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Geography of Jamaica

Jamaica lies 140 km (87 mi) south of Cuba and 118 mi west of Haiti. At its greatest extent, Jamaica is 146 mi long, and its width varies between 34 and 84 km. Jamaica has a small area of 10,992 km2. However, Jamaica is the largest island of the Commonwealth Caribbean and the third largest of the Greater Antilles, after Cuba and Hispaniola. Many small islands are located along the south coast of Jamaica, such as the Port Royal Cays. Southwest of mainland Jamaica lies Pedro Bank, an area of shallow seas, with a number of cays (low islands or reefs), extending generally east to west for over 160 km. To the southeast lies Morant Bank, with the Morant Cays, 51 km from Morant Point, the easternmost point of mainland Jamaica. Alice Shoal, 260 km southwest of the main island of Jamaica, falls within the Jamaica–Colombia Joint Regime. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of 258,137 km2.

Geology and landforms
Jamaica (which is a very mountainous country) and the other islands of the Antilles evolved from an arc of ancient volcanoes that rose from the sea millions of years ago. During periods of submersion, thick layers of limestone were laid down over the old igneous and metamorphic rock. In many places, the limestone is thousands of feet thick. The country can be divided into three landform regions: the eastern mountains, the central valleys and plateaus, and the coastal plains.

The highest area is the Blue Mountains range. These eastern mountains are formed by a central ridge of metamorphic rock running northwest to southeast from which many long spurs jut to the north and south. For a distance of over 3 km, the crest of the ridge exceeds 1800 m. The highest point is Blue Mountain Peak at 7402 ft. The Blue Mountains rise to these elevations from the coastal plain in the space of about 16 km, thus producing one of the steepest general gradients in the world. In this part of the country, the old metamorphic rock reveals itself through the surrounding limestone. To the north of the Blue Mountains lies the strongly tilted limestone plateau forming the John Crow Mountains. This range rises to elevations of over 1000 m. To the west, in the central part of the country, are two high rolling plateaus: the Dry Harbour Mountains to the north and the Manchester Plateau to the south. Between the two, the land is rugged and here, also, the limestone layers are broken by the older rocks. Streams that rise in the region flow outward and sink soon after reaching the limestone layers.

The limestone plateau covers two-thirds of the country, so that karst formations dominate the island. Karst is formed by the erosion of the limestone in solution. Sinkholes, caves and caverns, disappearing streams, hummocky hills, and terra rosa (residual red) soils in the valleys are distinguishing features of a karst landscape; all these are present in Jamaica. To the west of the mountains is the rugged terrain of the Cockpit Country, one of the world's most dramatic examples of karst topography.

The Cockpit Country is pockmarked with steep-sided hollows, as much as 15 m deep in places, which are separated by conical hills and ridges. On the north, the main defining feature is the fault-based "Escarpment", a long ridge that extends from Flagstaff in the west, through Windsor in the centre, to Campbells and the start of the Barbecue Bottom Road (B10). The Barbecue Bottom Road, which runs north-south, high along the side of a deep, fault-based valley in the east, is the only drivable route across the Cockpit Country. However, there are two old, historical trails that cross further west, the Troy Trail, and the Quick Step Trail, both of which are seldom used and difficult to find. In the southwest, near Quick Step, is the district known as the "Land of Look Behind," so named because Spanish horsemen venturing into this region of hostile runaway slaves were said to have ridden two to a mount, one rider facing to the rear to keep a precautionary watch. Where the ridges between sinkholes in the plateau area have dissolved, flat-bottomed basins or valleys have been formed that are filled with terra rosa soils, some of the most productive on the island. The largest basin is the Vale of Clarendon, 80 km long and 32 km wide. Queen of Spains Valley, Nassau Valley, and Cave Valley were formed by the same process.

Coasts
The coastline of Jamaica is one of many contrasts. The northeast shore is severely eroded by the ocean. There are many small inlets in the rugged coastline, but no coastal plain of any extent. A narrow strip of plains along the northern coast offers calm seas and white sand beaches. Behind the beaches is a flat raised plain of uplifted coral reef.

The southern coast has small stretches of plains lined by black sand beaches. These are backed by cliffs of limestone where the plateaus end. In many stretches with no coastal plain, the cliffs drop 300 m straight to the sea. In the southwest, broad plains stretch inland for a number of kilometres. The Black River courses 70 km through the largest of these plains. The Rio Minho is 92.8 km long and is the longest river in Jamaica (previously, the Black River was thought to be the longest). The swamplands of the Great Morass and the Upper Morass fill much of the plains. The western coastline contains the island's finest beaches.

Climate

Two types of climate are found in Jamaica. An upland tropical climate prevails on the windward side of the mountains, whereas a semiarid climate predominates on the leeward side. Warm trade winds from the east and northeast bring rainfall throughout the year. The rainfall is heaviest from May to October, with peaks in those two months. The average rainfall is 1960 mm per year. Rainfall is much greater in the mountain areas facing the north and east, however. Where the higher elevations of the John Crow Mountains and the Blue Mountains catch the rain from the moisture-laden winds, rainfall exceeds 5080 mm per year. Since the southwestern half of the island lies in the rain shadow of the mountains, it has a semiarid climate and receives fewer than 760 mm of rainfall annually.

Temperatures in Jamaica are fairly constant throughout the year, averaging 23.5 to 30 °C in the lowlands and 15 to 22 °C at higher elevations. Temperatures may dip to below 10 °C at the peaks of the Blue Mountains. The island receives, in addition to the northeast trade winds, refreshing onshore breezes during the day and cooling offshore breezes at night. These are known on Jamaica as the "Doctor Breeze" and the "Undertaker's Breeze," respectively.

Jamaica lies in the Main Development Region for tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic, and as a result, it sometimes experiences significant storm damage. Powerful hurricanes which have hit the island directly causing death and destruction include Hurricane Charlie in 1951 and Hurricane Gilbert in 1988. Several other powerful hurricanes have passed near to the island with damaging effects. In 1980, for example, Hurricane Allen destroyed nearly all Jamaica's banana crop. Hurricane Ivan (2004) swept past the island causing heavy damage and a number of deaths; in 2005, Hurricanes Dennis and Emily brought heavy rains to the island. A Category 4 hurricane, Hurricane Dean, caused some deaths and heavy damage to Jamaica in August 2007.

The first recorded hurricane to hit Jamaica was in 1519. The island has been struck by tropical cyclones regularly. During two of the coldest periods in the last 250 years (1780s and 1810s), the frequency of hurricanes in the Jamaica region was unusually high. Another peak of activity occurred in the 1910s, the coldest decade of the 20th century. On the other hand, hurricane formation was greatly diminished from 1968 to 1994, which for some reason coincides with the great Sahel drought.

Vegetation and wildlife
Although most of Jamaica's native vegetation has been stripped in order to make room for cultivation, some areas have been left virtually undisturbed since the time of European colonization. Indigenous vegetation can be found along the northern coast, from Rio Bueno to Discovery Bay, in the highest parts of the Blue Mountains, and in the heart of the Cockpit Country.

As in the case of vegetation, considerable loss of wildlife has occurred, beginning with the settlement of the Taíno in the region millennia ago. For example, the Caribbean monk seal (Neomonachus tropicalis) once occurred in Jamaican waters, and has now been driven to extinction. Mongooses (Urva auropunctata), introduced to Jamaica in 1872 to reduce rat populations that damaged commercial sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) crops, prey on several Jamaican species, including the critically endangered Jamaican iguana (Cyclura collei), and have been implicated in the historical population declines and extinctions of many others.

Other wildlife species inhabiting the island include the West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus), the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus), and the endemic and endangered Homerus swallowtail butterfly (Papilio homerus), which is the largest butterfly species in the Western Hemisphere.

Extreme points

 * Northernmost point: Half Moon Point, Saint James Parish
 * Southernmost point: Portland Point, Clarendon Parish
 * Westernmost point: South Negril Point, Westmoreland Parish
 * Easternmost point: Morant Point, Saint Thomas Parish

Environmental policy
There are policies that are being put into place to help preserve the ocean and the life below water. The goal of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is to improve the quality of life of human communities who depend on coastal resources while maintaining the biological diversity and productivity of coastal ecosystems. Developing an underdeveloped country can impact the oceans ecosystem because of all the construction that would be done to develop the country. Over-building, driven by powerful market forces as well as poverty among some sectors of the population, and destructive exploitation contribute to the decline of ocean and coastal resources. Developing practices that will contribute to the lives of the people but also to the life of the ocean and its ecosystem. Some of these practices include: Develop sustainable fisheries practices, ensure sustainable mariculture techniques and practices, sustainable management of shipping, and promote sustainable tourism practices. As for tourism, tourism is the number one source of foreign exchange earnings in Jamaica and, as such is vital to the national economy. Tourist typically go to countries unaware of issues and how they impact those issues. Tourist are not going to be used to living in a different style compared to their own country. Practices such as: provide sewage treatment facilities for all tourist areas, determine carrying capacity of the environment prior to planning tourism activities, provide alternative types of tourist activities can help to get desired results such as the development of alternative tourism which will reduce the current pressure on resources that support traditional tourism activities. A study was conducted to see how tourist could help with sustainable financing for ocean and coastal management in Jamaica. Instead of using tourist fees they would call them environmental fees. This study aims to inform the relevant stakeholders of the feasibility of implementing environmental fees as well as the likely impact of such revenue generating instruments on the current tourist visitation rates to the island. The development of a user fee system would help fund environmental management and protection. The results show that tourists have a high consumer surplus associated with a vacation in Jamaica, and have a significantly lower willingness to pay for a tourism tax when compared to an environmental tax. The findings of the study show that the "label" of the tax and as well as the respondent's awareness of the institutional mechanisms for environmental protection and tourism are important to their decision framework. Tourist are more willing to pay for environmental fees rather than tourist tax fees. A tax high enough to fund for environmental management and protection but low enough to continue to bring tourist to Jamaica. It has been shown that if an environmental tax of $1 per person were introduced it would not cause a significant decline in visitation rates and would generate revenues of US$1.7M per year.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Geography of Jamaica


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Demographics of Jamaica

Jamaica is an island country in the Caribbean. The country had a population of 2,825,352 in 2023, the fourth largest in the region.

Jamaica's annual population growth rate stood at 0.08% in 2022. As of 2023, Jamaicans of African descent represent 92.1% of the population, followed by 6.1% Afro-European or Brown, 0.8% East Indian and Afro-East Indian, >0.8 % Caucasian, 0.4% Chinese and 0.2% other. 68.9% of Jamaicans were Christians in 2011, predominantly Protestant.

Population
According to the total population was  in, compared to only 1,403,000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 29%, 63.1% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 7.8% was 65 years or older.

Life expectancy at birth
Source: UN World Population Prospects

Other sources of demographic statistics
Demographic statistics below are based on the 2022 World Population Review.

 * One birth every 12 minutes
 * One death every 23 minutes
 * One net migrant every 46 minutes
 * Net gain of one person every 45 minutes

The following demographic statistics are from The World Factbook by the CIA, unless otherwise referenced.

Population

 * 2,818,596 (2022 est.)
 * 2,990,561 (July 2017)

Age structure

 * 0-14 years: 25.2% (male 360,199/female 347,436)
 * 15-24 years: 17.95% (male 255,102/female 248,927)
 * 25-54 years: 38.06% (male 518,583/female 550,410)
 * 55-64 years: 9.63% (male 133,890/female 136,442)
 * 65 years and over: 9.17% (2020 est.) (male 121,969/female 135,612)

Birth rate
11.4 births/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 103rd

Death rate

 * 7.43 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 108th

Total fertility rate

 * 1.31 children born/woman (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 98th

Population growth rate

 * 0.08% (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 189th
 * 0.68% (2017)

Net migration rate

 * -7.7 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 219th
 * -4.3 migrant(s)/1,000 population

Median age

 * total: 29.4 years. Country comparison to the world: 131st
 * male: 28.6 years
 * female: 30.1 years (2020 est.)

Mother's mean age at first birth

 * 21.2 years (2008 est.)
 * note: median age at first birth among women 25–29

Urbanization

 * urban population: 57% of total population (2022)
 * rate of urbanisation: 0.79% annual rate of change (2020–25 est.)

Education expenditures

 * 5.4% of GDP (2020) Country comparison to the world: 43rd

Life expectancy at birth

 * total population: 75.75 years. Country comparison to the world: 116th
 * male: 73.98 years
 * female: 77.6 years (2022 est.)

Infant mortality rate

 * Total: 13.37 deaths/1,000 live births
 * Male: 13.93 deaths/1,000 live births
 * Female: 12.78 deaths/1,000 live births (2015 est.)

Literacy
definition: age 15 and over has ever attended school
 * total population: 88.7%
 * male: 84%
 * female: 93.1% (2015)

School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)

 * total: 12 years
 * male: 11 years
 * female: 13 years (2015)

Unemployment, youth ages 15–24

 * total: 20.6%
 * male: 16.8%
 * female: 25.4% (2019 est.)

Languages
English, Jamaican Patois

Religion
Protestant 64.8% (includes Seventh Day Adventist 12.0%, Pentecostal 11.0%, Other Church of God 9.2%, New Testament Church of God 7.2%, Baptist 6.7%, Church of God in Jamaica 4.8%, Church of God of Prophecy 4.5%, Anglican 2.8%, United Church 2.1%, Methodist 1.6%, Revived 1.4%, Brethren 0.9%, and Moravian 0.7%), Roman Catholic 2.2%, Jehovah's Witness 1.9%, Rastafarian 1.1%, other 6.5%, none 21.3%, unspecified 2.3% (2011 est.)

Ethnic groups
Black 92.1%, mixed 6.1%, East Indian 0.8%, other 0.4%, unspecified 0.7% (2011 est.)

Nationality

 * Noun: Jamaican(s)
 * Adjective: Jamaican

title: Demographics of Jamaica


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Politics of Jamaica

Politics in Jamaica takes place in the framework of a representative parliamentary democratic constitutional monarchy. The 1962 Constitution of Jamaica established a parliamentary system whose political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom. As the head of state, King Charles III - on the advice of the Prime Minister of Jamaica - appoints a governor-general as his representative in Jamaica. The governor-general has a largely ceremonial role, with their parliamentary function consisting simply of granting royal assent to bills which have passed Parliament. Jamaica constitutes an independent Commonwealth realm.

The Constitution vests executive power in the Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested both in the government and in the Parliament of Jamaica. The Prime Minister is appointed by the governor-general, the common convention being the leader of the largest party in Parliament.

A bipartisan joint committee of the Jamaican legislature drafted Jamaica's current Constitution in 1962. That Constitution came into force with the Jamaica Independence Act, 1962 of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which gave Jamaica political independence. Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of worship, freedom of movement, and freedom of association.

The judiciary operates independently of the executive and the legislature, with jurisprudence based on English common law.

The Economist rated Jamaica a 'flawed democracy' in 2023.

Legislative branch
Parliament is composed of an appointed Senate and an elected House of Representatives. The House consists of 63 directly elected members, who appoint their own speaker and deputy speaker. The senate has 21 members appointed for a single parliamentary term; 13 senators are nominated on the advice of the prime minister and 8 on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition. Senate members then elect their own president and deputy president, as long as they are not a minister or parliamentary secretary.

The House of Representatives is where most bills are initiated and where most members of the Cabinet, the Prime Minister included, sit. Every bill, to be passed into law, must be approved by the House, with a quorum of 16 members, in addition to the presiding officer, required for a vote to take place. The House determines all government finance, allocating funds and levying taxes. The House is presided over by the Speaker, who ensures the rules of the chamber are observed, and the Leader of the House, who determines what business will be done each day.

The Senate's main role is reviewing bills passed by the House, however, it may initiate bills as long as they are not to do with money. It may not delay budget bills for more than one month or other bills for more than seven months. No more than 4 members of the cabinet may be selected from the Senate.

Any Commonwealth citizen aged 21 or over who has lives in Jamaica for at least a year before the election is eligible to be elected to the Legislature. Those illegible to be elected consist of those in the defence force, those serving a foreign government, those serving in a public office or justices of the Supreme Court or Court of Appeals.

Political parties and elections

 * Jamaica Labour Party
 * Marcus Garvey People's Political Party
 * National Democratic Movement
 * New Nation Coalition
 * People's National Party

Executive branch
The 1962 Constitution established a parliamentary system based on the United Kingdom's Westminster model. As head of state, King Charles III appoints a governor-general, on the advice of the prime minister, as his representative in Jamaica. The governor-general's role is largely ceremonial. Their role is to appoint senior officials of the state, on request from the Prime Minister, and to grant royal assent to bills that have passed Parliament.

Executive power is vested in the King, but exercised mostly by the Cabinet of Jamaica; led by the Prime Minister, currently Andrew Holness. The Cabinet consists of at least 11 ministers, each delegated a ministry to preside over and direct government policy from. Additionally, there are special bodies called statutory bodies which have direct authority over certain aspects of Government business.

Elections
General elections must be held within five years of the forming of a new government, however, a general election can be held early if the governing party advises the governor-general to do so, or if a majority of members of the House pass a no-confidence motion against the government.

Judicial branch
The judiciary also is modelled on the British system. The Court of Appeal is the highest appellate court in Jamaica. Under certain circumstances, cases may be appealed to Britain's Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Jamaica's parishes have elected councils that exercise limited powers of local government.

Firearms offences, including possession of unlicensed guns and ammunition, are tried before a dedicated Gun Court established in 1974. The Gun Court hears cases in camera and practices jury trial only for cases of treason or murder. All other cases are tried by resident magistrates or justices of the Supreme Court of Jamaica.

Administrative divisions
Jamaica is divided in 14 parishes: Clarendon, Hanover, Kingston, Manchester, Portland, St. Andrew, St. Ann, St. Catherine, St. Elizabeth, St. James, St. Mary, St. Thomas, Trelawny, Westmoreland. All parishes are governed by a directly elected parish council, except for Kingston and St. Andrew's which are governed by the same body. According to the Jamaican government website, these authorities are responsible for 'maintaining infrastructure and public facilities such as parochial roads, water supplies, drains, parks and recreational centres, markets, transportation centres and public sanitary conveniences'. Some parish capitals also have mayors.

Regulatory services
Responsibility for water and sanitation policies within the government rests with the Ministry of Water and Housing, and the main service provider is the National Water Commission. An autonomous regulatory agency, the Office of Utilities Regulation (OUR), approves tariffs and establishes targets for efficiency increases, and also oversees the telecommunications industry.

Foreign relations
Jamaica has diplomatic relations with most nations and is a member of the United Nations, The Commonwealth and the Organization of American States. Historically, Jamaica has had close ties with the UK. Trade, financial, and cultural relations with the United States are now predominant. Jamaica is linked with the other countries of the English-speaking Caribbean through the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), and more broadly through the Association of Caribbean States (ACS).

title: Politics of Jamaica


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Economy of Jamaica

The economy of Jamaica is heavily reliant on services, accounting for 71% of the country's GDP. Jamaica has natural resources and a climate conducive to agriculture and tourism. The discovery of bauxite in the 1940s and the subsequent establishment of the bauxite-alumina industry shifted Jamaica's economy from sugar, and bananas.

Weakness in the financial sector, speculation, and lower levels of investment erode confidence in the productive sector. The government continues its efforts to raise new sovereign debt in local and international financial markets in order to meet its U.S. dollar debt obligations, to mop up liquidity to maintain the exchange rate and to help fund the current budget deficit.

The Jamaican government's economic policies encourage foreign investment in areas that earn or save foreign exchange, generate employment, and use local raw materials. The government also provides a wide range of incentives to investors.

Free trade zones have stimulated investment in garment assembly, light manufacturing, and data entry by foreign firms. However, over the last 5 years, the garment industry has suffered from reduced export earnings, continued factory closures, and rising unemployment. The Government of Jamaica hopes to encourage economic activity through a combination of privatization, financial sector restructuring, reduced interest rates, and by boosting tourism and related productive activities.

Economic history
Before independence, Jamaica's economy was largely focused on agriculture with the vast majority of the labor force engaged in the production of sugar, bananas, and tobacco. According to one study, 18th century Jamaica had the highest wealth inequality in the world, as a very small, slave-owning elite was extremely wealthy while the rest of the population lived on the edge of subsistence.

These products were mainly exported to the United Kingdom, Canada, and to the United States of America. Jamaica's trade relationships expanded substantially from 1938 to 1946, with total imports almost doubling from £6,485,000 to £12,452,000. After 1962, the Jamaican government pushed for economic growth and all sectors excluding bauxite/alumina, energy, and tourism had shrunk between 1998 and 1999. In 2000, Jamaica experienced its first year of positive growth since 1995 due to continued tight macroeconomic policies.

Inflation fell from 25% in 1995 to single digits in 2000, reaching a multidecade low of 4.3% in 2004. Through periodic intervention in the market, the central bank also has prevented any abrupt drop in the exchange rate. The Jamaican dollar has been slipping, despite intervention, resulting in an average exchange rate of J$73.40 per US$1.00 and J136.2 per €1.00 (February 2011). In addition, inflation has been trending upward since 2004 and is projected to once again reach a double digit rate of 12-13% through the year 2008 due to a combination of unfavorable weather damaging crops and increasing agricultural imports and high energy prices.

Over the last 30 years, real per capita GDP increased at an average of just one percent per year, making Jamaica one of the slowest growing developing countries in the world.

To reverse this trajectory, the Government of Jamaica embarked on a comprehensive and ambitious program of reforms for which it has garnered national and international support: a four-year Extended Fund Facility (EFF)  by  the International Monetary Fund (IMF) providing  a  support package of US$932 million;  World Bank Group and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) programs providing  US$510 million each to facilitate the GoJ's economic reform agenda to stabilize the economy, reduce debt and create the conditions for growth and resilience.. In addition, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) will continue to support private sector development.

The reform program is beginning to bear fruit: Institutional reforms and measures to improve the environment for the private sector have started to restore confidence in the Jamaican economy. Jamaica jumped 27 places to 58 among 189 economies worldwide in the 2015 Doing Business ranking, the country's credit rating has improved and the Government has successfully raised more than US$2 billion in the international capital in the markets in 2014 and 2015..

Despite some revival, economic growth is still low: the Jamaican Government is forecasting real gross domestic product (GDP) growth of 1.9 per cent for the fiscal year 2015/2016 and the country continues to be confronted by serious social issues that predominantly affect youth, such as high levels of crime and violence and high unemployment. Jamaica, which had seen its poverty rate drop almost 20 percent over two decades, saw it increase by eight percent in a few years.

The unemployment rate in Jamaica is approximately 6.0% (April 2022, Statistical Institute of Jamaica), with youth unemployment more than twice the national rate, albeit trending downwards (15%). However, among Jamaica's assets are its skilled labor force and strong social and governance indicators.

Agriculture
Agricultural production is an important contributor to Jamaica's economy. However, it is vulnerable to extreme weather, such as hurricanes and to competition from neighbouring countries such as the USA. Other difficulties faced by farmers include thefts from the farm, known as praedial larceny. Agricultural production accounted for 7.4% of GDP in 1997, providing employment for nearly a quarter of the country. Jamaica's agriculture, together with forestry and fishing, accounted for about 6.6% of GDP in 1999. Sugar has been produced in Jamaica for centuries, it is the nation's dominant agricultural export. Sugar is produced in nearly every parish. The production of raw sugar in the year 2000 was estimated at 175,000 tons, a decrease from 290,000 tons in 1978. Jamaican agriculture has been less prominent in GDP in the 2000s than other industries, hitting an all-time low between 2004 and 2008. This may have been due to a reaction to increased competition as international trade policies were enacted. For example, as NAFTA was enacted in 1993, a significant amount of Caribbean exports to the United States diminished, being out competed by Latin American exports. Another example is the Banana Import Regime's 3rd phase, in which EU nations had first given priority in banana imports to previously colonized nations. Under pressure by the World Trade Organization, the EU policy was altered to provide a non-discriminatory trade agreement. Jamaica's banana industry was easily outpriced by American companies exporting Latin American goods. Jamaica's agriculture industry is now bouncing back, growing from being 6.6% of GDP to 7.2%.

Sugar formed 7.1% of the exports in 1999 and Jamaica made up about 4.8% of the total production of sugar in the Caribbean. Sugar is also used for the production of by-products such as molasses, rum and some wallboard is made from bagasse.

Banana production in 1999 was 130,000 tons. Bananas formed 2.4% of the exports in 1999 and Jamaica formed around 7.5% of the total production of banana in the Caribbean. Jamaica stopped exporting banana in 2008 after suffering from several years of hurricanes that devastated the plantations.

Coffee is mainly grown around the Blue Mountains and in hilly areas. One type in particular, Jamaican Blue Mountain Coffee, is considered among the best in the world because at those heights in the Blue Mountains, the cooler climate causes the berries to take longer to ripen and the beans develop more of the substances which on roasting give coffee its flavor. Coffee formed 1.9% of exports in 1999. The picking season lasts from August to March. The coffee is exported from Kingston.

Cocoa is grown throughout Jamaica and local sales absorb about 1/3 of the output to be made into instant drinks and confectionery. Citrus fruit is mainly grown in the central parts of Jamaica, particularly between the elevations of 1,000-2,500 feet. The picking season lasts from November to April. Two factories in Bog Walk produce fruit juices, canned fruit, essential oils and marmalade. Coconuts are grown on the northern and eastern coasts, which provide enough copra to supply factories to make butterine, margarine, lard, edible oil and laundry soap.

Vanilla is also grown.

Other export crops are pimento, ginger, tobacco, sisal and other fruit are exported. Rice is grown around swampy areas around the Black River & around Long Bay in Hanover and Westmoreland parishes for local consumption.

As tastes have changed in Jamaica in favor of more meat and packaged food the national food import bill has grown to the point that it threatens the health of the economy. The government has responded by encouraging gardening and farming, a response which has had limited success. For example, the percentage of potatoes grown locally has increased, but imports of french fries have continued at a high level.

Animal husbandry
Pastures form a good percentage of the land in Jamaica. Many properties specialize in cattle rearing. Livestock holdings were 400,000 head of cattle, 440,000 goats, 180,000 hogs & 30, rs of livestock are increasing, this isn't enough for local requirements for a growing population. Dairying has increased since the erection of a condensed milk factory at Bog Walk in 1940. Even so, the supply of dairy products is not enough for local requirements and there are large imports of powdered milk, butter and cheese.

Fishing

The fishing industry grew during the 1900s, primarily from the focus on inland fishing. Several thousand fishermen make a living from fishing. The shallow waters and cays off the south coast are richer than the northern waters. Other fishermen live on the Pedro Cays, 80 mi to the south of Jamaica. Jamaica supplies about half of its fish requirements; major imports of frozen and salted fish are imported from the United States and Canada.

The total catch in 2000 was 5,676 tons, a decrease from 11,458 tons in 1997; the catch was mainly marine, with freshwater carp, barbel, etc., crustaceans & molluscs.

Forestry
By the late 1890, only 185000 ha of Jamaica's original 1000000 ha of forest remained. Roundwood production was 881,000 cu m (31.1 million cu ft) in 2000. About 68% of the timber cut in 2000 was used as fuel wood while 32% was used for industrial use. The forests that once covered Jamaica now exist only in mountainous areas. They only supply 20% of the island timber requirements. The remaining forest is protected from further exploitation. Other accessible mountain areas are being reforested, mainly with pines, mahoe and mahogany.

Mining
Jamaica was the third-leading producer of bauxite and alumina in 1998, producing 12.6 million tons of bauxite, accounting for 10.4% of world production, and 3.46 million tons of alumina, accounting for 7.4% of world production. 8,540 million tons of bauxite was mined in 2012 and 10,200 million tons of bauxite in 2011.

Mining and quarrying made up 4.1% of the nation's gross domestic product in 1999. Bauxite and alumina formed 55.2% of exports in 1999 and are the second-leading money earner after tourism. Jamaica has reserves of over 2 billion tonnes, which are expected to last 100 years. Bauxite is found in the central parishes of St. Elizabeth, Manchester, Clarendon, St. Catherine, St. Ann, and Trelawny. There are four alumina plants and six mines.

Jamaica has deposits of several million tons of gypsum on the southern slopes of the Blue Mountains. Jamaica produced 330,441 tons of gypsum in the year 2000, some of which was used in the local cement industry and in the manufacturing of building materials.

Other minerals present in Jamaica include marble, limestone, and silica, as well as ores of copper, lead, zinc, manganese and iron. Some of these are worked in small quantities. Petroleum has been sought, but so far none has been found.

Manufacturing
The manufacturing sector is an essential contributor to the Jamaican economy. Though manufacturing accounted for 13.9% of GDP in 1999. Jamaican companies contribute many manufactures such as food processing; oil refining; produced chemicals, construction materials, plastic goods, paints, pharmaceuticals, cartons, leather goods and cigars & assembled electronics, textiles and apparel. The garment industry is a major job employer for thousands of hundreds of locals and they formed 12.9% of exports in 1999 earning US$159 million. Chemicals formed 3.3% of the exports in 1999 earning US$40 million.

A portion of the bauxite mined on the island is processed into alumina before export.

An oil refinery is located near Kingston converts crude petroleum obtained from Venezuela into gasoline and other products. These are mainly for local use. The construction industry is growing due to new hotels and attractions being built for tourism. Construction and installation formed 10.4% of the GDP in 1999.

Manufactured goods were imported and formed 30.3% of the imports and cost US$877 million in 1999.

Since the launch of the Jamaican Logistics Hub initiative, various economic zones have been proposed throughout the country to assemble goods from other parts of the world for distribution to the Americas.

Tourism
Tourism is tied with remittances as Jamaica's top source of revenue. The tourism industry earns over 50 percent of the country's total foreign exchange earnings and provides about one-fourth of all jobs in Jamaica. Most tourist activity is centered on the island's northern coast, including the communities of Montego Bay, Ocho Rios, and Port Antonio, as well as in Negril on the island's western tip.

Some destinations include Ocho Rios, Green Grotto Caves, Y.S. Falls and Appleton Estate. Most of the tourist sites are landmarks as well as homes for many Jamaicans. Many of the most frequented tourist sites are located mainly by water such as rivers and beaches where fishermen make a living from seafood. One of the most famous beach towns in Jamaica is Ocho Rios, a located in the parish of Saint Ann on the north coast of Jamaica. It was once a fishing village but now attracts millions of tourists yearly. The site is popular today because of the food and culture that can be found there.

Another famous location in Jamaica that attracts millions yearly is Dunn's River Falls, located in Ocho Rios; this waterfall is approximately 600 feet long and runs off into the sea. Around the location many hotels and restaurants are available and many street vendors sell food around the clock. Another well-known beach town is Negril, the party capital of the country. This beach town has many different factors to add to the night life.

Logistics
In April 2014, the Governments of Jamaica and China signed the preliminary agreements for the first phase of the Jamaican Logistics Hub (JLH) - the initiative that aims to position Kingston as the fourth node in the global logistics chain, joining Rotterdam, Dubai and Singapore, and serving the Americas. The Project, when completed, is expected to provide many jobs for Jamaicans, Economic Zones for multinational companies and much needed economic growth to alleviate the country's heavy debt-to-GDP ratio. Strict adherence to the IMF's refinancing programme and preparations for the JLH has favourably affected Jamaica's credit rating and outlook from the three biggest rating agencies.

ICT/BPO
Jamaica has made strides in developing its Information and Communications Technology (ICT) infrastructure.

As the largest English speaking territory in the Caribbean, Jamaica is the region's leading contact centre location with over 87 information communications technology/business process outsourcing (ICT/BPO) companies operating in the country employing 44,000 full-time agents.

Taxation/Tax Rates
Jamaican tax rates are extremely favourable in world standards, the brackets are as follows:

Separate Tax Rates apply for foreign nationals.

Economic Data
The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2018. Inflation below 5% is in green.

title: Economy of Jamaica


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Telecommunications in Jamaica

Telecommunications in Jamaica include the fixed and mobile telephone networks, radio, television, and the Internet.

Telecommunications
Jamaica is a member of the North American Numbering Plan (NANP). The NANP Administrator (NANPA) has allocated the area codes 876 and 658 for use in the country, which is a single numbering plan area (NPA) with an overlay numbering plan. The national telephone number format is NPA-NXX-XXXX, where N is one of the digits 2 through 9, and X is any digit.

For international dialing to Jamaica, the country code is 1.

For accessing international destinations from within Jamaica, the international call prefix is 011.

Calls from Jamaica to other NANP nations, such as the U.S. and Canada, are dialed as 1 + NANP area code + 7-digit number.

Jamaica has a fully digital telephone communication system.

 * Main lines: 265,000 lines in use, 123rd in the world (2011).
 * Mobile cellular: 2.7 million, 135th in the world (2012).
 * Telephone system: Fully automatic domestic telephone network; the 1999 agreement to open the market for telecommunications services resulted in rapid growth in mobile-cellular telephone usage while the number of fixed-lines in use declined (2011).
 * Teledensity: 110 per 100 persons (combined) (2011).
 * Satellite earth stations: 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2010).
 * Communication cables: Fibralink submarine cable links to the Americas Region Caribbean Ring System (ARCOS-1) submarine cable in the Dominican Republic and on to the US, parts of the Caribbean, Central and South America; the ALBA-1 fiber-optic submarine cable links Jamaica, Cuba, and Venezuela (2010).

Mobile telephony
The country's three mobile operators – Cable and Wireless (once marketed as LIME – Landline, Internet, Mobile and Entertainment now named FLOW), Digicel, and at one point Oceanic Digital (operating as MiPhone and now known as Claro since late 2008) until the carrier was acquired and the relevant spectrum sold to Digicel – have spent millions in network upgrade and expansion. Both Digicel and Oceanic Digital were granted licences in 2001 to operate mobile services in the newly liberalised telecom market that had once been the sole domain of the incumbent Cable and Wireless monopoly. Digicel opted for the more widely used GSM wireless system, while Oceanic opted for the CDMA standard. Cable and Wireless, which had begun with TDMA standard, subsequently upgraded to GSM, and currently utilises both standards on its network.

With wireless usage increasing, landlines supplied by Cable and Wireless have declined from just over half a million to roughly three hundred thousand as of 2006. In a bid to grab more market share, Cable and Wireless recently launched a new land line service called HomeFone Prepaid that would allow customers to pay for minutes they use rather than pay a set monthly fee for service, much like prepaid wireless service.

Two more licenses were auctioned by the Jamaican government to provide mobile services on the island, including one that was previously owned by AT&T Wireless but never utilized, and one new license.

Another entrant to the Jamaican communications market, FLOW, laid a new submarine cable connecting Jamaica to the United States. This new cable increases the total number of submarine cables connecting Jamaica internationally to four. The company's parent was acquired by Cable and Wireless Communications in November 2014 and finalized in March 2015. The new FLOW was re-launched as a successor to LIME and the old Flow on August 31, 2015; offering mobile, fixed voice, fixed broadband and TV services to the market. It has now become the first quad-play provider in Jamaica. The company runs a vast copper network (inherited from LIME) islandwide as well as a Hybrid Fiber and Coaxial network (from the old Flow) in the metropolitan areas of Kingston and Montego Bay. They also have small Fiber-to-the-home operations in certain sections of St. James that began in 2011 (under LIME). On the mobile side, the company had completed its 4G HSPA+ rollout (capable of speeds up to 21 Mbit/s) across the island in November 2015 and has announced plans to move to LTE within the year 2016. However, Digicel has become the first LTE network operator in Jamaica, going live with their network on June 9, 2016.

Radio and television

 * Radio stations: Privately owned Radio Jamaica Limited and its subsidiaries operate multiple radio stations; there are roughly 70 other privately owned radio stations (2007).
 * Radios: 1.215 million (1997).
 * Television stations: Privately owned Radio Jamaica Limited and its subsidiaries operate multiple TV stations as well as subscription cable services; there are 2 other privately owned television stations (2007).
 * Television sets: 460,000 (1997).

Internet

 * Internet top-level domain: .jm, registration of .jm domains is handled by MITS at the University of the West Indies, registration is free, although there has been some discussion about MITS making the service commercial in the coming years.
 * Internet users: 1.3 million users, 108th in the world; 46.5% of the population, 94th in the world (2012).
 * Fixed broadband: 125,188 subscriptions, 96th in the world; 4.3% of population, 109th in the world (2012).
 * Wireless broadband: 45,505 subscriptions, 127th in the world; 1.6% of the population, 128th in the world (2012).
 * Internet hosts: 3,906 hosts, 149th in the world (2012).
 * IPv4: 202,752 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 70.1 addresses per 1000 people (2012).

Internet censorship and surveillance
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight.

The law provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. An independent press, generally effective judicial protection, and a functioning democratic political system combine to ensure freedom of speech and press. The independent media are active and express a wide variety of views without restriction. Broadcast media were largely state owned, but open to pluralistic points of view. Although the constitution prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, in practice the police conduct searches without warrants.

A law decriminalizing defamation was passed by the Jamaican House of Representatives in November 2013 after being approved unanimously by the Senate the previous July. It took six years to amend the libel and slander laws, which – although little used – made media offences punishable by imprisonment.

title: Telecommunications in Jamaica


text:
Transport in Jamaica

Transport in Jamaica consists of roadways, railways, ship and air transport, with roadways forming the backbone of the island's internal transport  system.

Roadways
The Jamaican road network consists of almost 21,000 kilometres of roads, of which over 15,000 kilometres are paved. The Jamaican Government has, since the late 1990s and in cooperation with private investors, embarked on a campaign of infrastructural improvement projects, one of which includes the creation of a system of freeways, the first such access-controlled roadways of their kind on the island, connecting the main population centres of the island. This project has so far seen the completion of 33 kilometres of freeway.

The Highway 2000 project, which seeks ultimately to link Kingston with Montego Bay and the north coast, is currently undergoing a series of phases/legs. Phase 1 is the highway network between Kingston and Mandeville, which itself has been divided into sub-phases: Phase 1a (Kingston-Bushy Park (in actuality, Kingston-Sandy Bay) highway and the upgrade of the Portmore Causeway), which was completed June 2006, and Phase 1b (Sandy Bay-Williamsfield). Phase 2a is the highway between Old Harbour and Ocho Rios, and Phase 2b is the highway between Mandeville and Montego Bay.

total: 18700 km. paved: 13100 km. unpaved: 5600 km (1997 est.).

Buses
The Jamaica Omnibus Service (JOS) was a municipal bus system that served the Kingston metropolitan area that ran from 1953 to 1983. After being run by British Electric Traction, the JOS was nationalised by the Jamaican government in 1974. It was replaced by a hodgepodge of privately operated buses, and a national bus system called the Jamaica Urban Transit Company (JUTC) was established in 1998 after complaints. The JUTC presently oversees more than 70 routes in areas including Kingston and Spanish Town.

Coaches are a notable means of travel in Jamaica; a popular privately operated coach service is the Knutsford Express. The JUTC also provides charter buses. As for minibuses and route taxis, PPV number plates indicate licensed public transport, whereas JUTA plates indicate tourist routes.

Having been proposed in 2019, the JUTC began testing floating solar electric buses in 2022, hoping to gradually introduce electric buses into the fleet and eventually phase out diesel buses.

Railways
Railways in Jamaica, as in many other countries, no longer enjoy the prominent position they once did, having been largely replaced by roadways as the primary means of transport. Of the 272 kilometres of railway found in Jamaica, only 57 kilometres remain in operation, currently used to transport bauxite.

In 2008, with increasing traffic congestion, moves are being made to reconstruct old railway lines.

total: 370 km standard gauge: 370 km gauge. Of these, 207 km belong to the Jamaica Railway Corporation in common carrier service but are no longer operational. The other 163 km is privately owned and used to transport bauxite.

Air Transport
There are two international airports in Jamaica with modern terminals, long runways, and the navigational equipment required to accommodate the large jet aircraft used in modern air travel: Norman Manley International Airport in the capital, Kingston and Sangster International Airport in the resort city of Montego Bay. Both airports were once home to the country's (now defunct) national airline, Air Jamaica. In addition there are local commuter airports at Tinson Pen (Kingston), Port Antonio, Ocho Rios, Mandeville, and Negril that cater to internal flights only. The Ian Fleming International Airport opened in February 2011 to serve the Ocho Rios - Port Antonio area. Many other small, rural centres are served by private fields on sugar estates or bauxite mines.

Ports and Shipping
Owing to its location in the Caribbean Sea in the shipping lane to the Panama Canal and relative proximity to large markets in North America and emerging markets in Latin America, Jamaica receives high container traffic. The container terminal at the Port of Kingston has undergone large expansion in capacity in recent years to handle growth both already realised as well as what is projected in coming years. There are several other ports positioned around the island, including the alumina ports, Port Esquivel in St. Catherine (WINDALCO), Rocky Point in Clarendon and Port Kaiser in St. Elizabeth. Port Rhoades in Discovery Bay is responsible for transporting bauxite dried at the adjacent Kaiser plant. Reynolds Pier in Ocho Rios is responsible for exporting sugar. Montego Freeport in Montego Bay also handles a variety of cargo like (though more limited than) the Port of Kingston, mainly agricultural products. Boundbrook Port in Port Antonio exports bananas. There are also three cruise ship piers along the island, in Ocho Rios, Montego Bay and Port Antonio.

The Kingston port is situated in the Kingston Harbour, which is the 7th largest natural (i.e. not man made) harbour in the world.

Merchant marine

 * Total: 1 ship of over 1,000 GT: /.
 * Ships by type: petroleum tanker 1 (1999 est.).

Lighthouses
As the island is a large exporter of bauxite, there is considerable freighter traffic. To aid navigation, Jamaica operates nine lighthouses
 * Onshore: 7.
 * Offshore: 2.

Pipelines
Petroleum products: 10 km.

title: Transport in Jamaica


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Foreign relations of Jamaica

Jamaica has diplomatic relations with many nations and is a member of the United Nations and the Organization of American States. Jamaica chairs the Working Group on smaller Economies.

Jamaica is an active member of the Commonwealth of Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement (G-77). Jamaica is a beneficiary of the Lome Conventions, through which the European Union (EU) grants trade preferences to selected states in Asia, the Caribbean, and the Pacific, and has played a leading role in the negotiations of the successor agreement in Fiji in 2000.

Jamaica has been a member of The Forum of Small States (FOSS) since the group's founding in 1992.

Disputes - international: none

Illicit drugs: Transshipment point for cocaine from Central and South America to North America and Europe; illicit cultivation of cannabis; government has an active manual cannabis eradication program

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade is the government ministry responsible for handling Jamaica's external relations and foreign trade.

History
Historically, Jamaica has had close ties with the UK. Trade, financial, and cultural relations with the United States are now predominant. Jamaica is linked with the other countries of the English-speaking Caribbean through the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), and more broadly through the Association of Caribbean States (ACS). Jamaica has served two 2-year terms on the United Nations Security Council, in 1979-80 and 2000-2001.

In the follow-on meetings to the December 1994 Summit of the Americas, Jamaica—together with Uruguay—was given the responsibility of coordinating discussions on invigorating society.

Diplomatic Relations
List of countries which Jamaica maintains diplomatic relations with:

Bilateral relations
Jamaica maintains economic and cultural relations with Taiwan via Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Canada.

Jamaica and the Commonwealth
Jamaica has been a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations since 1962 when it became an independent Commonwealth realm.

Multilateral membership

 * African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States
 * Caricom
 * CCC
 * Caribbean Development Bank
 * United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
 * Food and Agriculture Organization
 * G-15
 * G-33
 * G-77
 * Inter-American Development Bank
 * International Atomic Energy Agency
 * International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
 * International Civil Aviation Organization
 * International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
 * International Fund for Agricultural Development
 * International Finance Corporation
 * International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
 * International Hydrographic Organization (pending member)
 * International Labour Organization
 * International Monetary Fund
 * International Telecommunication Union
 * Intelsat
 * Interpol
 * International Olympic Committee
 * International Organization for Migration
 * International Organization for Standardization
 * International Telecommunication Union
 * Latin American Economic System
 * Non-Aligned Movement
 * Organization of American States
 * OPANAL
 * Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
 * United Nations
 * UN Security Council (temporary)
 * United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
 * UNESCO
 * United Nations Industrial Development Organization
 * Universal Postal Union
 * World Health Organization
 * World Intellectual Property Organization
 * World Meteorological Organization
 * World Tourism Organization
 * World Trade Organization

title: Foreign relations of Jamaica


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Science and technology in Jamaica

The Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) sector in Jamaica is guided by two primary institutions, the National Commission on Science and Technology (NCST) and the Scientific Research Council (SRC). Both are under the direction of the Ministry of Science, Energy, and Technology.

History
Science and technology in Jamaica has a long history. In 1879, the Governor of Jamaica created the Institute of Jamaica "For the Encouragement of Literature, Science and Art in Jamaica". Jamaica was among the earliest developing countries to craft a scientific law to guide the use of science and technology for the exploitation of domestic natural resources. It was one of the first countries in the western hemisphere to gain electricity, build a railway and to use research results to boost sugar cane production. In 1960, the Scientific Research Council (SRC) was established, with a mandate to "collect, collate and review information concerning scientific research schemes or programmes relevant to the development of the resources of Jamaica (and) to establish and maintain a scientific information centre for collection and dissemination of scientific and technical information".

Science and technology policy
Since the 1990s, the Jamaican government has set an agenda to push the development of science and technology in Jamaica. Acknowledging the pivotal role of ST&I in national development, the Government of Jamaica formulated a national science and technology policy. The Jamaican Science and Technology Policy (1990) has two missions: 1) to improve science, technology and engineering and 2) to leverage its use to enhance societal needs. The overall goal is to make Jamaica a significant player in the arena of information technology.

In 2009, Jamaica launched Vision 2030, a national development plan that aims to put Jamaica in a position to achieve developed country status by 2030. National Outcome 11 is a "Technology-Enabled Society", to create a more prosperous economy.

Efforts to develop its Science and Technology educative system, through institutions such as The University of Technology, has been successful but it has been difficult to translate the results into domestic technologies, products and services because of national budgetary constraints. Expenditure on research and development (R&D) amounted to just 0.06 per cent of GDP in 2002. For comparison, the world average was 2.044 per cent. In 2018, Jamaica spent just 0.7 per cent. For comparison, the world average was over 2.2 per cent. However, recent improvements in the country's fiscal position, has enabled the government to introduce various policies to boost research expenditure and to encourage innovation. In 2019, the Jamaican government indicated that it would provide funding for research and development as of financial year 2019–20, and that effective from September 2020, it will take research and development spending into account in the calculation of the country's gross domestic product. Concerning counting R&D as a share of GDP, Finance Minister Dr Nigel Clarke said the move will stimulate greater investment in the sector, which will, in turn, drive innovation.

According to the International Property Rights Index, Jamaica has one of the stronger intellectual property (IP) protection regimes in Latin America and the Caribbean (ranked 4th in 2020). In January 2020, the Jamaican Parliament passed the Patents and Designs Act (the "New Act"). The New Act will enable local industrial designers to secure international protection for their work in multiple jurisdictions by means of a single application, filed in one language, with one set of fees. A more efficient and streamlined patents application process will hope to foster innovation and development. The Hon. Pearnel Charles Jr, who piloted the legislation, stated "It will allow us to raise our standards and to have international compliance in several aspects and safeguard the inventors in our country. Through this Bill, [inventors] will receive much more protection, and hence there will be greater promotion of creativity and efforts to find solutions to our challenges".

Jamaica has successfully operated a SLOWPOKE-2 nuclear reactor of 20 kW capacity since the early 1980s. It's the Caribbean's only nuclear reactor. In late 2020, Jamaica launched its Hazardous Substances Regulatory Authority (HSRA), becoming the first country in the English-speaking Caribbean to establish an independent regulatory body to ensure safety and security in the operation of facilities involving ionizing radiation and nuclear technology in the country, including the 20 kW SLOWPOKE research reactor. Minister of Industry, Investment and Commerce, Audley Shaw stated that Jamaica could now "confidently forge ahead with engaging nuclear science and technology in all aspects of national development and wealth creation strategies".

Jamaica has a moderate ranking on the Global Innovation Index. It was ranked 78th in 2023. In 2021, it was ranked 9th among the 18 economies in Latin America and the Caribbean and 74th out of 132 countries overall. The report highlights E-participation and Government's online service as an area of weakness to greater innovation. Broadband penetration in Jamaica stood at 77.7% in March 2021. Via the National Broadband Initiative, the Jamaican government seeks to provide Internet connection to every household by 2025.

Scientific publications
Caricom scientists have a modest output in terms of scientific research papers. UNESCO reports that between 2011 and 2019, output has fluctuated for most member states. Between 2017 and 2019, Caricom researchers continued to publish mostly in areas related to health sciences with Jamaica contributing over 20% of articles in this field. In terms of research density, Jamaica produced 114 publications per million inhabitants in 2019. Between 2014 and 2016, Jamaica ranked 4th in terms of average of relative citations (1.36). In terms of scientific co-authorship, between 2017 and 2019, Jamaica produced 379 publications in collaboration with the US, 118 with UK, 95 with Canada, 52 with France and 51 with Mexico.

Science activities
Notable activities that are geared towards promoting science and innovation:

The Coding in Schools Programme: Launched in 2021, the aim is promote the teaching and learning of coding in public educational institutions across Jamaica.

STEM Ambassador Programme: Launched in early 2021, the programme allows industry experts to encourage STEM students to achieve academic and career goals through consistent mentorship and interactive support.

The Science Resource Centre & Innovation Laboratory: Opened in 2018, the lab is focused on the nurturing and development of revenue-generating clean technology companies within the region. It's the first facility of its kind within the Caribbean.

The Public Wi-Fi Hotspot Programme: Jamaica has thirteen Wi-Fi-hotspots (as of September 2021), providing free public access to Internet services. Seven new locations are planned by March 2022.

Science and Technology Fairs.

Institutions
There are several institutions involved in undertaking research:
 * The Medical Association of Jamaica, whose origins date back to 1877, provides a wide range of services including medical education seminars and workshops.
 * The Institute of Jamaica, founded in 1879 "For the Encouragement of Literature, Science and Art in Jamaica".
 * The Jamaica Institution of Engineers, founded in the 1940s to promote and encourage the general advancement of engineering.
 * The University of the West Indies, founded in 1948, has faculties of medical sciences and natural sciences.
 * The Geological Society of Jamaica, established in 1955, seeks to provide for the professional growth of earth scientists at all levels of expertise and from all sectors
 * The University of Technology, founded as the Jamaica Institute of Technology in 1958.
 * The Scientific Research Council, located in Kingston and founded in 1960, coordinates scientific research efforts in Jamaica.
 * Sugar Industry Research Institute, founded in 1973, aims to research and develop methods to improve agriculture technology as it relates to sugar cane production.
 * The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, founded in 1975, carries out research and development for agriculture in the Caribbean region.

Achievements
In 2021, two Jamaican scientists won the prestigious International Network for Government Science Advice (INGSA) 2020 awards, making Jamaica the first country to take home prizes in the organisation's two award categories in any one year.

Jamaica has produced many internationally awarded scientists. Examples include:

 * Henry Lowe, honoured by the United States Government for his contributions to the sciences, science education and exemplary public service. Lowe was presented with a proclamation from the United States House of Representatives.
 * Thomas Lecky, made an honorary Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire for meritorious and devoted service to agriculture.
 * Patricia DeLeon, awarded the Presidential Award for Excellence in Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Mentoring by Barack Obama.
 * Geoff Palmer, Knighted by Queen Elizabeth ll for his services to human rights, science and charity. Palmer also became the fourth person to be honoured with the American Society of Brewing Chemists Award of Distinction.
 * Evan Dale Abel, named by Cell Press as one of the most inspirational Black scientists in the United States.
 * Cicely Delphine Williams, made a Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George, awarded the James Spence Gold Medal of the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health for the discovery of Kwashiorkor. She was awarded an honorary Doctorate of Science from the University of Ghana, for her "love, care and devotion to sick children".
 * Manley West, received the Certificate of Merit from the Government of Canada.
 * Maydianne Andrade, named one of the Brilliant 10 by Popular Science magazine.
 * Simone Anne Marie Badal-McCreath, awarded the Elsevier Foundation Award for Early Career Scientists in the Developing World for her creation of a lab at the Natural Products Institute to research the anti-cancer properties of natural Jamaican products.
 * Patricia Daley, announced as one of the United Kingdom's 100 most influential people of African or African Caribbean heritage, in recognition of her contribution to education.
 * Karen E. Nelson, received the Helmholtz International Fellow Award.
 * Walt W. Braithwaite, the Walt E. Braithwaite Legacy Award is named in his honour.
 * Bertram Fraser-Reid received numerous awards worldwide. These include the 1977 Merck, Sharp & Dohme Award from the Chemical Institute of Canada; the Claude S. Hudson Award in carbohydrate chemistry from the American Chemical Society in 1989; recognition as the Senior Distinguished U.S. Scientist by Germany’s Alexander von Humboldt Foundation in 1990; the Percy Julian Award from the National Organization of Black Chemists and Chemical Engineers in 1991; North Carolina Chemist of the Year by the American Institute of Chemistry in 1995 and the Haworth Memorial Medal and Lectureship from the Royal Society of Chemistry in 1995.

Medicine

 * Discovery of the antibiotic Monamycin, by Kenneth E. Magnus in 1959.
 * Discovery of the child malnutrition syndrome, kwashiorkor, by Cicely Williams. She was the first to recognise and conduct research on kwashiorkor and differentiate it from other dietary deficiencies. Williams also developed a treatment regime to combat the disease – this saved many lives.
 * The pioneer of treatments for paediatric sickle cell anaemia, by Yvette Francis-McBarnette. She was the first to use prophylactic antibiotics in the treatment of children with sickle cell.
 * Canasol, a medicated eye-drop for the treatment of glaucoma, created by West and Lockhart. Canasol reduces late stage glaucoma fluid eye pressure and is still one of the most popular drugs for treating glaucoma.
 * The JaipurKnee, a budget-friendly prosthetic knee joint, co-created by Joel Sadler. The knee was listed at number 18 in Time Magazine's “50 Best Inventions of 2009”. The JaipurKnee is made of self-lubricating, oil-filled nylon and is both flexible and stable, even on irregular terrain. It was further developed by Stanford University in collaboration with the Jaipur Foot Group, a charity that provides prostheses to Indian amputees. The JaipurKnee has since been exported to many countries, impacting the lives of amputees around the world.
 * The (Ramphal) Cardiac Surgery Simulator, invented by Dr Paul Ramphal and Dr Daniel Coore. The model is used in the training of many cardiothoracic surgery residents in the United States

Space exploration

 * Co-invention of the world's first portable 3D non-destructive evaluation (NDE) system, by Robert Rashford. The NDE system detects flaws in materials used to construct aircraft, spacecraft and industrial pipelines without having to take these materials apart. The system was used in the maintenance of the United States Government's Hubble Space Telescope.
 * Invention of a protective enclosure for use transporting orbital replacement units (orus) within a space craft, by Robert Rashford.
 * Robert Rashford also designed and developed unique spacecraft support systems for the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) Airborne Support Equipment (UASE) at the Orbital Sciences Corporation (OSC). At General Electric, he designed and tested a variety of spacecraft for both commercial and military applications. At Bechtel Corporation, he designed a nuclear reactor support structure. He has designed numerous highly complex engineering systems that successfully flew on board NASA's Manned Space Flight Programs.

Astronomy and astrophysics

 * Mercedes Richards was a pioneer in the fields of computational astrophysics, stellar astrophysics, exoplanets and the physical dynamics of interacting binary star systems.

 * Richards was the first astronomer to make images of the gravitational flow of gas between the stars in any interacting binary.
 * She was the first to image the chromospheres and accretion disks in Algol binaries.
 * She was the first in astronomy to apply the technique of tomography.
 * She was the first astrophysicist to make theoretical hydrodynamic simulations of the Algol binary stars.
 * She was the first astronomer to discover starspots on the cool star in an Algol binary.
 * She was the first astrophysicist to apply novel distance correlation statistical methods to large astronomical databases.

Aviation/computer science

 * Invention of the Lingo programming language used in Adobe Director, by John Henry Thompson. The language is used for animation, web design, graphics, sound and video games.
 * Co-invention of methods and apparatus for managing mobile content, by John Henry Thompson.

 * Walt W. Braithwaite helped transform the field of aerospace design. Prior to the 1970s, the aerospace industry developed new airplane models using manual drafting techniques. Braithwaite led the development of computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) systems for Boeing. Airplane models could now be designed and manufactured digitally.
 * Braithwaite also played a critical part in developing the Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES). As the lead engineer responsible for technical direction in developing an information network to integrate computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing, he led development of Boeing's common data format and translators. These were subsequently used as the basis for developing the IGES protocol.

Chemistry

 * Development of the "armed-disarmed" principle in glycosylation chemistry, by Bertram Fraser-Reid.
 * Construction of the largest ever synthetic hetero-oligosaccharide without the use of automated methods, by Bertram Fraser-Reid.
 * Isolation of dibenzyl trisulphide (DTS) from the guinea hen weed and identification of anti-proliferation and/or cytotoxic activity on a wide range of cancer cell lines, by Williams and Levy.
 * Identification of DTS derivatives (e.g. DTS-albumin complexes) for providing anti-proliferation and/or cytotoxic activity on a wide range of cancer cell lines, by Williams and Levy.
 * Development of methods of isolating and/or providing DTS and/or its derivatives in an effective amount for providing an anti-proliferation and/or cytotoxic activity on cancer cell lines, by Williams and Levy.

 * Isolation of chemical compounds from the ball moss plant and identification of anti-cancer activity, by Henry Lowe. Developed into Alpha Prostate, a supplement used in the management of prostate health.
 * Isolation of eryngial from eryngium foetidum and Identification as an anti-threadworm agent, by Reese, Robinson and Forbes.

Industrial processes

 * Invention of the Barley Abrasion Process, by Sir Geoff Palmer. A patented technique that speeds up the production of malt from grain and which is used by the British brewing industry.
 * Sir Geoff Palmer was also the first person to utilise the scanning electron microscope to study malt production in detail.
 * Development of a commercial process to extract quassinoids from Bitterwood, by Yee and Jacobs.

Agricultural science

 * Creation of disease resistant papaya, by Dr Paula Tennant. She manipulated the genetic make-up of the local papaya and created a new bioengineered variety that was resistant to papaya ringspot Virus (PRSV). This variant was named Jamaica Solo Sunrise and helped fortify the papaya sector.
 * Creation of new cattle breeds suited to tropical climates and terrain, by Thomas Lecky. He successfully created a new breed of dairy cattle –‘Jamaica Hope’ which is a combination of the British Jersey (a small, light-feeding cow), the Holstein (a heavy milk producer cow) and the Indian Sahiwal. The Jamaica Hope has a high heat tolerance, high resistance to ticks and tick-borne diseases and can produce much milk, even in the poor pasture land typical of tropical climates. It is extensively exported to other countries in the Caribbean, as well as Latin America. Dr. Lecky followed his Jamaica Hope success with the creation of two other cattle breeds – Jamaica Red and Jamaica Black. Lecky's work impacted on the development of cattle in many tropical countries.
 * Discovery of a new and distinct variety of the Zingiberaceae family, by Errol McGhie. This has been developed into a nutraceutical.
 * Creation of the Ortanique, a citrus fruit hybrid of the mandarin orange and the tangerine. In 1939, Dr Phillips was recognised by the Jamaica Agricultural Society (JAS) as the creator. The fruit is exported to many countries including Panama, London, New Zealand and Australia.

Mathematics

 * Creation of a mathematical cost capability trade-off model for HMS Queen Elizabeth, by Nira Chamberlain (who is predominately of Jamaican heritage).
 * Invention of a long multiplication method, used in some UK schools, by Nira Chamberlain.

Technology

 * Patented Compact Design H2 Energy Storage and Generation system.
 * Patented magnetic gearbox system.

Miscellaneous

 * Discovery of previously unknown historical human migration patterns, by Neil Hanchard and his team. They also identified more than 3 million genetic variants that had not been previously observed which could contribute to making genetic tests more accurate for people with African ancestry.
 * Co-development of a new type of polyhexahydrotriazine (PHT). For his contribution, Gavin Jones became the first Jamaican named among Foreign Policy magazine's FP Top 100 Global Thinkers.

 * The first comprehensive human microbiome study, by Karen Nelson and team.
 * Identified the link between adipose tissue glucose transporter (GLUT4) and insulin resistance, by Evan Dale Abel and Barbara Kahn.

title: Science and technology in Jamaica


text:
Jan Mayen

Jan Mayen is a Norwegian volcanic island in the Arctic Ocean with no permanent population. It is 55 km long (southwest-northeast) and 373 km2 in area, partly covered by glaciers (an area of 114.2 km2 around the Beerenberg volcano). It has two parts: larger northeast Nord-Jan and smaller Sør-Jan, linked by a 2.5 km wide isthmus. It lies 600 km northeast of Iceland (495 km [305 mi] NE of Kolbeinsey), 500 km east of central Greenland, and 900 km northwest of Vesterålen, Norway.

The island is mountainous, the highest summit being the Beerenberg volcano in the north. The isthmus is the location of the two largest lakes of the island, Sørlaguna (South Lagoon) and Nordlaguna (North Lagoon). A third lake is called Ullerenglaguna (Ullereng Lagoon). Jan Mayen was formed by the Jan Mayen hotspot and is defined by geologists as a microcontinent.

Although administered separately, in the ISO 3166-1 standard, Jan Mayen and Svalbard are collectively designated as Svalbard and Jan Mayen, with the two-letter country code "SJ".

Jan Mayen is home to Beerenberg, which is the northernmost subaerial active volcano in the world.

Natural resources

Jan Mayen Island has one exploitable natural resource, gravel, from a site located at Trongskaret. Other than this, economic activity is limited to providing services for employees of Norway's radio communications and meteorological stations located on the island. Jan Mayen has one unpaved airstrip, Jan Mayensfield, which is about 1585 m long. The 124.1 km coast has no ports or harbours, only offshore anchorages.

There are important fishing resources, and the existence of Jan Mayen establishes a large exclusive economic zone (EEZ) around it. Norway has asserted a 200 nmi EEZ around the island since 1980 encompassing more than a quarter of a million square kilometers. The Norwegian Coast Guard is responsible for conducting fishery and other maritime surveillance and enforcement in these waters.

Norway has found large deposits of minerals along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge between Jan Mayen and southern Svalbard/Bear Island, including copper, zinc, cobalt, gold and silver. The expeditions have also discovered high concentrations of lithium and rare earth metal scandium. In total, it is estimated that the amount of copper could amount to 21.7 million tonnes, but other estimates are around 7 million tonnes. License for deep sea mining is now under consideration.

A dispute between Norway and Denmark regarding the fishing exclusion zone between Jan Mayen and Greenland was settled in 1988 granting Denmark the greater area of sovereignty. Geologists suspect significant deposits of petroleum and natural gas lie below Jan Mayen's surrounding seafloors.

Status

Jan Mayen Island is an integral part of the Kingdom of Norway. Since 1995, Jan Mayen has been administered by the County Governor (statsforvalter) of the northern Norwegian county of Nordland, to which it is closest. However, some authority over Jan Mayen has been assigned to the station commander of the Norwegian Defence Logistics Organisation, a branch of the Norwegian Armed Forces.

Demography
The only inhabitants on the island are personnel working for the Norwegian Armed Forces and the Norwegian Meteorological Institute. Eighteen people spend the winter on the island, but the population may roughly double (35) during the summer, when heavy maintenance is performed. Personnel serve either six months or one year and are exchanged twice a year in April and October. The support crew, including mechanics, cooks, and a nurse, are among the military personnel. The military personnel operated a Loran-C base until it closed at the end of 2015. Both the LORAN transmitter and the meteorological station are located a few kilometres away from the settlement Olonkinbyen (Olonkin Town), where all personnel live.

Transport
Transport to the island is provided by C-130 Hercules military transport planes operated by the Royal Norwegian Air Force which land at Jan Mayensfield's gravel runway. The planes fly in from Bodø Main Air Station eight times a year. Since the airport does not have any instrument landing capabilities, good visibility is required, and it is not uncommon for the planes to have to return to Bodø, two hours away, without landing. For heavy goods, freight ships visit during the summer, but since there are no harbours, the ships must anchor. Tourists arrive with cruise ships which are allowed to bring passengers onshore if weather permits.

Communication
The island has no indigenous population but is assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code SJ (together with Svalbard). It uses the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) .no (.sj is allocated but not used) and data code JN. Jan Mayen has telephone and internet connection over satellite, using Norwegian telephone numbers (country code 47). Its amateur radio call sign prefix is JX. It has a postal code, NO-8099 JAN MAYEN, but delivery time varies, especially during the winter.

Business
There are no exploitable resources on Jan Mayen, except fish in the surrounding waters of the Island and gravel. The economic activity is limited to the operation of the station that is staffed by the Norwegian Cyberdefence and the Meteorological Agency of Norway. There has also been established a reference station for EGNOS. There is also a reference station for the satellite navigation system Galileo on Jan Mayen. There was also an earlier Jan Mayen LORAN-C Transmitter, but the transmitter is now decommissioned and demolished.

Jan Mayen Radio
Jan Mayen Radio was a Norwegian coastal radio station on Jan Mayen. The first radiostation was built in 1921 on a part of the island called "Eldsmetten - Norwegian" on the eastern side of the Island. The radiostation consisted of a 3 kW Telefunken spark-gap transmitter and a 55 m wooden radiomast. The station was destroyed by Norwegian forces in September 1940, and the crew was sent to Iceland.

In 1941 a new radiostation was constructed on the western side of the island, it was moved to a plateau above. In 1962 this station was again moved to "Helenesanden - Norwegian" about 3 km north from the Norwegian army's LORAN-station.

In 1984 the station was moved to the Norwegian army's station. In 1989 there was an VHF-receiver installed, and later in October 1994 the local control of the radio station was terminated. Before the local control was terminated a MF-Digital-Selcall-receiver was installed and controlled remotely from Bodø-Radio. The station is still (Jan 2024) controlled remotely via satellite, but can be taken in local control by a disconnection against Eik Satellite Earth Station in Rogaland Norway.

Unverified "discoveries" of a terra nullius
Between the fifth and ninth centuries (400–900 AD), numerous communities of monks originating in Ireland (Papar) navigated throughout the north Atlantic in leather boats, exploring and sometimes settling in distant islands where their monastic communities could be separated from close contact with others. Strong indicators exist of their presence in the Faroe Islands and Iceland before the arrival of the Vikings, and medieval Gaelic chronicles such as the famous Voyage of Saint Brendan the Abbot testify to the extensive interest in exploration at the time.

A modern-day trans-Atlantic journey proved the ability of the early navigators to reach all lands of the north Atlantic even further from Ireland than Jan Mayen – and, given favourable winds, at a speed roughly equal to that of modern yachts. Though quite feasible, there is nevertheless no direct physical trace of medieval landings or settlement on Jan Mayen.

The land named Svalbarð ("cold coast") by the Vikings in the early medieval book Landnámabók may have been Jan Mayen (instead of Spitsbergen, renamed Svalbard by the Norwegians in modern times); the distance from Iceland to Svalbarð mentioned in this book is two days' sailing (with favorable winds), consistent with the approximate 550 km to Jan Mayen and not with the minimum 1550 km to Spitsbergen. However much Jan Mayen may have been known in Europe at that time, it was subsequently forgotten for some centuries.

In the 17th century, many claims of the island's rediscovery were made, spurred by the rivalry on the Arctic whaling grounds, and the island received many names. According to Thomas Edge, an early 17th-century whaling captain who was often inaccurate, "William [sic] Hudson" discovered the island in 1608 and named it "Hudson's Touches" (or "Tutches"). However, the well-known explorer Henry Hudson could only have come by on his voyage in 1607 (if he had made an illogical detour) and he made no mention of it in his journal.

According to William Scoresby (1820: p. 154), referring to the mistaken belief that the Dutch had discovered the island in 1611, Hull whalers discovered the island "about the same time" and named it "Trinity Island". Muller (1874: pp. 190–191) took this to mean they had come upon Jan Mayen in 1611 or 1612, which was repeated by many subsequent authors. There were, in fact, no Hull whalers in either of these years, the first Hull whaling expedition having been sent to the island only in 1616 (see below). As with the previous claim made by Edge, there is no cartographical or written proof for this supposed discovery.

First verified discoveries: mapping and naming
The first verified discoveries of Jan Mayen, by three separate expeditions, occurred in the summer of 1614, probably within one month of each other. The Dutchman Fopp Gerritsz, whilst in command of a whaling expedition sent out by the Englishman John Clarke, of Dunkirk, claimed (in 1631) to have discovered the island on 28 June and named it "Isabella". In January the Noordsche Compagnie (Northern Company), modelled on the Dutch East India Company, had been established to support Dutch whaling in the Arctic. Two of its ships, financed by merchants from Amsterdam and Enkhuizen, reached Jan Mayen in July 1614.

The captains of these ships—Jan Jacobszoon May van Schellinkhout (after whom the island was ultimately named) on the Gouden Cath (Golden Cat), and Jacob de Gouwenaer on the Orangienboom (Orange Tree)—named it Mr. Joris Eylant after the Dutch cartographer Joris Carolus who was on board and mapped the island. The captains acknowledged that a third Dutch ship, the Cleyn Swaentgen (Little Swan) captained by Jan Jansz Kerckhoff and financed by Noordsche Compagnie shareholders from Delft, had already been at the island when they arrived. They had assumed the latter, who named the island Maurits Eylandt (or Mauritius) after Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, would report their discovery to the States General. However, the Delft merchants had decided to keep the discovery secret and returned in 1615 to hunt for their own profit. The ensuing dispute was only settled in 1617, though both companies were allowed to whale at Jan Mayen in the meantime.

In 1615, the English whaler Robert Fotherby went ashore. Apparently thinking he had made a new discovery, he named the island "Sir Thomas Smith's Island" and the volcano "Mount Hakluyt". On a map of c. 1634, Jean Vrolicq renamed the island Île de Richelieu.

Jan Mayen first appeared on Willem Jansz Blaeu's 1620 edition map of Europe, originally published by Cornelis Doedz in 1606. Blaeu, who lived in Amsterdam, named it "Jan Mayen" after captain Jan Jacobszoon May van Schellinkhout of the Amsterdam-financed Gouden Cath. Blaeu made the first detailed map of the island in his famous "Zeespiegel" atlas of 1623, establishing its current name.

Dutch whaling base

From 1615 to 1638, Jan Mayen was used as a whaling base by the Dutch Noordsche Compagnie, which had been given a monopoly on whaling in the Arctic regions by the States General in 1614. Only two ships, one from the Noordsche Compagnie, and the other from the Delft merchants, were off Jan Mayen in 1615.

The following year a score of vessels were sent to the island. The Noordsche Compagnie sent eight ships escorted by three warships under Jan Jacobsz. Schrobop; while the Delft merchants sent up five ships under Adriaen Dircksz. Leversteyn, son of one of the above merchants. There were also two ships from Dunkirk sent by John Clarke, as well as a ship each from London and Hull.

Heertje Jansz, master of the Hope, of Enkhuizen, wrote a day-by-day account of the season. The ships took two weeks to reach Jan Mayen, arriving early in June. On 15 June they met the two English ships, which Schrobop allowed to remain, on condition they gave half their catch to the Dutch. The ships from Dunkirk were given the same conditions. By late July the first ship had left with a full cargo of whale oil; the rest left early in August, several filled with oil.

That year 200 men were seasonally living and working on the island at six temporary whaling stations (spread along the northwest coast). During the first decade of whaling, more than ten ships visited Jan Mayen each year, while in the second period (1624 and later) five to ten ships were sent. With the exception of a few ships from Dunkirk, which came to the island in 1617 and were either driven away or forced to give a third of their catch to the Dutch, only the Dutch and merchants from Hull sent up ships to Jan Mayen from 1616 onward. In 1624 ten wooden houses were built in South Bay. About this time the Dutch appear to have abandoned the temporary stations consisting of tents of sail and crude furnaces, replacing them with two semi-permanent stations with wooden storehouses and dwellings and large brick furnaces, one in the above-mentioned South Bay and the other in the North Bay. In 1628 two forts were built to protect the stations. Among the sailors active at Jan Mayen was the later admiral Michiel Adriaensz de Ruyter. In 1633, at the age of 26, he was for the first time listed as an officer aboard de Groene Leeuw (The Green Lion). He again went to Jan Mayen in 1635, aboard the same ship.

In 1632 the Noordsche Compagnie expelled the Danish-employed Basque whalers from Spitsbergen. In revenge, the latter sailed to Jan Mayen, where the Dutch had left for the winter, to plunder the Dutch equipment and burn down the settlements and factories. Captain Outger Jacobsz of Grootebroek was asked to stay the next winter (1633/34) on Jan Mayen with six shipmates to defend the island. While a group with the same task survived the winter on Spitsbergen, all seven on Jan Mayen died of scurvy or trichinosis (from eating raw polar bear meat) combined with the harsh conditions.

During the first phase of whaling the hauls were generally good, some exceptional. For example, Mathijs Jansz. Hoepstock caught 44 whales in Hoepstockbukta in 1619, which produced 2,300 casks of whale oil. During the second phase the hauls were much lower. While 1631 turned out to be a very good season, the following year, due to the weather and ice, only eight whales were caught. In 1633 eleven ships managed to catch just 47 whales; while a meager 42 were caught by the same number in 1635. The bowhead whale was locally hunted to near-extinction around 1640 (approximately 1000 had been killed and processed on the island), at which time Jan Mayen was abandoned and stayed uninhabited for two and a half centuries.

19th and 20th century expeditions

During the International Polar Year 1882–1883 the Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition stayed one year at Jan Mayen. The expedition performed extensive mapping of the area, their maps being of such quality that they were used until the 1950s. The Austrian polar station on Jan Mayen Island was built and equipped in 1882 fully at Count Wilczek's own expense.

Polar bears appear on Jan Mayen, although in diminished numbers compared with earlier times. Between 1900 and 1920, there were a number of Norwegian trappers spending winters on Jan Mayen, hunting Arctic foxes in addition to some polar bears. But the exploitation soon made the profits decline, and the hunting ended. Polar bears in this region of the Arctic are genetically distinguishable from those living elsewhere.

The League of Nations gave Norway jurisdiction over the island, and in 1921 Norway opened the first meteorological station. The Norwegian Meteorological Institute annexed the middle part of the island for Norway in 1922 and the whole island in 1926 when Hallvard Devold was head of the weather observations base on the island. On 27 February 1930, the island was made de jure a part of the Kingdom of Norway.

Second World War
During World War II, continental Norway was invaded and occupied by Germany in spring 1940. The four-man team on Jan Mayen stayed at their posts and in an act of defiance began sending their weather reports to the United Kingdom instead of Norway. The British codenamed Jan Mayen 'Island X' and attempted to reinforce it with troops to counteract any German attack.

The Norwegian patrol boat HNOMS Fridtjof Nansen (1930) ran aground on Nansenflua, one of the islands' many uncharted lava reefs, and the 68-man crew abandoned ship and joined the Norwegian team on shore. The British expedition commander, prompted by the loss of the gunboat, decided to abandon Jan Mayen until the following spring and radioed for a rescue ship. Within a few days a ship arrived and evacuated the four Norwegians and their would-be reinforcements, after demolishing the weather station to prevent it from falling into German hands.

The Germans attempted to land a weather team on the island on 16 November 1940; the German naval trawler carrying the team crashed on the rocks just off Jan Mayen after a patrolling British destroyer had picked them up on radar. The detection was not by chance, as the German plan had been compromised from the beginning with British wireless interceptors of the Radio Security Service following the communications of the Abwehr (the German Intelligence service) concerning the operation, and the destroyer had been waiting. Most of the crew struggled ashore and were taken prisoner by a landing party from the destroyer.

The Allies returned to the island on 10 March 1941, when the Norwegian ship Veslekari, escorted by the patrol boat Honningsvaag, dropped 12 Norwegian weathermen on the island. The team's radio transmissions soon betrayed its presence to the Axis, and German planes from Norway began to bomb and strafe Jan Mayen whenever weather permitted, but did little damage. Soon supplies and reinforcements arrived, and even some anti-aircraft guns, giving the island a garrison of a few dozen weathermen and soldiers. By 1941, Germany had given up hope of evicting the Allies from the island and the constant air raids stopped.

On 7 August 1942, a German Focke-Wulf Fw 200 "Condor", probably on a mission to bomb the station, crashed into the nearby mountainside of Danielssenkrateret in fog, killing its crew of nine, and at an unknown date another German plane with four crew members crashed on the southwest side of the island, this crash only becoming public knowledge when the crash site was discovered in 1950. In 1943, the Americans established a radio locating station named Atlantic City in the north to try to locate German radio bases in Greenland.

Cold War
After the war, the meteorological station was located at Atlantic City, but moved in 1949 to a new location. Radio Jan Mayen also served as an important radio station for ship traffic in the Arctic Ocean. In 1959 NATO started building the LORAN-C network in sites on the Atlantic Ocean; one of the transmitters was to be on Jan Mayen. By 1961 the new military installations, including a new airfield, were operational.

For some time scientists doubted that the Beerenberg volcano would become active, but in 1970 it erupted for about three weeks, adding another 3 km2 of land mass to the island. It also erupted in 1973 and 1985. During an eruption, the sea temperature around the island may increase from just above freezing to about 30 C.

Historic stations and huts on the island are Hoyberg, Vera, Olsbu, Puppebu (cabin), Gamlemetten or Gamlestasjonen (the old weather station), Jan Mayen Radio, Helenehytta, Margarethhytta, and Ulla (a cabin at the foot of the Beerenberg).

Nature reserve
A regulation dating from 2010 renders the island a nature reserve under Norwegian jurisdiction. The aim of this regulation is to ensure the preservation of a pristine Arctic island and the marine life nearby, including the ocean floor. Landings at Jan Mayen can be done by boat. However, this is permitted only at a small part of the island, named Båtvika (Boat Bay).

As there is no commercial airline operating at the island, one cannot get there by plane except by chartering one. Permission for landings by a charter plane has to be obtained in advance. Permission to stay on the island has to be obtained in advance, and is generally limited to a few days (or even hours). Putting up a tent or setting up camp is prohibited. There is a separate regulation for the stay of foreigners.

Geography and geology

Jan Mayen consists of two geographically distinct parts. Nord-Jan has a round shape and is dominated by the 2277 m high Beerenberg volcano with its large ice cap (114.2 km2), which can be divided into twenty individual outlet glaciers. The largest of those is Sørbreen, with an area of 15 km2 and a length of 8.7 km. South-Jan is narrow, comparatively flat and unglaciated. Its highest elevation is Rudolftoppen at 769 m. The station and living quarters are located on South-Jan. The island lies at the northern end of the Jan Mayen Microcontinent. The microcontinent was originally part of the Greenland Plate, but now forms part of the Eurasian Plate.

Important Bird Area
The island was identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it is a breeding site for large numbers of seabirds, supporting populations of northern fulmars (78,000–160,000 pairs), little auks (10,000–100,000 pairs), thick-billed guillemot (74,000–147,000 pairs) and black guillemots (100–1,000 pairs).

Climate
Jan Mayen has an oceanic polar climate with a Köppen classification of ET, sometimes reckoned as EM (maritime polar). Jan Mayen is situated in between the cold East Greenland Current to the west and the warm Gulf Stream to the east of the island, and is the only landmass in the northern hemisphere where warm and cold ocean currents meet. The surrounding seas makes seasonal temperature variations very small considering the latitude of the island, with ranges from around 6 C in August to -4 C in March, but also makes the island extremely cloudy with little sunshine even during the continuous polar day. The deep snow cover prevents any permafrost from developing. As a result of warming, the 1991-2020 temperature normal shows a mean annual temperature 1.9 C-change warmer than during 1961-1990, pushing the annual temperature above freezing.

In popular culture
Jan Mayen is featured as an easter egg in several grand strategy video games published by Paradox Interactive, such as Europa Universalis IV. In Europa Universalis IV, typing "bearhaslanded" into the command console will spawn Jan Mayen as a country in a random location. Players can also specify where Jan Mayen will spawn by including a province ID in the command. In Hearts of Iron IV, also published by Paradox Interactive, players can play as Jan Mayen during the Second World War. In Victoria 2, set in the nineteenth century, certain decisions will see polar bears take charge of Jan Mayen's military.

The island is mentioned by the captain of K-19 The Widowmaker just before the ship's nuclear reactor malfunctions. The captain is concerned that the reactor will explode and cause a nuclear explosion in the vicinity of the NATO base on the island triggering a nuclear war.

The 2022 film Tales of Jan Mayen, directed by Hugo Pettit, documents the recreation of the 1921 British expedition to the summit of Mount Beerenberg.

General and cited references

 * Ledgard, J. M. (2011). Submergence. Coffee House Press.
 * Umbreit, Andreas (2005). Spitsbergen: Svalbard – Franz Josef Land – Jan Mayen, 3rd ed. Chalfont St. Peter: Bradt Travel Guides. ISBN 1-84162-092-0.

title: Jan Mayen