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Hanseatic League

The Hanseatic League was a medieval commercial and defensive network of merchant guilds and market towns in Central and Northern Europe. Growing from a few North German towns in the late 12th century, the League expanded between the 13th and 15th centuries and ultimately encompassed nearly 200 settlements across eight modern-day countries, ranging from Estonia in the north and east, to the Netherlands in the west, and extended inland as far as Cologne, the Prussian regions and Kraków, Poland.

The League began as a collection of loosely associated groups of German traders and towns aiming to expand their commercial interests, including protection against robbery. Over time, these arrangements evolved into the League, offering traders toll privileges and protection on affiliated territory and trade routes. Economic interdependence and familial connections among merchant families led to deeper political integration and the reduction of trade barriers. This gradual process involved standardizing trade regulations among Hanseatic Cities.

During its time, the Hanseatic League dominated maritime trade in the North and Baltic Seas. It established a network of trading posts in numerous towns and cities, notably the Kontors in London (known as the Steelyard), Bruges, Bergen, and Novgorod, which became extraterritorial entities that enjoyed considerable legal autonomy. Hanseatic merchants, commonly referred to as Hansards, operated private companies and were known for their access to commodities, and enjoyed privileges and protections abroad. The League's economic power enabled it to impose blockades and even wage war against kingdoms and principalities.

Even at its peak, the Hanseatic League remained a loosely aligned confederation of city-states. It lacked a permanent administrative body, a treasury, and a standing military force. In the 14th century, the Hanseatic League instated an irregular negotiating diet (dachvart or dach; Tagfahrt or Hansetag) that operated based on deliberation and consensus. By the mid-16th century, these weak connections left the Hanseatic League vulnerable, and it gradually unraveled as members merged into other realms or departed, ultimately disintegrating in 1669.

The League used a variety of vessel types for shipping across the seas and navigating rivers. The most emblematic type was the cog. Expressing diversity in construction, it was depicted on Hanseatic seals and coats of arms. By the end of the Middle Ages, the cog was replaced by types like the hulk, which later gave way to larger carvel ships.

Etymology
Hanse is the Old High German word for a band or troop. This word was applied to bands of merchants traveling between the Hanseatic cities. Hanse in Middle Low German came to mean a society of merchants or a trader guild. Claims that it originally meant An-See, or "on the sea", are incorrect.

History

Exploratory trading ventures, raids, and piracy occurred throughout the Baltic Sea. The sailors of Gotland sailed up rivers as far away as Novgorod, which was a major Rus trade centre. Scandinavians led the Baltic trade before the League, establishing major trading hubs at Birka, Haithabu, and Schleswig by the 9th century CE. The later Hanseatic ports between Mecklenburg and Königsberg (present-day Kaliningrad) originally formed part of the Scandinavian-led Baltic trade-system.

The Hanseatic League was never formally founded, so it lacks a date of foundation. Historians traditionally traced its origins to the rebuilding of the north German town of Lübeck in 1159 by the powerful Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, after he had captured the area from Adolf II, Count of Schauenburg and Holstein. More recent scholarship has deemphasized Lübeck, viewing it as one of several regional trading centers, and presenting the League as the combination of a north German trading system oriented on the Baltic and a Rhinelandic trading system targeting England and Flanders.

German cities speedily dominated trade in the Baltic during the 13th century, and Lübeck became a central node in the seaborne trade that linked the areas around the North and  Baltic seas. Lübeck hegemony peaked during the 15th century.

Foundation and early development
Well before the term Hanse appeared in a document in 1267, in different cities began to form guilds, or hansas, with the intention of trading with overseas towns, especially in the economically less-developed eastern Baltic. This area could supply timber, wax, amber, resins, and furs, along with rye and wheat brought on barges from the hinterland to port markets. Merchant guilds formed in hometowns and destination ports as medieval corporations (universitates mercatorum), and despite competition increasingly cooperated to coalesce into the Hanseatic network of merchant guilds. The dominant language of trade was Middle Low German, which had significant impact on the languages spoken in the area, particularly the larger Scandinavian languages,  Estonian,  and Latvian.

Visby, on the island of Gotland, functioned as the leading centre in the Baltic before the Hansa. Sailing east, Visby merchants established a trading post at Novgorod called Gutagard (also known as Gotenhof) in 1080. In 1120, Gotland gained autonomy from Sweden and admitted traders from its southern and western regions. Thereafter, under a treaty with the Visby Hansa, northern German merchants made regular stops at Gotland. In the first half of the 13th century, they established their own trading station or Kontor in Novgorod, known as the Peterhof, up the river Volkhov.

Lübeck soon became a base for merchants from Saxony and Westphalia trading eastward and northward; for them, because of its shorter and easier access route and better legal protections, it was more attractive than Schleswig. It became a transshipment port for trade between the North Sea and the Baltics. Lübeck also granted extensive trade privileges to Russian and Scandinavian traders. It was the main supply port for the Northern Crusades, improving its standing with various Popes. Lübeck gained imperial privileges to become a free imperial city in 1226, under Valdemar II of Denmark during the Danish dominion, as had Hamburg in 1189. Also in this period Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund and Danzig received city charters.

Hansa societies worked to remove trade restrictions for their members. The earliest documentary mention (although without a name) of a specific German commercial federation dates between 1173 and 1175 (commonly misdated to 1157) in London. That year, the merchants of the Hansa in Cologne convinced King Henry II of England to exempt them from all tolls in London and to grant protection to merchants and goods throughout England.

German colonists in the 12th and 13th centuries settled in numerous cities on and near the east Baltic coast, such as Elbing (Elbląg), Thorn (Toruń), Reval (Tallinn), Riga, and Dorpat (Tartu), all of which joined the League, and some of which retain Hansa buildings and bear the style of their Hanseatic days. Most adopted Lübeck law, after the league's most prominent town. The law provided that they appeal in all legal matters to Lübeck's city council. Others, like Danzig from 1295 onwards, had Magdeburg law or its derivative, Culm law. Later, the Livonian Confederation of 1435 to c. 1582 incorporated modern-day Estonia and parts of Latvia; all of its major towns were members of the League. Over the 13th century, older and wealthier long-distance traders increasingly chose to settle in their hometowns as trade leaders, transitioning from their previous roles as landowners. The growing number of settled merchants afforded long-distance traders greater influence over town policies. Coupled with an increased presence in the ministerial class, this elevated the status of merchants and enabled them expand to and assert dominance over more cities. This decentralised arrangement was fostered by slow travel speeds: moving from Reval to Lübeck took between 4 weeks and, in winter, 4 months. In 1241, Lübeck, which had access to the Baltic and North seas' fishing grounds, formed an alliance—a precursor to the League—with the trade city of Hamburg, which controlled access to the salt-trade routes from Lüneburg. These cities gained control over most of the salt-fish trade, especially the Scania Market; Cologne joined them in the Diet of 1260. The towns raised their own armies, with each guild required to provide levies when needed. The Hanseatic cities aided one another, and commercial ships often served to carry soldiers and their arms. The network of alliances grew to include a flexible roster of 70 to 170 cities.

In the West, cities of the Rhineland such as Cologne enjoyed trading privileges in Flanders and England. In 1266, King Henry III of England granted the Lübeck and Hamburg Hansa a charter for operations in England, initially causing competition with the Westphalians. But the Cologne Hansa and the Wendish Hansa joined in 1282 to form the Hanseatic colony in London, although they didn't completely merge until the 15th century. Novgorod was blockaded in 1268 and 1277/1278. Nonetheless, Westphalian traders continued to dominate trade in London and also Ipswich and Colchester, while Baltic and Wendish traders concentrated between King's Lynn and Newcastle upon Tyne. Much of the drive for co-operation came from the fragmented nature of existing territorial governments, which did not provide security for trade. Over the next 50 years, the merchant Hansa solidified with formal agreements for co-operation covering the west and east trade routes. Cities from the east modern day Low Countries, but also Utrecht, Holland, Zealand, Brabant, Namur and modern Limburg joined in participation over the thirteenth century. This network of Hanseatic trading guilds became called the Kaufmannshanse in historiography.

Commercial expansion

The League succeeded in establishing additional Kontors in Bruges (Flanders), Bryggen in Bergen (Norway), and London (England) beside the Peterhof in Novgorod. These trading posts were institutionalised by the first half of the 14th century (for Bergen and Bruges)  and, except for the Kontor of Bruges, became significant enclaves. The London Kontor, the Steelyard, stood west of London Bridge near Upper Thames Street, on the site later occupied by Cannon Street station. It grew into a walled community with its own warehouses, weigh house, church, offices and homes.

In addition to the major Kontors, individual ports with Hanseatic trading outposts or factories had a representative merchant and warehouse. Often they were not permanently manned. In Scania, Denmark, around 30 Hanseatic seasonal factories produced salted herring, these were called vitten and were granted legal autonomy to the extent that Burkhardt argues that they resembled a fifth kontor and would be seen as such if not for their early decline. In England, factories in Boston (the outpost was also called Stalhof), Bristol, Bishop's Lynn (later King's Lynn, which featured the sole remaining Hanseatic warehouse in England), Hull, Ipswich, Newcastle upon Tyne, Norwich, Scarborough, Yarmouth (now Great Yarmouth), and York, many of which were important for the Baltic trade and became centres of the textile industry in the late 14th century. Hansards and textile manufacturers coordinated to make fabrics meet local demand and fashion in the traders' hometowns. Outposts in Lisbon, Bordeaux, Bourgneuf, La Rochelle and Nantes offered the cheaper Bay salt. Ships that plied this trade sailed in the salt fleet. Trading posts operated in Flanders, Denmark-Norway, the Baltic interior, Upper Germany, Iceland and Venice.

Hanseatic trade was not exclusively maritime, or even over water. Most Hanseatic towns did not have immediate access to the sea and many were linked to partners by river trade or even land trade. These formed an integrated network, while many smaller Hanseatic towns had their main trading activity in subregional trade. Internal Hanseatic trade was in fact the Hanse's quantitatively largest and important business. Trade over rivers and land was not tied to specific Hanseatic privileges, but seaports such as Bremen, Hamburg and Riga dominated trade on their rivers. This was not possible for the Rhine where trade retained an open character. Digging canals for trade was uncommon, although the Stecknitz Canal was built between Lübeck and Lauenburg from 1391 to 1398.

Major trade goods
Starting with trade in coarse woollen fabrics, the Hanseatic League increased both commerce and industry in northern Germany. As trade increased, finer woollen and linen fabrics, and even silks, were manufactured in northern Germany. The same refinement of products out of cottage industry occurred in other fields, e.g. etching, wood carving, armour production, engraving of metals, and wood-turning.

The league primarily traded beeswax, furs, timber, resin (or tar), flax, honey, wheat, and rye from the east to Flanders and England with cloth, in particular broadcloth, (and, increasingly, manufactured goods) going in the other direction. Metal ore (principally copper and iron) and herring came south from Sweden, while the Carpathians were another important source of copper and iron, often sold in Thorn. Lubeck had a vital role in the salt trade; salt was acquired in Lüneburg or shipped from France and Portugal and sold on Central European markets, taken to Scania to salt herring or exported to Russia. Stockfish was traded from Bergen in exchange for grain; Hanseatic grain inflows allowed more permanent settlements further north in Norway. The league also traded beer, with beer from Hanseatic towns the most valued, and Wendish cities like Lübeck, Hamburg, Wismar and Rostock developed export breweries for hopped beer.

Economic power and defense
The Hanseatic League, at first the merchant hansas and eventually its cities, relied on power to secure protection and gain and preserve privileges. Bandits and pirates were persistent problems; during wars these could be joined by privateers. Traders could be arrested abroad and their goods could be confiscated. The league sought to codify protection; internal treaties established mutual defence and external treaties codified privileges.

Many locals, merchant and noble alike, envied the League's power and tried to diminish it. For example, in London, local merchants exerted continuing pressure for the revocation of privileges. Most foreign cities confined Hanseatic traders to specific trading areas and their trading posts. The refusal of the Hansa to offer reciprocal arrangements to their counterparts exacerbated the tension.

League merchants used their economic power to pressure cities and rulers. They called embargoes, redirected trade away from towns and boycotted entire countries. Blockades were erected against Novgorod in 1268 and 1277/1278. Bruges was pressured by temporarily moving the Hanseatic emporium to Aardenburg from 1280 to 1282,  from 1307 or 1308 to 1310  and in 1350,  to Dordt in 1358 and 1388, and to Antwerp in 1436. Boycotts against Norway in 1284 and Flanders in 1358 nearly caused famines. They sometimes resorted to military action. Several Hanseatic cities maintained their own warships and in times of need, repurposed merchant ships. Military action against political powers often involved an ad hoc coalition of stakeholders, called an alliance (tohopesate).

As an essential part of protecting their investments, League members trained pilots and erected lighthouses, including Kõpu Lighthouse. Lübeck erected in 1202 what may be northern Europe's first proper lighthouse in Falsterbo. By 1600 at least 15 lighthouses had been erected along the German and Scandinavian coasts, making it the best lighted coast in the world, largely thanks to the Hansa.

Zenith

The weakening of imperial power and imperial protection under the late Hohenstaufen dynasty forced the League to institutionalise a cooperating network of cities with a fluid structure, called the Städtehanse, but it never became a formal organisation and the Kaufmannshanse continued to exist. This development was delayed by the conquest of Wendish cities by Danish king Eric VI Menved or by their feudal overlords between 1306 and 1319 and the restriction of their autonomy. Assemblies of the Hanse towns met irregularly in Lübeck for a Hansetag (Hanseatic Diet) – starting either around 1300, or possibly 1356. Many towns chose not to attend nor to send representatives, and decisions were not binding on individual cities if their delegates were not included in the recesses; representatives would sometimes leave the Diet prematurely to give their towns an excuse not to ratify decisions. Only a few Hanseatic cities were free imperial cities or enjoyed comparable autonomy and liberties, but many temporarily escaped domination by local nobility.

Between 1361 and 1370, League members fought against Denmark in the Danish-Hanseatic War. Though initially unsuccessful with a Wendish offensive, towns from Prussia and the Netherlands, and eventually joined by Wendish towns, allied in the Confederation of Cologne in 1368, sacked Copenhagen and Helsingborg, and forced Valdemar IV, King of Denmark, and his son-in-law Haakon VI, King of Norway, to grant tax exemptions and influence over Øresund fortresses for 15 years in the peace treaty of Stralsund in 1370. It extended privileges in Scania to the League, including Holland and Zeeland. The treaty marked the height of Hanseatic influence; for this period the League was called a "Northern European great power". The Confederation lasted until 1385, while the Øresund fortresses were returned to Denmark that year.

After Valdemar's heir Olav died, a succession dispute erupted over Denmark and Norway between Albert of Mecklenburg, King of Sweden and Margaret I, Queen of Denmark. This was further complicated when Swedish nobles rebelled against Albert and invited Margaret. Albert was taken prisoner in 1389, but hired privateers in 1392, the socalled Victual Brothers, who took Bornholm and Visby in his name. They and their descendants threatened maritime trade between 1392 and the 1430s. Under the 1395 release agreement for Albert, Stockholm was ruled from 1395 to 1398 by a consortium of 7 Hanseatic cities, and enjoyed full Hanseatic trading privileges. It went to Margaret in 1398.

The Victual Brothers controlled Gotland in 1398. It was conquered by the Teutonic Order with support from the Prussian towns and its privileges were restored. The grandmaster of the Teutonic Order was often seen as head of the Hanse (caput Hansae), both abroad and by some League members.

Rise of rival powers
Over the 15th century, the League became further institutionalised. This was in part a response to challenges in governance and competition with rivals, but also reflected changes in trade. A slow shift occurred from loose participation to formal recognition/revocation. Another general trend was Hanseatic cities' increased legislation of their kontors abroad. Only the Bergen kontor grew more independent in this period.

In Novgorod, after extended conflict since the 1380s, the League regained its trade privileges in 1392, agreeing to Russian trade privileges for Livonia and Gotland.

In 1424, all German traders of the Petershof kontor in Novgorod were imprisoned and 36 of them died. Although rare, arrests and seizures in Novgorod were particularly violent. In response, and due to the ongoing war between Novgorod and the Livonian Order, the League blockaded Novgorod and abandoned the Peterhof from 1443 to 1448.

After extended conflicts with the League from the 1370s, English traders gained trade privileges in the Prussian region via the treaties of Marienburg (the first in 1388, the last in 1409). Their influence increased, while the importance of Hanseatic trade in England decreased over the 15th century.

Over the 15th century, tensions between the Prussian region and the "Wendish" cities (Lübeck and its eastern neighbours) increased. Lübeck was dependent on its role as centre of the Hansa; Prussia's main interest, on the other hand, was the export of bulk products such as grain and timber to England, the Low Countries and later on Spain and Italy.

Frederick II, Elector of Brandenburg, tried to assert authority over the Hanseatic towns Berlin and Cölln in 1442 and blocked all Brandenburg towns from participating in Hanseatic diets. For some Brandenburg towns this ended their Hanseatic involvement. In 1488, John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg did the same to Stendal and Salzwedel in the Altmark.

Until 1394, Holland and Zeeland actively participated in the Hansa, but in 1395, their feudal obligations to Albert I, Duke of Bavaria prevented further cooperation. Consequently, their Hanseatic ties weakened, and their economic focus shifted. Between 1417 and 1432, this economic reorientation became even more pronounced as Holland and Zeeland gradually became part of the Burgundian State.

The city of Lübeck faced financial troubles in 1403, leading dissenting craftsmen to establish a supervising committee in 1405. This triggered a governmental crisis in 1408 when the committee rebelled and established a new town council. Similar revolts broke out in Wismar and Rostock, with new town councils established in 1410. The crisis was ended in 1418 by a compromise.

Eric of Pomerania succeeded Margaret in 1412 and sought to expand into Schleswig and Holstein levying tolls at the Øresund. Hanseatic cities were divided initially; Lübeck tried to appease Eric while Hamburg supported the Schauenburg counts against him. This led to the Danish-Hanseatic War (1426-1435) and the Bombardment of Copenhagen (1428). The Treaty of Vordingborg renewed the League's commercial privileges in 1435, but the Øresund tolls continued.

Eric of Pomerania was subsequently deposed and in 1438 Lübeck took control of the Øresund toll, which caused tensions with Holland and Zeeland. The Sound tolls, and a later attempt of Lübeck to exclude the English and Dutch merchants from Scania harmed the Scanian herring trade when the excluded regions began to develop their own herring industries.

In the Dutch–Hanseatic War (1438–1441), a privateer war mostly waged by Wendish towns, the merchants of Amsterdam sought and eventually won free access to the Baltic. Although the blockade of the grain trade hurt Holland and Zeeland more than Hanseatic cities, it was against Prussian interest to maintain it.

In 1454, the year of the marriage of Elisabeth of Austria to King-Grand Duke Casimir IV Jagiellon of Poland-Lithuania, the towns of the Prussian Confederation rose up against the dominance of the Teutonic Order and asked Casimir IV for help. Gdańsk (Danzig), Thorn and Elbing became part of the Kingdom of Poland, (from 1466 to 1569 referred to as Royal Prussia, region of Poland) by the Second Peace of Thorn.

Poland in turn was heavily supported by the Holy Roman Empire through family connections and by military assistance under the Habsburgs. Kraków, then the Polish capital, had a loose association with the Hansa. The lack of customs borders on the River Vistula after 1466 helped to gradually increase Polish grain exports, transported down the Vistula, from 10000 ST per year, in the late 15th century, to over 200000 ST in the 17th century. The Hansa-dominated maritime grain trade made Poland one of the main areas of its activity, helping Danzig to become the Hansa's largest city. Polish kings soon began to reduce the towns' political freedoms.

Beginning in the mid-15th century, the Griffin dukes of Pomerania were in constant conflict over control of the Pomeranian Hanseatic towns. While not successful at first, Bogislav X eventually subjugated Stettin and Köslin, curtailing the region's economy and independence.

A major Hansa economic advantage was its control of the shipbuilding market, mainly in Lübeck and Danzig. The League sold ships throughout Europe.

The economic crises of the late 15th century did not spare the Hansa. Nevertheless, its eventual rivals emerged in the form of territorial states. New vehicles of credit were imported from Italy.

When Flanders and Holland became part of the Duchy of Burgundy, Burgund Dutch and Prussian cities increasingly excluded Lübeck from their grain trade in the 15th and 16th century. Burgund Dutch demand for Prussian and Livonian grain grew in the late 15th century. These trade interests differed from Wendish interests, threatening political unity, but also showed a trade where the Hanseatic system was impractical. Hollandish freight costs were much lower than the Hansa's, and the Hansa were excluded as middlemen. After naval wars between Burgundy and the Hanseatic fleets, Amsterdam gained the position of leading port for Polish and Baltic grain from the late 15th century onwards.

Nuremberg in Franconia developed an overland route to sell formerly Hansa-monopolised products from Frankfurt via Nuremberg and Leipzig to Poland and Russia, trading Flemish cloth and French wine in exchange for grain and furs from the east. The Hansa profited from the Nuremberg trade by allowing Nurembergers to settle in Hanseatic towns, which the Franconians exploited by taking over trade with Sweden as well. The Nuremberger merchant Albrecht Moldenhauer was influential in developing the trade with Sweden and Norway, and his sons Wolf and Burghard Moldenhauer established themselves in Bergen and Stockholm, becoming leaders of the local Hanseatic activities.

King Edward IV of England reconfirmed the league's privileges in the Treaty of Utrecht despite the latent hostility, in part thanks to the significant financial contribution the League made to the Yorkist side during the Wars of the Roses of 1455–1487. Tsar Ivan III of Russia closed the Hanseatic Kontor at Novgorod in 1494 and deported its merchants to Moscow, in an attempt to reduce Hanseatic influence on Russian trade. At the time, only 49 traders were at the Peterhof. The fur trade was redirected to Leipzig, taking out the Hansards; while the Hanseatic trade with Russia moved to Riga, Reval, and Pleskau. When the Peterhof reopened in 1514, Novgorod was no longer a trade hub. In the same period, the burghers of Bergen tried to develop an independent intermediate trade with the northern population, against the Hansards' obstruction. The League's mere existence and its privileges and monopolies created economic and social tensions that often spilled onto rivalries between League members.

End of the Hansa
The development of transatlantic trade after the discovery of the Americas caused the remaining kontors' decline, especially in Bruges, because it centred on other ports. It also changed business practice to short-term contracts and obsoleted the Hanseatic model of privileged guaranteed trade.

The trends of local feudal lords asserting control over towns and suppressing their autonomy, and of foreign rulers repressing Hanseatic traders continued in the next century.

In the Swedish War of Liberation 1521–1523, the Hanseatic League was successful in opposition in an economic conflict it had over the trade, mining and metal industry in Bergslagen (the main mining area of Sweden in the 16th century) with Jakob Fugger (industrialist in the mining and metal industry) and his unfriendly business take-over attempt. Fugger allied with his financially dependent pope Leo X, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and Christian II of Denmark/Norway. Both sides made costly investments in support of mercenaries to win the war. After the war, Gustav Vasa's Sweden and Frederick I's Denmark pursued independent policies and didn't support Lübeck's effort against Dutch trade.

However, Lübeck under Jürgen Wullenwever overextended in the Count's Feud in Scania and Denmark and lost influence in 1536 after Christian III's victory. Lübeck's attempts at forcing competitors out of the Sound eventually alienated even Gustav Vasa. Its influence in the Nordic countries began to decline.

The Hanseatic towns of Guelders were obstructed in the 1530s by Charles II, Duke of Guelders. Charles, a strict Catholic, objected to Lutheranism, in his words "Lutheran heresy", of Lübeck and other north German cities. This frustrated but did not end the towns' Hanseatic trade and a small resurgence came later.

Later in the 16th century, Denmark-Norway took control of much of the Baltic. Sweden had regained control over its own trade, the Kontor in Novgorod had closed, and the Kontor in Bruges had become effectively moribund because the Zwin inlet was closing up. Finally, the growing political authority of the German princes constrained the independence of Hanse towns.

The league attempted to deal with some of these issues: it created the post of syndic in 1556 and elected Heinrich Sudermann to the position, who worked to protect and extend the diplomatic agreements of the member towns. In 1557 and 1579, revised agreements spelled out the duties of towns and some progress was made. The Bruges Kontor moved to Antwerp in 1520 and the Hansa attempted to pioneer new routes. However the league proved unable to prevent the growing mercantile competition.

In 1567, a Hanseatic League agreement reconfirmed previous obligations and rights of league members, such as common protection and defense against enemies. The Prussian Quartier cities of Thorn, Elbing, Königsberg and Riga and Dorpat also signed. When pressed by the King of Poland–Lithuania, Danzig remained neutral and would not allow ships running for Poland into its territory. They had to anchor somewhere else, such as at Pautzke (Puck).

The Antwerp Kontor, moribund after the fall of the city, closed in 1593. In 1597 Queen Elizabeth I of England expelled the League from London, and the Steelyard closed and sequestered in 1598. The Kontor returned in 1606 under her successor, James I, but it could not recover. The Bergen Kontor continued until 1754; of all the Kontore, only its buildings, the Bryggen, survive.

Not all states tried to suppress their cities' former Hanseatic links; the Dutch Republic encouraged its eastern former members to maintain ties with the remaining Hanseatic League. The States-General relied on those cities in diplomacy at the time of the Kalmar War.

The Thirty Years' War was destructive for the Hanseatic League and members suffered heavily from both the imperials, the Danes and the Swedes. At the beginning, Saxon and Wendish faced attacks because of the desire of Christian IV of Denmark to control the Elbe and Weser. Pomerania had a major population decline. Sweden took Bremen-Verden (excluding the city of Bremen), Swedish Pomerania (including Stralsund, Greifswald, Rostock) and Swedish Wismar, preventing their cities from participating in the League, and controlled the Oder, Weser and Elbe, and could levy tolls on their traffic. The league became increasingly irrelevant despite its inclusion in the Peace of Westphalia.

In 1666, the Steelyard burned in the Great Fire of London. The Kontor-manager sent a letter to Lübeck appealing for immediate financial assistance for a reconstruction. Hamburg, Bremen, and Lübeck called for a Hanseatic Day in 1669. Only a few cities participated and those who came were reluctant to contribute financially to the reconstruction. It was the last formal meeting, unbeknownst to any of the parties. This date is often taken in retrospect as the effective end date of the Hansa, but the League never formally disbanded. It silently disintegrated.

Aftermath
The Hanseatic League, however, lived on in the public mind. Leopold I even requested Lübeck to call a Tagfahrt to rally support for him against the Turks.

Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen continued to attempt common diplomacy, although interests had diverged by the Peace of Ryswick. Nonetheless, the Hanseatic Republics were able to jointly perform some diplomacy, such as a joint delegation to the United States in 1827, led by Vincent Rumpff; later the United States established a consulate to the Hanseatic and Free Cities from 1857 to 1862. Britain maintained diplomats to the Hanseatic Cities until the unification of Germany in 1871. The three cities also had a common "Hanseatic" representation in Berlin until 1920.

Three kontors remained as, often unused, Hanseatic property after the League's demise, as the Peterhof had closed in the 16th century. Bryggen was sold to Norwegian owners in 1754. The Steelyard in London and the Oostershuis in Antwerp were long impossible to sell. The Steelyard was finally sold in 1852 and the Oostershuis, closed in 1593, was sold in 1862.

Hamburg, Bremen, and Lübeck remained as the only members until the League's formal end in 1862, on the eve of the 1867 founding of the North German Confederation and the 1871 founding of the German Empire under Kaiser Wilhelm I. Despite its collapse, they cherished the link to the Hanseatic League. Until German reunification, these three cities were the only ones that retained the words "Hanseatic City" in their official German names. Hamburg and Bremen continue to style themselves officially as "free Hanseatic cities", with Lübeck named "Hanseatic City". For Lübeck in particular, this anachronistic tie to a glorious past remained important in the 20th century. In 1937, the Nazi Party revoked its imperial immediacy through the Greater Hamburg Act. Since 1990, 24 other German cities have adopted this title.

Organization
The Hanseatic League was a complex, loose-jointed constellation of protagonists pursuing their own interests, which coincided in a shared program of economic domination in the Baltic region, and a by no means monolithic organization or a 'state within a state'. It gradually grew from a network of merchant guilds into a more formal association of cities, but never formed into a legal person.

League members were Low German-speaking, with the exception of Dinant. Not all towns with Low German merchant communities were members (e.g., Emden, Memel (today Klaipėda), Viborg (today Vyborg), and Narva). However, Hansards also came from settlements without German town law—the premise for league membership was birth to German parents, subjection to German law, and a commercial education. The league served to advance and defend its members' common interests: commercial ambitions such as enhancement of trade, and political ambitions such as ensuring maximum independence from the territorial rulers.

League decisions and actions were taken via a consensus-based procedure. If an issue arose, members were invited to participate in a central meeting, the Tagfahrt (Hanseatic Diet, "meeting ride", sometimes also referred to as Hansetag), that may have begun around 1300, and were formalised since 1358 (or possibly 1356). The member communities then chose envoys (Ratssendeboten) to represent their local consensus on the issue at the Diet. Not every community sent an envoy; delegates were often entitled to represent multiple communities. Consensus-building on local and Tagfahrt levels followed the Low Saxon tradition of Einung, where consensus was defined as absence of protest: after a discussion, the proposals that gained sufficient support were dictated to the scribe and passed as binding Rezess if the attendees did not object; those favouring alternative proposals unlikely to get sufficient support remained silent during this procedure. If consensus could not be established on a certain issue, it was found instead in the appointment of league members empowered to work out a compromise.

The League was characterised by legal pluralism and the diets could not issue laws. But the cities cooperated to achieve limited trade regulation, such as measures against fraud, or worked together on a regional level. Attempts to harmonise maritime law, yielded a series of ordinances in the 15th and 16th centuries. The most extensive maritime ordinance was the Ship Ordinance and Sea Law of 1614, but it may not have been enforced.

Kontors

A Hanseatic Kontor was a settlement of Hansards organised in the mid-14th century as a private corporation that had its own treasury, court, legislation and seal. They operated like an early stock exchange. Kontors were first established to provide security, but also served to secure privileges and engage in diplomacy. The quality of goods was also examined at Kontors, increasing trade efficiency, and they served as bases to develop connections with local rulers and as sources of economic and political information. Most kontors were also physical locations containing buildings that were integrated and segregated from citylife to different degrees. The kontor of Bruges was an exception in this regard; it acquired buildings only as of the 15th century. Like the guilds, the Kontore were usually led by Ältermänner ("eldermen", or English aldermen). The Stalhof, a special case, had a Hanseatic and an English alderman. In Novgorod the aldermen were replaced by a hofknecht in the 15th century. The kontors' statutes were read aloud to the present merchants once a year.

In 1347 the Kontor of Bruges modified its statute to ensure an equal representation of League members. To that end, member communities from different regions were pooled into three circles (Drittel ("third [part]"): the Wendish and Saxon Drittel, the Westphalian and Prussian Drittel as well as the Gothlandian, Livonian and Swedish Drittel). Merchants from each Drittel chose two aldermen and six members of the Eighteen Men Council (Achtzehnmännerrat) to administer the Kontor for a set period of time.

In 1356, during a Hanseatic meeting in preparation for the first (or one of the first) Tagfahrt, the League confirmed this statute. All trader settlements including the Kontors were subordinated to the Diet's decisions around this time, and their envoys received the right to attend and speak at Diets, albeit without voting power.

Drittel
The league gradually divided the organisation into three constituent parts called Drittel (German thirds), as shown in the table below.

The Hansetag was the only central institution of the Hanseatic League. However, with the division into Drittel, the members of the respective subdivisions frequently held a Dritteltage ("Drittel meeting") to work out common positions which could then be presented at a Hansetag. On a more local level, league members also met, and while such regional meetings never crystalized into a Hanseatic institution, they gradually gained importance in the process of preparing and implementing the Diet's decisions.

Quarters
From 1554, the division into Drittel was modified to reduce the circles' heterogeneity, to enhance the collaboration of the members on a regional level and thus to make the League's decision-making process more efficient. The number of circles rose to four, so they were called Quartiere (quarters):

This division was however not adopted by the Kontore, who, for their purposes (like Ältermänner elections), grouped League members in different ways (e.g., the division adopted by the Stalhof in London in 1554 grouped members into Dritteln, whereby Lübeck merchants represented the Wendish, Pomeranian Saxon and several Westphalian towns, Cologne merchants represented the Cleves, Mark, Berg and Dutch towns, while Danzig merchants represented the Prussian and Livonian towns).

Hanseatic ships
Various types of ships were used.

Cog
The most used type, and the most emblematic, was the cog. The cog was a multi-purpose clinker-built ship with carvel bottom, a stern rudder and a square rigged mast. Most cogs were privately owned, and were also used as warships. Cogs were built in various sizes and specifications and was used on both the seas and rivers. They could be outfitted with castles starting from the thirteenth century. The cog was depicted on many seals and several coats of arms of Hanseatic cities, like Stralsund, Elbląg and Wismar. Several shipwrecks have been found. The most notable wreck is the Bremen cog. It could carry a cargo of about 125 tons.

Hulk

The hulk began to replace the cog by 1400 and cogs lost their dominance to them around 1450.

The hulk was a bulkier ship that could carry larger cargo; Elbl estimates they could carry up to 500 tons by the 15th century. It could be clinker or carvel-built. No archeological evidence of a hulk has been found.

Carvel
In 1464, Danzig acquired a French carvel ship through a legal dispute and renamed it the Peter von Danzig. It was 40 m long and had three masts, one of the largest ships of its time. Danzig adopted carvel construction around 1470. Other cities shifted to carvels starting from this time. An example is the Jesus of Lübeck, later sold to England for use as a warship and slave ship.

The galleonlike carvel warship Adler von Lübeck was constructed by Lübeck for military use against Sweden during the Northern Seven Years' War (1563–70), Llaunched in 1566, it was never put to military use after the Treaty of Stettin. It was the biggest ship of its day at 78 m long and had four masts, including a bonaventure mizzen. It served as a merchant ship until it was damaged in 1581 on a return voyage from Lisbon and broken up in 1588.

Hansa Proper
In the table below, the names listed in the column labelled Quarter have been summarised as follows:
 * "Wendish": Wendish and Pomeranian (or just Wendish) quarter
 * "Saxon": Saxon, Thuringian and Brandenburg (or just Saxon) quarter
 * "Baltic": Prussian, Livonian and Swedish (or East Baltic) quarter
 * "Westphalian": Rhine-Westphalian and Netherlands (including Flanders) (or Rhineland) quarter

The remaining column headings are as follows:
 * City – the city's name, with any variants
 * Territory – the jurisdiction to which the city was subject at the time of the League
 * Now – the modern nation-state in which the city is located
 * From and Until – the dates at which the city joined and/or left the league
 * Notes – additional details about the city
 * Ref. – one or more references to works about the city

Kontore
The kontore were the major foreign trading posts of the League, not cities that were Hanseatic members, and are listed in the hidden table below.

Vitten
The vitten were significant foreign trading posts of the League in Scania, not cities that were Hanseatic members, they are argued by some to have been similar in status to the kontors, and are listed in the hidden table below.

Ports with Hansa trading posts

 * Åhus
 * Berwick-upon-Tweed
 * Bishop's Lynn (King's Lynn)
 * Boston
 * Bordeaux
 * Bourgneuf
 * Bristol
 * Copenhagen
 * Damme
 * Frankfurt
 * Ghent
 * Hull (Kingston upon Hull)
 * Ipswich
 * Kalundborg
 * Kaunas
 * Landskrona
 * La Rochelle
 * Leith
 * Lisbon
 * Nantes
 * Narva
 * Næstved
 * Newcastle
 * Norwich
 * Nuremberg
 * Oslo
 * Pleskau (Pskov)
 * Polotsk
 * Rønne
 * Scarborough
 * Yarmouth (Great Yarmouth)
 * Sluis
 * Smolensk
 * Tønsberg
 * Venice
 * Vilnius
 * Vitebsk
 * York
 * Ystad

Other cities with a Hansa community

 * Aberdeen
 * Åbo (Turku)
 * Avaldsnes
 * Brae
 * Grindavík
 * Grundarfjörður
 * Gunnister
 * Hafnarfjörður
 * Harlingen
 * Haroldswick
 * Hildesheim
 * Hindeloopen (Hylpen)
 * Kalmar
 * Krambatangi
 * Kumbaravogur
 * Leghorn
 * Lunna Wick
 * Messina
 * Naples
 * Nordhausen
 * Nyborg
 * Nyköping
 * Scalloway
 * Stockholm
 * Tórshavn
 * Trondheim
 * Tver
 * Walk (Valka)
 * Weißenstein (Paide)
 * Wesenberg (Rakvere)

Historiography
Academic historiography of the Hanseatic League is considered to begin with Georg Sartorius, who started writing his first work in 1795 and founded the liberal historiographical tradition about the League. The German conservative nationalist historiographical tradition was first published with F.W. Barthold's Geschichte der Deutschen Hansa of 1853/1854. The conservative view was associated with Little German ideology and came to predominate from the 1850s until the end of the First World War. Hanseatic history was used to justify a stronger German navy and conservative historians drew a link between the League and the rise of Prussia as the leading German state. This climate deeply influenced the historiography of the Baltic trade.

Issues of social, cultural and economic history became more important in German research after the First World War. But leading historian Fritz Rörig also promoted a National Socialist perspective. After the Second World War the conservative nationalist view was discarded, allowing exchanges between German, Swedish and Norwegian historians on the Hanseatic League's role in Sweden and Norway. Views on the League were strongly negative in the Scandinavian countries, especially Denmark, because of associations with German privilege and supremacy. Philippe Dollinger's book The German Hansa became the standard work in the 1960s. At that time, the dominant perspective became Ahasver von Brandt's view of a loosely aligned trading network. Marxist historians in the GDR were split on whether the League was a "late feudal" or "proto-capitalist" phenomenon.

Two museums in Europe are dedicated to the history of the Hanseatic League: the European Hansemuseum in Lübeck and the Hanseatic Museum and Schøtstuene in Bergen.

Popular views
From the 19th century, Hanseatic history was often used to promote a national cause in Germany. German liberals built a fictional literature around Jürgen Wullenwever, expressing fierce anti-Danish sentiment. Hanseatic subjects were used to propagate nation building, colonialism, fleet building and warfare, and the League was presented as a bringer of culture and pioneer of German expansion.

The preoccupation with a strong navy motivated German painters in the 19th century to paint supposedly Hanseatic ships. They used the traditions of maritime paintings and, not wanting Hanseatic ships to look unimpressive, ignored historical evidence to fictionalise cogs into tall two- or three-masted ships. The depictions were widely reproduced, such as on plates of Norddeutscher Lloyd. This misleading artistic tradition influenced public perception throughout the 20th century.

In the late 19th century, a social-critical view developed, where opponents of the League like the likedeelers were presented as heroes and liberators from economic oppression. This was popular from the end of the First World War into the 1930s, and survives in the Störtebeker Festival on Rügen, founded as the Rügenfestspiele by the GDR.

From the late 1970s, the Europeanness and cooperation of the Hanseatic League came to prominence in popular culture. It is associated with innovation, entrepreneurism and internationalness in economic circles. In this way it often used for tourism, city branding and commercial marketing. The League's unique governance structure has been identified as a precursor to the supranational model of the European Union.

Union of Cities THE HANSA
In 1979, Zwolle invited over 40 cities from West Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and Norway with historic links to the Hanseatic League to sign the recesses of 1669, at Zwolle's 750 year city rights' anniversary in August of the next year. In 1980, those cities established a "new Hanse" in Zwolle, named Städtebund Die Hanse (Union of Cities THE HANSA) in German and reinstituted the Hanseatic diets. This league is open to all former Hanseatic League members and cities that share a Hanseatic heritage.

In 2012, the city league had 187 members. This included twelve Russian cities, most notably Novgorod, and 21 Polish cities. No Danish cities had joined the Union although several qualify. The "new Hanse" fosters business links, tourism and cultural exchange.

The headquarters of the New Hansa is in Lübeck, Germany.

Dutch cities including Groningen, Deventer, Kampen, Zutphen and Zwolle, and a number of German cities including Bremen, Buxtehude, Demmin, Greifswald, Hamburg, Lübeck, Lüneburg, Rostock, Salzwedel, Stade, Stendal, Stralsund, Uelzen and Wismar now call themselves Hanse cities (the German cities' car license plates are prefixed H, e.g. –HB– for "Hansestadt Bremen").

Each year one of the member cities of the New Hansa hosts the Hanseatic Days of New Time international festival.

In 2006, King's Lynn became the first English member of the union of cities. It was joined by Hull in 2012 and Boston in 2016.

New Hanseatic League
The New Hanseatic League was established in February 2018 by finance ministers from Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands and Sweden through the signing of a foundational document which set out the countries' "shared views and values in the discussion on the architecture of the EMU".

Others
The legacy of the Hansa is reflected in several names: the German airline Lufthansa (lit. "Air Hansa"); F.C. Hansa Rostock, nickamed the Kogge or Hansa-Kogge; Hansa-Park, one of the biggest theme parks in Germany; Hanze University of Applied Sciences in Groningen, Netherlands; Hanze oil production platform, Netherlands; the Hansa Brewery in Bergen and the Hanse Sail in Rostock; Hanseatic Trade Center in Hamburg; DDG Hansa, which was a major German shipping company from 1881 until its bankruptcy and takeover by Hapag-Lloyd in 1980; the district of New Hanza City in Riga, Latvia; and Hansabank in Estonia, which was rebranded as Swedbank.

In popular culture

 * In the Patrician series of trading simulation video games, the player assumes the role of a merchant in any of several cities of the Hanseatic League.
 * In the Saga of Seven Suns series of space opera novels by American writer Kevin J. Anderson, the human race has colonized multiple planets in the Spiral Arm, most of which are governed by the powerful Terran Hanseatic League (Hansa).
 * Hansa Teutonica is a German board game designed by Andreas Steding and published by Argentum Verlag in 2009.
 * In the Metro franchise of post-apocalyptic novels and video games, a trading alliance of stations called The Commonwealth of the Stations of the Ring Line is also known as the Hanseatic League, usually shortened to Hansa or Hanza.

Historiography

 * Cowan, Alexander. "Hanseatic League: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide" (Oxford University Press, 2010) online
 * Harrison, Gordon. "The Hanseatic League in Historical Interpretation." The Historian 33 (1971): 385–97..
 * Szepesi, Istvan. "Reflecting the Nation: The Historiography of Hanseatic Institutions." Waterloo Historical Review 7 (2015). online

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hanseatic League


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Talk:Hanseatic League

Coat Of Arms Uelzen
There are mistakenly the CoA of Stendal with the town of Uelzen — Preceding unsigned comment added by Harmen Ströntistel (talk • contribs) 20:00, 7 October 2023 (UTC)

Misleading
The way this is worded is highly misleading:

"the League expanded between the 13th and 15th centuries and ultimately encompassed nearly 200 settlements across seven modern-day countries, ranging from Estonia in the north and east, to the Netherlands in the west, and Kraków, Poland, in the south." 178.24.245.152 (talk) 08:46, 23 October 2023 (UTC)

 * I tend to agree (mostly about the statement on 'Krakow to the south') and propose changing the last sentence to something more like:
 * Growing from a few North German towns in the late 12th century, the League expanded between the 13th and 15th centuries and ultimately encompassed nearly 200 settlements across seven modern-day countries, ranging from Estonia in the north and east, to Holland in the west, and extended inland as far as Cologne, the Prussian regions and Kraków, Poland.
 * @JaikeV what say ye? JackTheSecond (talk) 17:39, 29 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Looks mostly fine and better than the original too, though I'd personally replace "Holland" (really mostly Amsterdam and Dordrecht, so not that far west of Dinant) with something that includes the towns in Gelre and Overijssel. Tbh many "maximum extent" places to the southwest and southeast you could pick had pretty weak links that ended before or during the 15th century. JaikeV (talk) 10:47, 1 March 2024 (UTC)

German parents
JackTheSecond, about that old paragraph (it was in before I started editing), this is the text from Hammel-Kiesow:
 * Das entscheidende Kriterium für die Aufnahme eines Kaufmanns in die Hanse war nach heutigem Forschungsstand das Recht, zu dem er geboren war. Die Mitgliedschaft in ihr was folglich sozusagen angeboren: Nur wer von deutschen Eltern geboren war und nach deutschem Recht lebte, außerdem durch das Erlernen des Kaufmannsberufs die Berechtigung zum selbständigen Auslandshandel erborben hatte, konnte in die Hanse aufgenommen werden. Das hat noch nichts mit dem Nationalismus des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts zu tun, sondern mit dem - etnisch gebundenen - Recht als der grundsätzlichen Kategorie mittelalterlichen Daseins.

Slightly overstated claims are common in the literature, 'cause it's hard to say anything about the Hanse else, but Dinant was in the Holy Roman Empire. So I guess Hammel-Kiesow included it under "deutsch". No idea what you mean with Goteborg, did you mean Gotland? Visby had a large German merchant community since the 12th century, and there were Scandinavian and German council members by the 13th. There'd be lots of people there born to "German" parents under "German" law. JaikeV (talk) 09:47, 5 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Thanks a lot for that. Yes, I meant Gotland and yes, where exactly who was living had me confused a little. The fact that the Hanse was a solely German institution changes the perspective on things quite a bit.
 * Most of the confusion came from the section that read 'hometowns and destination ports' and went on to talk about a network being established. - The section didn't clarify who it was that built the network and I had just assumed it to be the two sides 'coming together' - which, in the context, likely meant the inner-German phenomenon.
 * My confusion with the section itself is mostly about some phrasing like 'whose towns were where these merchants held citizenship' that doesn't seem to refer to the right things, grammatically.
 * I am not sure if I am doing a good job making a point here, so just ask again if I didn't. I removed the tag in the meantime, as the claim itself is clearly not in question. JackTheSecond (talk) 12:40, 5 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Right. I'm not sure how 100% exclusive it was, and there were places in Scandinavia where locals and Hansards intermarried . But in general, stuff that involved guild membership was very exclusionary in the Middle Ages. And Hanseatic privileges were enjoyed overall by traders from towns in the Holy Roman Empire and Baltic Ostsiedlung regions. That isn't very clear from the intro.
 * Tbh the intro could probably do with a rewrite for the 2nd, 3rd and 4th paragraphs. There isn't much really factually wrong with it, but it's been edited down from a hyperbolic text that presented it as a great power and the focus is strange. Too much political history, not enough economic history.
 * Yes a sentence like 'whose towns were where these merchants held citizenship' isn't flashy and sounds like translated German. JaikeV (talk) 12:01, 6 March 2024 (UTC)

Lithuania
The list of ports includes Kaunas but the country of Lithuania is not listed under the ‘Today part of’ section. 2A02:C7C:6521:8300:2859:9706:A10:14D8 (talk) 07:39, 31 May 2024 (UTC)

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Harvard (disambiguation)

Harvard University is a university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.

Harvard may also refer to:

People

 * Harvard (name), a given name and surname, including list of people with this name

Boston area

 * Harvard Book Store, an independent bookstore in Harvard Square
 * Harvard Bridge, a bridge over the Charles River near the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
 * Harvard Club of Boston, a private social club founded by Harvard alumni
 * Harvard College, the undergraduate division of Harvard University
 * Harvard Crimson, Harvard University's athletic program
 * The Harvard Crimson, Harvard University's daily student newspaper
 * Harvard Square, a plaza in Cambridge, Massachusetts, adjacent to the Harvard University campus
 * Harvard Yard, the center of the Harvard campus, adjacent to Harvard Square
 * Harvard (MBTA station), the subway station located in Harvard Square

Cities

 * Harvard, Idaho
 * Harvard, Illinois, a city in the United States
 * Harvard, Massachusetts, a town in the United States
 * Harvard, Nebraska, a city in the United States
 * Harvard Township, Clay County, Nebraska, a township in the United States

Aeroplanes

 * Harvard (aeroplane), often used name for the North American T-6.
 * Harvard Blue Yonder EZ (aeroplane), a replica of the Harvard.

Ships

 * List of ships named Harvard
 * USS Harvard, several ships of the United States Navy

Other

 * Harvard architecture, a type of computer architecture.
 * Harvard (automobile), a Brass Era car built in New York between 1915 and 1921.
 * Harvard Graphics, an early breaking computer software for handling diagrams.
 * Harvard Mark I, an early digital computer.
 * Harvard referencing, a citation style also known as the "author-date method".
 * Harvard station (disambiguation), stations of the name.
 * Harvard-Westlake School, a prep school in Los Angeles.
 * Harvard 736 (planet), a minor planet orbiting the Sun.
 * Fender Harvard, a guitar amplifier.
 * Harvard Islands, an island group in northwestern Greenland.
 * Sime Darby Harvard Championship, a golf tournament held in Kedah, Malaysia

title: Harvard (disambiguation)


text:
Historical African place names

This is a list of historical African place names. The names on the left are linked to the corresponding subregion(s) from History of Africa.
 * Axum - Eritrea and Ethiopia
 * Africa (province) - Tunisia
 * Barbary Coast - Algeria
 * Bechuanaland - Botswana
 * Belgian Congo - Democratic Republic of the Congo
 * Carthage - Tunisia
 * Central African Empire - Central African Republic
 * Congo Free State - Democratic Republic of the Congo
 * Dahomey - Benin
 * Equatoria - Sudan and Uganda
 * Fernando Pó - Bioko
 * French Congo - Gabon and Republic of the Congo
 * French Equatorial Africa - Chad, Central African Republic, Gabon, Republic of the Congo
 * French Sudan - Mali
 * French West Africa - Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Niger, Burkina Faso, and Benin
 * German East Africa - Tanzania and Zanzibar
 * German South-West Africa - Namibia
 * The Gold Coast - Ghana
 * Guinea
 * Grain Coast or Pepper Coast - Liberia
 * Malagasy Republic - Madagascar
 * Mauritania Tingitana-Morocco
 * Mdre Bahri -Eritrea
 * Monomotapa - Zimbabwe, South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Mozambique and parts of Namibia and Botswana
 * Middle Congo - Republic of the Congo
 * Nubia - Sudan and Egypt
 * Numidia - Algeria, Libya and Tunisia
 * Nyasaland - Malawi
 * Western Pentapolis - Libya
 * Portuguese Guinea - Guinea-Bissau
 * Rhodesia -
 * Northern Rhodesia - Zambia
 * Southern Rhodesia - Zimbabwe
 * (Southern Rhodesia was commonly referred to simply as Rhodesia from 1964 to 1980)

 * Rwanda-Urundi - Rwanda and Burundi
 * The Slave Coast - Benin
 * Somaliland - Somalia
 * South-West Africa - Namibia
 * Spanish Sahara - Western Sahara
 * Swaziland - Eswatini
 * French Upper Volta - Republic of Upper Volta - Burkina Faso
 * Zaire - Republic of the Congo - Democratic Republic of the Congo

title: Historical African place names


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Horror fiction

Horror is a genre of fiction that is intended to disturb, frighten or scare. Horror is often divided into the sub-genres of psychological horror and supernatural horror, which are in the realm of speculative fiction. Literary historian J. A. Cuddon, in 1984, defined the horror story as "a piece of fiction in prose of variable length... which shocks, or even frightens the reader, or perhaps induces a feeling of repulsion or loathing". Horror intends to create an eerie and frightening atmosphere for the reader. Often the central menace of a work of horror fiction can be interpreted as a metaphor for larger fears of a society.

Before 1000

The horror genre has ancient origins, with roots in folklore and religious traditions focusing on death, the afterlife, evil, the demonic and the principle of the thing embodied in the person. These manifested in stories of beings such as demons, witches, vampires, werewolves and ghosts. European horror-fiction became established through works of the Ancient Greeks and Ancient Romans. Mary Shelley's well-known 1818 novel about Frankenstein was greatly influenced by the story of Hippolytus, whom Asclepius revives from death. Euripides wrote plays based on the story, Hippolytos Kalyptomenos and Hippolytus. In Plutarch's The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans in the account of Cimon, the author describes the spirit of a murderer, Damon, who himself was murdered in a bathhouse in Chaeronea.

Pliny the Younger (61 to c. 113) tells the tale of Athenodorus Cananites, who bought a haunted house in Athens. Athenodorus was cautious since the house seemed inexpensive. While writing a book on philosophy, he was visited by a ghostly figure bound in chains. The figure disappeared in the courtyard; the following day, the magistrates dug in the courtyard and found an unmarked grave.

Elements of the horror genre also occur in Biblical texts, notably in the Book of Revelation.

After 1000
The Witch of Berkeley by William of Malmesbury has been viewed as an early horror story. Werewolf stories were popular in medieval French literature. One of Marie de France's twelve lais is a werewolf story titled "Bisclavret". The Countess Yolande commissioned a werewolf story titled "Guillaume de Palerme". Anonymous writers penned two werewolf stories, "Biclarel" and "Melion".

Much horror fiction derives from the cruellest personages of the 15th century. Dracula can be traced to the Prince of Wallachia Vlad III, whose alleged war crimes were published in German pamphlets. A 1499 pamphlet was published by Markus Ayrer, which is most notable for its woodcut imagery. The alleged serial-killer sprees of Gilles de Rais have been seen as the inspiration for "Bluebeard". The motif of the vampiress is most notably derived from the real-life noblewoman and murderer, Elizabeth Bathory, and helped usher in the emergence of horror fiction in the 18th century, such as through László Turóczi's 1729 book Tragica Historia.

18th century
The 18th century saw the gradual development of Romanticism and the Gothic horror genre. It drew on the written and material heritage of the Late Middle Ages, finding its form with Horace Walpole's seminal and controversial 1764 novel, The Castle of Otranto. In fact, the first edition was published disguised as an actual medieval romance from Italy, discovered and republished by a fictitious translator. Once revealed as modern, many found it anachronistic, reactionary, or simply in poor taste but it proved immediately popular. Otranto inspired Vathek (1786) by William Beckford, A Sicilian Romance (1790), The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794), The Italian (1796) by Ann Radcliffe, and The Monk (1797) by Matthew Lewis. A significant amount of horror fiction of this era was written by women and marketed towards a female audience, a typical scenario of the novels being a resourceful female menaced in a gloomy castle.

19th century
The Gothic tradition blossomed into the genre that modern readers today call horror literature in the 19th century. Influential works and characters that continue resonating in fiction and film today saw their genesis in the Brothers Grimm's "Hänsel und Gretel" (1812), Mary Shelley's Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus (1818), John Polidori's "The Vampyre" (1819), Charles Maturin's Melmoth the Wanderer (1820), Washington Irving's "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" (1820), Jane C. Loudon's The Mummy!: Or a Tale of the Twenty-Second Century (1827), Victor Hugo's The Hunchback of Notre-Dame (1831), Thomas Peckett Prest's Varney the Vampire (1847), the works of Edgar Allan Poe, the works of Sheridan Le Fanu, Robert Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886), Oscar Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890), Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's "Lot No. 249" (1892), H. G. Wells' The Invisible Man (1897), and Bram Stoker's Dracula (1897). Each of these works created an enduring icon of horror seen in later re-imaginings on the page, stage, and screen.

20th century
A proliferation of cheap periodicals around the turn of the century led to a boom in horror writing. For example, Gaston Leroux serialized his Le Fantôme de l'Opéra before it became a novel in 1910. One writer who specialized in horror fiction for mainstream pulps, such as All-Story Magazine, was Tod Robbins, whose fiction deals with themes of madness and cruelty. In Russia, the writer Alexander Belyaev popularized these themes in his story Professor Dowell's Head (1925), in which a mad doctor performs experimental head transplants and reanimations on bodies stolen from the morgue, and which was first published as a magazine serial before being turned into a novel. Later, specialist publications emerged to give horror writers an outlet, prominent among them was Weird Tales and Unknown Worlds.

Influential horror writers of the early 20th century made inroads in these mediums. Particularly, the venerated horror author H. P. Lovecraft, and his enduring Cthulhu Mythos transformed and popularized the genre of cosmic horror, and M. R. James is credited with redefining the ghost story in that era.

The serial murderer became a recurring theme. Yellow journalism and sensationalism of various murderers, such as Jack the Ripper, and lesser so, Carl Panzram, Fritz Haarman, and Albert Fish, all perpetuated this phenomenon. The trend continued in the postwar era, partly renewed after the murders committed by Ed Gein. In 1959, Robert Bloch, inspired by the murders, wrote Psycho. The crimes committed in 1969 by the Manson Family influenced the slasher theme in horror fiction of the 1970s. In 1981, Thomas Harris wrote Red Dragon, introducing Dr. Hannibal Lecter. In 1988, the sequel to that novel, The Silence of the Lambs, was published.

Early cinema was inspired by many aspects of horror literature, and started a strong tradition of horror films and subgenres that continues to this day. Up until the graphic depictions of violence and gore on the screen commonly associated with 1960s and 1970s slasher films and splatter films, comic books such as those published by EC Comics (most notably Tales From The Crypt) in the 1950s satisfied readers' quests for horror imagery that the silver screen could not provide. This imagery made these comics controversial, and as a consequence, they were frequently censored.

The modern zombie tale dealing with the motif of the living dead harks back to works including H. P. Lovecraft's stories "Cool Air" (1925), "In The Vault" (1926), and "The Outsider" (1926), and Dennis Wheatley's "Strange Conflict" (1941). Richard Matheson's novel I Am Legend (1954) influenced an entire genre of apocalyptic zombie fiction emblematized by the films of George A. Romero.

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the enormous commercial success of three books - Rosemary's Baby (1967) by Ira Levin, The Exorcist by William Peter Blatty, and The Other by Thomas Tryon - encouraged publishers to begin releasing numerous other horror novels, thus creating a "horror boom".

One of the best-known late-20th century horror writers is Stephen King, known for Carrie, The Shining, It, Misery, and several dozen other novels and about 200 short stories. Beginning in the 1970s, King's stories have attracted a large audience, for which he was awarded by the U.S. National Book Foundation in 2003. Other popular horror authors of the period included Anne Rice, Shaun Hutson, Brian Lumley, Graham Masterton, James Herbert, Dean Koontz, Richard Laymon, Clive Barker, Ramsey Campbell, and Peter Straub.

21st century
Best-selling book series of contemporary times exist in genres related to horror fiction, such as the werewolf fiction urban fantasy Kitty Norville books by Carrie Vaughn (2005 onward). Horror elements continue to expand outside the genre. The alternate history of more traditional historical horror in Dan Simmons's 2007 novel The Terror sits on bookstore shelves next to genre mash ups such as Pride and Prejudice and Zombies (2009), and historical fantasy and horror comics such as Hellblazer (1993 onward) and Mike Mignola's Hellboy (1993 onward). Horror also serves as one of the central genres in more complex modern works such as Mark Z. Danielewski's House of Leaves (2000), a finalist for the National Book Award. There are many horror novels for children and teens, such as R. L. Stine's Goosebumps series or The Monstrumologist by Rick Yancey. Additionally, many movies for young audiences, particularly animated ones, use horror aesthetics and conventions (for example, ParaNorman). These are what can be collectively referred to as "children's horror". Although it is unknown for sure why children enjoy these movies (as it seems counter-intuitive), it is theorized that it is, in part, grotesque monsters that fascinate kids. Tangential to this, the internalized impact of horror television programs and films on children is rather under-researched, especially when compared to the research done on the similar subject of violence in TV and film's impact on the young mind. What little research there is tends to be inconclusive on the impact that viewing such media has.

Characteristics
One defining trait of the horror genre is that it provokes an emotional, psychological, or physical response within readers that causes them to react with fear. One of H. P. Lovecraft's most famous quotes about the genre is that: "The oldest and strongest emotion of mankind is fear, and the oldest and strongest kind of fear is fear of the unknown." the first sentence from his seminal essay, "Supernatural Horror in Literature". Science fiction historian Darrell Schweitzer has stated, "In the simplest sense, a horror story is one that scares us" and "the true horror story requires a sense of evil, not in necessarily in a theological sense; but the menaces must be truly menacing, life-destroying, and antithetical to happiness."

In her essay "Elements of Aversion", Elizabeth Barrette articulates the need by some for horror tales in a modern world: "The old 'fight or flight' reaction of our evolutionary heritage once played a major role in the life of every human. Our ancestors lived and died by it. Then someone invented the fascinating game of civilization, and things began to calm down. Development pushed wilderness back from settled lands. War, crime, and other forms of social violence came with civilization and humans started preying on each other, but by and large daily life calmed down. We began to feel restless, to feel something missing: the excitement of living on the edge, the tension between hunter and hunted. So we told each other stories through the long, dark nights. when the fires burned low, we did our best to scare the daylights out of each other. The rush of adrenaline feels good. Our hearts pound, our breath quickens, and we can imagine ourselves on the edge. Yet we also appreciate the insightful aspects of horror. Sometimes a story intends to shock and disgust, but the best horror intends to rattle our cages and shake us out of our complacency. It makes us think, forces us to confront ideas we might rather ignore, and challenges preconceptions of all kinds. Horror reminds us that the world is not always as safe as it seems, which exercises our mental muscles and reminds us to keep a little healthy caution close at hand."

In a sense similar to the reason a person seeks out the controlled thrill of a roller coaster, readers in the modern era seek out feelings of horror and terror to feel a sense of excitement. However, Barrette adds that horror fiction is one of the few mediums where readers seek out a form of art that forces themselves to confront ideas and images they "might rather ignore to challenge preconceptions of all kinds."

One can see the confrontation of ideas that readers and characters would "rather ignore" throughout literature in famous moments such as Hamlet's musings about the skull of Yorick, its implications of the mortality of humanity, and the gruesome end that bodies inevitably come to. In horror fiction, the confrontation with the gruesome is often a metaphor for the problems facing the current generation of the author.

There are many theories as to why people enjoy being scared. For example, "people who like horror films are more likely to score highly for openness to experience, a personality trait linked to intellect and imagination."

It is a now commonly accepted view that the horror elements of Dracula's portrayal of vampirism are metaphors for sexuality in a repressed Victorian era. But this is merely one of many interpretations of the metaphor of Dracula. Jack Halberstam postulates many of these in his essay Technologies of Monstrosity: Bram Stoker's Dracula. He writes:

"[The] image of dusty and unused gold, coins from many nations and old unworn jewels, immediately connects Dracula to the old money of a corrupt class, to a kind of piracy of nations and to the worst excesses of the aristocracy."

Halberstram articulates a view of Dracula as manifesting the growing perception of the aristocracy as an evil and outdated notion to be defeated. The depiction of a multinational band of protagonists using the latest technologies (such as a telegraph) to quickly share, collate, and act upon new information is what leads to the destruction of the vampire. This is one of many interpretations of the metaphor of only one central figure of the canon of horror fiction, as over a dozen possible metaphors are referenced in the analysis, from the religious to the antisemitic.

Noël Carroll's Philosophy of Horror postulates that a modern piece of horror fiction's "monster", villain, or a more inclusive menace must exhibit the following two traits:
 * A menace that is threatening — either physically, psychologically, socially, morally, spiritually, or some combination of the aforementioned.
 * A menace that is impure — that violates the generally accepted schemes of cultural categorization. "We consider impure that which is categorically contradictory".

Scholarship and criticism
In addition to those essays and articles shown above, scholarship on horror fiction is almost as old as horror fiction itself. In 1826, the gothic novelist Ann Radcliffe published an essay distinguishing two elements of horror fiction, "terror" and "horror." Whereas terror is a feeling of dread that takes place before an event happens, horror is a feeling of revulsion or disgust after an event has happened. Radcliffe describes terror as that which "expands the soul and awakens the faculties to a high degree of life," whereas horror is described as that which "freezes and nearly annihilates them."

Modern scholarship on horror fiction draws upon a range of sources. In their historical studies of the gothic novel, both Devendra Varma and S. L. Varnado make reference to the theologian Rudolf Otto, whose concept of the "numinous" was originally used to describe religious experience.

A recent survey reports how often horror media is consumed:"To assess frequency of horror consumption, we asked respondents the following question: 'In the past year, about how often have you used horror media (for example, horror literature, film, and video games) for entertainment?' 11.3% said 'Never,' 7.5% 'Once,' 28.9% 'Several times,' 14.1% 'Once a month,' 20.8% 'Several times a month,' 7.3% 'Once a week,' and 10.2% 'Several times a week.' Evidently, then, most respondents (81.3%) claimed to use horror media several times a year or more often. Unsurprisingly, there is a strong correlation between liking and frequency of use (r=.79, p<.0001)."

Awards and associations
Achievements in horror fiction are recognized by numerous awards. The Horror Writers Association presents the Bram Stoker Awards for Superior Achievement, named in honor of Bram Stoker, author of the seminal horror novel Dracula. The Australian Horror Writers Association presents annual Australian Shadows Awards. The International Horror Guild Award was presented annually to works of horror and dark fantasy from 1995 to 2008. The Shirley Jackson Awards are literary awards for outstanding achievement in the literature of psychological suspense, horror, and the dark fantastic works. Other important awards for horror literature are included as subcategories within general awards for fantasy and science fiction in such awards as the Aurealis Award.

Alternative terms
Some writers of fiction normally classified as "horror" tend to dislike the term, considering it too lurid. They instead use the terms dark fantasy or Gothic fantasy for supernatural horror, or "psychological thriller" for non-supernatural horror.

title: Horror fiction


text:
Holomorphic function

In mathematics, a holomorphic function is a complex-valued function of one or more complex variables that is complex differentiable in a neighbourhood of each point in a domain in complex coordinate space $C^{n}$. The existence of a complex derivative in a neighbourhood is a very strong condition: it implies that a holomorphic function is infinitely differentiable and locally equal to its own Taylor series (is analytic). Holomorphic functions are the central objects of study in complex analysis.

Though the term analytic function is often used interchangeably with "holomorphic function", the word "analytic" is defined in a broader sense to denote any function (real, complex, or of more general type) that can be written as a convergent power series in a neighbourhood of each point in its domain. That all holomorphic functions are complex analytic functions, and vice versa, is a major theorem in complex analysis.

Holomorphic functions are also sometimes referred to as regular functions. A holomorphic function whose domain is the whole complex plane is called an entire function. The phrase "holomorphic at a point $z_{0}$" means not just differentiable at $z_{0}$, but differentiable everywhere within some neighbourhood of $z_{0}$ in the complex plane.

Definition
Given a complex-valued function $f$ of a single complex variable, the derivative of $f$ at a point $f(z) = z̅$ in its domain is defined as the limit
 * $$f'(z_0) = \lim_{z \to z_0} {f(z) - f(z_0) \over z - z_0 }. $$

This is the same definition as for the derivative of a real function, except that all quantities are complex. In particular, the limit is taken as the complex number $f$ tends to $(f(z) − f(0)) / (z − 0)$, and this means that the same value is obtained for any sequence of complex values for $f$ that tends to $g(z) = z$. If the limit exists, $f$ is said to be complex differentiable at $1$. This concept of complex differentiability shares several properties with real differentiability: it is linear and obeys the product rule, quotient rule, and chain rule.

A function is holomorphic on an open set $z$ if it is complex differentiable at every point of $z$. A function $f$ is holomorphic at a point $h(z) = −z$ if it is holomorphic on some neighbourhood of $−1$. A function is holomorphic on some non-open set $U$ if it is holomorphic at every point of $U$.

A function may be complex differentiable at a point but not holomorphic at this point. For example, the function $$f(z)=|z|^2=z\overline z$$ is complex differentiable at $z_{0}$, but not complex differentiable elsewhere (see the Cauchy–Riemann equations, below). So, it is not holomorphic at $z_{0}$.

The relationship between real differentiability and complex differentiability is the following: If a complex function $z_{0}$ is holomorphic, then $f$ and $A$ have first partial derivatives with respect to $A$ and $u$, and satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations:
 * $$\frac{\partial u}{\partial x} = \frac{\partial v}{\partial y} \qquad \mbox{and} \qquad \frac{\partial u}{\partial y} = -\frac{\partial v}{\partial x}\,$$

or, equivalently, the Wirtinger derivative of $v$ with respect to $$\bar z,$$ the complex conjugate of $$z,$$ is zero:
 * $$\frac{\partial f}{\partial\overline{z}} = 0,$$

which is to say that, roughly, $x$ is functionally independent from $$\bar z,$$ the complex conjugate of $y$.

If continuity is not given, the converse is not necessarily true. A simple converse is that if $f$ and $f$ have continuous first partial derivatives and satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations, then $z$ is holomorphic. A more satisfying converse, which is much harder to prove, is the Looman–Menchoff theorem: if $u$ is continuous, $v$ and $f$ have first partial derivatives (but not necessarily continuous), and they satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations, then $f$ is holomorphic.

Terminology
The term holomorphic was introduced in 1875 by Charles Briot and Jean-Claude Bouquet, two of Augustin-Louis Cauchy's students, and derives from the Greek ὅλος (hólos) meaning "whole", and μορφή (morphḗ) meaning "form" or "appearance" or "type", in contrast to the term meromorphic derived from μέρος (méros) meaning "part". A holomorphic function resembles an entire function ("whole") in a domain of the complex plane while a meromorphic function (defined to mean holomorphic except at certain isolated poles), resembles a rational fraction ("part") of entire functions in a domain of the complex plane. The original French terms were holomorphe and méromorphe. Cauchy had instead used the term synectic.

Today, the term "holomorphic function" is sometimes preferred to "analytic function". An important result in complex analysis is that every holomorphic function is complex analytic, a fact that does not follow obviously from the definitions. The term "analytic" is however also in wide use.

Properties
Because complex differentiation is linear and obeys the product, quotient, and chain rules, the sums, products and compositions of holomorphic functions are holomorphic, and the quotient of two holomorphic functions is holomorphic wherever the denominator is not zero. That is, if functions $u$ and $v$ are holomorphic in a domain $f$, then so are $z_{0}$, $z_{0}$, $z_{0}$, and $0$. Furthermore, $0$ is holomorphic if $f$ has no zeros in $g$, or is meromorphic otherwise.

If one identifies $f(x + i y) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y)$ with the real plane $f + g$, then the holomorphic functions coincide with those functions of two real variables with continuous first derivatives which solve the Cauchy–Riemann equations, a set of two partial differential equations.

Every holomorphic function can be separated into its real and imaginary parts $f − g$, and each of these is a harmonic function on $f g$ (each satisfies Laplace's equation $f ∘ g$), with $U$ the harmonic conjugate of $g$. Conversely, every harmonic function $f / g$ on a simply connected domain $C$ is the real part of a holomorphic function: If $U$ is the harmonic conjugate of $v$, unique up to a constant, then $R^{2}$ is holomorphic.

Cauchy's integral theorem implies that the contour integral of every holomorphic function along a loop vanishes:

 * $$\oint_\gamma f(z)\,dz = 0. $$

Here $u$ is a rectifiable path in a simply connected complex domain $f(x + i y) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y)$ whose start point is equal to its end point, and $R^{2}$ is a holomorphic function.

Cauchy's integral formula states that every function holomorphic inside a disk is completely determined by its values on the disk's boundary. Furthermore: Suppose $∇^{2} u = ∇^{2} v = 0$ is a complex domain, $u(x, y)$ is a holomorphic function and the closed disk $Ω ⊂ R^{2}$ is completely contained in $v$. Let $u$ be the circle forming the boundary of $γ$. Then for every $U$ in the interior of $γ$:

 * $$f(a) = \frac{1}{2\pi i} \oint_\gamma \frac{f(z)}{z-a}\,dz $$

where the contour integral is taken counter-clockwise.

The derivative $f(x + i y) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y)$ can be written as a contour integral using Cauchy's differentiation formula:

 * $$f'(a) = {1 \over 2\pi i} \oint_\gamma {f(z) \over (z-a)^{2}}\,dz,$$

for any simple loop positively winding once around $D$, and

 * $$f'(a) = \lim\limits_{\gamma\to a}\frac i{2\mathcal{A}(\gamma)}\oint_{\gamma}f(z)\,d\bar z,$$

for infinitesimal positive loops $a$ around $D$.

In regions where the first derivative is not zero, holomorphic functions are conformal: they preserve angles and the shape (but not size) of small figures.

Every holomorphic function is analytic. That is, a holomorphic function $a$ has derivatives of every order at each point $γ$ in its domain, and it coincides with its own Taylor series at $a$ in a neighbourhood of $f$. In fact, $a$ coincides with its Taylor series at $a$ in any disk centred at that point and lying within the domain of the function.

From an algebraic point of view, the set of holomorphic functions on an open set is a commutative ring and a complex vector space. Additionally, the set of holomorphic functions in an open set $a$ is an integral domain if and only if the open set $f$ is connected. In fact, it is a locally convex topological vector space, with the seminorms being the suprema on compact subsets.

From a geometric perspective, a function $a$ is holomorphic at $U ⊂ C$ if and only if its exterior derivative $U$ in a neighbourhood $U$ of $f : U → C$ is equal to $U ⊂ C$ for some continuous function $f : U → C$. It follows from

 * $$\textstyle 0 = d^2 f = d(f^\prime dz) = df^\prime \wedge dz$$

that $D = \{z : |z − z_{0}| ≤ r\}$ is also proportional to $f$, implying that the derivative $f(a)$ is itself holomorphic and thus that $df$ is infinitely differentiable. Similarly, $z_{0}$ implies that any function $U$ that is holomorphic on the simply connected region $dz$ is also integrable on $f$.

(For a path $f$ from $z_{0}$ to $U$ lying entirely in $U$, define $ F_\gamma(z) = F_0 + \int_\gamma f\,dz;$ in light of the Jordan curve theorem and the generalized Stokes' theorem, $f(z) dz$ is independent of the particular choice of path $γ$, and thus $f$ is a well-defined function on $z$ having $df$ and $f$.)

Examples
All polynomial functions in $U$ with complex coefficients are entire functions (holomorphic in the whole complex plane $d(f dz) = f dz ∧ dz = 0$), and so are the exponential function $z_{0}$ and the trigonometric functions $\cos{z} = \tfrac12\bigl(\exp(iz) + \exp(-iz)\bigr)$ and $\sin{z} = -\tfrac12i\bigl(\exp(iz) - \exp(-iz)\bigr)$  (cf. Euler's formula). The principal branch of the complex logarithm function $F_{γ}(z)$ is holomorphic on the domain $F(z)$. The square root function can be defined as $\sqrt{z} = \exp\bigl(\tfrac12 \log z\bigr)$ and is therefore holomorphic wherever the logarithm $F(z_{0}) = F_{0}$ is. The reciprocal function $dF = f dz$ is holomorphic on $C$. (The reciprocal function, and any other rational function, is meromorphic on $exp z$.)

As a consequence of the Cauchy–Riemann equations, any real-valued holomorphic function must be constant. Therefore, the absolute value $log z$, the argument $C ∖ \{z ∈ R : z ≤ 0\}$, the real part $log z$ and the imaginary part $1 / z$ are not holomorphic. Another typical example of a continuous function which is not holomorphic is the complex conjugate $$\bar z.$$ (The complex conjugate is antiholomorphic.)

Several variables
The definition of a holomorphic function generalizes to several complex variables in a straightforward way. A function $$f:(z_1,z_2, \ldots, z_n) \mapsto f(z_1,z_2, \ldots, z_n)$$ in $γ$ complex variables is analytic at a point $U$ if there exists a neighbourhood of $z$ in which $n$ is equal to a convergent power series in $p$ complex variables; the function $p$ is holomorphic in an open subset $f$ of $C ∖ \{0\}$ if it is analytic at each point in $n$. Osgood's lemma shows (using the multivariate Cauchy integral formula) that, for a continuous function $f$, this is equivalent to $U$ being holomorphic in each variable separately (meaning that if any $C$ coordinates are fixed, then the restriction of $U$ is a holomorphic function of the remaining coordinate). The much deeper Hartogs' theorem proves that the continuity assumption is unnecessary: $f$ is holomorphic if and only if it is holomorphic in each variable separately.

More generally, a function of several complex variables that is square integrable over every compact subset of its domain is analytic if and only if it satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations in the sense of distributions.

Functions of several complex variables are in some basic ways more complicated than functions of a single complex variable. For example, the region of convergence of a power series is not necessarily an open ball; these regions are logarithmically-convex Reinhardt domains, the simplest example of which is a polydisk. However, they also come with some fundamental restrictions. Unlike functions of a single complex variable, the possible domains on which there are holomorphic functions that cannot be extended to larger domains are highly limited. Such a set is called a domain of holomorphy.

A complex differential $|z |$-form $f$ is holomorphic if and only if its antiholomorphic Dolbeault derivative is zero: $arg (z)$.

Extension to functional analysis
The concept of a holomorphic function can be extended to the infinite-dimensional spaces of functional analysis. For instance, the Fréchet or Gateaux derivative can be used to define a notion of a holomorphic function on a Banach space over the field of complex numbers.

title: Holomorphic function


text:
Talk:Heterosexuality

Heterosexuality vs genders
I understand that it might be polite towards trans sexuals to add "opposite gender"; but it's in the very definition of hetero-sexual that it refers to actual opposite sex. 0 on the Kinsley scale. -- 18:27, 17 June 2021 Haavarl -- Preceding unsigned comment added by Haavarl (talk  o  contribs)

 * There's been a trend in recent decades to avoid the word "sex" in reference to what used to be called "the sexes" and replace it with "gender" (except in narrow biological uses), but I'm not sure that this has much to do with transgenders (the shift from "transsexual" to "transgender" is a result of this change, not a cause of it, as far as I know). I'm not sure that I care which word is used, as long as the word "opposite" is retained (there were some objections to "opposite" in the past, as you can read in the archives of this page. AnonMoos (talk) 02:18, 19 June 2021 (UTC)

 * We use both to satisfy those who advocate for each. Biological sources tend to use sex, while sociological sources sometimes use gender. Crossroads -talk- 23:40, 19 June 2021 (UTC)

 * And that was okay when 'opposite/same gender' meant the same thing as 'opposite/same sex.' And here it really matters only indirectly - heterosexual people aren't at any great risk of being oppressed - but naturally, the hetero- and homo- articles must needs use the same phrasings in their ledes lest our coverage of the topics be non-neutral, and redefining sexual orientation as relating to attraction toward a particular gender effectively redefines homosexuals out of existence. I know homosexuality is not this article's subject, but the way one article lede is framed affects how the other is, and in theory the issue pertains to both orientations likewise (even if in reality it is unlikely to jeopardise hetero folk). 2600:1702:4960:1DE0:100A:126F:9258:FBB8 (talk) 10:23, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

 * It's not obvious to me that uniformity between the "Heterosexuality" and "Homosexuality" articles is required by any Wikipedia policy, but I would have no objection to the "sex or gender" wording. AnonMoos (talk) 23:00, 7 November 2021 (UTC)
 * The use of "sex" and "gender" as synonyms began in the early 19th century, but was not wide spread and was more along the lines of idiom or slang. It was the early 20th century where the use caused it to become an actual synonym due to it's wide spread use in common language, which is how language evolves. Currently, due to the open existence (as opposed to them normally keeping in hiding) of transgenders, the trend has been towards separating the two words again, with sex referring to the biological body, and gender referring to the psychological identity. Maquiscat (talk) 11:28, 13 October 2022 (UTC)
 * There is also an issue with statistics, as a reader i don't understand whether heteresexuality included "opposite gender" or it was only "opposite sex" in 1992? If there was a change of meaning, it would be really helpfull to know when the meaning was changed. 112.134.188.95 (talk) 18:16, 18 May 2023 (UTC)

Heteronormativity and heterosexism needs to be removed
I really don't think this has a place in an article about heterosexuality, especially because, as written, it implies that being in heterosexual gender roles is itself a form of discrimination... and that really contributes nothing to what heterosexuality is and ultimately implies that heterosexuality only exists to oppress 2601:246:5680:E670:14BD:C0A9:CC57:A9EE (talk) 01:12, 22 June 2021 (UTC)

 * It's contained in section 4.4 of the article, the last subsection before the "see also" links, so it's not dominating the article. I'm not sure that the idea is that heterosexuality is inherently bad, as that enforced conformity in the name of heterosexuality can be as pernicious as any other kind of enforced conformity.  In the English-speaking developed countries in the 1950s, if you weren't heterosexual (or sometimes even if you were heterosexual, but practiced any form of sex other than between a married couple in the missionary position) you could receive condescending long lectures from orthodox Freudian psychiatrists in elegant abstruse jargon sprinkled with Latin words which basically boiled down to the fact that you were a disgusting pervert -- and sometimes more directly repressive actions were taken. AnonMoos (talk) 19:54, 22 June 2021 (UTC)

Heterosexual is different than straight
Gender is a choice these days so heterosexuals are attracted to the opposite sex not the opposite gender because you can't choose your sex and heterosexuality isn't a choice it's for cismales to be attracted to cisfemales and vice versa. The term straight can be for attraction to opposite gender 192.139.153.114 (talk) 19:14, 24 November 2021 (UTC)

 * I really don't think that any such vocabulary distinction is widely known. If it exists at all, then there needs to be a reliable source for it... AnonMoos (talk) 08:12, 26 November 2021 (UTC)
 * While there is some rumblings of this, it is not something that is yet in common use, not even among the transgender community. Unlike the terms "sex" and "gender" and the corresponding labels of "man" and "male" and that of "woman" and "female", "straight" and "heterosexual" and "gay" and "homosexual" are still synonymous in the common language. That is not to say that such a separation would not be a good thing. Simply that it has not entered into the mainstream language yet, like the others have. Maquiscat (talk) 11:34, 13 October 2022 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 3 December 2021
Under the term hetorsexual the line opposite sex or gender should be changed to opposite sex and gender (or gender removed completely) to gitt the offisial definition of hetorsexual that you can see in all dictionarys TheModernViking (talk) 11:40, 3 December 2021 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done for now: please establish a consensus for this alteration before using the template. ScottishFinnishRadish (talk) 12:10, 3 December 2021 (UTC)
 * Dictionaries lag actual language use. Gay became a synonym of homosexual long before the dictionaries published it as such. One reason is to ensure that such use has become a fixed use in common language. So the use of dictionaries strictly should not be the criteria in determining this. Current studies should also be a factor and probably a more weighted one. Maquiscat (talk) 11:38, 13 October 2022 (UTC)

Heterosexuality isnt about biological sex
The wiki says that heterosexuality is attracted to the opposite sex or gender. I just want to say that sex isnt important here ( of course if you preffer cis people is ok, but thats preffering, not heterosexuality). A trans woman and a cis man are heterosexual, but an trans man and a man not Frostbyteonce (talk) 20:50, 5 February 2024 (UTC)
 * The current definition reflects common long-standing tradition and attraction to trans women is a relatively recent notion bordering WP:OR. Also, it's unclear what proportion of cismen (out of sizeable cohort) would actually be attracted to transwomen. Brandmeistertalk  22:04, 5 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Heterosexuality