have admissions processes. A few universities put some of their professional certificates into a subclass they refer to as advanced professional certificates.

Some of the more commonly offered professional certificates include:
 * Professional Certificate in Accounting (PCA)
 * Professional Certificate in Accounting and Finance (PCAF)
 * Professional Certificate in Taxation (PCIT)
 * Professional Certificate in Transfer Pricing (PCITP)
 * Professional Certificate in Contract Management (PCCM)
 * Professional Certificate in Customer Relationship Management (PCCRM)
 * Professional Certificate in Facility Management (PCFM)
 * Professional Certificate in Financial Planning (PCFP)
 * Professional Certificate in Graphic Design (PCGD)
 * Professional Certificate in Small Business Management (PCSBM)
 * Professional Certificate in Human Resources (PCHR)
 * Professional Certificate in Marketing (PCM)
 * Professional Certificate in Digital Marketing (PCDM)
 * Professional Certificate in Paralegal Studies (PCPS)
 * Professional Certificate in Project Management (PCPM)
 * Professional Certificate in Supply Chain Management (PCSCM)
 * Professional Certificate in Store Management (PCSM)
 * Professional Certificate in Materials Management (PCMM)
 * Professional Certificate in Technical Communication (PCTC)

Advanced professional certificate
Advanced professional certificates are professional credentials designed to help professionals enhance their job performance and marketability in their respective fields. In many other countries, certificates are qualifications in higher education. In the United States, a certificate may be offered by an institute of higher education. These certificates usually signify that a student has reached a standard of knowledge of a certain vocational subject. Certificate programs can be completed more quickly than associate degrees and often do not have general education requirements.

An advanced professional certificate is a result of an educational process designed for individuals. Certificates are designed for both newcomers to the industry as well as seasoned professionals. Certificates are awarded by an educational program or academic institution. Completion of a certificate program indicates completion of a course or series of courses with a specific concentration that is different from an educational degree program. Course content for an advanced certificate is set forth through a variety of sources i.e. faculty, committee, instructors, and other subject matter experts in a related field. The end goal of an advanced professional certificate is so that professionals may demonstrate knowledge of course content at the end of a set period in time.

Accountancy, auditing and finance
There are many professional bodies for accountants and auditors throughout the world; some of them are legally recognized in their jurisdictions. Public accountants are the accountancy and control experts that are legally certified in different jurisdictions to work in public practices, certifying accounts as statutory auditors, eventually selling advice and services to other individuals and businesses. Today, however, many work within private corporations, financial industry, and government bodies.

Accounting and external auditing
Cf. Accountancy qualifications and regulation
 * CPA (Chartered Professional Accountant), the unified accounting designation in Canada conferred by CPA Canada.
 * CA or Chartered Accountant conferred by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India.
 * Institute of Chartered Accountants within the Commonwealth e.g. Australia and New Zealand, South Africa, Canada (before merger into CPA). With mutual recognition with each other and with the UK
 * ACA, FCA or CA (Chartered Accountant) conferred by Institutes of Chartered Accountants in various territories, namely the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.
 * ACMA or FCMA (Associate or Fellow Chartered Management Accountant) conferred by the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (UK)
 * Associate or Fellow Chartered Certified Accountant (ACCA or FCCA) conferred by Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (UK)
 * AFA or FFA (Associate or Fellow Incorporated Financial Accountant) conferred by the Institute of Financial Accountants (UK)
 * AAIA or FAIA (Associate or Fellow International Accountant) conferred by Association of International Accountants
 * MIPA or FIPA (Member or Fellow of the Institute of Public Accountants who use the designation "Public Accountant") conferred by the Institute of Public Accountants (Australia)
 * CPA (Certified Public Accountant) conferred by State Accountancy Boards in the US, Hong-Kong, Canada ...
 * CMA (Certified Management Accountant) conferred by Institute of Certified Management Accountants (ICMA in Australia), Institute of Management Accountants (IMA in US)
 * CCC (Chartered Cost Controllers) issued and conferred by the American Academy of Financial Management USA Certifying Board (AAFM)
 * CFS (Certified Finance Specialist) conferred by IQN

Internal auditing and fraud combat

 * cAAP (Certified Agile Auditor Professional) awarded by cRisk Academy for proficiency in Agile Auditing
 * cCAE (Certified Chief Audit Executive) awarded by cRisk Academy for proficiency in starting and running an Internal Audit department
 * cORCM (Certification in Objective-Centric Risk and Certainty Management) awarded by cRisk Academy
 * cPIA (Certified Practitioner in Internal Audit) awarded by cRisk Academy for proficiency in Internal Auditing
 * cRBIA (Certified Risk-Based Internal Auditor) awarded by cRisk Academy for proficiency in Risk-Based Internal Auditing
 * CIA (Certified Internal Auditor): CCSA, Certification in Control Self Assessment; CGAP, Certified Government Auditing Professional; CRMA, Certification in Risk Management Assurance; QIAL, Qualification in Internal Audit Leadership, conferred by the internationally recognized Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) headquartered in Lake Mary, Florida, with chapters in many countries
 * CFE (Certified Fraud Examiner) conferred by the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE) headquartered in Texas with chapters in many countries
 * CFF (Certified in Financial Forensics) awarded by the American Institute of CPAs
 * CISA (Certified Information Systems Auditor) awarded by the Information Systems Audit and Control Association headquartered in the US with chapters in many countries
 * CAMS (Certified Anti-Money Laundering Specialist) offered by Association of Certified Anti-Money Laundering Specialists (ACAMS) and advanced CAMS
 * CGSS (Certified Global Sanctions Specialist) conferred by Association of Certified Anti-Money Laundering Specialists (ACAMS)
 * CSA (Certified Strategic Auditor) conferred by Association of Certified Strategic Auditors (ACSA) https://www.acsaglobal.com
 * IACCP (Investment Adviser Certified Compliance Professional) conferred by the Investment Adviser Association (IAA) and National Regulatory Services (NRS)
 * CPERM (Certified Professional in Enterprise Risk Management) conferred by the Academy of Professional Certification Company (APC) which endorsed by HKSARG

Finance

 * CFS (Certified Finance Specialist) conferred by IQN
 * CFA (Chartered Financial Analyst) conferred by CFA Institute (CFA)
 * ChFM Chartered Financial Manager conferred by International Board of Standards
 * CIIA (Certified International Investment Analyst) conferred by the Association of Certified International Investment Analysts (ACIIA)
 * IACCP (Investment Adviser Certified Compliance Professional) conferred by the Investment Adviser Association (IAA) and National Regulatory Services (NRS)

Investments

 * CFS (Certified Finance Specialist) conferred by IQN
 * CFA (Chartered Financial Analyst) conferred by CFA Institute (CFA)
 * ChFM Chartered Financial Manager conferred by International Board of Standards
 * CIPM (Certificate in Investment Performance Measurement) conferred by CFA Institute (CFA)
 * CIIA (Certified International Investment Analyst) conferred by the Association of Certified International Investment Analysts (ACIIA)
 * ASA (Accredited Senior Appraiser), AM (Accredited Member), and CEIV (Certified in Entity and Intangible Valuations) conferred by the American Society of Appraisers
 * CBV (Chartered Business Valuator) conferred by the CBV Institute.
 * CVA (Certified Valuation Analyst) conferred by the NACVA.
 * CAIA (Chartered Alternative Investment Analyst) conferred by the CAIA Association
 * IACCP (Investment Adviser Certified Compliance Professional) conferred by the Investment Adviser Association (IAA) and National Regulatory Services (NRS)
 * FRM (Financial Risk Manager) conferred by Global Association of Risk Professionals (GARP)
 * PRM (Professional Risk Manager) conferred by Professional Risk Managers' International Association (PRMIA)
 * FMVA (Financial Modeling and Valuation Analyst) conferred by Corporate Finance Institute (CFI).
 * CQF (Certificate in Quantitative Finance), conferred by the CQF Institute

Payroll

 * CPP (Certified Payroll Professional) and FPC (Fundamental Payroll Specialist) conferred by the American Payroll Association.
 * Payroll Compliance Practitioner (PCP) and Certified Payroll Manager (CPM) conferred by the National Payroll Institute

Personal finance

 * CFS (Certified Finance Specialist) conferred by IQN
 * CFA (Chartered Financial Analyst) conferred by CFA Institute (CFA)
 * ChFM Chartered Financial Manager conferred by International Board of Standards
 * CFP (Certified Financial Planner) conferred by Certified Financial Planner Board of Standards and Financial Planning Standards Board
 * EA (Enrolled Agent) by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS)
 * CFC (Certified Financial Consultant) conferred by the Institute of Financial Consultants

Public finance

 * CCMT (Certified California Municipal Treasurer) conferred by California Municipal Treasurers Association (CMTA)
 * CGAP (Certified Government Auditing Professional) conferred by the Institute of Internal Auditors, based on the US Government Auditing Standards (Yellow Book) and additionally on COSO, IIA standards and INTOSAI ISSAI standards recognized worldwide in public finance
 * CDFM (Certified Defense Financial Manager) conferred by American Society of Military Comptrollers (ASMC)
 * CFO (Certified Financial Officer) conferred by the Carl Vinson Institute of Government of the University of Georgia
 * CGFM (Certified Government Financial Manager) conferred by Association of Government Accountants (AGA)
 * CGAT (Certified Governmental Accounting Technician), conferred by Government Finance Officers Association of Alabama
 * CGFO (Certified Government Finance Officer) conferred by Government Finance Officers Association of Texas (GFOAT)
 * CGFO (Certified Government Finance Officer ), conferred by Florida Government Finance Officers Association (FGFOA)
 * CGFO (Certified Government Finance Officer ) conferred by Louisiana Government Finance Officers Association
 * CMFO (Certified Municipal Finance Officer ) conferred by Government Finance Officers of New Jersey, Rutgers University, and the State of New Jersey
 * CMFO (Certified Municipal Finance Officer ) conferred by Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury and the Municipal Technical Advisory Service
 * CPFO (Certified Public Finance Officer) conferred by Government Finance Officers Association
 * CPFA (Certified Public Finance Administrator) conferred by Association of Public Treasurers of the United States and Canada (APTUSC)
 * GFO (Government Finance Officer ) conferred by Government Finance Officers Association of South Carolina (GFOASC)
 * North Carolina Local Governmental Finance Officer conferred by North Carolina Government Finance Officers Association and the North Carolina Association of County Finance Officers

Aging services

 * Certified Aging in Place Specialist (CAPS)
 * Certified Daily Money Managers
 * Certified Elder Law
 * Certified Living in Place (CLIPP)
 * Certified Senior Advisor (CSA)
 * Certified At-risk Adult Crime Tactics Specialist (CACTS)
 * Cognitive Care Certification (CCC)

Architecture

 * AIA (Member, American Institute of Architects) conferred by American Institute of Architects
 * FAIA (Fellow, American Institute of Architects) conferred by American Institute of Architects
 * RA (Registered Architect) conferred by National Council of Architecture Registration Boards
 * NCARB (Certified) issued by National Council of Architecture Registration Boards – this allows for state-state reciprocity.

Archival science, information privacy, and records management

 * CA (Certified Archivist), conferred by Academy of Certified Archivists
 * CIP (Certified Information Professional) conferred by AIIM
 * CIPM (Certified Information Privacy Manager) conferred by International Association of Privacy Professionals
 * CIPP (Certified Information Privacy Professional) conferred by International Association of Privacy Professionals
 * CIPT (Certified Information Privacy Technologist) conferred by International Association of Privacy Professionals
 * CRA (Certified Records Analyst) conferred by Institute of Certified Records Managers
 * CRM (Certified Records Manager) conferred by Institute of Certified Records Managers
 * IGP (Information Governance Professional) conferred by ARMA International

Aviation
Aviators are certified through theoretical and in-flight examinations. Requirements for certifications are quite equal in most countries and are regulated by each National Aviation Authority. The existing certificates or pilot licenses are:
 * SPL (Sport Pilot License) conferred by the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration)
 * PPL (Private Pilot License) conferred by the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) or JAA (Joint Aviation Authorities)
 * CPL (Commercial Pilot Licence) conferred by the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) or JAA (Joint Aviation Authorities)
 * ATP (Airline Transport Pilot) conferred by the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) or JAA (Joint Aviation Authorities)

Licensing in these categories require not only examinations but also a minimum number of flight hours. All categories are available for Fixed-Wing Aircraft (airplanes) and Rotatory-Wing Aircraft (helicopters). Within each category, aviators may also obtain certifications in: Usually, aviators must be certified also in their log books for the type and model of aircraft they are allowed to fly. Currency checks as well as regular medical check-ups with a frequency of 6 months, 12 months, or 36 months, depending on the type of flying permitted, are obligatory. An aviator can fly only if holding:
 * Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)
 * Multi-engine aircraft
 * Turbojet Engines
 * Jet Engines
 * Experimental aircraft
 * Amphibious aircraft
 * Seaplanes
 * A valid pilot license
 * A valid medical certificate
 * Valid certifications for the type of aircraft and type of flight.

In Europe, the ANSP, ATCO & ANSP technicians are certified according to EUROCONTROL Safety Regulatory Requirement (ESARRs) (according to EU regulation 2096/2005 "Common Requirements").

Biomedical

 * BMD (Biomedical Electronics Technician) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association
 * BIET (Biomedical Imaging Electronics Technician) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association

Business

 * CSA (Certified Strategic Auditor) conferred by Association of Certified Strategic Auditors (ACSA)
 * CSM (Certified Strategic Manager) conferred by IQN
 * CPSM (Certified Professional in Supply Management) conferred by Institute for Supply Management (ISM)
 * CPSD (Certified Professional in Supplier Diversity) conferred by Institute for Supply Management (ISM)

Communications
In the United States, several communications certifications are conferred by the Electronics Technicians Association.

Computer technology
Certification is often used in the professions of software engineering and information technology.

 * CITP (Chartered IT Professional) conferred by British Computer Society, The Institution of Engineering and Technology and by other professional engineering institutions in the UK and commonwealth

Contract management

 * CPCM (Certified Professional Contract Manager) conferred by the National Contract Management Association.
 * CPM (Commercial Project Manager) conferred by Commercial Officers Group.
 * CPSM (Certified Professional in Supply Management) conferred by Institute for Supply Management (ISM)

Dance
Conferred by the International Dance Council CID at UNESCO, the International Certification of Dance Studies is awarded to students who have completed 150 hours of classes in a specific form of dance for Level 1. Another 150 hours are required for Level 2 and so on till Level 10. This is the only international certification for dance since the International Dance Council CID is the official body for all forms of dance; it is usually given in addition to local or national certificates, that is why it is colloquially called "the dancer's passport". Students cannot apply for this certification directly – they have to ask their school to apply on their behalf. This certification is awarded free of charge, there is no cost other than membership fees.

International Dance Council CID at UNESCO administers the International Certification of Dance Studies.

Data management

 * Business Intelligence and Data Analyst (BIDA) by Corporate Finance Institute (CFI).
 * Certified Data Management Professional (CDMP) by DAMA International.

Electronics
In the United States, several electronics certifications are provided by the Electronics Technicians Association.

Emergency management
The Federal Emergency Management Agency's EMI offers credentials and training opportunities for United States citizens. Students do not have to be employed by FEMA or be federal employees for some of the programs.
 * Advance Professional Series (APS) Credential
 * Continuity Excellence Series, Level I and II
 * Critical Infrastructure Security and Resilience
 * Disaster Field Training Operations (DFTO)
 * Emergency Management Professional Program (EMPP)
 * Executive Fire Officer Program (EFOP)
 * Integrated Emergency Management Courses (IEMC)
 * Master Exercise Practitioner Program (MEPP)
 * Master Trainer Program (MTP)
 * Professional Development Series (PDS) Credential
 * Virtual Table Top Exercise (VTTX) Series

Engineering
Professional engineering is any act of planning, designing, composing, measuring, evaluating, inspecting, advising, reporting, directing or supervising, or managing any of the foregoing, that requires the application of engineering principles and that concerns the safeguarding of life, health, property, economic interests, the public interest or the environment.
 * P.Eng. (Professional Engineer), conferred by provincial licensing bodies in Canada.
 * Ir. or P.Eng. (Professional Engineer), conferred by Board of Engineers Malaysia (BEM) in Malaysia.
 * PE (Professional Engineer), conferred by Pakistan Engineering Council (PEC) and state licensing bodies in the United States.
 * PE (Power Engineer), conferred by provincial safety authorities in Canada.
 * EUR ING (European Engineer), conferred by the European Federation of National Engineering Associations (FEANI).
 * C.Eng. (Chartered Engineer), conferred by professional engineering institutions in the UK and commonwealth.
 * SMIEEE (Senior member of the IEEE), a professional designation throughout all of the United States.
 * CET (certified engineering technologist) or AScT (applied science technologist), conferred by provincial licensing bodies in Canada.
 * SPE Society of Petroleum Engineers Certificate Is a program whereby it certifies the technical knowledge of petroleum engineers. The certification is granted based on an examination in conjunction with experience of the applicant.

Event planning
Event planning includes budgeting, scheduling, site selection, acquiring necessary permits, coordinating transportation and parking, arranging for speakers or entertainers, arranging decor, event security, catering, coordinating with third-party vendors, and emergency plans.

Common event planning certifications include:
 * CMP: Certified Meeting Professional
 * CSEP: Certified Special Events Professional
 * CPCE: Certified Professional in Catering and Events
 * CGMP: Certified Government Meeting Professional
 * CWEP: Certified Wedding & Event Planner

Facility management
Facility management can be defined as an aspect of engineering management science that deals with the planning, designing, coordination of space and maintenance of a built environment to enhance quality service management system. Service Quality System includes activities like security, maintenance, catering, and external as well as internal cleaning. In general, it is also the coordination and harmonization of various specialist disciplines to create the best possible working environment for staff.

Facility management is an interdisciplinary field devoted to the coordination of space, infrastructure, people and organization, often associated with the administration of office blocks, arenas, schools, convention centers, shopping complexes, hospitals, hotels, etc. However, FM facilitates on a wider range of activities than just business services and these are referred to as non-core functions.

 * FMP- Facility Management Professional
 * CFM- Certified Facility Manager
 * SFP- Sustainability Facility Professional

Warehousing management
A warehouse management system (WMS) is a part of the supply chain and primarily aims to control the movement and storage of materials within a warehouse and process the associated transactions, including shipping, receiving, putaway and picking. The systems also direct and optimize stock putaway based on real-time information about the status of bin utilization. A WMS monitors the progress of products through the warehouse. It involves the physical warehouse infrastructure, tracking systems, and communication between product stations.

More precisely, warehouse management involves the receipt, storage and movement of goods, (normally finished goods), to intermediate storage locations or to a final customer. In the multi-echelon model for distribution, there may be multiple levels of warehouses. This includes a central warehouse, a regional warehouses (serviced by the central warehouse) and potentially retail warehouses (serviced by the regional warehouses).

Environment

 * CEnvP – Certified Environmental Practitioner of Australia and New Zealand (CEnvP)
 * Chartered Environmentalist (CEnv), Society for the Environment (UK)
 * MIEMA - Full Member of the Institute of Environmental Management and Assessment (IEMA)
 * FIEMA - Fellow of the Institute of Environmental Management and Assessment (IEMA)

Environmental health

 * CPHI(C) – Certified Public Health Inspector (Canada)

Explosive atmospheres
IECEx covers the specialized field of explosion protection associated with the use of equipment in areas where flammable gases, liquids and combustible dusts may be present. This system provides the assurance that equipment is manufactured to meet safety standards, and that services such as installation, repair and overhaul also comply with IEC International Standards on 60079 series. The UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe), cited IECEx as one example of a practice model for the verification of conformity to IEC Standards, for European smaller countries with no certification schemes for such equipment. It published a "Common Regulatory Framework" as a suggestion for those countries implementing a certification program for the explosive atmospheres' segment.

Fiber optics and data cabling

 * RCDD (Registered Communications Distribution Designer) by BICSI
 * DCI (Data Cabling Installer) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association
 * FOI (Fiber Optics Installer) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association
 * FOT (Fiber Optics Technician) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association
 * FOT-OSP (Fiber Optics Technician-Outside Plant) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association
 * FOD (Fiber Optics Designer) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association
 * TTT (Termination and Testing Technician) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association

Geology

 * EurGeol (European Geologist) conferred by the European Federation of Geologists (EFG).
 * PGeo (Professional Geologist) conferred by the American Institute of Professional Geologists (AIPG).

Genealogy

 * AG (Accredited Genealogist) conferred by the International Commission for the Accreditation of Professional Genealogists (ICAPGen).
 * CG (Certified Genealogist) conferred by the Board for Certification of Genealogists (BCG).
 * CGL (Certified Genealogical Lecturer) conferred by the Board for Certification of Genealogists (BCG).

Health leadership

 * CHE (Certified Health Executive) conferred by the Canadian College of Health Leaders (CCHL)

Human Resources

 * aPHR (Associate Professional in Human Resources) conferred by the Human Resources Certification Institute
 * PHR (Professional in Human Resources) conferred by the Human Resources Certification Institute
 * SPHR (Senior Professional in Human Resources) conferred by the Human Resources Certification Institute
 * SHRM-CP (Society for Human Resources Management – Certified Professional) conferred by the Society for Human Resources Management
 * SHRM-SCP (Society for Human Resources Management – Senior Certified Professional) conferred by the Society for Human Resources Management

Hospitality and tourism

 * CHA (Certified Hotel Administrator) conferred by American Hotel & Lodging Association
 * CMP (Certified Meeting Professional) conferred by Convention Industry Council
 * CEM (Certified in Exhibition Management) conferred by International Association of Exhibitions and Events

Insurance and risk management
In the United States, insurance professionals are licensed separately by each state. Many individuals seek one or more certifications to distinguish themselves from their peers.

 * American College of Financial Services:
 * Chartered Life Underwriter (CLU)
 * Chartered Financial Consultant (ChFC)
 * American Institute For Chartered Property Casualty Underwriters (The Institutes):
 * Chartered Property Casualty Underwriter (CPCU®)
 * Associate in Risk Management (ARM)
 * National Alliance for Insurance Education & Research administers the Certified Insurance Counselor (CIC)
 * Professional Liability Underwriting Society (PLUS) administers Registered Professional Liability Underwriter (RPLU).
 * American Educational Institute (AEI)
 * Accredited Claims Adjuster	(ACA)
 * Accredited Claims Professional	(ACP)
 * Accredited Claims Professional Candidate	(ACAc)
 * Associate in Claims	(AIC)
 * Applied Microbial Remediation Technician	AMRC
 * Casualty General Adjuster	(CGA)
 * Certified Claims Adjuster	(CCA)
 * Certified Claims Professional	(CCP)
 * Certified Claims Professional Candidate	(CCPc)
 * Chartered Property Casualty Underwriter candidate	(CPCUc)
 * Certied Forensic Litigation Consultant	(CFLC)
 * Certified General Adjuster	(CrtGA)
 * Certified Mold Specialist	(CMS)
 * Certified Mold Inspector	(CMI)
 * Certified Property Appraiser and Umpire	(CPAU)
 * Certified Property Loss Appraiser	(CPLA)
 * Certified Property Loss Umpire	(CPLU)
 * Casualty General Adjuster	(CGA)
 * Certified General Adjuster	(CrtGA)
 * Casualty General Adjuster	(CGA)
 * Executive General Adjuster	(EGA)
 * Fire & Smoke Restoration Technician	(FSRT)
 * GrandMaster General Adjuster	(GMGA)
 * HAAG Engineering Certified Roofing Inspector Residential/Commercial	(HCI-R/C)
 * Insurance Claims Expert	(ICE)
 * Legal Principles Claims Specialist	(LPCS)
 * Master General Adjuster	(MGA)
 * Master Public Adjuster	(MPA)
 * Property Claims Law Associate	(PCLA)
 * Property General Adjuster	(PGA)
 * Registered General Adjuster	(RGA)
 * Senior Professional Public Adjuster (SPPA)
 * Universal Claims Certification	(UCC)
 * Windstorm Insurance Network Professional	(WIND-P)
 * Water Remediaton Technician	(WRT)

Language education
TESOL is a large field of employment with widely varying degrees of regulation. Most provision worldwide is through the state school system of each individual country, and as such, the instructors tend to be trained primary- or secondary school teachers who are native speakers of the language of their pupils, and not of English. Though native speakers of English have been working in non-English speaking countries in this capacity for years, it was not until the last twenty-five years or so that there was any widespread focus on training particularly for this field. Previously, workers in this sort of job were people engaging in backpacker tourism hoping to earn some extra travel money or well-educated professionals in other fields volunteering, or retired people. These sort of people are certainly still to be found, but there are many who consider TESOL their main profession.

One of the problems facing these full-time teachers is the absence of an international governing body for the certification or licensure of English language teachers. However, Cambridge University and its subsidiary body UCLES are pioneers in trying to get some degree of accountability and quality control to consumers of English courses, through their CELTA and DELTA programs. Trinity College London has equivalent programs, the CertTESOL and the LTCL DipTESOL. They offer initial certificates in teaching, in which candidates are trained in language awareness and classroom techniques, and given a chance to practice teaching, after which feedback is reported. Both institutions have as a follow-up a professional diploma, usually taken after a year or two in the field. Although the initial certificate is available to anyone with a high school education, the diploma is meant to be a post-graduate qualification and can in fact be incorporated into a master's degree program.

Legal affairs
An increasing number of attorneys are choosing to be recognized as having special expertise in certain fields of law. According to the American Bar Association, a lawyer who is a certified specialist has been recognized by an independent professional certifying organization as having an enhanced level of skill and expertise, as well as substantial involvement in an established legal specialty. These organizations require a lawyer to demonstrate special training, experience and knowledge to ensure that the lawyer's recognition is meaningful and reliable. Lawyer conduct with regard to specialty certification is regulated by the states.

Legal administrators vary in their day-to-day responsibilities and job requirements. The Association of Legal Administrators (ALA) is the credentialing body of the Certified Legal Manager (CLM) certification program. CLMs are recognized as administrators who have passed a comprehensive examination and have met other eligibility requirements.:

Librarians
In Australia, ALIA (Australian Library and Information Association) certifies librarians and library technicians. Distinguished librarians who have completed a high level of professional learning are awarded the Distinguished Certified Professional Award. Prior to 2013, this award was known as Associate Fellows.

In New Zealand, the accrediting body is LIANZA (Library and Information Association of New Zealand Aotearoa Te Rau Herenga O Aotearoa). LIANZA accredit prominent librarians at three levels, Fellows, Life Members and Associates.

Logistics and transport
Logistician is the profession in the logistics and transport sectors, including sea, air, land and rail modes. Professional qualification for logisticians usually carries post-nominal letters.

Certification granting bodies include, but are not limited to, Institute for Supply Management (ISM), Association for Operations Management (APICS), Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT), International Society of Logistics (SOLE), Canadian Institute of Traffic and Transportation (CITT), and Allied Council for Commerce and Logistics (ACCL).

Management Consulting
Management consulting is the practice of providing consulting services to organizations to improve their performance or in any way to assist in achieving any sort of organizational objectives.

The profession's primary certification is the "Certified Management Consultant " (CMC) designation.

Certification granting bodies are the approximately 50 Institutes of Management Consulting belonging to the International Council of Management Consulting Institutes (ICMCI).

Marketing

 * CDMP (Certified Digital Marketing Professional), conferred by Digital Marketing Institute.
 * CME (Certified Marketing Executive), conferred by Sales & Marketing Executives International, Inc..
 * CyQUal (Cyber qualification), The Digital Degree Accredited certification offered by FreeUniversityOnline.com
 * Social Media Marketing Certification, Digital Marketing Master Certification, SEO Certification, conferred by Boot Camp Digital

Ministers
Churches have their own process of who may use various religious titles. Protestant churches typically require a Masters of Divinity, accreditation by the denomination and ordination by the local church in order for a minister to become a "Reverend". Those qualifications may or may not also give government authorization to solemnize marriages.

Medicine
Board certification is the process by which a physician in the United States documents by written, practical or computer based testing, illustrating a mastery of knowledge and skills that define a particular area of medical specialization. The American Board of Medical Specialties, a not-for-profit organization, assists 24 approved medical specialty boards in the development and use of standards in the ongoing evaluation and certification of physicians.

Medical specialty certification in the United States is a voluntary process. While medical licensure sets the minimum competency requirements to diagnose and treat patients, it is not specialty specific. Board certification demonstrates a physician's exceptional expertise in a particular specialty or sub-specialty of medical practice.

Patients, physicians, health care providers, insurers and quality organizations regard certification as an important measure of a physician's knowledge, experience and skills to provide quality health care within a given specialty.

Other professional certifications include certifications such as medical licenses, Membership of the Royal College of Physicians, Fellowship of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, nursing board certification, diplomas in social work. The Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy certifies pharmacists that are knowledgeable about principles of geriatric pharmacotherapy and the provision of pharmaceutical care to the elderly. Additional certifying bodies relating to the medical field include:
 * Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Radiologists
 * American College of Emergency Physicians
 * Royal Australasian College of Physicians
 * Fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons
 * Membership of the College of Emergency Medicine
 * Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology
 * American Registry for Diagnostic Medical Sonography

Medical coding and billing

 * AHIMA (American Health Information Management Association)
 * AAPC
 * Medical Association of Billers

Peer support
NCPRP stands for "National Certified Peer Recovery Professional", and the NCPRP credential and exam were developed in collaboration with the International Certification Board of Recovery Professionals (ICBRP) and is currently being administered by PARfessionals.

PARfessionals is a professional organization and all of the available courses are professional development and pre-certification courses.

The NCPRP credential and exam focus primarily on the concept of peer recovery through mental health and addiction recovery. It has the main purpose of training student-candidates on how to become peer recovery professionals who can provide guidance, knowledge or assistance for individuals who have had similar experiences.

Each student-candidate must complete several key steps which include initial registration; the pre-certification review course; and all applicable sections of the official application in order to become eligible to complete the final step, which is the NCPRP certification exam.

The NCPRP credential is obtained once a participant successfully passes the NCPRP certification exam by the second attempt and is valid for five years.

Physical asset management

 * CMRP – Certified Maintenance and Reliability Professional (CMRP)
 * MMP – Maintenance Management Professional

Pilates

 * PMA(R) CPT

Plumbing

 * ASSE (American Society of Sanitary Engineering) – an ANSI Accredited standards developer and certification body

Project management
Organizations that offer various certifications include:
 * American Academy of Project Management
 * Project Management Institute
 * Stanford University through the Stanford Advanced Project Management Certificate Program
 * CPMA (Certified Project Management Analyst) conferred by IQN
 * Association for Project Management
 * IPMA (International Project Management Association)
 * Commercial Project Manager through Commercial Officers Group

Public health
National Board of Public Health Examiners, www.nbphe.org

Public relations
In the US, the Universal Accreditation Board, an organization composed of the Public Relations Society of America, the Agricultural Relations Council, the National School Public Relations Association, the Religious Communicators Council and other public relations professional societies, administers the Accreditation in Public Relations (APR), a voluntary certification program for public relations practitioners.

Public Participation
The Certified Public Participation Professional (CP3) and Master Certified Public Participation Professional (MCP3) are awarded by two regions of the International Association for Public Participation (IAP2) : IAP2 Canada and IAP2 USA. As of 2019, only 25 individuals had achieved either of these distinctions. The CP3 designation is awarded upon successfully completing a three-step process that includes a written application documenting the individual's experience in the profession, a written response to a case study, and an in-person oral assessment.

Individuals seeking certification are assessed against 5 Core Competencies, which are the essential capabilities for a professional in this field to effectively design, implement, and evaluate public participation programs. The competencies emerged from qualitative analysis of a comprehensive list of knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, skills, behaviors, and capabilities identified in June 2014 by more than 100 P2 professionals from around the world. The descriptions and quality standards for each competency were developed, tested, and refined through an iterative process involving IAP2 members. Each competency is further divided into individual criteria. An individual must meet or exceed every criterion to achieve the CP3 designation. IAP2 USA's program includes 29 criteria. IAP2 Canada's program includes 31 criteria; the two additional criteria in Canada address federal requirements for indigenous engagement. The MCP3 designation recognizes additional specialization and expertise and is assessed through a written application available only to individuals who have already achieved the CP3 designation.

To maintain professional certification, individuals must maintain active membership in IAP2, provide a minimum of 20 hours (annually) of volunteer (unpaid) service to IAP2, and participate in a minimum of 12 hours (annually) of continued professional development.

Real estate management
The Building Owners and Managers Association and the International Facility Management Association offer professional certifications for the operation and management of commercial properties.

Renewable energy

 * PVIP (PV Installation Professional) conferred by North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners
 * PVDS (PV Design Specialist) conferred by North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners
 * PVIS (PV Installation Specialist) conferred by North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners
 * PVCMS (PV Commissioning & Maintenance Specialist) conferred by North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners
 * PVSI (PV System Inspector) conferred by North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners
 * PVTS (PV Technical Sales) conferred by North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners
 * SHI (Solar Heating Installer) conferred by North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners
 * SHSI (Solar Heating System Inspector conferred by North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners
 * EVT (Electronic Vehicle Technician) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association
 * PVI (Photovoltaic Installer) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association
 * SWI (Small Wind Installer) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association

Safety and Occupational Hygiene

 * Certified Safety Professional offered by the Board of Certified Safety Professionals
 * Certified Industrial Hygienist
 * Certified Safety Specialist

Sales
Organizations offering certification include:
 * Sales & Marketing Executives International
 * Canadian Professional Sales Association

Security

 * ASIS International administers the Certified Protection Professional – Board-Certified in Security Management (CPP)
 * ASIS International administers the Physical Security Professional, Board-Certified (PSP)
 * ASIS International administers the Professional Certified Investigator, Board-Certified (PCI)
 * Association of Certified Fraud Examiners administers the Certified Fraud Examiner (CFE)
 * International Foundation of Protection Officers administers the Certified Protection Officer (CPO)
 * Society of Payment Security Professionals (SPSP) administers the Certified Payment-Card Industry Security Manager
 * National Protective Services (www.npsorg.com) administers the Certified Protection Executive (CPE) professional certification
 * Certified Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP) from ISC2.org
 * National Sheriffs' Association administers the Certified Homeland Protection Professional (CHPP) Certification
 * Associated Locksmiths of America administers the Registered Locksmith (RL) Certification
 * Associated Locksmiths of America administers the Certified Registered Locksmith (CRL) Certification
 * Associated Locksmiths of America administers the Certified Professional Locksmith (CPL) Certification
 * Associated Locksmiths of America administers the Certified Master Locksmith (CML) Certification
 * Associated Locksmiths of America administers the Certified Professional Safe Technician (CPS) Certification
 * Associated Locksmiths of America administers the Certified Master Safe Technician (CMST) Certification
 * Security Industry Association administers the Certified Security Project Manager (CSPM) Certification

Speaking
Conferred by the National Speakers Association, the Certified Speaking Professional (CSP) is the speaking profession's international measure of professional platform competence. This certification is awarded by the National Speakers Association. Only about 10% of the speakers who belong to the Global Speakers Federation (GSF) hold this designation. Those who have earned their certification have done so by demonstrating a track record of experience and expertise.

Other applications

 * The American Academy of Environmental Engineers board certifies licensed environmental engineers (Board Certified Environmental Engineer—BCEE) and unlicensed environmental engineering practitioners (Board Certified Environmental Engineering Member—BCEEM) for those with a degree in engineering and at least 8 years of practice and responsible charge in environmental engineering.
 * The American Institute of Floral Designers offers two levels of certification for individuals in the field of professional floral design. Certified Floral Designer (CFD) and accredited membership (AIFD) are both designed to establish a gold standard in professional floral design while ensuring the certified individual maintains that standard through continued education credits. While many state-level floral associations also offer state-level floral design certification known as Master Florist certification, AIFD certification is the highest level of professional floral design awarded in the United States.
 * The Canadian National Association of Infrared Imaging Technologists (AIIT) awards the IIT designation to infrared thermographers who meet the training standards regulated by the association. AIIT aims to ensure service delivery standards and public trust through regulating training standards, codes of conduct and continuing education.
 * The Society for Technical Communication (STC) is planning to create a certification program for technical writers in 2011.
 * The International Society of Arboriculture (ISA) is the International body who administers ANSI-accredited certification programs for arborists and tree care specialists. Certifications vary from Tree Worker to Certified Arborist to Master Arborist.

Criticisms
Political commentators have criticized professional or occupational licensing, especially medical and legal licensing, for restricting the supply of services and therefore making them more expensive, often putting them out of reach of the poor.

The proliferation of IT certifications (both offered and attained) has led some technologists to question their value. Proprietary content that has been distributed on the Internet allows some to gain credentials without the implied depth or breadth of expertise.

title: Professional certification


text:
Talk:Cosmic ray

Commnents probably outdated
Most of the commnents here are by far too old and probably outdated. Any Admin being able to do this is urgently asked to archive posts older than 10 years. 2A02:8108:9640:AC3:806:38BB:9468:B371 (talk) 07:07, 5 June 2021 (UTC) Marietta Balau should at least be mentioned!

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marietta_Blau — Preceding unsigned comment added by 47.152.242.42 (talk) 00:54, 10 June 2023 (UTC)

Rates in figure
The rates in the first figure "Cosmic ray flux versus particle energy" created by Sven Lafebre seem to be wrong comparing with the table in the section "Cosmic-ray flux". The table with the rates seems to be right regarding to this link: https://www.auger.org/index.php/edu-outreach/faq#section5. These should be the right rates: -- Sonnenyeti (talk) 09:12, 5 September 2017 (UTC)

HZE ions?
why doesn't this article or even the link to the article HZE ions actually say what HZE stands for?Eman320 (talk) 20:52, 24 March 2015 (UTC)

Edit Lede to reflect breakthrough new data
Because the Fermi orbital observatory supports gathering data of a range and quality not available before, Science Magazine (2013-02-15) has announced that there is now a solid explanation for the nature and origin of cosmic rays.

These new results, and side reporting that the AAAS' leading scientific journal considers conclusive, seems to obsolete much of the WP article's speculation and reporting of alternative explanations.

Much work remains, I've only edited the Lede and a little of the into thereafter.

It's exciting to see controversies that have consumed the careers of platoons of scientists suddenly resolve as new ranges of data arrive. This has led some historians of science to suggest that technology drives observation which in turn shatters old theories.

Others are more cynical: "Science progresses one funeral at a time" - suggesting that old partisans will never be convinced by newly evidenced arguments. Let's see if edit wars break out here.

GreggEdwards (talk) 10:09, 15 February 2013 (UTC)

 * It's premature to call such a preliminary report conclusive. They found the spectra they were looking for from just two supernovas and this is results from just one research group. I'd want verification from other scientists and good bit more data before drawing such sweeping conclusions. And the fact that some cosmic rays may come from supernovas doesn't mean that all do; this research doesn't address that question at all. Publishing in Science, rather than a respectable astronomy or astrophysics journal, also makes me skeptical of the results. Let's wait to see how this plays out before rewriting the whole article. --Mark viking (talk) 14:35, 27 February 2013 (UTC)
 * By that logic any paper ever published in Science, Nature, or any all-science journal should be considered "flawed" in some way. This is wrong, and discoveries as great as that of the origin of (some) cosmic rays does deserve attention from a broader community of scientists. More minor discoveries, such as those of yet another exoplanet, could be published in a dedicated astrophysics journal but I see no reason why the current result should be questionable. At the same time, I agree that just because cosmic rays originate in supernovae, these origins are not necessarily confined to those events, and other explanations should thus be mentioned. Wer900 • talk 01:09, 28 February 2013 (UTC)
 * It could indeed be a great discovery; the point I was making is that I think it is too soon to tell. My dim view of Science magazine betrays my physics background and the particular physics culture I was steeped in. In that culture, publishing a physics paper in Science was like publishing it in the New York Times--done to gain attention rather than to be put to the test by one's peers. Science and Nature are more mainstream for other scientific disciplines like biology. I do think Science, Nature, et. al., are good journals, just not for physics/astronomy publication. --Mark viking (talk) 01:48, 28 February 2013 (UTC)
 * Yes, so let us write the lede to avoid recentism and say that a recent study has found evidence of enough neutral pions being made in supernovas (including those really big ones that that produce gamma ray bursts) to account for most of galactic cosmic rays. Most people already think that's where most of them come from. But surely black holes, including the supermassive blackholes in active galactic centers ALSO make some cosmic ray particles. And nobody has come up with a way that 50 J cosmic rays (see Oh-My-God particle) can be made by any single event, including a supernova. S  B Harris 03:23, 28 February 2013 (UTC)
 * This sounds good to me. --Mark viking (talk) 04:22, 28 February 2013 (UTC)

 * I added an "Origins" section. I nominated the article for GA but it's clear that there is still some work to be done on it. We should put the nomination on hold while this section is being fleshed out. However, I do still feel that the Fermi results should be mentioned in the lede, as that has really been the main attraction to cosmic rays that has come in the last several years. It's not a super-rapidly-changing field. Wer900 • talk 05:43, 28 February 2013 (UTC)

Nuclear Plants? - a source of 'artificial cosmic rays' ??
One of the tables lists nuclear plants as a source of artificial cosmic rays, among others that are terrestrial sources. While the production does produce a variety of products, if up to standards of most first world nations it should not increase exposure to the surrounding population as it indicates. Nuclear plants are highly contained and do not release any radiation under normal circumstances(Complete Melt Downs being the obvious exception).

I don't quite remember the exact stats for coal plants, but is that perchance the radiation exposure for what a coal power plant releases onto the countryside? I don't have any of my books handy to double check at this time, was more looking through some wikipedia sections to see what was said. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Soulbourne (talk • contribs) 10:34, 10 June 2013 (UTC)

In Our Time as a source.
I was disappointed this hadn't got to GA status. The In our Time program on cosmic rays for 16 May 2013 could provide many of the missing references. Profs Carolin Crawford, Alan Watson, and Tim Greenshaw covered much of the same ground as this article, albeit at a lower level. However it does have a number of factual one liners which could be used as references. JRPG (talk) 22:21, 12 June 2013 (UTC)

Units of measure
I have a problem with the following paragraph:

 * Cosmic rays attract great interest practically, due to the damage they inflict on microelectronics and life outside the protection of an atmosphere and magnetic field, and scientifically, because the energies of the most energetic ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) have been observed to approach 3 × 10^20 eV, about 40 million times the energy of particles accelerated by the Large Hadron Collider. At 50 J, the highest-energy ultra-high-energy cosmic rays have energies comparable to the kinetic energy of a 90-kilometre-per-hour (56 mph) baseball. As a result of these discoveries, there has been interest in investigating cosmic rays of even greater energies. Most cosmic rays, however, do not have such extreme energies; the energy distribution of cosmic rays peaks at 0.3 gigaelectronvolts (4.8×10^−11 J).

The first measure is in eV, then there is J(oules), and finally a fraction of gigaelectronvolts (converted to Joules parenthetically). Can we get someone to edit for consistency?

The parenthetical conversion is nice, but I find it difficult to try and use 0.3Gev=4.8x10^-11J as a way to compare the values.

WesT (talk) 19:54, 25 October 2013 (UTC)

NPOV of section "Postulated role in climate change"
The section on the “Postulated role in climate change” seems to me very much not a WP:NPOV. The worst is the 97% figure which is taken out of context. Yes 97% of those that have written at least 20 climate related peer reviewed articles suggest they believe that “anthropogenic greenhouse gases have been responsible for “most” of the “unequivocal” warming of the Earth's average global temperature over the second half of the 20th century.” But this says nothing about if those scientists believe cosmic rays can affect the climate. You could defiantly point to that survey to say 97% of climate scientists do not believe that “most” of the warming was from GCR’s, but you can’t say that 97% believe cosmic rays have no impact on the climate at all (at least based on that survey). Even more likely is that they just don't know exactly what the impact of GCR's are on the climate, but they think that it is less then "most" of the warming.

I think it can be rewritten in such a way that it doesn’t suggest that it is the accepted theory but still remains neutral in its evaluation. Specifically there are four scientific questions, first is can galactic cosmic rays induce aerosol formation, second can these aerosols grow sufficiently to form cloud condensing nuclei (“CCN”), third do these CCN lead to additional clouds formed, lastly are enough clouds formed to have a significant impact on global climate. Just about everyone (from Svensmark to skepticalscience.com to the IPCC) agrees that these four questions will need to be answered yes to demonstrate that GCR affect the climate.

As to the first question, because of the CLOUD experiment at CERN their nature article appears to answer the question as yes, and I think at this point the scientific consensus is that GCR can create aerosols. The answer to the second question is far more controversial Svensmark published a paper in 2013 claiming that the experiment he conducted showed the answer to this second question was yes, but clearly this has not yet become the scientific consensus.

Also why are we still referencing the 2007 IPCC report, why not use the 2013 AR5, which says there is medium evidence that cosmic ray-ionization mechanism is too weak to be climatically significant (the IPCC answer to the 4th question above).

For a great example Wikipedia article that I think deals well with both this issue and the controversy look at the Wikipedia article on Henrik Svensmark.

Obsidi (talk) 00:12, 13 February 2014 (UTC)

 * To me the section has a rather insinuating tone: it links him to "the popular culture movement that denies the scientific consensus" and (I think) accuses Svensmark of data manipulation. His work has been published in peer-reviewed journals like "Physical Review Letters" or "Astronomy and Geophysics", of course peer review is not perfect. The "one man against the world" tone is more suitable for a newspaper than an encyclopedia. I'll modify the article a bit. JuhoSchultz (talk) 19:23, 8 July 2015 (UTC)

 * Right now the section has too much redundancy. It could do with a balanced rewrite. Praemonitus (talk) 20:18, 8 July 2015 (UTC)

 * The rewrite by Sweart1 in August 2015 have gone uncontested, and appear to have brought neutrality back to the section. Based on this, as well as the absence of any follow-up discussion, it appears that the removal criteria for the NPOV tag have been met, and I will remove it. Doc cromwell (talk) 04:36, 7 April 2016 (UTC)

Gamma-ray burst noncorrelation
There is a serious misinterpretation of a cited article in the section on sources of cosmic rays. The current version states "However, no correlation was found between the incidence of gamma-ray bursts and cosmic rays, causing the authors to set a lower limit of 10−6 erg cm−2 on the flux of 1 GeV-1 TeV cosmic rays from gamma-ray bursts. ". This is obviously wrong: observing no cosmic rays from gamma-ray bursts allows one to set an *upper* limit on their cosmic-ray flux, not a lower limit. The number is also wrong; see below.

The relevant section of the linked article is on page 38, right column. Figure 4 (bottom) shows the upper limits placed on the cosmic-ray flux from different gamma-ray bursts, as a function of their position in the sky as seen from the observatory. The lowest such limit, quoted later in the text, is 3.4 × 10-6 erg cm−2; that is, there is at least one gamma-ray burst that did not exceed this cosmic-ray flux. The text further notes that theoretical models of cosmic-ray production in gamma-ray bursts generally predict fluxes below 10-6 erg cm−2; this is where the incorrect number comes from.

I'm editing the article to correct this point, with the summary referring to this comment for clarification. (There's also a bug in the description of the citation, which I don't have the know-how to fix.)

— Preceding unsigned comment added by 194.66.18.6 (talk) 15:11, 2 February 2015 (UTC)

Gamma Ray absorption
The following statement appears in the text:

 * In 1929, Bothe and Kolhörster discovered charged cosmic-ray particles that could penetrate 4.1 cm of gold. Charged particles of such high energy could not possibly be produced by photons from Millikan's proposed interstellar fusion process.

I haven't been able to find a citation for this, and am a little skeptical about its veracity. Apparently, gamma ray attenuation when passing through a material is determined by the absorption law, which follows an exponential decay based on the distance travelled. Hence the assertion seems invalid as some small fraction of the gamma ray flux would always get through. Praemonitus (talk) 22:12, 29 April 2015 (UTC)

Possible error in section on detection regarding Cerenkov radiation
I am not an expert on this subject but I think there may be an error in the section on detection.

The explanation of the Cerenkov telescope says the Cerenkov radiation from cosmic rays hitting the atmosphere is in the form of gamma rays. I suspect this is wrong for the following reasons:

1 Wikipedia articles on VERITAS and IACT Cerenkov telescopes both seem to imply that the radiation being detected is visible light, (just possibly infra-red or utlra-violet) with mention of mirrors and photomultipliers.

2 The article states that the telescopes can operate only on moonless nights, implying that visible light interferes with operation.

3 All my previous reading about Cerenkov radiation in other contexts has always implied that it is visible light.

My extremely limited knowledge on this subject suggests that there may have been confusion between the Cerenkov radiation and the gamma rays produced when a cosmic ray strikes a molecule in the atmosphere as described earlier in the article.

ColinBrownWD35NY (talk) 14:49, 25 August 2015 (UTC)

Assessment comment from 2007
Substituted at 12:19, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

1942?
Can anyone substantiate the cosmic ray claim from 1942? I am about to pull it unless corroboration is forthcoming, but I see no mention here. LandOfTheBlind (talk) 18:22, 4 December 2016 (UTC)

No mention of role in mass-extinction
Having skimmed and searched the page for mention, I can see none of the contended role of cosmic rays in mass-extinction? This seems a bit of a glaring absence. Three links can be found here, straight off a search engine LandOfTheBlind (talk) 13:49, 5 December 2016 (UTC)
 * http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/04/070420-extinctions.html
 * http://www.space.com/33379-supernova-explosions-earth-life-mass-extinction.html
 * http://www.livescience.com/49040-gamma-ray-burst-mass-extinction.html

Why is the truth being censored?
I entered the following: But in the interest of scientific rigor, it should be noted that all 97% consensus claims have been debunked, with many of their results attributed to cherry picking of the data (as in the Cook study).

It was reverted many times. I'd like to know why the truth is being censored.

Here's what some of the climatologists had to say about the Cook study:

=======================

Prof. Craig D. Idso: "That is not an accurate representation of my paper."

Dr. Nicola Scafetta: "Cook et al. (2013) is based on a strawman argument because it does not correctly define the IPCC AGW theory..."

Professor Nir J. Shaviv: "Nope... it is not an accurate representation."

Dr. Alain Carlin: "No, if Cook et al's paper classifies my paper... as "explicitly endorses AGW but does not quantify or minimize", nothing could be further from either my intent or the contents of my paper. I believe that there is sufficient evidence concerning misclassification that Cook et al's paper should be withdrawn by the authors and the data reanalyzed, preferably by less-biased reviewers."

Professor Nils-Axel Morner: "Certainly not correct and certainly misleading. My papers are strongly against AGW."

Professor Willie Soon: "This rating of 'no position on AGW by CO2' is nowhere accurate nor correct."

Professor Richard Tol: "7 out of 10 assessed papers were wrongly classified, another 112 were completely omitted! Of these, 111 (99%) were neutral. I think (their) data are a load of crap. I think (their) sampling strategy is a load of nonsense."

=======================

There are many, many more instances like the above quotes. The Popular Technology article definitively debunked ALL '97% consensus' claims.

In point of fact, the reference you cite for your '97% consensus' claim in the Cosmic Ray article: Anderegg, William R. L.; Prall, J. W.; Harold, J.; Schneider, S. H. (21 June 2010). "Expert credibility in climate change". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (27): 12107–12109. Bibcode:2010PNAS..10712107A. doi:10.1073/pnas.1003187107. PMC 2901439Freely accessible. . Retrieved 7 July 2013.

Is debunked via peer-reviewed articles not once: http://www.pnas.org/content/107/39/E151.full.pdf (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Volume 107, Number 39, September 2010) - Saffron J. O'Neilla, Max Boykoff

Not twice: http://www.pnas.org/content/107/47/E176.full.pdf (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Volume 107, Number 47, November 2010) - Jarle Aarstad

But THREE times: http://www.pnas.org/content/107/52/E188.full.pdf (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Volume 107, Number 52, December 2010) - Lawrence Bodenstein

The credibility of Wikipedia hinges upon the truth being told, regardless of political or religious leanings. Your religious belief in CO2-induced AGW may or may not be based upon knowledge of the field, but your attempt to censor the truth that there is no '97% consensus' can only be on a willful and knowing basis after the evidence of such has been presented, and therefore you harm Wikipedia's credibility.

Not only should you be ashamed of your behavior, but your administrator privileges should be revoked. People who act as you do are the reason Wikipedia is discounted as a credible and accurate source of information.

— Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.135.39.123 (talk) 17:14, 5 March 2017 (UTC)

 * All three of those PNAS citations are not peer reviewed articles, they are letters responding to a previous article. — Preceding unsigned comment added by SmallMossie (talk • contribs) 00:43, 26 June 2019 (UTC)

Marie Curie
I don't think it's accurate to say Marie Curie discovered radiation. Her work was extremely important, but in the history section the wording should probably be changed, or just dropped since she is not really part of the cosmic-ray story. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 73.97.30.208 (talk) 20:35, 17 October 2017 (UTC)

Correlation between Cosmic Rays and Ozone Depletion
According to Physics World:

''Neil Harris of the European Ozone Research Coordinating Unit in Cambridge, UK, is not convinced. He told physicsworld.com that showing a statistical correlation is not enough to prove the validity of the cosmic-ray mechanism since there could be other causal factors varying throughout the solar cycle. In any case, he says, Lu is wrong to compare cosmic ray intensity against total ozone because measurements of the latter depend on the movement of ozone around the atmosphere as well as the actual disappearance of ozone. '' AlbertACJefferson (talk) 17:40, 29 August 2018 (UTC)

 * I agree, so I've removed the text. I think it's a quasi-nutty theory with little support. FWIW, it was added by anon ages ago but the same anon also vandalised some other stuff  William M. Connolley (talk) 18:07, 29 August 2018 (UTC)

Extragalactic cosmic rays
In the section about the types of cosmic rays the article says: "Cosmic rays can be divided into two types, galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and extragalactic cosmic rays, i.e., high-energy particles originating outside the solar system," I think that the last part is wrong. Extragalactic means outside our Galaxy and not outside the solar system. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:16B8:1E7C:4800:2DD4:15D:CF34:84B2 (talk) 12:34, 15 September 2019 (UTC)

Are the cosmic gamma rays considered cosmic rays
Are the cosmic (extra-solar) gamma rays considered cosmic rays ? The intro implies not. Later sections on energy suggest yes. Or, Are all gamma rays excluded from cosmic rays', or just the ones from GRB's ? Rod57 (talk) 10:29, 17 January 2020 (UTC)

About the reference for the IBM study on Ram flips by cosmic rays
At the moment the reference is "Scientific American (21 July 2008). . Nature Publishing Group." that does not provide the primary source.

This does, that is the source would be McKee, W. R., McAdams, H. P., Smith, E. B., et al. "Cosmic Ray Neutron Induced Upsets as a Major Contributor to the Soft Error Rate of Current and Future Generation DRAMs" 1996 IEEE Annual International Reliability Physics, pp. 1-6, 1996.

--Pier4r (talk) 14:23, 3 May 2021 (UTC)

Difference between X-Rays and Gamma Rays technically not correct
This article says, regarding different types of electromagnetic radiation, they “are known by their common names, such as gamma rays or X-rays, depending on their photon energy.” Technically, at some point in recent decades, science decided that gamma rays are defined as electromagnetic radiation from nuclear transformations, which “typically” have higher photon energy than X-rays. This is also consistent with the way it is phrased in the Wikipedia article on gamma rays. So technically, this article is incorrect when it uses gamma rays and X-rays as examples of electromagnetic rays that are distinguished by their photon energy. Just saying. 2601:646:9B00:3BF0:9C63:C69B:D654:10FF (talk) 21:21, 13 June 2022 (UTC)

Archived
I was Bold and archived sections of excessive age. This included threads that were started in 2006-2010 but had a single reply as recent as 2021-2022 due to no constructive discussion continuing. The archive can be found here if any items need to be referred to or if this change needs to be undone. Thank you! King keudo (talk) 13:59, 17 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Note, I did not archive the GA assessment, in case items in said assessment still need to be addressed. Thank you! King keudo (talk) 14:05, 17 October 2022 (UTC)

Article issues and classification

 * The "Identification" subsection has an April 2015 "citation needed" tag. There are also several other paragraphs that are unsourced. The B-class criteria #1 states; The article is suitably referenced, with inline citations. It has reliable sources, and any important or controversial material which is likely to be challenged is cited. The article does not currently meet the criteria for B-class.
 * There are seventeen entries in the "External links" section. Three seems to be an acceptable number and of course, everyone has their favorite to add for four. The problem is that none is needed for article promotion.

 * ELpoints #3) states: Links in the "External links" section should be kept to a minimum. A lack of external links or a small number of external links is not a reason to add external links.
 * LINKFARM states: There is nothing wrong with adding one or more useful content-relevant links to the external links section of an article; however, excessive lists can dwarf articles and detract from the purpose of Wikipedia. On articles about topics with many fansites, for example, including a link to one major fansite may be appropriate.
 * WP:ELMIN: Minimize the number of links. An August 2020 "excessive or inappropriate external links" tag has not received any attention so I will trim it down to three. -- Otr500 (talk) 04:25, 28 February 2023 (UTC)

Simple Questions: % of what, charge balance of earth, C-14 neutrons ?
I'm putting this question back, after it was archived, because it hasn't yet been answered. Eric Kvaalen (talk) 09:23, 7 June 2023 (UTC)

Do the percentages (e.g.,99% of the particles are protons) refer to numbers of particles, mass associated with a type of particle, or some other method? Does the 99% protons, 10% alpha particles, 1% elections mean the Earth is continuously getting more positively charged? Obviously this cannot be, so how is charge balance achieved? In the synthesis of carbon 14, where do the neutrons come from? They are not listed as primary or secondary cosmic particles, there must be some reaction that cosmic rays cause that produces them. Savoy rattler (talk) 07:17, 15 October 2011 (UTC)

 * Yeah, very good question. It would also mean that the objects that are the sources would be becoming more and more negatively charged! What is the explanation? Eric Kvaalen (talk) 17:12, 2 August 2021 (UTC)

 * I would add that the neutrons must be from the destruction of nuclei. If a 300-MeV cosmic ray (quite normal) hits a nitrogen or oxygen nucleus, it will smash it to "smithereens", sending all its nucleons flying apart. Even these will have enough energy to explode other nuclei, and so on. Eric Kvaalen (talk) 09:23, 7 June 2023 (UTC)

Collisions with electrons
Can someone tell us (and put into the article) what the chance is that a cosmic ray will collide with an electron before hitting any nucleus? This could give rise to particles that would then go on to hit other things. But the available energy would be at best about 1/2000 of the kinetic energy of the cosmic ray, so it wouldn't be as productive as when the collision is with a nucleus. Eric Kvaalen (talk) 14:42, 7 June 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Cosmic ray


text:
Talk:Cult film

Lede
The lede is waaaaaaay too long. WP:LEDE: A lede is supposed to be a summary of the article, not an essay in itself. - Altenmann >talk 04:29, 30 April 2024 (UTC)
 * No, it's perfectly fine. That page says it should be "four well-composed paragraphs", which this is.  The article passed a GA with that lead. NinjaRobotPirate (talk) 02:45, 1 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Surely the paragraphs themselves could be pared down? I know this is an article of which you are proud, but don’t allow this pride to potentially cloud your judgement in this respect. Just my two cents Editmakerer (talk) 03:58, 9 May 2024 (UTC)
 * The length is fine. MOS:LEAD says, "As a general rule of thumb, a lead section should contain no more than four well-composed paragraphs..." For some topics, four paragraphs would be a lot, but considering that this is a type of film that has a long history, it's definitely suitable, like with any film genre article or article about the history of film in some country. Furthermore, MOS:LEAD says, "The lead should stand on its own as a concise overview of the article's topic," and considering the article's length (about 9,200 words), fitting an overview into four paragraphs involves a lot of summarizing. Erik (talk | contrib) (ping me) 13:41, 9 May 2024 (UTC)

Wordiness
This article is very wordy imo, should be split a bit up. Habat1165 (talk) 21:46, 22 June 2024 (UTC)
 * I'll prune it a bit eventually. I was probably a bit too thorough, but it's a broad topic, and – at the time of it was rewritten – it was still policy compliant.  Things could have changed in the past 10 years. NinjaRobotPirate (talk) 01:28, 23 June 2024 (UTC)
 * WP:SIZERULE says when it's over 15K words, it should be divided or trimmed. Looks like it is around 9.7K words. So it could be trimmed to somewhere between 6K-8K words. And/or another possibility is to just split out the "Types" section, which is about 2.3K words, and leave behind a summary section. Erik (talk | contrib) (ping me) 12:59, 23 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Yeah, splitting out the "types of cult films" section was something I had considered. It seems like it could potentially stand on its own.  If someone did split the article, that's what I'd recommend they spin out. NinjaRobotPirate (talk) 14:17, 23 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cult film


text:
Talk:Carl Menger

Untitled
Okay that pretty much covers his Bio(there is a little more fleshing out to be done but not much). Next up: To explain his ideas and contrast them with Classical Economics and Historicism(to understand why Menger is significant). And then: To discuss his lingering impact on all of economics, not just the Austrian School. Please leave comments and critiques below. --MemoryHole.com

Ok did some more fleshing out of the Bio, I'd say that part is about 90% done. --MemoryHole.com

Works can be downloaded
I.e. at www.mises.org - I think those links could be added.

This URL (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menger) redirects to this one(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menger_Hotel). I doubt the Menger Hotel is more relevant than Carl Menger. At least there should be a link to a desambiguation page, I think.

I tried to add a link to a study guide to Menger's principles of economics, but it has been deleted.My question : WHY ? There are no copyrights prob, since I hold them. And the site is mises.org. If anyone wants to add it, here's the link : http://www.mises.org/books/mengerprinciples-studyguide.pdf, by Jérémie T.A. Rostan.Rostan (talk) 16:26, 8 February 2008 (UTC)

Dead Link
The link http://mason.gmu.edu/~tlidderd/menger/ to the abridged "Principles of Economics" is no longer working as of this edit. If it remains dead for a while, it should be removed. Jlick (talk) 08:01, 4 May 2009 (UTC)

Birthday
This article has Menger's birthday as February 28. The online Britannica (at least) has it at February 23. Can someone find an authoritative reference? I just want to know if I celebrated prematurely. :) SkyDot (talk) 03:35, 24 February 2011 (UTC)

Any important mainstream criticisms?
That would be useful. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.11.75.129 (talk) 22:14, 31 July 2012 (UTC)

Economics - origin of money
How can Menger be credited with this view of the origin of money, as a special barter good, when this is essentially what Adam Smith argued in the Wealth of Nations in 1776? (See barter.) Either the credited source is somehow unaware of Adam Smith's work, or the section leaves out whatever was new or unique in Menger. -- Kevin Saff (talk)

"Menger used his “Subjective Theory of Value” to arrive at one of the most powerful insights in economics: both sides gain from exchange."
I'm pretty sure everyone was aware of this from the beginning. Bastiat believed this, Smith believed this, hell, even Marx says exactly this word for word on Capital ("exchange is a transaction by which both sides gain").

This is neither a powerful, nor a novel insight of Menger's theory. It's both trivial and older than his grandparents.

Taking note of the way it's written and of its status as a verifiably factually wrong statement I suspect that the above was added for ideological reasons and either way conclude that it should be removed and if not removed that it should be mentioned as a false opinion of its source.

The marginalists' contribution was the provision of a conceptually coherent tool for short-term price formation. Not coming to the trivial conclusion that nominally voluntary exchanges are motivated by something other than blind luck. It's a childish affront to theories as complex as the STV to pretend their insight was something my dog intuitively understands.

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Reason why he quitted his professorship
In the article there is the sentence: "Largely due to his pessimism about the state of German scholarship, Menger resigned his professorship in 1903 to concentrate on study."

My hypothesis is that this was not the reasin he left professorship. Menger was a Catholic single and lived in a convservative society. My hypothesis is that he was required or at least expected to be celibate in order to teach. In 1902 his one son, Karl, was born out of wedlock. I speculate that either he was compelled by others or more probably by his own feelings to quit formal teaching and scientific enterprises. Indeed, he asked the then emperor of Austria-Hungary, who had been his pupil, to allow him too place his surname as the child's surname. However, it seems he could never marry the mother of the child.

title: Talk:Carl Menger


text:
Carl Menger

Carl Menger von Wolfensgrün (28 February 1840 – 26 February 1921) was an Austrian economist and the founder of the Austrian School of economics. Menger contributed to the development of the theories of marginalism and marginal utility, which rejected cost-of-production theory of value, such as developed by the classical economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo. As a departure from such, he would go on to call his resultant perspective, the subjective theory of value.

Family and education
Carl Menger von Wolfensgrün was born in the city of Neu-Sandez in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, Austrian Empire, which is now Nowy Sącz in Poland. He was the son of a wealthy family of minor nobility; his father, Anton Menger, was a lawyer. His mother, Caroline Gerżabek, was the daughter of a wealthy Bohemian merchant. He had two brothers, Anton and Max, both prominent as lawyers. His son, Karl Menger, was a mathematician who taught for many years at Illinois Institute of Technology.

After attending gymnasium he studied law at the Universities of Prague and Vienna and later received a doctorate in jurisprudence from the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. In the 1860s Menger left school and enjoyed a stint as a journalist reporting and analyzing market news, first at the Lemberger Zeitung in Lemberg, Austrian Galicia (now Lviv, Ukraine) and later at the Wiener Zeitung in Vienna.

Career
During the course of his newspaper work, he noticed a discrepancy between what the classical economics he was taught in school said about price determination and what real world market participants believed. In 1867 Menger began a study of political economy which culminated in 1871 with the publication of his Principles of Economics (Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftslehre), thus becoming the father of the Austrian school of economics. It was in this work that he challenged classical cost-based theories of value with his theory of marginality – that price is determined at the margin.

In 1872 Menger was enrolled into the law faculty at the University of Vienna and spent the next several years teaching finance and political economy both in seminars and lectures to a growing number of students. In 1873, he received the university's chair of economic theory at the very young age of 33.

In 1876 Menger began tutoring Archduke Rudolf von Habsburg, the Crown Prince of Austria in political economy and statistics. For two years, Menger accompanied the prince during his travels, first through continental Europe and then later through the British Isles. He is also thought to have assisted the crown prince in the composition of a pamphlet, published anonymously in 1878, which was highly critical of the higher Austrian aristocracy. His association with the prince would last until Rudolf's suicide in 1889.

In 1878 Rudolf's father, Emperor Franz Joseph, appointed Menger to the chair of political economy at Vienna. The title of Hofrat was conferred on him, and he was appointed to the Austrian Herrenhaus in 1900.

Dispute with the historical school
Ensconced in his professorship, he set about refining and defending the positions he took and methods he utilized in Principles, the result of which was the 1883 publication of Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics (Untersuchungen über die Methode der Socialwissenschaften und der politischen Oekonomie insbesondere). The book caused a firestorm of debate, during which members of the historical school of economics began to derisively call Menger and his students the "Austrian School" to emphasize their departure from mainstream German economic thought – the term was specifically used in an unfavorable review by Gustav von Schmoller.

In 1884 Menger responded with the pamphlet The Errors of Historicism in German Economics and launched the infamous Methodenstreit, or methodological debate, between the Historical School and the Austrian School. During this time Menger began to attract like-minded disciples who would go on to make their own mark on the field of economics, most notably Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, and Friedrich von Wieser.

In the late 1880s, Menger was appointed to head a commission to reform the Austrian monetary system. Over the course of the next decade, he authored a plethora of articles which would revolutionize monetary theory, including "The Theory of Capital" (1888) and "Money" (1892). Largely due to his pessimism about the state of German scholarship, Menger resigned his professorship in 1903 to concentrate on study.

Philosophical influences
There are different opinions on Menger's philosophical influences. But it is without discussion that there is a rudimentary dispute of Menger with Plato and a very meticulous one with Aristotle, especially with his ethics.

"Plato holds that money is an agreed sign for change and Aristotle says, that money came into being as an agreement, not by nature, but by law."

Also, the influence of Kant is provable. Many authors emphasize also rationalism and idealism, as is represented by Christian Wolff. Looking at the literature, most writers think that Menger represents an essential Aristotelian position. This is surprisingly a position that is contrary to his theory of the subjective value and his individualistic methodological position.

Another entry is the use of deduction or induction. With his price theory can be shown that Menger is nominalistic and, stronger, anti-essentialistic. That is to say that his approach is inductionalistic.

Economics
Menger used his subjective theory of value to arrive at what he considered one of the most powerful insights in economics: "both sides gain from exchange". Unlike William Jevons, Menger did not believe that goods provide "utils," or units of utility. Rather, he wrote, goods are valuable because they serve various uses whose importance differs. Menger also came up with an explanation of how money develops that is still accepted by some schools of thought today.

Money
Menger believed that gold and silver were the precious metals that were adopted as money for their unique attributes like costliness, durability, and easy preservation, making them the "most popular vehicle for hoarding as well as the goods most highly favoured in commerce." Menger showed that "their special saleableness" tended to make their bid-ask spread tighter than any other market good, which led to their adoption as a general medium of exchange and evolution in many societies as money.

Works

 * 1871 – ; Translated as
 * 1883 – ; Translated as
 * 1884 – The Errors of Historicism in German Economics
 * 1888 – The Theory of Capital
 * 1892 –

title: Carl Menger