text:
Talk:Amaryllis

Hippeastrums, is Amaryllis
I don't know what's changed since 1911, but my mother and grandmother have both had amaryllis for as long as I can remember and, though this entry says "This is a half-hardy bulbous plant, producing in the spring a number of strap-shaped, dull green leaves, 1-1 1/2 ft. long, arranged in two rows, and in autumn a solid stem, bearing at the top a cluster of 6-12 funnel-shaped flowers," etc.

 * 1) I've never seen it produce more than 4 flowers per stem, and frequently it produces only 2 (usually depending on the age & health of the plant) and
 * 2) They do not always and only produce one stem; the older and larger ones can produce two stems, though usually the bulb grows to nearly the size of a grapefruit before that happens. So anyway.  I've changed the text accordingly, leaving the upper limit which may indeed be the case though I've never seen it.
 * 3) They are not always "of a rose color" (and what would that mean, anyway, since roses are not always red?) I'm not sure which genus it is my family has, but since it is sold in flower catalogs (and even at wal-mart, etc.) as "amaryllis" I defend my use of the term.  :-)  Anyway.  So I'm off to change that too.
 * 4) They are not always fragrant. --Koyaanis Qatsi

This webpage contradicts the origin being in South Africa. http://pine.usask.ca/cofa/departments/hort/hortinfo/plants/amaryll.html

It states that the initial discovery leading to widespread cultivation in the 1800s was as follows: "The amaryllis was discovered in 1828 by Eduard Frederich Poeppig, a young physician from Leipzig, on a plant hunting expedition in Chile." It also states the plant is native to the South American Andies, Chile and Peru.

It also has extensive growing instructions and descriptions of the plants that may be of use to anyone updating the article.

This webpage: http://home.kabelfoon.nl/~ppenning/origin.htm adds the Caribean and provides another name ..... "The Amaryllis or Hippeastrum, as this beautiful plant officially is called has its roots in the South American/Caribbean area." Also states over 50 varieties now under cultivation.

This source appears authoritative: http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/hil-8529.html It agrees with South American origin and provides detailed cultivation instructions. user:mirwin

A search on google (amaryllis belladonna) provides:

http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantab/amarylbella.htm

This site states 12 flowers and South African origin. Also claims "Amaryllis belladonna L., Family: Amaryllidaceae, Common Name: belladonna lily, March lily, naked lady"

I think we need a botanist or expert gardener to help sort out the general information from the specific information on specific members of the families. user:mirwin

Amaryllis flower does come mainly in a light pink color, solid white mutations have showed up in cultivation, and darker pinks and reds have been introduced through hybridization with, if I remember correctly, Crinum species and probably other species too. As of right now, those color variations and hybrids are not common though)

There is a huge misnaming mess, of both common and botanical names, amongst Amaryllis, Lycoris, Hippeastrum, and to a lesser extent, Nerine species. Most notable is the misnaming of Hippeastrums as 'Amaryllis'. This particular mixup is so widespread and ingrained even stores and nurseries who know better continue to sell Hippeastrums as 'Amaryllis' as that is what a large portion of their customer base know of them as. --Kaalnek

The image here is NOT an Amaryllis. A naked lady is Not an example Hippeastrum.

The best info I've found, along with accurate photos,  is at Planting and Care Also Rochester Gardening Godinof 01:48, 26 February 2006 (UTC)

Amaryllis and Hippeastrum blooming in April
I have had my Amaryllis for 1 1/2 years. It is now the middle of April, and it is in full bloom. I have 2 stems. One has 6 flowers, and the other has 4.

Is this unusual? It did not flower this past Christmas, but did bloom twice the Christmas before. I find it unusual that it is Easter and in full bloom

^^^^Sherry Canary

 * In the Southern Hemisphere they can bloom January through to March and possibly April - the wrm months there. Format (talk) 08:46, 18 April 2009 (UTC)

My Amaryllis flowered in Feb' this year, as normal,for some reason unknown to us it is now flowering again and it is mid July. is this an accepted occurance or is it unusual?. Thank you. Terry. Huddersfield. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 90.197.242.85 (talk) 10:21, 19 July 2009 (UTC)

 * The plants discussed here are Hippeastrum cultivars; the common name "amaryllis" is mainly used for the genus now called Hippeastrum. Peter coxhead (talk) 10:38, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

 * In Cape Town, South Africa where the plant is a native species it is commonly known as a March lily due to its propensity to bloom in the month of March.--Discott (talk) 10:58, 23 March 2012 (UTC)

entretien de l'amaryllis pouvez vous m'aider
on m'a offert une amaryllis pour noel. elle a fleuri et maintenant elle est defleurie. je voudrais savoir ce qu'il faut faire. faut il couper les fleurs ou les fleurs et les feuilles ? continuer à l'arroser? etc etc —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 90.1.164.171 (talk) 15:58, 15 January 2007 (UTC).

 * The plant mentioned here is a Hippeastrum cultivar; the common name "amaryllis" is mainly used for the genus now called Hippeastrum. Peter coxhead (talk) 10:39, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

monotypic?
I'm surprised this genus is monotypic - have the other species been reclassified to Hippeastrum? MidgleyDJ 09:48, 3 March 2007 (UTC

 * citing the german wikipedia:
 * Anschließend an die Aufspaltung wurde die Gattung lange Zeit für monotypisch gehalten, mit der Belladonnalilie als einziger Art. Erst im Jahr 1998 wurde von der Botanikerin Deirdré A. Snijman mit Amaryllis paradisicola eine zweite Art beschrieben.
 * Translated to english (i'm german):
 * since the split this genus has long been thought to be monotypic, with Belladonna Lily as the only species. Until recently in 1998 the botanist Deirdré A. Snijman described a second species: Amaryllis paradisicola
 * maybe someone with better english than me can fix this in the article? :) Aditu (talk) 21:23, 11 December 2007 (UTC)

 * The article does now mention the second species. Peter coxhead (talk) 10:39, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

Trivia?
It looks like clarifying the name confusion and latin classification is being called trivia. Or was the trivia already removed? In any case, the name confusion around genus Amaryllis, and broad use of the popular name Amaryllis, is important content. It's counter-intuitive to anyone shopping at Wallmart, Home Depot, or any plant nursery in the United States. It runs counter to the naming in the nursery industry. FourerDR 22:54, 5 September 2007 (UTC)

 * This has been fixed in the article, I think: see the section below. Peter coxhead (talk) 10:40, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

Common as well as botanical usage for neutrality
"Amaryllis" in common usage refers to a plant that in botanically classified as xxx. The U.S. National Arboretum http://www.usna.usda.gov/Gardens/faqs/AmaryllisBloom.html specifically writes "Amaryllis are bulbs of the genus Hippeastrum that are native to tropical and subtropical areas of the Americas." The University of Florida similarly uses "Amaryllis" to refer to the Hippeastrum edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ep060. I believe that the previous "It should not be confused with Hippeastrum" is a non-neutral statement about whether common usage is correct or not. I rewrote to make clear to the lay reader what the issue is. I'm almost certain most readers coming to this page use the term in its most common meaning, as do most nurseries. But I left the article describing the botanical Amaryllis but with a clear note at the top for those looking for the plant as sold. DaveBurstein (talk) 06:21, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

 * I guess it depends on how the statement "it should not be confused" was read: was it merely pointing out that there are two different uses of the word, namely Amaryllis the gender and amaryllis the common name? Or was it an instruction to the reader, meaning "you should not confuse", which is inappropriate to Wikipedia? I read it the first way, but as it can be read the second way, I agree that some re-writing was needed. I've now done a bit more, explaining that the way the common name is used is connected to earlier scientific disagreement over the two generic names. Peter coxhead (talk) 10:25, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

Reference to Herbert Medal and Mulford B. Foster
It's clear that Mulford B. Foster was not awarded the Herbert Medal for work on hybridizing the genus Amaryllis, as the article claimed, but either for work on hybridizing amaryllids generally (i.e. what are now members of the subfamily Amaryllidoideae) or for work on hybridizing Hippeastrum (then known, particularly in the US, as Amaryllis – see this Bulb Society web page). I've removed the section from here, but as I can't find out which of the two possibilities are correct, I can't move it elsewhere. In case someone can, there's a copy of the text of the section below – I have moved the reference from the end of the last sentence because it does not support the last phrase. Peter coxhead (talk) 11:24, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

"The Herbert Medal is offered annually by the International Bulb Society and is considered the highest honor that a person can receive for noteworthy achievements in advancing the knowledge of bulbous plants. In 1951 this award was given to Mulford B. Foster (ref = The Herbert Medal) for his outstanding work with amaryllis."

Scope
Since this is the genus page, details that relate to A belladonna should probably be transferred there --Michael Goodyear (talk) 22:20, 1 April 2015 (UTC)
 * In principle, yes, although the genus was monospecific for a long time, and the second species is poorly known. What in particular did you want to move? Peter coxhead (talk) 16:47, 2 April 2015 (UTC)

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Frost tolerance?
This article says that Amaryllis is not frost tolerant but I grow them in a mild frost area and know people who grow them in areas of heavy winter (e.g. Indiana USA). Does anyone have a good reference on frost tolerance who can edit the page? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Haresfur (talk • contribs) 21:12, 17 February 2018 (UTC)

Latest revision as of 20:45, 16 September 2018 (edit) (undo) (thank) DSWebb (talk | contribs) (Picture is of a Hippeastrum not Amaryllis)
Are you sure? Btw: A Hippeastrum is an Amaryllis isn't it? --Neptuul (talk) 18:18, 23 September 2018 (UTC)

 * is quite correct. You need to distinguish between the ordinary English use of the word "amaryllis" (no italics, no capital) and the scientific use of the genus name "Amaryllis". For historical reasons, the Hippeastrum grown as a house plant, especially at Christmas, is called an "amaryllis" in ordinary English. However, it's not in the same genus as true Amaryllis species. The history is explained in some detail at Hippeastrum#Separation of Hippeastrum from Amaryllis. Peter coxhead (talk) 08:20, 24 September 2018 (UTC)

Amaryllis vs. Hippeastrum debate
I think that it would be better to move the full version of the big Amaryllis vs. Hippeastrum debate from Hippeastrum to Amaryllis and even expand it, devoting it a separate section. In Hippeastrum we may leave just a reference to that section. The expansion may give details about what species have been Amaryllis, when they have been transferred to other genera and so on, in the line of Sealy, Goldblat and Meerow. Lantonov (talk) 07:53, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Common usage calls Hippeastrum cultivars "amaryllis". I'm not aware of any confusion the other way round, i.e. calling Amaryllis species and cultivars "hippeastrum". So I believe that it's at Hippeastrum that it needs to be explained that it is not Amaryllis, because that's the direction of the confusion.
 * But there could be a list of "former Amaryllis species" in this article; such lists will be found in other articles. Peter coxhead (talk) 08:19, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
 * This can be also the other way round. My reason for proposing it is that the user usually encounters something like "Amaryllis flower" without any genus or species name given. So she/he (they?) googles for "amaryllis" and up pops the article Amaryllis. Reading through it they may encounter the warning that their flower may be actually Hippeastrum (or something else: Amaryllis was moved to different genera at some time or another, for example, Brunsvigia, Sternbergia, even Pancratium, etc.) but they must hop to another article (not necessarily Hippeastrum) to find exactly why this is so. If their flower turns out to be a true amaryllis, they must go back to Amaryllis to see desription, conditions for growing, etc. Lantonov (talk) 09:21, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

Amaryllis
Are they toxic to dogs or cats 69.247.255.160 (talk) 19:14, 17 December 2021 (UTC)

https://www.petpoisonhelpline.com/poison/amaryllis/ https://www.childrens.health.qld.gov.au/poisonous-plant-hippeastrum/ Monotropan (talk) 02:57, 26 June 2022 (UTC)

Where does the "bitter" meaning come from?
Where does this meaning come from: "also from amarella for the bitterness of the bulb"? It cites this https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13838#page/185/mode/thumb maybe. I can't read Latin, but I think it's something like the plant is called Amarella when the root is bitter. Amarum is bitter in latin, according to google translate. I imagine it's not unusual for a root to have a bitter taste. Maybe it should say the plant is also called Amarella because of the bitterness of the root and that that is Latin not Greek. Monotropan (talk) 02:57, 26 June 2022 (UTC)
 * I can't see any support for the bitterness claim in the references given, so I've removed it. Peter coxhead (talk) 10:27, 28 June 2022 (UTC)

Reference to The Language of Flowers
The article references The Language of Flowers meaning as "'love, beauty, and determination', and can also represent hope and achievement" but the source is questionable. Going off this archive of the Language of Flowers, Amaryllis is only listed on page 138 (158 by PDF Page). https://ia601201.us.archive.org/33/items/cu31924067884126/cu31924067884126.pdf

I means Pride and elaborates "Gardeners call this beautiful plant proud, because it often refuses to flower under careful culture." Trishiness (talk) 17:59, 24 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Amaryllis


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Autpert Ambrose

Autpert Ambrose (Ambroise) (Ambrosius Autpertus) (ca. 730 – 784) was a Frankish Benedictine monk. An abbot of San Vincenzo al Volturno in South Italy in the time of Desiderius, king of the Lombards, Autpert wrote a considerable number of works on the Bible and religious subjects generally. Among these are commentaries on the Apocalypse, on the Psalms, and on the Song of Songs; a life of the founders of the monastery of San Vincenzo (Vita Paldonis, Tasonis et Tatonis); and a Conflictus vitiorum et virtutum (Combat between the Virtues and the Vices). Jean Mabillon calls him "sanctissimus" because of his great virtue and the Bollandists gave him the title "saint". His cultus has been approved.

Biography
Autpert Ambrose was born in Gaul, probably Provence, at the beginning of the eighth century. He moved to Italy and entered the Benedictine monastery of San Vincenzo al Volturno, near Benevento, in Southern Italy, where he received his intellectual and spiritual formation and was ordained a priest sometime before 761. He became abbot on 4 October 777. In 774 Charlemagne had defeated the Lombards, but had not subjugated the Duchy of Benevento: Autpert's election aggravated the disputes between French and Lombard monks, and on 28 December 778 he was forced to leave the monastery to the Lombard Poto and flee to Spoleto. Summoned to Rome by Charlemagne to resolve the conflict, he died on the way, perhaps murdered, in 784. Information about his life is available primarily from the fragmentary Chronicon Vulturnense written by a monk named John, and from brief autobiographical references in some of his own writings. The same chronicle places him in the court of Charlemagne. This is apparently an error due to the confusion of Autpert with a certain Aspertus or Asbertus, who was chancellor of Prince Arnolfus from 888 to 892.

In 2009, Pope Benedict XVI gave a homily about him in Saint Peter's square. In this homily, Autpert's death date is given as 784 (older scholarship had given a date between 778 and 779).

Works
Autpert's most famous work is his lengthy Expositio in Apocalypsin which is dependent upon a variety of patristic authors whom Autpert explicitly acknowledges, including Jerome, Victorinus, Ticonius, Augustine of Hippo, Primasius of Hadrumetum, and Gregory the Great. In fact, this commentary is one of the sources for a partial reconstruction of the lost Apocalypse commentary of the Donatist Ticonius. It is prefaced by a letter to Pope Stephen III in which Autpert defends himself from his detractors. His Vita sanctorum patrum Paldonis, Tatonis et Tasonis is an account of the three founders of the monastery at Volturno who through their pious lives offer an example of the imitation of Christ. His Libellus de conflictu vitiorum atque virtutum emphasizes monastic themes such as fear of God, obedience, and fidelity. Other works include Oratio contra septem vitia, Sermo de cupiditate, Sermo in purificatione sanctae Mariae, Homilia de transfiguratione Domini, and Sermo de adsumptione sanctae Mariae. Several additional sermons, known to have existed, have not survived. His extant sermons are marked by a strong mystical imprint. His commentaries on Leviticus, the Song of Songs, and the Psalms, mentioned in the Chronicon Vulturnese, are also not extant. Whether or not Autpert is the author of the hymn Ave maris stella is debated. The reason for this possible attribution is that Mary plays a significant theological role in both his sermons and Apocalypse commentary. She is not only a figure of the Church but also its most excellent member. As mother of Christ, she is also mother of the elect.

Expositio in Apocalypsin
Autpert's masterpiece is considered his Expositio in Apocalypsin, a lengthy commentary on the Book of Revelation. Autpert refers to various early Christian writers in order to give his commentary authority. In addition, he uses the writers to correct heresy where he believed it to exist. Although he is very careful not to depart from the tradition of the Church or from orthodox teaching, his work is no mere string of patristic quotations. Throughout his Apocalypse commentary Christ is mystically identified with the Church, so much so that the Church actually begins with the birth of Christ. In addition, there is only one Church in heaven and on earth, not two. To those knowing the truth there is manifest one and the same Church, neither divided nor separated, which reigns with Christ in heaven, encompassing those members who have completed their struggle, and which reigns with Christ on earth, encompassing those members who continue in battle. The first resurrection (cf. Rev. 20:5b–6a), which implies a second, refers to the reign of Christ for a thousand years and the reign of the just with him. The second resurrection refers not to the resurrection of the flesh from dust but rather to the life of the soul rising from the abandonment of sin. The second death (cf. Rev. 20:6b) is eternal damnation. Gog and Magog (cf. Rev. 20:8) refer to the nations all over the earth which are agents of the devil persecuting the Church. The book of life (cf. Rev. 20:12) is the Old and New Testament, whose contemplation brings the elect to the light of day and the love of neighbour. The city of God continuously grows in number through the washing and regeneration of the Holy Spirit, and at the end of the present age the Last Judgment of God will come through his son Jesus Christ.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Autpert Ambrose


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Abu Bakr

Abd Allah ibn Abi Quhafa (عبد الله بن أبي قحافة; c. 573 – 23 August 634), commonly known by the kunya Abu Bakr (أبو بكر), was the first caliph, ruling from 632 until his death in 634. A close companion and father-in-law of Muhammad, Abu Bakr is referred to with the honorific title al-Siddiq by Sunni Muslims.

Born to Abu Quhafa and Umm al-Khayr of the Banu Taym, Abu Bakr was amongst the earliest converts to Islam and propagated dawah to the Mushrikites. He was considered the first Muslim missionary as several companions of Muhammad converted through Abu Bakr. He accompanied Muhammad on his migration to Medina and became one of the latter's bodyguards. Abu Bakr participated in all of Muhammad's campaigns and served as the first in 631. In the absence of Muhammad, Abu Bakr led the prayers.

Following Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr succeeded the leadership of the Muslim community as the first caliph, being elected at Saqifa. His election was contested by a number of rebellious tribal leaders. During his reign, he overcame a number of uprisings, collectively known as the Ridda wars, as a result of which he was able to consolidate and expand the rule of the Muslim state over the entire Arabian Peninsula. He also commanded the initial incursions into the neighbouring Sasanian and Byzantine empires, which in the years following his death, would eventually result in the Muslim conquests of Persia and the Levant. Apart from politics, Abu Bakr is also credited for the compilation of the Quran, of which he had a personal caliphal codex. Prior to dying in August 634, Abu Bakr nominated Umar ((r. 634 – 644)) as his successor. Along with Muhammad, Abu Bakr is buried in the Green Dome at the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina, the second holiest site in Islam. He died of illness after a reign of 2 years, 2 months and 14 days, the only Rashidun caliph to die of natural causes.

Though Abu Bakr's reign was short, it included successful invasions of the two most powerful empires of the time, the Sassanian Empire and the Byzantine Empire. He set in motion a historical trajectory that in a few decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history. His victory over the local rebel Arab forces is a significant part of Islamic history. Sunni Muslims revere Abu Bakr as the first of the rightly-guided caliphs and the greatest individual after the prophets and messengers. Shia tradition considers Abu Bakr an usurper of the caliphate and an enemy of the.

Lineage and titles
Abu Bakr's full name was Abdullah ibn Abi Quhafa ibn Amir ibn Amr ibn Ka'b ibn Sa'd ibn Taym ibn Murrah ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr.

His lineage meets the lineage of Muhammad at the sixth generation up with Murrah ibn Ka'b. Abu Bakr is referenced in the Qur'an in surah at-Tawba as thaniya ithnayn (second of the two) and al-sahib (companion). Some scholars believe al-atqa (the most pious) in surah al-Layl refers to Abu Bakr as well.

Abdullah
In Arabic, the name Abd Allah means "servant of Allah". This is his birth name.

Abu Bakr
This nickname (kunya) was given to him as a child when he grew up among a bedouin tribe and developed a fondness for camels. He played with the camel calves and goats, earning this nickname "Abu Bakr," meaning "father of the young camel." A "bakr" in Arabic is a young but already fully grown camel.

Ateeq
One of his early titles, preceding his conversion to Islam, was Ateeq, meaning "saved one". In a weak narration in Tirmidhi, Muhammad later restated this title when he said that Abu Bakr is the "Ateeq of Allah from the fire" meaning "saved" or "secure" and the association with Allah showing how close to and protected he is by Allah.

al-Siddiq
He was called Al-Siddiq (the truthful) by Muhammad after he believed him in the event of Isra and Mi'raj when other people didn't, and Ali confirmed that title several times. He was also reportedly referred to in the Quran as the "second of the two in the cave" in reference to the event of hijra, where with Muhammad he hid in the cave in Jabal Thawr from the Meccan party that was sent after them.

al-Sahib
He was honorifically called "al-sahib" (the companion) in the Qur'an describing his role as a companion of Muhammad when hiding from the Quraysh in the Jabal Thawr cave during the Hijra to Medina:

"˹It does not matter˺ if you ˹believers˺ do not support him, for Allah did in fact support him when the disbelievers drove him out ˹of Mecca˺ and he was only one of two. While they both were in the cave, he reassured his companion, “Do not worry; Allah is certainly with us.” So Allah sent down His serenity upon the Prophet, supported him with forces you ˹believers˺ did not see, and made the word of the disbelievers lowest, while the Word of Allah is supreme. And Allah is Almighty, All-Wise."

Al-Atqā
In a hadith narrated by ibn Abbas of the exegesis of chapter 92 of the Qur'an by imam al-Suyuti we find the word "al-atqā" (الأتقى), meaning "the most pious," "the most righteous," or "the most God-fearing," is referring to Abu Bakr as an example for the believers.

"And so I have warned you of a raging Fire, in which none will burn except the most wretched—who deny and turn away. But the righteous will be spared from it—who donate ˹some of˺ their wealth only to purify themselves, not in return for someone’s favours, but seeking the pleasure of their Lord, the Most High. They will certainly be pleased."

Al-Awwāh
"Al-Awwāh" (الأواه) means someone who supplicates abundantly to God, someone who is merciful, and the gentle-hearted. Ibrahim al-Nakha'i said that Abu Bakr has also been called al-awwāh for his merciful character.

Early life
Abu Bakr was born in Mecca sometime in 573 CE, to a rich family in the Banu Taym tribe of the Quraysh tribal confederacy. His father was Abu Quhafa and his mother was Umm al-Khayr.

He spent his early childhood like other Arab children of the time, among the Bedouins who called themselves Ahl-i-Ba'eer- the people of the camel, and developed a particular fondness for camels. In his early years he played with the camel calves and goats, and his love for camels earned him the nickname (kunya) "Abu Bakr", the father of the camel's calf.

Like other children of the rich Meccan merchant families, Abu Bakr was literate and developed a fondness for poetry. He used to attend the annual fair at Ukaz, and participate in poetical symposia. He had a very good memory and had a good knowledge of the genealogy of the Arab tribes, their stories and their politics.

A story is preserved that once when he was a child, his father took him to the Kaaba, and asked him to pray before the idols. His father went away to attend to some other business, and Abu Bakr was left alone. Addressing an idol, Abu Bakr said "O my God, I am in need of beautiful clothes; bestow them on me". The idol remained indifferent. Then he addressed another idol, saying, "O God, give me some delicious food. See that I am so hungry". The idol remained cold. That exhausted the patience of young Abu Bakr. He lifted a stone, and, addressing an idol, said, "Here I am aiming a stone; if you are a god protect yourself". Abu Bakr hurled the stone at the idol and left the Kaaba. Regardless, it recorded that prior to converting to Islam, Abu Bakr practiced as a hanif and never worshipped idols.

Companionship of Muhammad
On his return from a business trip in Yemen, friends informed him that in his absence, Muhammad had declared himself a messenger of God. According to a report of the historian Al-Tabari, in his Tarikh al-Tabari, Abu Bakr may have converted to Islam after around fifty people, though this is disputed. Some Sunni and all the Shi'a believe that the second person to publicly accept Muhammed as the messenger of God was Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first being Muhammad's wife Khadija. Ibn Kathir, in his Al Bidaya Wal Nihayah, disregards this. He stated that the first woman to embrace Islam was Khadijah. Zayd ibn Harithah was the first freed slave to embrace Islam. Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first child to embrace Islam, for he has not even reached the age of puberty at that time, while Abu Bakr was the first free man to embrace Islam.

Subsequent life in Mecca
His wife Qutaylah bint Abd-al-Uzza did not accept Islam and he divorced her. His other wife, Um Ruman, became a Muslim. All his children accepted Islam except Abd al-Rahman, from whom Abu Bakr disassociated himself. His conversion also brought many people to Islam. He persuaded his intimate friends to convert, and presented Islam to other friends in such a way that many of them also accepted the faith. Those who converted to Islam at the dawah of Abu Bakr were:
 * Uthman Ibn Affan (who would become the 3rd Caliph)
 * Al-Zubayr (who played a part in the Muslim conquest of Egypt)
 * Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah, his cousin and an important companion of Muhammad.
 * 'Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Awf (who would remain an important part of the Rashidun Caliphate)
 * Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas (who played a leading role in the Islamic conquest of Persia)
 * Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (who was a commander in chief of the Rashidun army in Levant)
 * Abu Salama, he was a foster brother of Muhammad.
 * Khalid ibn Sa'id, (who acted as a general under the Rashidun army in Syria)

Abu Bakr's acceptance proved to be a milestone in Muhammad's mission. Slavery was common in Mecca, and many slaves accepted Islam. When an ordinary free man accepted Islam, despite opposition, he would enjoy the protection of his tribe. For slaves, however, there was no such protection and they commonly experienced persecution. Abu Bakr felt compassion for slaves, so he purchased eight (four men and four women) and then freed them, paying 40,000 dinar for their freedom. He was known to have freed slaves, including Bilal ibn Rabah.

The men were: The women were:
 * Bilal ibn Rabah
 * Abu Fukayha
 * Ammar ibn Yasir
 * Amir ibn Fuhayra
 * Lubaynah
 * Al-Nahdiah
 * Umm Ubays
 * Harithah bint al-Muammil

Most of the slaves liberated by Abu Bakr were either women or old and frail men. When the father of Abu Bakr asked him why he didn't liberate strong and young slaves, who could be a source of strength for him, Abu Bakr replied that he was freeing the slaves for the sake of God, and not for his own sake.

Persecution by the Quraysh, 613
For three years after the birth of Islam, Muslims kept their faith private. In 613, according to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was commanded by God to call people to Islam openly. The first public address inviting people to offer allegiance to Muhammad was delivered by Abu Bakr. In a fit of fury, the young men of the Quraysh tribe rushed at Abu Bakr and beat him until he lost consciousness. Following this incident, Abu Bakr's mother converted to Islam. Abu Bakr was persecuted many times by the Quraysh. Though Abu Bakr's beliefs would have been defended by his own clan, it would not be so for the entire Quraysh tribe.

Last years in Mecca
In 617, the Quraysh enforced a boycott against the Banu Hashim. Muhammad along with his supporters from Banu Hashim, were cut off in a pass away from Mecca. All social relations with the Banu Hashim were cut off and their state was that of imprisonment. Before it many Muslims migrated to Abyssinia (now Ethiopia). Abu Bakr, feeling distressed, set out for Yemen and then to Abyssinia from there. He met a friend of his named Ad-Dughna (chief of the Qarah tribe) outside Mecca, who invited Abu Bakr to seek his protection against the Quraysh. Abu Bakr went back to Mecca, it was a relief for him, but soon due to the pressure of Quraysh, Ad-Dughna was forced to renounce his protection. Once again the Quraysh were free to persecute Abu Bakr.

In 620, Muhammad's uncle and protector, Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib, and Muhammad's wife Khadija died. Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha was betrothed to Muhammad; however, it was decided that the actual marriage ceremony would be held later. In 620 Abu Bakr was the first person to testify to Muhammad's Isra and Mi'raj (Night Journey).

Migration to Medina
In 622, on the invitation of the Muslims of Medina, Muhammad ordered Muslims to migrate to Medina. The migration began in batches. Ali was the last to remain in Mecca, entrusted with responsibility for settling any loans the Muslims had taken out, and famously slept in the bed of Muhammad when the Quraysh, led by Ikrima, attempted to murder Muhammad as he slept. Meanwhile, Abu Bakr accompanied Muhammad to Medina. Due to the danger posed by the Quraysh, they did not take the road, but moved in the opposite direction, taking refuge in a cave in Jabal Thawr, some five miles south of Mecca. Abd Allah ibn Abi Bakr, the son of Abu Bakr, would listen to the plans and discussions of the Quraysh, and at night he would carry the news to the fugitives in the cave. Asma bint Abi Bakr, the daughter of Abu Bakr, brought them meals every day. Aamir, a servant of Abu Bakr, would bring a flock of goats to the mouth of the cave every night, where they were milked. The Quraysh sent search parties in all directions. One party came close to the entrance to the cave, but was unable to see them. Abu Bakr was referenced in the Qur'an in verse 40 of : "If ye help him not, still God helped him when those who disbelieve drove him forth, the  (second of the two i.e. Abu Bakr); when they two were in the cave, when he said unto his  (companion i.e. Abu Bakr). Aisha, Abu Saʽid al-Khudri and Abd Allah ibn Abbas in interpreting this verse said that Abu Bakr was the companion who stayed with Muhammad in the cave.

After staying at the cave for three days and three nights, Abu Bakr and Muhammad proceed to Medina, staying for some time at Quba, a suburb of Medina.

Life in Medina
In Medina, Muhammad decided to construct a mosque. A piece of land was chosen and the price of the land was paid for by Abu Bakr. The Muslims, including Abu Bakr, constructed a mosque named Al-Masjid al-Nabawi at the site. Abu Bakr was paired with Khaarijah bin Zaid Ansari (who was from Medina) as a brother in faith. Abu Bakr's relationship with Khaarijah was most cordial, which was further strengthened when Abu Bakr married Habiba, a daughter of Khaarijah. Khaarijah bin Zaid Ansari lived at Sunh, a suburb of Medina, and Abu Bakr also settled there. After Abu Bakr's family arrived in Medina, he bought another house near Muhammad's.

While the climate of Mecca was dry, the climate of Medina was damp and because of this, most of the migrants fell sick on arrival. Abu Bakr contracted a fever for several days, during which time he was attended to by Khaarijah and his family. In Mecca, Abu Bakr was a wholesale trader in cloth and he started the same business in Medina. He opened his new store at Sunh, and from there cloth was supplied to the market at Medina. Soon his business flourished. Early in 623, Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha, who was already married to Muhammad, was sent on to Muhammad's house after a simple marriage ceremony, further strengthening relations between Abu Bakr and Muhammad.

Battle of Badr
In 624, Abu Bakr was involved in the first battle between the Muslims and the Quraysh of Mecca, known as the Battle of Badr, but did not fight, instead acting as one of the guards of Muhammad's tent. In relation to this, Ali later asked his associates as to who they thought was the bravest among men. Everyone stated that Ali was the bravest of all men. Ali then replied:

"No. Abu Bakr is the bravest of men. In the Battle of Badr we had prepared a pavillion for the prophet, but when we were asked to offer ourselves for the task of guarding it none came forward except Abu Bakr. With a drawn sword he took his stand by the side of Prophet of Allah and guarded him from the infidels by attacking those who dared to proceed in that direction. He was therefore the bravest of men."

In Sunni accounts, during one such attack, two discs from Abu Bakr's shield penetrated into Muhammad's cheeks. Abu Bakr went forward with the intention of extracting these discs but Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah requested he leave the matter to him, losing his two incisors during the process. In these stories subsequently Abu Bakr, along with other companions, led Muhammad to a place of safety.

Battle of Uhud
In 625, he participated in the Battle of Uhud, in which the majority of the Muslims were routed and he himself was wounded. Before the battle had begun, his son Abd al-Rahman, at that time still non-Muslim and fighting on the side of the Quraysh, came forward and threw down a challenge for a duel. Abu Bakr accepted the challenge but was stopped by Muhammad. In the second phase of the battle, Khalid ibn al-Walid's cavalry attacked the Muslims from behind, changing a Muslim victory to defeat.

Battle of the Trench
In 627 he participated in the Battle of the Trench and also in the Invasion of Banu Qurayza. In the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad divided the ditch into a number of sectors and a contingent was posted to guard each sector. One of these contingents was under the command of Abu Bakr. The enemy made frequent assaults in an attempt to cross the ditch, all of which were repulsed. To commemorate this event a mosque, later known as 'Masjid-i-Siddiq', was constructed at the site where Abu Bakr had repulsed the charges of the enemy.

Battle of Khaybar
Abu Bakr took part in the Battle of Khaybar. Khaybar had eight fortresses, the strongest and most well-guarded of which was called Al-Qamus. Muhammad sent Abu Bakr with a group of warriors to attempt to take it, but they were unable to do so. Muhammad also sent Umar with a group of warriors, but Umar could not conquer Al-Qamus either. Some other Muslims also attempted to capture the fort, but they were unsuccessful as well. Finally, Muhammad sent Ali, who defeated the enemy leader, Marhab.

Military campaigns during final years of Muhammad
In 629 Muhammad sent 'Amr ibn al-'As to Zaat-ul-Sallasal, followed by Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah in response to a call for reinforcements. Abu Bakr and Umar commanded an army under al-Jarrah, and they attacked and defeated the enemy.

In 630, when the Muslims conquered Mecca, Abu Bakr was part of the army. Before the conquest of Mecca his father Abu Quhafa converted to Islam.

Battles of Hunayn and Ta'if
In 630, the Muslim army was ambushed by archers from the local tribes as it passed through the valley of Hunayn, some eleven miles northeast of Mecca. Taken unaware, the advance guard of the Muslim army fled in panic. There was considerable confusion, and the camels, horses and men ran into one another in an attempt to seek cover. Muhammad, however, stood firm. Only nine companions remained around him, including Abu Bakr. Under Muhammad's instruction, his uncle Abbas shouted at the top of his voice, "O Muslims, come to the Prophet of Allah". The call was heard by the Muslim soldiers and they gathered beside Muhammad. When the Muslims had gathered in sufficient number, Muhammad ordered a charge against the enemy. In the hand-to-hand fight that followed the tribes were routed and they fled to Autas.

Muhammad posted a contingent to guard the Hunayn pass and led the main army to Autas. In the confrontation at Autas the tribes could not withstand the Muslim onslaught. Believing continued resistance useless, the tribes broke camp and retired to Ta'if.

Abu Bakr was commissioned by Muhammad to lead the attack against Ta'if. The tribes shut themselves in the fort and refused to come out in the open. The Muslims employed catapults, but without tangible result. The Muslims attempted to use a testudo formation, in which a group of soldiers shielded by a cover of cowhide advanced to set fire to the gate. However, the enemy threw red hot scraps of iron on the testudo, rendering it ineffective.

The siege dragged on for two weeks, and still there was no sign of weakness in the fort. Muhammad held a council of war. Abu Bakr advised that the siege might be raised and that God make arrangements for the fall of the fort. The advice was accepted, and in February 630, the siege of Ta'if was raised and the Muslim army returned to Mecca. A few days later Malik bin Auf, the commander, came to Mecca and became a Muslim.

Abu Bakr as Amir al-Hajj
In 630–631 (AH 9), Muhammad assigned Abu Bakr as the to lead around 300 pilgrims from Medina to Mecca. In 631 AD, Muhammad sent from Medina a delegation of three hundred Muslims to perform the Hajj according to the new Islamic way and appointed Abu Bakr as the leader of the delegation. The day after Abu Bakr and his party had left for the Hajj, Muhammad received a new revelation: Surah Tawbah, the ninth chapter of the Quran. It is related that when this revelation came, someone suggested to Muhammad that he should send news of it to Abu Bakr. Muhammad said that only a man of his house could proclaim the revelation.

Muhammad summoned Ali, and asked him to proclaim a portion of Surah Tawbah to the people on the day of sacrifice when they assembled at Mina. Ali went forth on Muhammad's slit-eared camel, and overtook Abu Bakr. When Ali joined the party, Abu Bakr wanted to know whether he had come to give orders or to convey them. Ali said that he had not come to replace Abu Bakr as Amir-ul-Hajj, and that his only mission was to convey a special message to the people on behalf of Muhammad.

At Mecca, Abu Bakr presided at the Hajj ceremony, and Ali read the proclamation on behalf of Muhammad. The main points of the proclamation were:

 * 1) Henceforward the non-Muslims were not to be allowed to visit the Kaaba or perform the pilgrimage.
 * 2) No one should circumambulate the Kaaba naked.
 * 3) Polytheism was not to be tolerated. Where the Muslims had any agreement with the polytheists such agreements would be honoured for the stipulated periods. Where there were no agreements a grace period of four months was provided and thereafter no quarter was to be given to the polytheists.

From the day this proclamation was made a new era dawned, and Islam alone was to be supreme in Arabia.

Expedition of Abu Bakr As-Siddiq
Abu Bakr led one military expedition, the Expedition of Abu Bakr As-Siddiq, which took place in Najd, in July 628 (third month 7AH in the Islamic calendar). Abu Bakr led a large company in Nejd on the order of Muhammad. Many were killed and taken prisoner. The Sunni Hadith collection Sunan Abu Dawud mentions the event.

Expedition of Usama bin Zayd
In 632, during the final weeks of his life, Muhammad ordered an expedition into Syria to avenge the defeat of the Muslims in the Battle of Mu'tah some years previously. Leading the campaign was Usama ibn Zayd, whose father, Muhammad's erstwhile adopted son Zayd ibn Harithah, had been killed in the earlier conflict. No more than twenty years old, inexperienced and untested, Usama's appointment was controversial, becoming especially problematic when veterans such as Abu Bakr, Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah and Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas were placed under his command. Nevertheless, the expedition was dispatched, though soon after setting off, news was received of Muhammad's death, forcing the army to return to Medina. The campaign was not reengaged until after Abu Bakr's ascension to the caliphate, at which point he chose to reaffirm Usama's command, which ultimately led to its success.

Death of Muhammad
There are a number of traditions regarding Muhammad's final days which have been used to reinforce the idea of the great friendship and trust which is existed between him and Abu Bakr. In one such episode, as Muhammad was nearing death, he found himself unable to lead prayers as he usually would. He instructed Abu Bakr to take his place, ignoring concerns from Aisha that her father was too emotionally delicate for the role. Abu Bakr subsequently took up the position, and when Muhammad entered the prayer hall one morning during Fajr prayers, Abu Bakr attempted to step back to let him to take up his normal place and lead. Muhammad, however, allowed him to continue. In a related incident, around this time, Muhammad ascended the pulpit and addressed the congregation, saying, "God has given his servant the choice between this world and that which is with God and he has chosen the latter." Abu Bakr, understanding this to mean that Muhammad did not have long to live, responded "Nay, we and our children will be your ransom." Muhammad consoled his friend and ordered that all the doors leading to the mosque be closed aside from that which led from Abu Bakr's house, "for I know no one who is a better friend to me than he."

Upon Muhammad's death, the Muslim community was unprepared for the loss of its leader and many experienced a profound shock. Umar was particularly affected, instead declaring that Muhammad had gone to consult with God and would soon return, threatening anyone who would say that Muhammad was dead. Abu Bakr, having returned to Medina, calmed Umar by showing him Muhammad's body, convincing him of his death. He then addressed those who had gathered at the mosque, saying, "If anyone worships Muhammad, Muhammad is dead. If anyone worships God, God is alive, immortal", thus putting an end to any idolising impulse in the population. He then concluded with verses from the Quran: "(O Muhammad) Verily you will die, and they also will die." , "Muhammad is no more than an Apostle; and indeed many Apostles have passed away, before him, If he dies Or is killed, will you then Turn back on your heels? And he who turns back On his heels, not the least Harm will he do to Allah And Allah will give reward to those Who are grateful."

Saqifa
In the immediate aftermath of Muhammad's death, a gathering of the Ansar took place in the (courtyard) of the Banu Sa'ida clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the Muslim community among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the Muhajirun (migrants from Mecca), though this has later become the subject of debate.

Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar, upon learning of the meeting, became concerned of a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that an attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the Quraysh, would likely result in dissension, as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and Abu Ubaidah, by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. Habab ibn Mundhir, a veteran from the battle of Badr, countered with his own suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue amongst themselves. The orientalist William Muir gives the following observation of the situation:

"The moment was critical. The unity of the Faith was at stake. A divided power would fall to pieces, and all might be lost. The mantle of the Prophet must fall upon one Successor, and on one alone. The sovereignty of Islam demanded an undivided Caliphate; and Arabia would acknowledge no master but from amongst Koreish."

Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men. The meeting broke up when a violent scuffle erupted between Umar and the chief of the Banu Sa'ida, Sa'd ibn Ubadah. This event suggests that the choice of Abu Bakr was not unanimous, with emotions running high as a result of the disagreement.

Abu Bakr was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of Caliph) as a result of Saqifah, though he did face contention because of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being Ali ibn Abi Talib, initially refused to acknowledge his authority. Among Shi'ites, it is also argued that Ali had previously been appointed as Muhammad's heir, with the election being seen as in contravention to the latter's wishes. Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali, resulting in an altercation which may have involved violence. However, after six months the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his allegiance.

Accession
After assuming the office of Caliph, Abu Bakr's first address was as follows:

"I have been given the authority over you, and I am not the best of you. If I do well, help me; and if I do wrong, set me right. Sincere regard for truth is loyalty and disregard for truth is treachery. The weak amongst you shall be strong with me until I have secured his rights, if God wills; and the strong amongst you shall be weak with me until I have wrested from him the rights of others, if God wills. Obey me so long as I obey God and His Messenger. But if I disobey God and His Messenger, you owe me no obedience. Arise for your prayer, God have mercy upon you. (Al-Bidaayah wan-Nihaayah 6:305, 306)"

Abu Bakr's reign lasted for 27 months, during which he crushed the rebellion of the Arab tribes throughout the Arabian Peninsula in the successful Ridda wars. In the last months of his rule, he sent Khalid ibn al-Walid on conquests against the Sassanid Empire in Mesopotamia and against the Byzantine Empire in Syria. This would set in motion a historical trajectory (continued later on by Umar and Uthman ibn Affan) that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history. He had little time to pay attention to the administration of state, though state affairs remained stable during his Caliphate. On the advice of Umar and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, he agreed to draw a salary from the state treasury and discontinue his cloth trade.

Ridda wars

Troubles emerged soon after Abu Bakr's succession, with several Arab tribes launching revolts, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state. These insurgencies and the caliphate's responses to them are collectively referred to as the Ridda wars ("Wars of Apostasy").

The opposition movements came in two forms. One type challenged the political power of the nascent caliphate as well as the religious authority of Islam with the acclamation of rival ideologies, headed by political leaders who claimed the mantle of prophethood in the manner that Muhammad had done. These rebellions include: These leaders are all denounced in Islamic histories as "false prophets".
 * that of the Banu Asad ibn Khuzaymah headed by Tulayha ibn Khuwaylid
 * that of the Banu Hanifa headed by Musaylimah
 * those from among the Banu Taghlib and the Bani Tamim headed by Sajah
 * that of the Al-Ansi headed by Al-Aswad Al-Ansi

The second form of opposition movement was more strictly political in character. Some of the revolts of this type took the form of tax rebellions in Najd among tribes such as the Banu Fazara and Banu Tamim. Other dissenters, while initially allied to the Muslims, used Muhammad's death as an opportunity to attempt to restrict the growth of the new Islamic state. They include some of the Rabīʿa in Bahrayn, the Azd in Oman, as well as among the Kindah and Khawlan in Yemen.

Abu Bakr, likely understanding that maintaining firm control over the disparate tribes of Arabia was crucial to ensuring the survival of the state, suppressed the insurrections with military force. He dispatched Khalid ibn Walid and a body of troops to subdue the uprisings in Najd as well as that of Musaylimah, who posed the most serious threat. Concurrent to this, Shurahbil ibn Hasana and Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami were sent to Bahrayn, while Ikrimah ibn Abi Jahl, Hudhayfah al-Bariqi and Arfaja al-Bariqi were instructed to conquer Oman. Finally, Al-Muhajir ibn Abi Umayya and Khalid ibn Asid were sent to Yemen to aid the local governor in re-establishing control. Abu Bakr also made use of diplomatic means in addition to military measures. Like Muhammad before him, he used marriage alliances and financial incentives to bind former enemies to the caliphate. For instance, a member of the Banu Hanifa who had sided with the Muslims was rewarded with the granting of a land estate. Similarly, a Kindah rebel named Al-Ash'ath ibn Qays, after repenting and re-joining Islam, was later given land in Medina as well as the hand of Abu Bakr's sister Umm Farwa in marriage.

At their heart, the Ridda movements were challenges to the political and religious supremacy of the Islamic state. Through his success in suppressing the insurrections, Abu Bakr had in effect continued the political consolidation which had begun under Muhammad's leadership with relatively little interruption. By wars' end, he had established an Islamic hegemony over the entirety of the Arabian Peninsula.

Expeditions into Persia and Syria
With Arabia having united under a single centralised state with a formidable military, the region could now be viewed as a potential threat to the neighbouring Byzantine and Sasanian empires. It may be that Abu Bakr, reasoning that it was inevitable that one of these powers would launch a pre-emptive strike against the youthful caliphate, decided that it was better to deliver the first blow himself. Regardless of the caliph's motivations, in 633, small forces were dispatched into Iraq and Palestine, capturing several towns. Though the Byzantines and Sassanians were certain to retaliate, Abu Bakr had reason to be confident; the two empires were militarily exhausted after centuries of war against each other, making it likely that any forces sent to Arabia would be diminished and weakened.

A more pressing advantage though was the effectiveness of the Muslim fighters as well as their zeal, the latter of which was partially based on their certainty of the righteousness of their cause. Additionally, the general belief among the Muslims was that the community must be defended at all costs. Historian Theodor Nöldeke gives the somewhat controversial opinion that this religious fervour was intentionally used to maintain the enthusiasm and momentum of the ummah:

"It was certainly good policy to turn the recently subdued tribes of the wilderness towards an external aim in which they might at once satisfy their lust for booty on a grand scale, maintain their warlike feeling, and strengthen themselves in their attachment to the new faith… Muhammad himself had already sent expeditions across the [Byzantine] frontier, and thereby had pointed out the way to his successors. To follow in his footsteps was in accordance with the innermost being of the youthful Islam, already grown great amid the tumult of arms."

Though Abu Bakr had started these initial conflicts which eventually resulted in the Islamic conquests of Persia and the Levant, he did not live to see those regions conquered by Islam, instead leaving the task to his successors.

Preservation of the Quran
Abu Bakr was instrumental in preserving the Quran in written form. It is said that after the hard-won victory over Musaylimah in the Battle of Yamama in 632, Umar saw that some five hundred of the Muslims who had memorised the Quran had been killed in wars. Fearing that it might become lost or corrupted, Umar requested that Abu Bakr authorise the compilation and preservation of the scriptures in written format. The caliph was initially hesitant, being quoted as saying, "how can we do that which the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless and keep him, did not himself do?" He eventually relented, however, and appointed Zayd ibn Thabit, who had previously served as one of the scribes of Muhammad, for the task of gathering the scattered verses. The fragments were recovered from every quarter, including from the ribs of palm branches, scraps of leather, stone tablets and "from the hearts of men". The collected work was transcribed onto sheets and verified through comparison with Quran memorisers. The finished codex, termed the Mus'haf, was presented to Abu Bakr, who prior to his death, bequeathed it to his successor Umar. Upon Umar's own death, the Mus'haf was left to his daughter Hafsa, who had been one of the wives of Muhammad. It was this volume, borrowed from Hafsa, which formed the basis of Uthman's legendary prototype, which became the definitive text of the Quran. All later editions are derived from this original.

Death

On 23 August 634, Abu Bakr fell sick and did not recover. He developed a high fever and was confined to bed. His illness was prolonged, and when his condition worsened, he felt that his end was near. Realising this, he sent for Ali and requested him to perform his ghusl since Ali had also done it for Muhammad.

Abu Bakr felt that he should nominate his successor so that the issue should not be a cause of dissension among the Muslims after his death, though there was already controversy over Ali not having been appointed. He appointed Umar for this role after discussing the matter with some companions. Some of them favoured the nomination and others disliked it, due to the tough nature of Umar.

Abu Bakr thus dictated his last testament to Uthman ibn Affan as follows:

"In the name of Most Merciful God. This is the last will and testament of Abu Bakr bin Abu Quhafa, when he is in the last hour of the world, and the first of the next; an hour in which the infidel must believe, the wicked be convinced of their evil ways, I nominate Umar ibn al Khattab as my successor. Therefore, hear to him and obey him. If he acts right, confirm his actions. My intentions are good, but I cannot see the future results. However, those who do ill shall render themselves liable to severe account hereafter. Fare you well. May you be ever attended by the Divine favor of blessing." Umar led the funeral prayer for him and he was buried beside the grave of Muhammad.

Appearance
The historian Al-Tabari, in regards to Abu Bakr's appearance, records the following interaction between Aisha and her paternal nephew, Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr:

When she was in her howdah and saw a man from among the Arabs passing by, she said, "I have not seen a man more like Abu Bakr than this one." We said to her, "Describe Abu Bakr." She said, "A slight, white man, thin-bearded and bowed. His waist wrapper would not hold but would fall down around his loins. He had a lean face, sunken eyes, a bulging forehead, and trembling knuckles."

Referencing another source, Al-Tabari further describes him as being "white mixed with yellowness, of good build, slight, bowed, thin, tall like a male palm tree, hook-nosed, lean-faced, sunken-eyed, thin-shanked, and strong-thighed. He used to dye himself with henna and black dye."

Assessment and legacy
Though the period of his caliphate covers only two years, two months and fifteen days, it included successful invasions of the two most powerful empires of the time: the Sassanid Empire and Byzantine Empire. He is known as Al-Siddiq, Atiq and Companion of the Cave.

Abu Bakr had the distinction of being the first Caliph in the history of Islam and also the first Caliph to nominate a successor. He was the only Caliph in the history of Islam who refunded to the state treasury at the time of his death the entire amount of the allowance that he had drawn during the period of his caliphate. He has the distinction of purchasing the land for Al-Masjid al-Nabawi.

Sunni view
Sunni Muslim tradition considers Abu Bakr the best men after the prophets in Sunni Islam. They also consider Abu Bakr as one of the Ten Promised Paradise (al-‘Ashara al-Mubashshara) whom Muhammad had testified were destined for Paradise. He is regarded as the "Successor of Allah's Messenger" (Khalifa Rasulullah), and first of the Rightly Guided Caliphs—i.e. Rashidun—and as the rightful successor to Muhammad. Abu Bakr had always been the closest friend and confidant of Muhammad throughout his life, being beside Muhammad at every major event. It was Abu Bakr's wisdom that Muhammad always honored. Abu Bakr is regarded among the best of Muhammad's followers; as Umar ibn al-Khattab stated, "If the faith of Abu Bakr was weighed against the faith of the people of the earth, the faith of Abu Bakr would outweigh the others."

Shia view
Shia Muslims believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was supposed to assume the leadership, and that he had been publicly and unambiguously appointed by Muhammad as his successor at Ghadir Khumm. It is also believed that Abu Bakr and Umar conspired to take over power in the Muslim nation after Muhammad's death, in a coup d'état against Ali.

Most Twelver Shia (as the main branch of Shia Islam, with 85% of all Shias)   have a negative view of Abu Bakr because, after Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr refused to grant Muhammad's daughter, Fatimah, the lands of the village of Fadak which she claimed her father had given to her as a gift before his death. He refused to accept the testimony of her witnesses, so she claimed the land would still belong to her as inheritance from her deceased father. However, Abu Bakr replied by saying that Muhammad had told him that the prophets of God do not leave as inheritance any worldly possessions and on this basis he refused to give her the lands of Fadak. al-islam.org, Fatima the Gracious, by Abu – Muhammad Ordoni, 1987. Section entitled Abu Bakr Versus Fatima az-Zahra (sa). See also Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 5, Book 57, Number 60, which says: "Fatima sent somebody to Abu Bakr asking him to give her her inheritance from the Prophet from what Allah had given to His Apostle through Fai (i.e. booty gained without fighting). She asked for the Sadaqa (i.e. wealth assigned for charitable purposes) of the Prophet at Medina, and Fadak, and what remained of the Khumus (i.e., one-fifth) of the Khaibar booty." Abu Bakr said, "Allah's Apostle said, 'We (Prophets), our property is not inherited, and whatever we leave is Sadaqa, but Muhammad's Family can eat from this property, i.e. Allah's property, but they have no right to take more than the food they need.' By Allah! I will not bring any change in dealing with the Sadaqa of the Prophet (and will keep them) as they used to be observed in his (i.e. the Prophet's) life-time, and I will dispose with it as Allah's Apostle used to do," Then 'Ali said, "I testify that None has the right to be worshipped but Allah, and that Muhammad is His Apostle," and added, "O Abu Bakr! We acknowledge your superiority." Then he (i.e. 'Ali) mentioned their own relationship to Allah's Apostle and their right. Abu Bakr then spoke saying, "By Allah in Whose Hands my life is. I love to do good to the relatives of Allah's Apostle rather than to my own relatives" Abu Bakr added: Look at Muhammad through his family." See also Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 8, Book 80, Number 722, which says: "Aisha said, 'When Allah's Apostle died, his wives intended to send 'Uthman to Abu Bakr asking him for their share of the inheritance.' Then "Aisha said to them, 'Didn't Allah's Apostle say, Our (Apostles') property is not to be inherited, and whatever we leave is to be spent in charity?'" However, as Sayed Ali Asgher Razwy notes in his book A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims, Muhammad inherited a maid servant, five camels, and ten sheep. Shia Muslims believe that prophets can receive inheritance, and can pass on inheritance to others as well. In addition, Shias claim that Muhammad had given Fadak to Fatimah during his lifetime, and Fadak was therefore a gift to Fatimah, not inheritance. This view has also been supported by the Abbasid ruler al-Ma'mun.

Twelvers also accuse Abu Bakr of participating in the burning of the house of Ali and Fatima. The Twelver Shia believe that Abu Bakr sent Khalid ibn Walid to crush those who were in favour of Ali's caliphate (see Ridda wars). The Twelver Shia strongly contest the idea that Abu Bakr or Umar were instrumental in the collection or preservation of the Quran, claiming that they should have accepted the copy of the book in the possession of Ali.

However, Sunnis argue that Ali and Abu Bakr were not enemies and that Ali named his sons Abi Bakr in honor of Abu Bakr. After the death of Abu Bakr, Ali raised Abu Bakr's son Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. The Twelver Shia view Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr as one of the greatest companions of Ali. When Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was killed by the Umayyads, Aisha, the third wife of Muhammad, raised and taught her nephew Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr's mother was from Ali's family and Qasim's daughter Farwah bint al-Qasim was married to Muhammad al-Baqir and was the mother of Ja'far al-Sadiq. Therefore, Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr was the grandson of Abu Bakr and the grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadiq.

Zaydi Shias, the largest group amongst the Shia before the Safavid dynasty and currently the second-largest group (although its population is only about 5% of all Shia Muslims),  believe that on the last hour of Zayd ibn Ali (the uncle of Ja'far al-Sadiq), he was betrayed by the people in Kufa who said to him: "May God have mercy on you! What do you have to say on the matter of Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab?" Zayd ibn Ali said, "I have not heard anyone in my family renouncing them both nor saying anything but good about them...when they were entrusted with government they behaved justly with the people and acted according to the Quran and the Sunnah".

In a similar view, the Ismaili Shias under the leadership of the Aga Khans have also come to accept the caliphates of the first three caliphs, including that of Abu Bakr:

""In the present Imamat the final reconciliation between the  Shia and Sunni doctrines has been publicly proclaimed by myself on exactly the same lines as Hazrat Aly did at the death of the Prophet and during the first thirty years after that. The political and worldly Khalifat was accepted by Hazrat Aly in favour of the three first Khalifs voluntarily and with goodwill for the protection of the interests of the Muslims throughout the world. We Ismailis now in the same spirit accept the Khalifat of the first Khalifs and such other Khalifs as during the last thirteen centuries helped the cause of Islam, politically, socially and from a worldly point of view. On the other hand, the Spiritual Imamat remained with Hazrat Aly and remains with his direct descendants always alive till the day of Judgement.""

- Aga Khan III: Selected Speeches and Writings of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, pg. 1417

title: Abu Bakr


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Ambrose Traversari

Ambrogio Traversari, also referred to as Ambrose of Camaldoli (1386 – 20 October 1439), was an Italian monk and theologian who was a prime supporter of the papal cause in the 15th century. He is honored as a saint by the Camaldolese Order.

Biography
Traversari was born near Forlì, in the village of Portico di Romagna in 1386. At the age of 14 he entered the Camaldolese Order in the Monastery of St. Mary of the Angels in Florence, and soon acquired a reputation as a leading theologian and Hellenist. In his study of Greek literature his master was Emmanuel Chrysoloras. Traversari worked primarily as a scholar until he became prior general of the Order in 1431.

Traversari emerged as a leading advocate of papal primacy. This attitude he showed clearly when he attended the Council of Basel as legate of Pope Eugene IV and defended the primacy of the pope, calling upon the council not to "rend asunder Christ's seamless robe". He was next sent by Eugene to the Emperor Sigismund to ask his aid in the pope's efforts to end this council, which for five years had been encroaching on papal prerogatives. Eugene transferred the council from Basel to Ferrara on 18 September 1437.

So strong was Traversari's hostility to some of the delegates that he described Basel as a western Babylon. He likewise supported the pope at Ferrara and Florence, and worked hard in the attempt to reconcile the Eastern and Western Churches. But in this council, and later, in that of Florence, Traversari, by his efforts and charity toward some indigent Greek bishops, greatly helped to bring about a union of the two Churches, the decree for which, 6 July 1439, he was called on to prepare a draft.

Ambrose Traversari died soon after. His feastday is celebrated by the Camaldolese Order on 20 November.

Character
According to the author of his biography in the eleventh edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica: "Ambrose is interesting as typical of the new humanism which was growing up within the church. Thus while among his own colleagues he seemed merely a hypocritical and arrogant priest, in his relations with his brother humanists, such as Cosimo de' Medici, he appeared as the student of classical antiquities and especially of Greek theological authors".

Works
His works include a treatise on the Holy Eucharist, one on the Procession of the Holy Spirit, many lives of saints, as well as a history of his term as prior general of the Camaldolese. He also translated from Greek into Latin a life of John Chrysostom (Venice, 1533); the Spiritual Wisdom of John Moschus; The Ladder of Divine Ascent of John Climacus (Venice, 1531), P.G., LXXXVIII. Between 1424 and 1433 he worked on the translation of the Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers by Diogenes Laërtius, which came to be widely circulated in manuscript form. He also translated four books against the errors of the Greeks, by Manuel Kalekas, Patriarch of Constantinople, a Dominican friar (Ingolstadt, 1608), P.G., CLII, col. 13-661, a work known only through Ambrose's translation.

He also translated many homilies of John Chrysostom; the writings of Dionysius Areopagita (1436); Basil of Caesarea's treatise on virginity; thirty-nine discourses of Ephrem the Syrian, and many other works of the Fathers and writers of the Greek Church. Jean Mabillon's Letters and Orations of St. Ambrose of Camaldoli was published in Florence in 1759.

Selected works:
 * Hodoeporicon, diary of a journey visiting the monasteries of Italy
 * Epistolarium, correspondence
 * translations of
 * Palladius, Life of Chrysostom
 * Ephraem Syrus, Nineteen Sermons of Ephraem Syrus
 * Basil of Caesarea, On Virginity
 * Diogenes Laërtius, Vitae philosophorum (Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers)
 * Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (1436)

A number of his manuscripts remain in the library of Saint Mark in Venice.

title: Ambrose Traversari


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Ambrosians

Ambrosians are members of one of the religious brotherhoods which at various times since the 14th century have sprung up in and around Milan, Italy. In the 16th century, a sect of Anabaptist Ambrosians was founded.

Orders

Only the oldest of the Catholic Ambrosians, the Fratres S. Ambrosii ad Nemus, had anything more than a very local significance. This order is known from a bull of Pope Gregory XI addressed to the monks of the church of St Ambrose outside Milan.

Saint Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, certainly did not found religious orders, though he took an interest in the monastic life and watched over its beginnings in his diocese, providing for the needs of a monastery outside the walls of Milan, as Saint Augustine recounts in his Confessions. Ambrose also made successful efforts to improve the moral life of women in the Milan of his time by promoting the permanent institution of Virgins, as also of widows. His exhortations and other interventions have survived in various writings: De virginibus, De viduis, De virginitate, De institutione virginis, De exhortatione virginitatis, and De lapsu virginis consecratae. Ambrose was the only Father of the Church to leave behind so many writings on the subject and his attentions naturally enough led to the formation of communities which later became formal monasteries of women.

It is against this background that two religious orders or congregations—one of men and one of women, when founded in the Milan area during the 13th and 15th centuries—took Saint Ambrose as their patron and hence adopted his name.

Order of St Ambrose
The first of these groups was formed in a wood outside Milan by three noble Milanese, Alexander Grivelli, Antonio Petrasancta, and Albert Besuzzi, who were joined by others, including some priests. In 1375 Pope Gregory XI gave them the Rule of St Augustine, with set of constitutions. As a canonically recognized order they took the name "Fratres Sancti Ambrosii ad Nemus" and adopted a habit consisting of a brown tunic, scapular, and hood. The brethren elected a superior with the title of prior who was then instituted by the Archbishop of Milan. The priests of the congregation undertook preaching and other tasks of the ministry but were not allowed to accept charge parishes. In the liturgy they followed the Ambrosian Rite. Various monasteries were founded on these lines, but without any formal bond between them. In 1441 Pope Eugene IV merged them into one congregation called "Congregatio Sancti Ambrosii ad Nemus", made the original house the main seat, and laid down a system of government whereby a general chapter met every three years, elected the priors who stayed in office till the next chapter. There was a rector, or superior general, who was assisted by two "visitors".

Saint Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, successfully reformed their discipline, grown lax, in 1579. In 1589 Pope Sixtus V united to the Congregation of St Ambrose the monasteries of a group known as the "Brothers of the Apostles of the Poor Life" (or "Apostolini" or "Brothers of St. Barnabas"), whose houses were in the province of Genoa and in the March of Ancona. This was an order that had been founded by Giovanni Scarpa at the end of the 15th century. The union was confirmed by Pope Paul V in 1606, at which time the congregation added the name of St. Barnabas to its title, adopted new constitutions, divided its houses into four provinces, two of them, St Clement's and St Pancras's, being in Rome. Published works have survived from the pen of Ascanio Tasca and Michele Mulozzani, each of whom was superior-general, and of Zaccaria Visconti, Francesco-Maria Guazzi and Paolo Fabulotti. Although various Ambrosians were given the title of Blessed in recognition of their holiness: Antonio Gonzaga of Mantua, Filippo of Fermo, and Gerardo of Monza, the order was eventually dissolved by Pope Innocent X in 1650.

Nuns
The Nuns of St Ambrose (Ambrosian Sisters) wore a habit of the same colour as the Brothers of St Ambrose, conformed to their constitutions, and followed the Ambrosian Rite, but were independent in government. Pope Sixtus IV gave the nuns canonical status in 1474. Their one monastery was on the top of Monte Varese, near Lago Maggiore, on the spot where their foundress, the Blessed Catarina Morigia (or Catherine of Palanza), had first led a solitary life. Other early nuns were the Blessed Juliana of Puriselli, Benedetta Bimia, and Lucia Alciata. The nuns were esteemed by St Charles Borromeo.

Another group of cloistered "Nuns of St Ambrose", also called the Annunciatae (Italian: Annunziate) of Lombardy or "Sisters of St Marcellina", were founded in 1408 by three young women of Pavia, Dorothea Morosini, Eleonora Contarini, and Veronica Duodi. Their houses, scattered throughout Lombardy and Venetia, were united into a congregation by St Pius V, under the Rule of St Augustine with a mother-house, residence of the prioress general, at Pavia. One of the nuns in this group was Saint Catharine Fieschi Adorno, who died on September 14, 1510.

Oblates of St. Ambrose and of St. Charles
In some sense also "Ambrosians" are the members of a diocesan religious society founded by St Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan. All priests or destined to become priests, they took a simple vow of obedience to their bishop. The model for this was a society that already existed at Brescia, under the name of "Priests of Peace". In August 1578 the new society was inaugurated, being entrusted with the church of the Holy Sepulchre and given the name of "Oblates of St. Ambrose." They later received the approbation of Gregory XIII. St Charles died in 1584. These Oblates were dispersed by Napoleon I in 1810, while another group called the Oblates of Our Lady of Rho escaped this fate. In 1848 they were reorganized and given the name of "Oblates of St. Charles" and reassigned the house of the Holy Sepulchre. In the course of the 19th century similar groups were founded in a number of countries, including the "Oblates of St Charles", established in London by Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman.

title: Ambrosians


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Ambrosiaster

Ambrosiaster or Pseudo-Ambrose is the name given to the unknown author of a commentary on the epistles of Saint Paul, written some time between 366 and 384AD. The name "Ambrosiaster" in Latin means "would-be Ambrose". Various conjectures have been made as to Ambrosiaster's true identity, and several other works have been attributed to the same author, with varying degrees of certainty.

Identity
Pseudo-Ambrose was the name given by Erasmus to refer to the author of a volume containing the first complete Latin commentary on the Pauline epistles.

Attempts to identify Ambrosiaster with known authors has continued, but with no success. Because Augustine cites Ambrosiaster's commentary on Romans 5:12 under the name of "Hilary", many critics have attempted to identify Ambroasiaster with one of the many writers named "Hilary" active in the period. In 1899, Germain Morin suggested that the writer was Isaac, a converted Jew and writer of a tract on the Trinity and Incarnation, who was exiled to Spain in 378–380 and then relapsed to Judaism. Morin afterwards abandoned this theory of the authorship in favour of Decimus Hilarianus Hilarius, proconsul of Africa in 377. Alternatively, Paolo Angelo Ballerini attempted to sustain the traditional attribution of the work to Ambrose, in his complete edition of that Father's work. This is extremely problematic, though, since it would require Ambrose to have written the book before he became a bishop, and then added to it in later years, incorporating later remarks of Hilary of Poitiers on Romans. No identifications, therefore, have acquired lasting popularity with scholars, and Ambrosiaster's identity remains a mystery.

Internal evidence from the documents has been taken to suggest that the author was active in Rome during the period of Pope Damasus, and, almost certainly, a member of the clergy.

Commentary on Paul
The Commentary on Thirteen Pauline Letters is considered valuable as evidence of the state of the Latin text of Paul's epistles before the appearance of the Vulgate of Jerome, and as an example of Pauline interpretation prior to Augustine of Hippo. It was traditionally ascribed to Ambrose, but in 1527, Erasmus threw doubt on the accuracy of this ascription, and the anonymous author came to be known as "Ambrosiaster". It was once thought that Erasmus coined this name; however, René Hoven, in 1969, showed that this was incorrect, and that credit should actually be given to the Maurists. Later scholars have followed Hoven in this assessment, although it has also been suggested that the name originated with Franciscus Lucas Brugensis.

Other works
Several other works which now survive only as fragments have been attributed to this same author. These include a commentary on Matthew 24, and discussions on the parable of the leaven, the denial of Peter, and Jesus's arrest. In 1905, Alexander Souter established that Ambrosiaster was also the author of the Quaestiones Veteris et Novi Testamenti, a lengthy collection of exegetical and polemical tractates which manuscripts have traditionally ascribed to Augustine.

Other works ascribed to the same author, less definitely, are the Lex Dei sive Mosaicarum et Romanorum legum collatio, De bello judaico, and the fragmentary Contra Arianos sometimes ascribed to the pseudo-Hilary and the sermo 246 of pseudo-Augustine. They mention Simon Magus.

Influence
Many scholars argue that Ambrosiaster's works were essentially Pelagian, although this is disputed. Pelagius cited him extensively. For example, Alfred Smith argued that Pelagius got his views on predestination and original sin from Ambrosiaster. However, Augustine also made use of Ambrosiaster's commentaries.

title: Ambrosiaster