text:
Talk:Erotica

Votes for proposed merger of erotica with erotic art
Please vote. --Jahsonic 19:49, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Against: As stated in the LookWayUp online english dictionary definition to the Erotica term: "creative activity (writing or pictures or films etc.) of no literary or artistic value other than to stimulate sexual desire". It speaks for itself. Ricardo 23:34 GMT -3:00 São Paulo - Brazil 11 August 2006

 * Against: erotica page should be dedicated to the etymology of erotica and include erotic fiction. Erotic art is then reserved for the visual arts.--Jahsonic 20:24, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Against: It would be fine to include a short description of Erotica Art on the Erotica page, however, merging them would be a mistake, as erotica art is part of the realm, yet big enough to exist on it on. It's kind of like Hip Hop. You have Emceeing, Deejaying, Graffiti, and Breakdancing as the elements that make it up..but most parts have lives of their own.
 * Oppose - I also wouldn't merge modern art with modernism. -- Solipsist 19:31, 16 August 2006 (UTC)

Erotica is what I like. Pornography is what you like, you pervert!
Its even more simple than that. Erotica is pornography for women. Changing the name allows women to feel as if they aren't violating taboo or committing a sin. Check out a standard erotica romance novel. It would make porn stars turn white and steady themselves on the furniture!

The difference between erotica and pornography is simple. Erotica is what I like. Pornography is what you like, you pervert! -- Stephen Gilbert

Dear Mr. Gilbert, did you call me "pervert"? OK, I'd prefer suicide rather than to be labelled so badly and to be arrested by police for having written that nonsense. -- Egr, 14/3/2006

 * That's exactly the point I was trying to make with that little change, but you can't write it just like that in an encyclopedia article -- Robert Merkel

 * Not sure that line is NPOV... Going to delete it since I don't see any way to make it NPOV myself and it doesn't seem very.. encylopedish. Rgamble

 * the way to make it encyclopedish is to make the erotica and pornography articles be the same, and simply point out that some people like to use the term erotica and what distinction they are trying to draw. That realistically separates the terminology from the objects, and does not attempt to arbitrarily change the nature of the objects.

Once while musing with a friend about the difference between erotica and pornography we decided this - the difference is the audience. --JvaGoddess

I always thought that the difference was "lighting." Babbage

It sounds like a quote from someone; if so, attribute it and leave it in--I think it's right on the mark and not at all out of place. -- Lee Daniel Crocker

BTW, what's with all the X links? It's the same as X, but twice as much typing and harder to edit.

 * Hmmm, I'll put it back though I don't know the reference since I tend to trust your judgement. I may just be in a nitpicky mood tonight.  Rgamble

Discussion regarding unidintified photograph
Take the photo off please, think of the children that use this page, remove the photo or blur it out

 * A child reading this page? In case you haven't noticed the article is titled Erotica. Not Hello Kitty.

 * Problem being, in many regions, the law states that a child is anyone under what is called "age of majority" which is to say, under an age where the accumulated experiences are not deemed sufficient to make decisions for themselves with all dangers considered.

 * We can't dumb down all of Wikipedia, or all of the Internet to the least common denominator, or the least controversial version of whatever we describe. It is a parents responsibility to keep their children off of the freeway, not the role of the state to lower the speed limit to five miles per hour because a child may wander onto the freeway.  The Internet, and Wikipedia are about facts and reality.

 * Besides the picture is innocent enough -- of a woman in a bikini. It seems to me less suggestive than many daytime TV commercials. Atom 19:25, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

the difference between erotica and porn is aesthetic...or is it?
The difference between erotica and porn is denotative, actually: the former being defined generally as "material intended to provoke sexual stimulation", the latter, "stories inclusive of sexual themes, where sexuality is secondary to a major plot". Also, "pornography" in many legal circles is defined as that which is dehumanizing or degrading. To claim that the only opponents of porn are religiously-motivated, or that their morals are "old-fashioned" is wholly ignorant of a significant portion of its objectors, whose repulsion stems from progressive, humanitarian values and advocacy of what they feel are more honest, respectful depictions of sexuality unhampered by themes of degradation and conformity to a caricature-esque paradigm.

 * There's nothing "honest" about this position. There's a great deal in our culture that is degrading or dehumanizing, some of a sexual and some of a non-sexual nature, that is never considered pornography, and a lot of what is called pornography is simply raw sexual acts, sometimes caricaturized and sometimes not, but mere exaggeration or role performance does not make something degrading or dehumanizing -- these are ideology-based judgments more than they are facts. An honest approach would be to identify and remedy individual cases of degradation or dehumanization, whether of a sexual nature or not, rather than try to use the legal system to block imagery that one finds distasteful. -- 98.108.206.178 (talk) 20:09, 23 March 2011 (UTC)

Vintage erotica
Discussion regarded merge with erotica archived here --Jahsonic 19:39, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

Copyedit
I went through and did a copyedit on the page and removed the box for it. If anyone feels further editing is needed or a future revision requires work again be my guest to put it back or contact me on my talk page. Greets! skrshawk 17:07, 25 December 2006 (UTC)

It seems to me that the difference between erotica and pornography is entirely subjective - but it does not need to be judgemental (. . . . you pervert!!) :-)

Both are intended to induce sexual arousal - both seem to find commercial outlets (making profits for their creators) - both deal with sensuality and sexuality.

It seems to me that the difference between the two is the point (for each of us) at which erotica (stimulating, sensual imagery - be it visual, auditory or written) crosses over to being brash; explicit; and in poor taste (that we individually define as pornaography).

Is the dabate "erotica or pornography?" worthwhile?

Is legislation to distinguish the two of any use at all?

Mike Armitage 20:48, 3 February 2007 (UTC)

Student publications
This section seems misplaced, especially with listing a bunch of publications. We don't list other publications featuring erotica, so I'm not sure why this should be different. DreamGuy 19:47, 24 April 2007 (UTC)
 * I added this section back in. The section is referenced, and it is a new movement among student publications. Rather than deleting it, it should be expanded or moved to another article. 151.197.111.178 20:32, 7 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Please create a new article for this. It is wrong here, for the reasons given above, and on your Talk page before you restored this section. / edg ☺ ★ 20:48, 7 October 2007 (UTC)
 * The section belongs. South Philly 01:11, 16 October 2007 (UTC)

"Student erotica" edit war
Sections on "Student erotica" have been added three times now, and deleted twice.

Even if sourced, student erotica is too small and recent a genre to add to a broad article like Erotica, especially with details of known publications. If this is a notable phenomemon, consider creating a new article with this information. / edg ☺ ★ 20:40, 7 October 2007 (UTC)
 * It is sourced. It is more sourced than any of the other genres or themes. I would say that it may one day deserve its own article, but until the information in that section grows, it should should just stay put. Deleting it again is just driving the edit war.151.197.111.178 20:51, 7 October 2007 (UTC)

 * As stated before, sources do not make this appropriate for this article. Sourcing Family Guy doesn't make him worth adding to History of art. If you create a student erotica article, it would be worth linking from this one. But this is not the place for it. / edg ☺ ★ 20:57, 7 October 2007 (UTC)
 * That's putting the cart before the horse. the information here should be given time to gorw beofre splitting it off on a new article. 151.197.111.178 21:08, 7 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Only if this is where Student erotica belongs. This is the wrong place. A stub would be much better. / edg ☺ ★ 21:12, 7 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Update: this section has now been removed 4 times by 3 different editors  . Interestingly, the anon editor, who has inserted this section at least three times (perhaps all 4), threatens to report the removing editors for "edit warring" (having just previously made this threat on my talk page for my making 1 edit ever to this section). I propose the anon is editing against consensus. / edg ☺ ★ 21:12, 7 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Seconded. You're going against consensus, and are about to violate the WP:3RR. Please, stop. Gscshoyru 21:09, 7 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Consensus is two against one, and it isn't forced in the course of an hour. A stub would get nominated for not being notable. that's why the information is appropriate here. 151.197.111.178 21:21, 7 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Consensus is something you build, not something you enforce. 151.201.155.166 16:03, 8 October 2007 (UTC)
 * when it gets above 1000 characters I'll create the new article. Student erotica 16:08, 8 October 2007 (UTC)
 * The section belongs. Removing it was done without consensus. The people who keep removing it without having first sought consensus are driving an edit war. South Philly 01:11, 16 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Actually, it really is the other way around. Changes to the original structure of the article should not be made if someone is opposing without consensus -- see WP:BRD -- and the addition is the change. Please explain why such a narrow topic is notable enough to be in the article on the general topic, or make a seperate article with that information. Making the seperate article would be much, much better. Gscshoyru 01:28, 16 October 2007 (UTC)

 * No, you have it backward. It used to be in the article, until it was summarily removed without seeking consensus. I'm just restoring the article to what it was. The information should remain here until it is big enough for its own article. That's the way thinsg work in wikipedia.Student erotica 02:39, 16 October 2007 (UTC)
 * You've been abusing tools, using sockpuppets, and making disingenuous accusations. This is not how Wikipedia works. / edg ☺ ★ 02:52, 16 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Gscshoyru has been edting, claiming consensus, against another user, driving an edit war and getting another user blocked. I joined into the argument today, and now I get attacked too. South Philly 03:27, 16 October 2007 (UTC)

Frankly, the section needs to be removed, since it stinks of promotion (i.e. it solely uses first-party referencing). If anything, it does need to be placed in a separate article, and third-party sources would be needed to back up any notability issues. -- Joe Beaudoin Jr. Think out loud 04:52, 16 October 2007 (UTC)
 * The section needs to be rewritten and expanded. Only once it has grown should it be spun off into its own article. Student erotica 03:58, 17 October 2007 (UTC)
 * To be honest, your insistence in making this whole "student erotica" thing part of this article isn't logical to me. You know, you can make an article on "Student Erotica", but it'd only be a stub. Even if it's not in the main article namespace, you can still make it a sub-page of your user page (i.e. User:Student erotica/Student Erotica), that way you can develop it until you feel comfortable in releasing it into the article namespace. With those options open to you, I find the whole edit warring a bit ridiculous. -- Joe Beaudoin Jr. Think out loud 07:52, 17 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I'm adding the infomation back in. It is sourced and relevant. There was no consesnus to remove it in the first place. Student erotica 21:08, 20 October 2007 (UTC)

 * It isn't relevant enough. You're giving it far, far too much weight. With that section added, half of the article is a about student erotica, which is far, far too much, as student erotica is not that important in terms of erotica. If you really want, you can probably make a seperate article, and link to it in the see-also, though I'm not sure if it's notable enough for inclusion there. Additionally, your idea that articles grow inside other articles before being moved off into others, which you keep mentioning, is wrong. I'm not sure where you got that idea, but very few articles start that way, and those that do happen because the original article was far too long and some of the sections were split off. Most articles start as stubs, not in other articles, ok? Gscshoyru 21:26, 20 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Incorrect, there was consensus to remove it from this article. The fact you are still illogically obstinate regarding this issue indicates to me that you are more than likely deliberately trying to evoke an edit conflict. Frankly, I am losing good faith in your edits, so I am going to repeat my suggestion in strongly recommending that you create a separate article for "student erotica" -- or don't. The choice is yours, but you cannot put the content back into this article. And a repeated attempt to do so will likely resort in your being blocked, because you're really starting to disrupt this article to prove your illogical point. -- Joe Beaudoin Jr. Think out loud 00:45, 21 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Isn't "relevant enough?" Please cite your precedent. It is about erotica, it is sourced. It is not large enough to be considered its own article. If I wasn't worried about an AfD, I would write a Student erotica article. At this point, let's go for an RFC or for mediation. I think I'll win. Until then it belongs in the article - it is sourced, more so than any other part of the article. Student erotica 14:51, 21 October 2007 (UTC)

 * It's too narrow a topic for inclusion in an article about the general topic. And there's a perfect precedent, an analogy, up at the top of this section. Would you put a section on family guy in the article on modern art? It's cartoons, it's modern. But it's not notable enough for inclusion. The article is plenty large enough to be a WP:STUB, so make one instead of adding it here, please. And there is no "winning" WP:RFC's, but be my guest and make a request there. Gscshoyru 14:56, 21 October 2007 (UTC)

I have a lot of sympathy for the editor who has created this section: it's a documented and rather surprising phenomenon and it's in this general area. The editor is trying to improve the Wikipedia. But then so are their opponents. Unfortunately the section does unbalance a small overview type article like this. Either a new article should be created or perhaps a section in History of erotic depictions (though there might be problems even there). One thing that should be noted, both in this debate and the new article is that this is a US trend, so perhaps it could be called US student erotica. --Simon Speed 16:45, 21 October 2007 (UTC)
 * I can change the name of the section. South Philly 21:34, 21 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Look, the problem is not the name of the section, or the fact it's the fact that that a section on Student Erotica, which is a very specific facet of the subject, does not merit anywhere near the amount of weight you've given it in the article. The fact that it's "sourced," as you put it, does not make it notable. All the rest of the article is about erotica in general, a specific section is out of place and does not belong. I ask specifically, what is wrong with moving it to a seperate article? It's plenty notable enough to be in a seperate article, but since it's not about erotica in general, and not specifically notable enough a phenomenon for inclusion in a general article, why are you so opposed to it being moved? I don't think anyone has a problem with it being made a stub, but in the current form, it cannot be included in a general topic article. Gscshoyru 04:15, 22 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Another, additional problem with this section is that it consists almost entirely of 1st party sources. In general, an article or section should not rely on first party sources, and should only contain them to supplement third party sources -- see WP:V, please. Gscshoyru 04:31, 22 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Changing the name does not address the abovementioned problems. This has been discussed at length, and you have been offered alternatives to this sustained, aggressive editing. Even the editor who expresses "sympathy" for you suggests you place this material elsewhere. You are inserting this material entirely against consensus, and you are edit warring. / edg ☺ ★ 09:15, 22 October 2007 (UTC)

Image
It makes sense for an article about erotica, a primarily visual phenomenon, to have an image of erotica. Please don't remove it and call it "gratuitous". – Quadell (talk) (random) 05:11, 15 July 2007 (UTC)
 * That isn't illustrative of erotica. This was a spreee of omg I have a picture of a half naked girl, so I'm going to insert it everywhere. That is gratuitous. Note the article says "Erotica is a modern word used to describe the portrayal of the human anatomy and sexuality with high-art aspirations" - the picture is hardly aspiring to be high art. pschemp | talk 14:26, 15 July 2007 (UTC)
 * I disagree. I think this image is representative of "erotica", and the article is currently lacking images. I don't think its insertion was gratuitous. – Quadell (talk) (random) 15:46, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

 * As stated elsewhere, this image adds no value to the article, and seems promotional in nature. You seem to be simply finding excuses to paste your favorite all over Wikipedia.
 * Perhaps you should make this your desktop wallpaper and leave Wikipedia out of it. / edg ☺ ★ 16:39, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

My concern is that we have three images, all female, implying that the male form is somehow anerotic. NPV would seem to encourage a broader selection. 208.102.58.109 (talk) 04:40, 25 October 2008 (UTC)

Straw poll
No

Does the image Image:Michele Merkin 1.jpg belong in this article?

Yes, the image depicts contemporary erotica, and the article is lacking pictures without it.
 * – Quadell (talk) (random) 15:46, 15 July 2007 (UTC)
 * Yes, it would be good to have an image.151.197.111.178 20:33, 7 October 2007 (UTC)

No, the image is not erotica, and is gratuitous.
 * We don't need a poll Quadell. So far, two editors don't want it and one, you do. That isn't consensus to include it. Also, the wording of the poll is so skewed, I refuse to take part. pschemp | talk 21:13, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

 * No, it is not needed. Guardimp 16:49, 7 August 2007 (UTC)

 * No the image is like something out of a 'mens' magazine, hardly an art form. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 60.240.134.67 (talk) 11:08, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

There should be more images to view and see, naked and sexy original and homemade! Thanks cut!!!! Zeshan Sial (talk) 13:57, 7 May 2018 (UTC)

Issues with Greek
As most people do, Eros is translated as 'love' when it should really be translated as 'desire'. Agapi is the word for sexual love.203.114.182.17 23:02, 27 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Your point being? Student erotica 04:23, 16 October 2007 (UTC)

Eros is translated as 'love' when it should really be translated as 'desire'.

Not according to Greek words for love. Remember that the etymology here is based on ancient Greek, not modern Greek. David-Sarah Hopwood (talk) 02:49, 30 March 2008 (UTC)

Edit war protection
I've protected this page so that no one falls in the WP:3RR trap or edit wars over the whole "student erotica" mess. The protection will be lifted in 72 hours, or maybe earlier, once we determine whether or not South Philly is using sock puppets to disrupt Wikipedia to make his (or her) point. -- Joe Beaudoin Jr. Think out loud 05:15, 16 October 2007 (UTC)

Images
The article currently has three images. All are apparently free, so that's good. But at least two are (fine art merit aside) just high-class piccies of women showing off their bosoms. Does this article really need more than one of those in the absence of other examples?

Also, I'm not sure what the Library of Congress image is depicting. Perhaps it is not sufficiently informative. I would propose keeping one of Thirdship's images and removing one or both of the others. / edg ☺ ★ 07:20, 21 October 2007 (UTC)

Having 3 images is fine, but the range should reflect the range of the subject, to avoid POV and help the reader understand what is being discussed. The naked Maja is a great painting, was produced as porn and is now seen as pure art, so I think it should be kept. One other picture could have a male object of desire (Greek sculpture?) and the third should be something other than a pinup nude (maybe sexual activity). --Simon Speed 01:06, 26 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Image:Fernande (nude photograph by Jean Agélou).jpg is a photograph, and Image:La Maja desnuda por Goya.jpg is a painting. Both are artistic, so "just high-class piccies of women showing off their bosoms" is POV. Two images were carefully chosen to illustrate text. But Suspected sock puppets/South Philly's image don't do this. Image:LoC Barse Erotica.jpg is used on Thomas Jefferson Building article. Library of Congress image is not discussed in the text, and isn't connected to this article. Thirdship 09:24, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Okay. My apologies to any art museum curators who may be reading this. Both images are highly important works that would be a benefit to any article on Wikpedia, and if my words were hurtful to the families of the artists or in any way tarnished their legacies, I regret those words and acknowledge my ignorance in all matters pertaining to fine art.
 * Now, my point is that since the two images are similar in content and don't represent the breadth of the topic, one would be sufficient. I think Simon Speed sums this up well. / edg ☺ ★ 14:42, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

↑                ↑ Well, left only shows the chest, but right side is stark naked. Though it says repeatedly, one is a photograph, and another is a painting. Two images are quite different. Therefore these images do represent the breadth of the topic. Both are indispensable. Wikipedia is not a place doing a childish argument. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Thirdship (talk • contribs) 07:50, 29 October 2007 (UTC)

Erotica/pornography debate
I re-added the "NPOV-section" tag even before I'd seen that there had been one there earlier and had been removed several days ago. The section clearly leans toward the POV that there is a clear difference between pornography and erotica and that the former is "bad" while the latter is "good". Also, the section (and the article in general) is wholly unreferenced, meaning that the section is simply the exposition of some editor's point of view on the topic. The section needs to be rewritten to be based on actual citable sources on this debate (this shouldn't be hard – there's been a great deal written over the last 40 or so years on this topic) and should be a balanced presentation on all major points of view on this topic. Iamcuriousblue 18:21, 29 October 2007 (UTC)
 * I took out the old POV-soaked paragraph and replaced it with cited material. I think the writing is disjointed and it could stand to be fleshed out, but I think it's better to get some NPOV material in there than try to save what read like the musing of a college term paper.-- David  Shankbone  07:15, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

Erotica is softcore pornography. Besides, if child erotica is child pornography, than erotica in general is pornography in general. Oct13 (talk) 01:10, 4 December 2012 (UTC)

lol @ wikipedia trash -- the wannabe encyclopedia
I started laughing at the article and at Wikipedia after seeing the absurd image (apparently self-taken) of the naked man. Note xkcd's comic at http://xkcd.com/631/ -- there is a reason universities don't consider Wikipedia a valid source: it isn't one, calling itself an encyclopedia but having no standards. Seriously, if Wikipedia wants to be considered a valid encyclopedia -- as its icon in the top corner suggests -- it should remove stupid and absurd images like that naked guy. But I suppose part of Wikipedia is to make its editors feel important, so whatever. -- Newagelink (talk) 16:41, 12 September 2009 (UTC)

 * Thank you for your suggestion. When you believe an article needs improvement, please feel free to make those changes. Wikipedia is a wiki, so anyone can edit almost any article by simply following the  link at the top. The Wikipedia community encourages you to be bold in updating pages. Don't worry too much about making honest mistakes—they're likely to be found and corrected quickly. If you're not sure how editing works, check out how to edit a page, or use the sandbox to try out your editing skills.  New contributors are always welcome. You don't even need to log in (although there are many reasons why you might want to).   Chzz  ►  02:59, 30 September 2009 (UTC)

Ukrainian "criteria on how to distinguish pornography from erotica"
The last paragraph of the section entitled "Erotica and pornography", which deals with a certain Ukrainian policy, seems unnecessary for a number of reasons. All of the information in this paragraph is cited from a broken link. The explanation of how an image is determined to be erotica based off of percentages makes no sense whatsoever; it is badly explained and, since the link is broken, there is no way to fix it. The definition of pornography as dealing specifically and exclusively with "group and homosexual intercourse, scenes of sexual violence, and/or sexual perversions" does not reflect any sort of widespread consensus. UranianPoet 08:22, 24 December 2009 (UTC)

Examples
It seems that it would be helpful to compare and contrast specific clear-cut examples of Erotica, Pornography, and Ribaldry across artistic mediums. — Preceding unsigned comment added by ConnerFields (talk • contribs) 23:01, 18 February 2013 (UTC)

Distinction from nudity
Are there some objective criteria for distinguishing between erotica and simple nudity? I think this aspect is a good addition/inclusion to the article.--82.137.8.97 (talk) 13:02, 22 April 2018 (UTC)
 * Presumably this comes from the definition of erotica as sexually arousing. Simple nudity does not have to be erotic, and the erotic does not have to feature nudity. - Polly Tunnel (talk) 14:30, 25 April 2018 (UTC)

Erotica
Hello sir the iditer of this page ! Here I want some more erotically written works in history and the latest as well for which I request to Erotic Literature page to enhance their categories and eritic novels and books and the other things that might entertain the audiences and page viewers ! Very Hopefully waiting for new inclusion......! Zeshan Sial (talk) 13:55, 7 May 2018 (UTC)

Aesthetically beautiful,
"Aesthetically beautiful" has found its way into the lead section. Whilst some subjects depicted are certainly "aesthetically beautiful", I would disagree that it's a pre-requisite or even the 'norm'. In fact in some genres beauty is drawback. Beauty and erotic are two distinct concepts, sometimes they overlap, often they don't. The term is also subjective; of the 3 illustrations on the page two are defiantly not beautiful in my opinion. --John B123 (talk) 16:11, 15 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Another editor added the term "aesthetically beautiful" to the definition today and I re-arranged the sentence to stop it saying:"Erotica is any artistic work that deals substantively with aesthetically beautiful, erotically stimulating or sexually arousing subject matter."

 * which would leave aesthetic beauty, erotic stimulation or sexual arousal as three equal alternatives. Personally I'm quite happy to drop the words "aesthetically beautiful". That said, I think it would be useful to have some indication in the definition as to why erotica isn't pornography, something that is discussed in more detail in the "Erotica and pornography" section. The lead para cites erotica's "high-art aspirations". I can't find this in the Encarta reference cited (and of course we shouldn't technically be citing encyclopaedias anyway). Additionally the use of the term "aspirations" would allow pornography produced by someone who unsuccessfully aspired to high art to be called erotica, which would be a bit weird. Do you think we could simply end the definition with "...but is not pornographic."? - Polly Tunnel (talk) 16:58, 15 August 2018 (UTC)

 * I notice the phrase has now been removed. I agree about the 'high art' definition. It reminds me of the early days of the Windmill Theatre, if the nudes stood still it was art, if they moved it was obscene. As you point out, the difference is discussed later, so "...but is not pornographic." is ideal for the lead. --John B123 (talk) 20:21, 15 August 2018 (UTC)
 * I've just added "...but is not pornographic" to the definition. Do you think we should remove the sentence about "high-art aspirations"? Indeed, do you think we should remove the Encarta citation as well? Otherwise it would be left supporting a deleted sentence. In any case the Encarta article doesn't appear to cite any references and its text seems to be of low quality. - Polly Tunnel (talk) 11:04, 16 August 2018 (UTC)

 * Well done. I think both the "high art aspirations" and the Encarta reference should be drooped. Looking at the Encarta section "PORNOGRAPHY VERSUS EROTICA", it looks more like a political item by a radical feminist than an encyclopedic entry, no wonder Encarta died a death. --John B123 (talk) 17:25, 16 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your input. I've removed them both. - Polly Tunnel (talk) 17:36, 16 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Yes, I reverted the "aesthetically beautiful" aspect. Regarding this and this, however, I'm not sure that I agree with adding "but is not pornographic" since that is a debate that people have (as noted below in the article). So to state the matter as "not pornographic" in Wikipedia's voice is where we consider how WP:YESPOV factors in. Flyer22 Reborn (talk) 23:39, 16 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your help with this article. If I understand it correctly, the answer to this issue depends on the sources. The question is presumably whether sources say that there is a distinction between pornography and erotica, or whether sources disagree over the issue. The sources cited in this article appear to be of the opinion that the two are distinct and that those who disagree are making a mistake. A Google search on the subject brings up many articles saying the two are distinct, but I can't spot any articles claiming they are the same. What would be useful are sources which say that they are indistinguishable or that erotica is, for example, a specific type of pornography (or vice versa). Do you know of any such sources? Polly Tunnel (talk) 11:11, 17 August 2018 (UTC)

I feel I ought to return to this point as I have myself added the Dworkin quote which classifies erotica as a subset of pornography. The current definition, containing the statement "Erotica... is not pornographic" is of course inconsistent with this. I don't think Dworkin's writings should in any sense be regarded as WP:FRINGE, which is why I added her to illustrate the breadth of views on the subject. However, as most of the commentators I can find do not agree with her on this point, I wonder if we should modify the definition to something like "Erotica... is not generally considered to be pornographic". Polly Tunnel (talk) 13:10, 25 July 2020 (UTC)
 * That sounds like a good idea to me. --John B123 (talk) 19:05, 25 July 2020 (UTC)
 * ✅ as no objections have been raised. Polly Tunnel (talk) 15:40, 4 August 2020 (UTC)

Wikipedian concept of Erotica and Pornography
The distinction between pornography and erotica is largely subjective and reflects societies standards. . I believe that the separation of both goes against WP: UNCENSORED and WP: NPOV.Guilherme Burn (talk) 17:03, 23 January 2019 (UTC)

Dependent discussions:
 * Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Pornography
 * Template talk:Pornography

 * Comment: Eh? What is the question? That the two articles should be merged? It is not WP:POVFORK to have both articles. Keep the separation. Flyer22 Reborn (talk) 01:15, 24 January 2019 (UTC)
 * , if you're going to cite Britannica in support of merging pornography and erotica, it's worth pointing out that britannica has an article on Erotica, https://www.britannica.com/art/erotica Vexations (talk) 00:20, 25 January 2019 (UTC)
 * , actually I did not want to merge the articles, I wanted to merge the inner wikipedia concept, like the wikiproject and the template I proposed above. This Rfc was to draw attention to these discussions, I do not believe it is just a simple title issue, many editors do not accept linking erotic art articles with pornography.Guilherme Burn (talk) 10:23, 25 January 2019 (UTC)
 * Eh? No, we should not have an article titled "Erotica and pornography" or "Pornography and erotica." And if you want a title change like that, you need to start a WP:Requested moves discussion. Flyer22 Reborn (talk) 21:48, 25 January 2019 (UTC)

Fernande is underage, remove picture
The girl Fernande (Fernande Barrey 1893) is a child prostitute and should not be the introdution to the page. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 95.112.127.160 (talk) 19:43, 31 March 2022 (UTC)

 * She was an adult at the time the picture was taken. I don't see how her past is relevant. --John B123 (talk) 21:29, 31 March 2022 (UTC)

Definition proposal
The first sentence currently says: "Erotica is (in a broad sense) literature or art that deals substantively with subject matter that is erotic, sexually stimulating or sexually arousing but (in a strict sense) is not generally considered to be pornographic."

I propose this alternative: "Erotica is literature or art that deals substantively with subject matter that is erotic, sexually stimulating or sexually arousing. Some critics regard pornography as a type of erotica, but many consider it to be different."

Any objections? - Polly Tunnel (talk) 12:45, 6 December 2022 (UTC)

No one seems particularly concerned after a couple of weeks so I'll try it in the article. - Polly Tunnel (talk) 12:47, 19 December 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Seminar in Human Sexuality
— Assignment last updated by Zy175311460 (talk) 23:21, 3 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Erotica


text:
Ennius

Quintus Ennius (c. 239) was a writer and poet who lived during the Roman Republic. He is often considered the father of Roman poetry. He was born in the small town of Rudiae, located near modern Lecce (ancient Calabria, today Salento or Southern Apulia), a town founded by the Messapians, and could speak Greek as well as Latin and Oscan (his native language). Although only fragments of his works survive, his influence in Latin literature was significant, particularly in his use of Greek literary models.

Biography
Very little is reliably known about the life of Ennius. His contemporaries hardly mentioned him and much that is related about him could have been embroidered from references to himself in his now fragmentary writings. Some lines of the Annales, as well as ancient testimonies, for example, suggest that Ennius opened his epic with a recollection of a dream in which the ancient epic-writer Homer informed him that his spirit had been reborn into Ennius. It is true that the doctrine of the transmigration of souls once flourished in the areas of Italy settled by Greeks, but the statement might have been no more than a literary flourish. Ennius seems to have been given to making large claims, as in the report by Maurus Servius Honoratus that he claimed descent from Messapus, the legendary king of his native district. The partially Hellenised city of Rudiae, his place of birth, was certainly in the area settled by the Messapians. And this, he used to say, according to Aulus Gellius, had endowed him with a triple linguistic and cultural heritage, fancifully described as "three hearts… Greek, Oscan and Latin".

The public career of Ennius first really emerges in middle life, when he was serving in the army with the rank of centurion during the Second Punic War. While in Sardinia in the year 204 BC, he is said to have attracted the attention of Cato the Elder and was taken by him to Rome. There he taught Greek and adapted Greek plays for a livelihood, and by his poetical compositions gained the friendship of some of the greatest men in Rome whose achievements he praised. Amongst these were Scipio Africanus and Fulvius Nobilior, whom he accompanied on his Aetolian campaign (189). Afterwards he made the capture of Ambracia, at which he was present, the subject of a play and of an episode in the Annales. It was through the influence of Nobilior's son Quintus that Ennius subsequently obtained Roman citizenship. But he himself lived plainly and simply in the literary quarter on the Aventine Hill with the poet Caecilius Statius, a fellow adapter of Greek plays.

At about the age of 70 Ennius died, immediately after producing his tragedy Thyestes. In the last book of his epic poem, in which he seems to have given various details of his personal history, he mentioned that he was in his 67th year at the date of its composition. He compared himself, in contemplation of the close of the great work of his life, to a gallant horse which, after having often won the prize at the Olympic Games, obtained his rest when weary with age. A similar feeling of pride at the completion of a great career is expressed in the memorial lines which he composed to be placed under his bust after death: "Let no one weep for me, or celebrate my funeral with mourning; for I still live, as I pass to and fro through the mouths of men."

Literature
Ennius continued the nascent literary tradition by writing plays in Greek and Roman style (praetextae and palliatae), as well as his most famous work, a historical epic in hexameters called the Annales. Other minor works include the Epicharmus, Epigrammata, the Euhemerus, the Hedyphagetica, Praecepta/Protrepticus, Saturae (or Satires), Scipio, and Sota.

The Annales
The Annales was an epic poem in fifteen books, later expanded to eighteen, covering Roman history from the fall of Troy in 1184 BC down to the censorship of Cato the Elder in 184 BC. It was the first Latin poem to adopt the dactylic hexameter metre used in Greek epic and didactic poetry, leading it to become the standard metre for these genres in Latin poetry. The Annals became a school text for Roman schoolchildren, eventually supplanted by Virgil's Aeneid. About 600 lines survive.

Minor works
The Epicharmus was inspired by the philosophical hypotheses developed by the Sicilian poet and philosopher Epicharmus of Kos, after which Ennius's work took its name. In the Epicharmus, the poet describes a dream he had in which he died and was transported to some place of heavenly enlightenment. Here, he met Epicharmus, who explained the nature of the gods and taught Ennius the physics of the universe.

The Euhemerus presented a theological doctrine based on the ideas Greek of Euhemerus of Messene, who argued that the gods of Olympus were not supernatural powers that interference in the lives of humans, but rather heroes of old who after death were eventually regarded as deities due to their valor, bravery, or cultural impact (this belief is now known as euhemerism). Both Cicero and Lactantius write that the Euhemerus was a "translat[ion] and a recount[ing]" of Euhemerus's original work the Sacred History, but it is unclear if this means Ennius simply translated the original from Greek into Latin, or added in his own elements. Most of what is preserved of this work comes to us from Lactantius, and these snippets suggest that the Euhemerus was a prose text.

The Hedyphagetica took much of its substance from the gastronomical epic of Archestratus of Gela. The extant portions of Ennius's poem discuss where a reader might find the best type of fish. Most of the fragments, replete with unique terms for fish and numerous place names, are corrupt or damaged. The Hedyphagetica is written in hexameters, but differs from the Annales in regards to "metrical practices"; this difference is largely due to each works' distinct subject matter.

The titles Praecepta and Protrepticus were likely used to refer to the same (possibly exhortatory) work. However, given this work's almost non-existent nature (only the word pannibus—an "unusual" form of the word pannis, meaning "rags"—is preserved in the work of the Latin grammarian Charisius), this position is extremely difficult to verify.

The Saturae is a collection of about thirty lines from satirical poems—making it the first extant instance of Roman satire. These lines are written in a variety of poetic metres. The poems in this collection "were mostly concerned with practical wisdom, often driving home a lesson with the help of a fable."

Ennius's Scipio was a work (possibly a panegyric poem) that apparently celebrated the life and deeds of Scipio Africanus. Hardly anything remains of this work, and what is preserved is embedded in the works of others. Unfortunately, "no quotation of [Scipio] supplies a context". Some have proposed that the work was written before the Annales, and others have said that the work was written after Scipio's 201 BC triumph that followed the Battle of Zama (202 BC).

The Sota was a poem, potentially of some length, named after the Greek poet Sotades. The work, which followed a metre established by Sotades known as the "Sotadeus", concerned itself with a number of disparate topics and ideas.

Editions

 * Quinto Ennio. Le opere minori, Vol. I. Praecepta, Protrepticus, Saturae, Scipio, Sota. Ed., tr., comm. Alessandro Russo. Pisa: Edizioni ETS, 2007 (Testi e studi di cultura classica, 40).
 * Warmington, E. H. (1935). Ennius (Q. Ennius). Remains of Old Latin. Edited by Eric Herbert Warmington. Vol. 2: Ennius and Caecilius. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ennius


text:
Electronic

Electronic may refer to:

 * Electronics, the science of how to control electric energy in semiconductor
 * Electronics (magazine), a defunct American trade journal
 * Electronic storage, the storage of data using an electronic device
 * Electronic commerce or e-commerce, the trading in products or services using computer networks, such as the Internet
 * Electronic publishing or e-publishing, the digital publication of books and magazines using computer networks, such as the Internet
 * Electronic engineering, an electrical engineering discipline

Entertainment

 * Electronic (band), an English alternative dance band
 * Electronic (album), the self-titled debut album by British band Electronic
 * Electronic music, a music genre
 * Electronic musical instrument
 * Electronic game, a game that employs electronics

title: Electronic


text:
Eris (mythology)

Eris (Ἔρις Éris, "Strife") is the Greek goddess of strife and discord. Her Roman equivalent is Discordia, which means the same. Eris's Greek opposite is Harmonia, whose Roman counterpart is Concordia, though she is also described as opposing Nike, counterpart of the Roman Victoria. Homer equated her with the war-goddess Enyo, whose Roman counterpart is Bellona. The dwarf planet Eris is named after the goddess.

It is unknown whether she had any temples or sects in Greece. She is often invoked as a personification of strife, as which she appears in Homer and many later works.

Etymology
Eris is of uncertain etymology; connections with the verb ὀρίνειν orínein, 'to raise, stir, excite', and the proper name Ἐρινύες Erinyes have been suggested. R. S. P. Beekes rejects these derivations and suggested a pre-Greek origin.

In Greek mythology
The most famous tale of Eris recounts her initiating the Trojan War by causing the Judgement of Paris. The goddesses Hera, Athena and Aphrodite had been invited along with the rest of Olympus to the forced wedding of Peleus and Thetis, who would become the parents of Achilles, but Eris had been snubbed because of her troublemaking inclinations.

She therefore (as mentioned at the Kypria according to Proclus as part of a plan hatched by Zeus and Themis) tossed into the party the Apple of Discord, a golden apple inscribed τῇ καλλίστῃ – "For the most beautiful one", or "To the Fairest One" – provoking the goddesses to begin quarreling about the appropriate recipient. The hapless Paris, Prince of Troy, was appointed to select the fairest by Zeus. The goddesses stripped naked to try to win Paris's decision, and also attempted to bribe him. Hera offered political power, while Athena promised infinite wisdom. But Aphrodite tempted him with the most beautiful woman in the world: Helen, wife of Menelaus of Sparta, and Paris chose to award the apple to Aphrodite, thereby dooming his city, which was destroyed in the war that ensued.

In Works and Days 11–24, Hesiod distinguishes between two kinds of strife. It is unclear whether the distinction in this passage is to be taken literally or purely as a means to distinguish between two concepts. Different interpretations exist.

So, after all, there was not one kind of Strife alone, but all over the earth there are two. As for the one, a man would praise her when he came to understand her; but the other is blameworthy: and they are wholly different in nature. For one fosters evil war and battle, being cruel: her no man loves; but perforce, through the will of the deathless gods, men pay harsh Strife her honour due. (Nyx), and the son of Cronus [i.e. Zeus] who sits above and dwells in the aether, set her in the roots of the earth: and she is far kinder to men. She stirs up even the shiftless to toil; for a man grows eager to work when he considers his neighbour, a rich man who hastens to plough and plant and put his house in good order; and neighbour vies with his neighbour as he hurries after wealth. This Strife is wholesome for men. And potter is angry with potter, and craftsman with craftsman and beggar is jealous of beggar, and minstrel of minstrel.

In Hesiod's Theogony (226–232), Eris has her lineage laid out as she bears many personifications as her children, with some being singular deities and others being plural daemons:

In Homer's Iliad Book IV Eris is named as a "sister and comrade" to Ares, though this is likely meant symbolically as they are both regarded as deities of war.

"... and Discord [Ἔρις] that rageth incessantly, sister and comrade of man-slaying Ares; she at the first rears her crest but little, yet thereafter planteth her head in heaven, while her feet tread on earth. She it was that now cast evil strife into their midst as she fared through the throng, making the groanings of men to wax."

Eris is also mentioned in Nonnus's Dionysiaca, when Typhon prepares to battle with Zeus:

"Eris ('Strife') was Typhon's escort in the mellay, Nike ('Victory') led Zeus into battle."

Another story of Eris includes Hera, and the love of Polytechnus and Aedon. They claimed to love each other more than Hera and Zeus were in love. This angered Hera, so she sent Eris to wreak discord upon them. Polytekhnos was finishing off a chariot board, and Aedon a web she had been weaving. Eris said to them, "Whosoever finishes thine task last shall have to present the other with a female servant!" Aedon won. But Polytekhnos was not happy by his defeat, so he came to Khelidon, Aedon's sister, and raped her. He then disguised her as a slave, presenting her to Aedon. When Aedon discovered this was indeed her sister, she chopped up Polytekhnos's son and fed him to Polytekhnos. The gods were not pleased, so they were transformed into birds.

In Roman mythology
Discordia, the Roman counterpart of Eris, embodies similar attributes of strife and discord. While sharing the fundamental essence of her Greek counterpart, Discordia possesses distinct Roman characteristics and narratives. In Roman mythology, Discordia is often portrayed as the personification of chaos and strife, representing the disruptive forces that can unsettle order and harmony within society. She is typically associated with the concept of dissension and conflict, symbolizing the breakdown of social cohesion.

Virgil presents Discordia as similar to the Greek Eris. Following Homer, she appears in the Aeneid together with Mars, Bellona, and the Furies. She is most frequently depicted as the daughter of Nox and the sister of Mars, following Greek precedent; though other sources present her as the sister of Nemesis and "the constant attendent of Mars". Ennius describes her in his Annales as "a maiden in a military cloak, born with hellish body, of equal proportion with water and fire, air and heavy earth".

In Roman mythology, Discordia is often intertwined with various tales of love and rivalry. While not traditionally depicted as having consorts or lovers in the same manner as some other Roman deities, her influence is evident in stories where conflicts arise due to jealousy, ambition, or betrayal. Discordia's presence exacerbates tensions and fuels the flames of discord, leading to dramatic consequences for mortal and divine alike. The most notable example of this simply follows the Greek story of the Judgement of Paris.

One notable aspect of Discordia's mythology is her role in the political and social sphere of ancient Rome. As a personification of discord, she was invoked during times of political unrest or upheaval, serving as a symbolic representation of the turmoil and division within society. Her influence extended beyond individual conflicts, shaping the course of history and influencing the destiny of nations.

Despite her association with chaos and strife, Discordia was not always viewed in a negative light. In some interpretations, she served as a catalyst for change and transformation, challenging established norms and fostering innovation. While her disruptive influence could be destructive, it also paved the way for renewal and growth, highlighting the complex nature of her character within Roman mythology.

In Discordianism
The modern Discordian religion, according to its book Principia Discordia, "began with a revelation [...] from the Greek goddess Eris in the form of a chimpanzee." Eris was adopted as the founding and patron deity of Discordianism in the early 1960s by Gregory Hill and Kerry Wendell Thornley under the pen names of "Malaclypse the Younger" and "Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst".

The Discordian view of Eris is considerably lighter in comparison to the rather malevolent Graeco-Roman view. In Discordianism she is depicted as a positive (albeit mischievous) force of chaotic creation. Principia Discordia states:

"One day Mal-2 consulted his Pineal Gland and asked Eris if She really created all of those terrible things. She told him that She had always liked the Old Greeks, but that they cannot be trusted with historic matters. 'They were,' She added, 'victims of indigestion, you know.'

Suffice it to say that Eris is not hateful or malicious. But she is mischievous, and does get a little bitchy at times."

The story of Eris being snubbed and indirectly starting the Trojan War is recorded in the Principia, and is referred to as the Original Snub. The Principia Discordia states that her parents may be as described in Greek legend, or that she may be the daughter of Void. She is the Goddess of Disorder and Being, whereas her sister Aneris (called the equivalent of Harmonia by the Mythics of Harmonia) is the goddess of Order and Non-Being. Their brother is Spirituality.

In Discordianism, Eris is looked upon as a foil to the preoccupation of Western philosophy in attempting find order in the chaos of reality, in prescribing order to be synonymous with truth. In Principia Discordia, this is called the Aneristic Illusion. David G. Robertson discusses Discordian theology in the 2012 book Handbook of New Religions and Cultural Production, writing that despite Discordian claims that its 'catmas' are soft, optional beliefs,

"Nevertheless, the Principia Discordia contains a complex and subtle religious system, although this is often obscured by its chaotic structure. The theology of the Principia is perhaps best summarized in the symbol [...] The Sacred Chao [...] Taken as a whole, however, the Sacred Chao symbolizes the Discordian idea that both order and chaos are man-made concepts, and that to believe that either is more 'true' than the other is illusion. The Sacred Chao represents 'pure chaos', the metaphysical grounding of all that is, and a level beyond any distinction-making."

In this telling, Eris becomes something of a patron of chaotic creation:

"I am chaos. I am the substance from which your artists and scientists build rhythms. I am the spirit with which your children and clowns laugh in happy anarchy. I am chaos. I am alive, and I tell you that you are free."

Robertson writes in the 2016 book Fiction, Invention and Hyper-reality that:

"[...] Discordians have also constructed a complex and unique cosmology and theology, and Discordianism has over time come to be considered as having genuine religious significance for many of its adherents. Thus Discordianism can no longer be considered a purely parodic religion."

Cultural influences
The classic fairy tale "Sleeping Beauty" references what appears to be Eris's role in the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Like Eris, a malevolent fairy curses a princess after not being invited to the princess's christening.

The concept of Eris as developed by the Principia Discordia is used and expanded upon in the 1975 science fiction work The Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson (in which characters from Principia Discordia appear). In this work, Eris is a major character.

The dwarf planet Eris was named after this Greek goddess in 2006.

In 2019, the New Zealand moth species Ichneutica eris was named in honour of Eris.

title: Eris (mythology)


text:
Edna St. Vincent Millay

Edna St. Vincent Millay (February 22, 1892 – October 19, 1950) was an American lyrical poet and playwright. Millay was a renowned social figure and noted feminist in New York City during the Roaring Twenties and beyond. She wrote much of her prose and hackwork verse under the pseudonym Nancy Boyd.

Millay won the 1923 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for her poem "Ballad of the Harp-Weaver"; she was the first woman and second person to win the award. In 1943, Millay was the sixth person and the second woman to be awarded the Frost Medal for her lifetime contribution to American poetry.

Millay was highly regarded during much of her lifetime, with the prominent literary critic Edmund Wilson calling her "one of the only poets writing in English in our time who have attained to anything like the stature of great literary figures. '' By the 1930s, her critical reputation began to decline, as modernist critics dismissed her work for its use of traditional poetic forms and subject matter, in contrast to modernism's exhortation to "make it new." However, the rise of feminist literary criticism in the 1960s and 1970s revived an interest in Millay's works.

Early life
Millay was born Edna Vincent Millay in Rockland, Maine, on February 22, 1892. Her parents were Cora Lounella Buzelle, a custom hair stylist and training nurse for private families, and Henry Tolman Millay, a life insurance agent and teacher who would later become a superintendent of schools. Her middle name derives from St. Vincent's Hospital [this claim needs to be sourced] in New York City, where her uncle's life had been saved just before her birth. Encouraged to read the classics at home, she was too rebellious to make a success of formal education, but she won poetry prizes from an early age.

Edna's mother attended a Congregational church. In 1904, Cora officially divorced Millay's father for financial irresponsibility and domestic abuse. They had already been separated for some years. Henry and Edna kept a letter correspondence for many years, but he never re-entered the family. Cora and her three daughters – Edna (who called herself "Vincent"), Norma Lounella, and Kathleen Kalloch (born 1896) – moved from town to town, living in poverty and surviving various illnesses. Cora travelled with a trunk full of classic literature, including Shakespeare and Milton, which she read to her children. The family settled in a small house on the property of Cora's aunt in Camden, Maine, where Millay would write the first of the poems that would bring her literary fame. The family's house in Camden was "between the mountains and the sea where baskets of apples and drying herbs on the porch mingled their scents with those of the neighboring pine woods."

The three sisters were independent and outspoken, which did not always sit well with the authority figures in their lives. Millay's grade school principal, offended by her frank attitudes, refused to call her Vincent. Instead, he called her by any woman's name that started with a V. At Camden High School, Millay began developing her literary talents, starting at the school's literary magazine, The Megunticook. At 14, she won the St. Nicholas Gold Badge for poetry, and by 15, she had published her poetry in the popular children's magazine St. Nicholas, the Camden Herald, and the high-profile anthology Current Literature.

Emerging fame and college education
Millay's fame began in 1912 when, at the age of 20, she entered her poem "Renascence" in a poetry contest in The Lyric Year. The backer of the contest, Ferdinand P. Earle, chose Millay as the winner after sorting through thousands of entries, reading only two lines apiece. Earle sent a letter informing Millay of her win before consulting with the other judges, who had previously and separately agreed on a criterion for a winner to winnow down the massive flood of entrants. According to the remaining judges, the winning poem had to exhibit social relevance, and "Renascence" did not. The entry of Orrick Glenday Johns, "Second Avenue," was about the "squalid scenes" Johns saw on Eldridge Street and lower Second Avenue on New York's Lower East Side. Millay ultimately placed fourth. The press drew attention to the fact that the Millays were a family of working-class women living in poverty. Because the three winners were men, some people felt that sexism and classism were a factor in Millay's poem coming in fourth place.

Controversy in newspaper columns and editorial pages launched the careers of Millay and Johns. Johns, who was receiving hate mail, conceded that he thought her poem was better. "The award was as much an embarrassment to me as a triumph," he said. Johns did not attend the awards banquet. The second-prize winner offered Millay his $250 prize money. In the immediate aftermath of the Lyric Year controversy, wealthy arts patron Caroline B. Dow heard Millay reciting her poetry and playing the piano at the Whitehall Inn in Camden, Maine and was so impressed that she offered to pay for Millay's education at Vassar College.

Millay entered Vassar College in 1913 at age 21. Her attendance at Vassar, which she called a "hell-hole", became a strain to her due to its strict nature. Before she attended the college, Millay had a liberal home life that included smoking, drinking, playing gin rummy, and flirting with men. Vassar, on the other hand, expected its students to be refined and live according to their status as young ladies. Millay often would not be formally reprimanded out of respect of her work. At the end of her senior year in 1917, the faculty voted to suspend Millay indefinitely; however, in response to a petition by her peers, she was allowed to graduate. She was a prominent campus writer, becoming a regular contributor to The Vassar Miscellany. She had relationships with many fellow students during her time there and kept scrapbooks including drafts of plays written during the period. While at school, she had several romantic relationships with women, including Edith Wynne Matthison, who would go on to become an actress in silent films.

Move to Greenwich Village
After her graduation from Vassar in 1917, Millay moved to New York City. She lived in Greenwich Village just as it was becoming known as a bohemian writers' haven. She resided in a number of places, including a house owned by the Cherry Lane Theatre and 75½ Bedford Street, renowned for being the narrowest in New York City.

While in New York City, Millay was openly bisexual, developing passing relationships with men and women. The critic Floyd Dell wrote that Millay was "a frivolous young woman, with a brand-new pair of dancing slippers and a mouth like a valentine." She maintained relationships with The Masses editor Floyd Dell and critic Edmund Wilson, both of whom proposed marriage to her and were refused. Counted among Millay's close friends were the writers Witter Bynner, Arthur Davison Ficke, and Susan Glaspell.

In 1919, she wrote the anti-war play Aria da Capo, which starred her sister Norma Millay at the Provincetown Playhouse in New York City. In 1921, Millay would write The Lamp and the Bell, her first verse drama, at the request of the drama department of Vassar. While establishing her career as a poet, Millay initially worked with the Provincetown Players on Macdougal Street and the Theatre Guild. In 1923, Millay and others founded the Cherry Lane Theatre "to continue the staging of experimental drama."

During her stay in Greenwich Village, Millay learned to use her poetry for her feminist activism. She often went into detail about topics others found taboo, such as a wife leaving her husband in the middle of the night. Millay's 1920 collection A Few Figs From Thistles drew controversy for its exploration of female sexuality and feminism. She engaged in highly successful nationwide tours in which she offered public readings of her poetry.

To support her days in the Village, Millay wrote short stories for Ainslee's Magazine. As an aesthete and a canny protector of her identity as a poet, she insisted on publishing this more mass-appeal work under the pseudonym Nancy Boyd.

Pulitzer Prize, marriage, and purchase of Steepletop
In January 1921, Millay traveled to Paris, where she met and befriended the sculptors Thelma Wood and Constantin Brâncuși, photographer Man Ray, had affairs with journalists George Slocombe and John Carter, and became pregnant by a man named Daubigny. She secured a marriage license but instead returned to New England where her mother Cora helped induce an abortion with alkanet, as recommended in her old copy of Culpeper's Complete Herbal. Possibly as a result, Millay was frequently ill and weak for much of the next four years.

Millay won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 1923 for "The Ballad of the Harp-Weaver." She was the first woman to win the poetry prize, though two women (Sara Teasdale in 1918 and Margaret Widdemer in 1919) won special prizes for their poetry prior to the establishment of the award. In 1924, literary critic Harriet Monroe labeled Millay “the greatest woman poet since Sappho."

After experiencing his remarkable attention to her during her illness, she married 43-year-old Eugen Jan Boissevain in 1923. Boissevain was the widower of labor lawyer and war correspondent Inez Milholland, a political icon Millay had met during her time at Vassar. A self-proclaimed feminist, Boissevain supported Millay's career and took primary care of domestic responsibilities. Both Millay and Boissevain had other lovers throughout their 26-year marriage. For Millay, one such significant relationship was with the poet George Dillon, a student 14 years her junior, whom she met in 1928 at one of her readings at the University of Chicago. Their relationship inspired the sonnets in the collection Fatal Interview, which she published in 1931.

In 1925, Boissevain and Millay bought Steepletop near Austerlitz, New York, which had once been a 635 acre blueberry farm. They built a barn (from a Sears Roebuck kit), and then a writing cabin and a tennis court. Millay grew her own vegetables in a small garden. Later, they bought Ragged Island in Casco Bay, Maine, as a summer retreat. Frequently having trouble with the servants they employed, Millay wrote, "The only people I really hate are servants. They are not really human beings at all."

Millay was commissioned by the Metropolitan Opera House to write a libretto for an opera composed by Deems Taylor. The result, The King's Henchman, drew on the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle's account of Eadgar, King of Wessex. The opera began its production in 1927 to high praise; The New York Times described it as "the most effectively and artistically wrought American opera that has reached the stage."

In August 1927, Millay, along with a number of other writers, was arrested for protesting the impending executions of the Italian American anarchist duo Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti. Due to her status, she was able to meet with the governor of Massachusetts, Alvan T. Fuller, to plead for a retrial. Her failure to prevent the executions would be a catalyst for her politicization in her later works, beginning with the poem "Justice Denied In Massachusetts" about the case.

Accident and war effort
Millay was staying at the Sanibel Palms Hotel when, on May 2, 1936, a fire started after a kerosene heater on the second floor exploded. Everything was destroyed, including the only copy of Millay's long verse poem, Conversation at Midnight, and a 1600s poetry collection written by the Roman poet Catullus of the first century BC. She would go on to rewrite Conversation at Midnight from memory and release it the following year.

In the summer of 1936, Millay was riding in a station wagon when the door suddenly swung open, and Millay “was hurled out into the pitch-darkness...and rolled for some distance down a rocky gully." The accident severely damaged nerves in her spine, requiring frequent surgeries and hospitalizations, and at least daily doses of morphine. Millay lived the rest of her life in "constant pain".

Despite her accident, Millay was sufficiently alarmed by the rise of fascism to write against it. During World War I, she had been a dedicated and active pacifist; however, in 1940, she advocated for the U.S. to enter the war against the Axis and became an ardent supporter of the war effort. She later worked with the Writers' War Board to create propaganda, including poetry. Millay's reputation in poetry circles was damaged by her war work. Merle Rubin noted, "She seems to have caught more flak from the literary critics for supporting democracy than Ezra Pound did for championing fascism."

In 1942 in The New York Times Magazine, Millay mourned the destruction of the Czech village Lidice. Nazi forces had razed Lidice, slaughtered its male inhabitants and scattered its surviving residents in retaliation for the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich. Millay wrote: "The whole world holds in its arms today / The murdered village of Lidice, / Like the murdered body of a little child." This article would serve as the basis of her 32-page work "Murder of Lidice," published by Harper and Brothers in 1942. The poem loosely served as the basis of the 1943 MGM movie Hitler's Madman.

Millay was critical of capitalism and sympathetic to socialist ideals, which she labeled as "of a free and equal society", but she did not identify as a communist. She told Grace Hamilton King in 1941 that she had been "almost a fellow-traveller with the communist idea as far as it went along with the socialist idea."

Despite the excellent sales of her books in the 1930s, her declining reputation, constant medical bills, and frequent demands from her mentally ill sister Kathleen meant that for most of her last years, Millay was in debt to her own publisher. Author Daniel Mark Epstein also concludes from her correspondence that Millay developed a passion for thoroughbred horse-racing, and spent much of her income investing in a racing stable of which she had quietly become an owner.

Post-war and death
Although her work and reputation declined during the war years, possibly due to a morphine addiction she acquired following her accident, she subsequently sought treatment for it and was successfully rehabilitated. Boissevain died in 1949 of lung cancer, leaving Millay to live alone for the last year of her life. Her final collection of poems was published posthumously as the volume "Mine the Harvest." The title sonnet recalls her career:

Those hours when happy hours were my estate, — Entailed, as proper, for the next in line, Yet mine the harvest, and the title mine — Those acres, fertile, and the furrows straight, From which the lark would rise — all of my late Enchantments, still, in brilliant colours, shine, Millay died at her home on October 19, 1950, at age 58. She had fallen down the stairs and was found with a broken neck approximately eight hours after her death. Her physician reported that she had suffered a heart attack following a coronary occlusion. She is buried alongside her husband at Steepletop, Austerlitz, New York.

Legacy
After her death, The New York Times described her as "an idol of the younger generation during the glorious early days of Greenwich Village" and as "one of the greatest American poets of her time." Thomas Hardy said that America had two great attractions: the skyscraper and the poetry of Edna St. Vincent Millay. The poet Richard Wilbur asserted that Millay "wrote some of the best sonnets of the century."

A New York Times review of Milford noted that "readers of poetry probably dismiss Millay as mediocre," and noted that within 20 years of Millay's death, "the public was impatient with what had come to seem a poised, genteel emotionalism." However, it concludes that "readers should come away from Milford's book with their understanding of Millay deepened and charged." The New York Review of Books called Milford's biography "the story of the life that eclipsed the work," and dismissed much of Millay's work as "soggy" and "doggerel."

Nancy Milford published a biography of the poet in 2001, Savage Beauty: The Life of Edna St Vincent Millay. Millay's sister, Norma Millay (then her only living relative), offered Milford access to the poet's papers based on her successful biography of F. Scott Fitzgerald's wife, Zelda. Milford also edited and wrote an introduction for a collection of Millay's poems called The Selected Poetry of Edna St. Vincent Millay. Milford would label Millay as "the herald of the New Woman."

Millay was named by Equality Forum as one of their "31 Icons" of the 2015 LGBT History Month.

Properties, conservation, and memorials
Millay's sister Norma and her husband, the painter and actor Charles Frederick Ellis, moved to Steepletop after Millay's death. In 1973, they established the Millay Colony for the Arts on seven acres near the house and barn. After the death of her husband in 1976, Norma continued to run the program until her death in 1986. At 17, the poet Mary Oliver visited Steepletop and became a close friend of Norma. She would later live at Steepletop off-and-on for seven years and helped to organize Millay's papers. Mary Oliver herself went on to become a Pulitzer Prize-winning poet, greatly inspired by Millay's work. In 2006, the state of New York paid $1.69 million to acquire 230 acre of Steepletop, to add the land to a nearby state forest preserve. The proceeds of the sale were used by the Edna St. Vincent Millay Society to restore the farmhouse and grounds and turn it into a museum. The museum opened to the public in the summer of 2010. Conservation of the house has been ongoing.

Conservation of Millay's birthplace began in 2015 with the purchase of the double-house at 198–200 Broadway, Rockland, Maine. Built in 1891, Henry T. and Cora B. Millay were the first tenants of the north side, where Cora gave birth to her first of three daughters during a February 1892 squall. Identified as the Singhi Double House, the home was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2019 not as the poet's birthplace, but as a "good example" of the "modest double houses" that made up almost 10% of residences in the largely working-class city between 1837 and the early 1900s. When fully restored by 2023, half the house will be dedicated to honoring Millay's legacy with workshops and classes, while the other half will be rented for income to sustain conservation and programs. A writer-in-residence will be funded by the Ellis Beauregard Foundation and the Millay House Rockland. Millay is also memorialized in Camden, Maine, where she lived beginning in 1900. A statue of the poet stands in Harbor Park, which shares with Mt. Battie the view of Penobscot Bay that opens "Renascence", the poem that launched Millay's career. Camden Public Library also shares Mt. Battie's view. It has the first couplets of "Renascence" inscribed along the perimeter of a large skylight: "All I could see from where I stood / Was three long mountains and a wood; / I turned and looked another way, / And saw three islands in a bay." The library's Walsh History Center collection contains the scrapbooks created by Millay's high-school friend, Corinne Sawyer, as well as photos, letters, newspaper clippings, and other ephemera.

In popular culture
Millay has been referenced in popular culture, and her work has been the inspiration for music and drama:
 * In 1972, Millay's poem "Conscientious Objector" was put to music by Mary Travers (of Peter, Paul and Mary) on her album Morning Glory.
 * In 1978, American composer Ivana Marburger Themmen used Millay's text for her composition Shelter This Candle from the Wind.
 * In July 1981, the United States Postal Service issued an 18-cent stamp depicting Millay.
 * Annette Meyers' mystery series character Olivia Brown was inspired by Millay.
 * In the 1992 movie A River Runs Through It, Norman Maclean (played by Craig Sheffer) recites "First Fig" while on a double date with his brother at the Hot Springs speakeasy.
 * In 1993, E.C. Schirmer Music published Letters from Edna, a set of eight songs set to the text of letters written by Millay to colleagues and family, by American composer Juliana Hall.
 * In October 2020, Scottish harpist Maeve Gilchrist produced an album entitled The Harpweaver, which owes its origin to Millay's poem "The Ballad of the Harp-Weaver".
 * In 2017, Laura Prepon read "Dirge Without Music" in the movie "The Hero".
 * In 2021, Hildegard Publishing released Six Songs on Poems of Edna St. Vincent Millay by American composer Margaret Bonds.
 * In 2023, Meryl Streep recites one of her poems “Recuerdo” in season 3 episode 5 of Only Murders in the Building as her character Loretta Durkin.

Works
Millay wrote six verse dramas early in her career, including:

 * The Lamp and the Bell
 * Aria Da Capo
 * Two Slatterns and a King

"Euclid alone has looked on Beauty bare" (1922) is an homage to the geometry of Euclid. "Renascence" and "The Ballad of the Harp-Weaver" are considered her finest poems.

title: Edna St. Vincent Millay


text:
Enlightenment

Enlightenment or enlighten may refer to:

Age of Enlightenment

 * Age of Enlightenment, period in Western intellectual history from the late 17th to late 18th century, centered in France but also encompassing (alphabetically by country or culture):
 * England: Midlands Enlightenment, period in 18th-century England
 * Greece: Modern Greek Enlightenment, an 18th-century national revival and educational movement in Greece
 * Italy: Italian Enlightenment, period in 18th-century Italy
 * Jewish: Haskalah, Jewish Enlightenment, movement among European Jews in the late 18th century
 * Poland: Enlightenment in Poland, ideas of the Age of Enlightenment in Poland
 * Russia: Russian Enlightenment, 18th-century period of active government encouragement of proliferation of arts and sciences in Russia
 * Scotland: Scottish Enlightenment, period in 18th-century Scotland
 * Spain: Enlightenment in Spain, came to Spain with a new dynasty, the Bourbons, subsequent reform and 'enlightened despotism'
 * USA: American Enlightenment, intellectual culture of the British North American colonies and the early United States

Religion

 * Kevala jnana, awakened knowledge in Jainism
 * Enlightenment in Buddhism, translation of the term bodhi ("awakening"}
 * Moksha
 * Moksha (Jainism)
 * Divine illumination

Computing

 * Enlightenment (software), an X Window System window manager
 * Enlighten (radiosity engine), code to do real-time calculation of indirect lighting ("radiosity") in video
 * Enlightenment Foundation Libraries, a set of graphics libraries

Events

 * Enlighten Canberra, an annual arts and cultural festival in Canberra, Australia
 * "Enlightenment", the main artistic performance in the 2012 Summer Paralympics opening ceremony

Film and television

 * Enlightenment (Doctor Who), a 1983 Doctor Who serial

Music

 * Enlightenment (Van Morrison album), 1990
 * Enlightenment (McCoy Tyner album), 1973
 * "Enlightenment" (Van Morrison song), 1990
 * Enlightenment (soundtrack album), the soundtrack of the 2012 Summer Paralympics opening ceremony

Other uses

 * Ionian Enlightenment, the origin of ancient Greek advances in philosophy and science
 * Dark Enlightenment, an anti-democratic and reactionary movement that broadly rejects egalitarianism and Whig historiography
 * Enlightenment Intensive, a group retreat designed to enable a spiritual enlightenment
 * Enlightenment Movement (Afghanistan), a Hazara grassroots civil disobedience group created in Afghanistan in 2016
 * Project Enlightenment, an educational program

title: Enlightenment


text:
Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism in social science and anthropology—as well as in colloquial English discourse—means to apply one's own culture or ethnicity as a frame of reference to judge other cultures, practices, behaviors, beliefs, and people, instead of using the standards of the particular culture involved. Since this judgment is often negative, some people also use the term to refer to the belief that one's culture is superior to, or more correct or normal than, all others—especially regarding the distinctions that define each ethnicity's cultural identity, such as language, behavior, customs, and religion. In common usage, it can also simply mean any culturally biased judgment. For example, ethnocentrism can be seen in the common portrayals of the Global South and the Global North.

Ethnocentrism is sometimes related to racism, stereotyping, discrimination, or xenophobia. However, the term "ethnocentrism" does not necessarily involve a negative view of the others' race or indicate a negative connotation. The opposite of ethnocentrism is cultural relativism, a guiding philosophy stating that the best way to understand a different culture is through their perspective rather than judging them from the subjective viewpoints shaped by one's own cultural standards.

The term "ethnocentrism" was first applied in the social sciences by American sociologist William G. Sumner. In his 1906 book, Folkways, Sumner describes ethnocentrism as "the technical name for the view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it." He further characterized ethnocentrism as often leading to pride, vanity, the belief in one's own group's superiority, and contempt for outsiders.

Over time, ethnocentrism developed alongside the progression of social understandings by people such as social theorist Theodore W. Adorno. In Adorno's The Authoritarian Personality, he and his colleagues of the Frankfurt School established a broader definition of the term as a result of "in group-out group differentiation", stating that ethnocentrism "combines a positive attitude toward one's own ethnic/cultural group (the in-group) with a negative attitude toward the other ethnic/cultural group (the out-group)." Both of these juxtaposing attitudes are also a result of a process known as social identification and social counter-identification.

Origins and development
The term ethnocentrism derives from two Greek words: "ethnos", meaning nation, and "kentron", meaning center. Scholars believe this term was coined by Polish sociologist Ludwig Gumplowicz in the 19th century, although alternate theories suggest that he only popularized the concept as opposed to inventing it. He saw ethnocentrism as a phenomenon similar to the delusions of geocentrism and anthropocentrism, defining Ethnocentrism as "the reasons by virtue of which each group of people believed it had always occupied the highest point, not only among contemporaneous peoples and nations, but also in relation to all peoples of the historical past."

Subsequently, in the 20th century, American social scientist William G. Sumner proposed two different definitions in his 1906 book Folkways. Sumner stated that "Ethnocentrism is the technical name for this view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it." In the War and Other Essays (1911), he wrote that "the sentiment of cohesion, internal comradeship, and devotion to the in-group, which carries with it a sense of superiority to any out-group and readiness to defend the interests of the in-group against the out-group, is technically known as ethnocentrism." According to Boris Bizumic, it is a popular misunderstanding that Sumner originated the term ethnocentrism, stating that in actuality, he brought ethnocentrism into the mainstreams of anthropology, social science, and psychology through his English publications.

Several theories have been reinforced through the social and psychological understandings of ethnocentrism including T.W Adorno's Authoritarian Personality Theory (1950), Donald T. Campbell's Realistic Group Conflict Theory (1972), and Henri Tajfel's Social identity theory (1986). These theories have helped to distinguish ethnocentrism as a means to better understand the behaviors caused by in-group and out-group differentiation throughout history and society.

Ethnocentrism in social sciences
In social sciences, ethnocentrism means to judge another culture based on the standard of one's own culture instead of the standard of the other particular culture. When people use their own culture as a parameter to measure other cultures, they often tend to think that their culture is superior and see other cultures as inferior and bizarre. Ethnocentrism can be explained at different levels of analysis. For example, at an intergroup level, this term is seen as a consequence of a conflict between groups; while at the individual level, in-group cohesion and out-group hostility can explain personality traits. Also, ethnocentrism can helps us to explain the construction of identity. Ethnocentrism can explain the basis of one's identity by excluding the outgroup that is the target of ethnocentric sentiments and used as a way of distinguishing oneself from other groups that can be more or less tolerant. This practice in social interactions creates social boundaries, such boundaries define and draw symbolic boundaries of the group that one wants to be associated with or belong to. In this way, ethnocentrism is a term not only limited to anthropology but also can be applied to other fields of social sciences like sociology or psychology. Ethnocentrism may be particularly enhanced in the presence of interethnic competition, hostility and violence. On the other hand, ethnocentrism may negatively influence expatriate worker's performance.

A more recent interpretation of ethnocentrism, which expands upon the work of Claude Lévi-Strauss, highlights its positive dimension. Political sociologist Audrey Alejandro of the London School of Economics argues that, while ethnocentrism does produce social hierarchies, it also produces diversity by maintaining the different dispositions, practices, and knowledge of identity groups. Diversity is both fostered and undermined by ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism, for Alejandro, is therefore neither something to be suppressed nor celebrated uncritically. Rather, observers can cultivate a 'balanced ethnocentrism', (individual self worth) allowing themselves to be challenged and transformed by difference whilst still protecting difference.

Anthropology
The classifications of ethnocentrism originate from the studies of anthropology. With its omnipresence throughout history, ethnocentrism has always been a factor in how different cultures and groups related to one another. Examples including how historically, foreigners would be characterized as "Barbarians". These trends exist in complex societies, e.g., "the Jews consider themselves to be the 'chosen people', and the Greeks defend all foreigners as 'barbarians'", and how China believed their country to be "the centre of the world". However, the anthropocentric interpretations initially took place most notably in the 19th century when anthropologists began to describe and rank various cultures according to the degree to which they had developed significant milestones, such as monotheistic religions, technological advancements, and other historical progressions.

Most rankings were strongly influenced by colonization and the belief to improve societies they colonized, ranking the cultures based on the progression of their western societies and what they classified as milestones. Comparisons were mostly based on what the colonists believed as superior and what their western societies have accomplished. Victorian era politician and historian Thomas Macaulay once claimed that "one shelf of a Western library" had more knowledge than the centuries of text and literature written by Asian cultures. Ideas developed by Western scientists such as Herbert Spencer, including the concept of the "survival of the fittest", contained ethnocentric ideals; influencing the belief that societies which were 'superior' were most likely to survive and prosper. Edward Said's concept of Orientalism represented how Western reactions to non-Western societies were based on an "unequal power relationship" that the Western world developed due to its history of colonialism and the influence it held over non-Western societies.

The ethnocentric classification of "primitive" were also used by 19th and 20th century anthropologists and represented how unawareness in cultural and religious understanding changed overall reactions to non-Western societies. 19th-century anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor wrote about "primitive" societies in Primitive Culture (1871), creating a "civilization" scale where it was implied that ethnic cultures preceded civilized societies. The use of "savage" as a classification is modernly known as "tribal" or "pre-literate" where it was usually referred as a derogatory term as the "civilization" scale became more common. Examples that demonstrate a lack of understanding include when European travelers judged different languages based on the fact that they could not understand it and displayed a negative reaction, or the intolerance displayed by Westerners when exposed to unknown religions and symbolisms. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, a German philosopher, justified Western imperialism by reasoning that since the non-Western societies were "primitive" and "uncivilized", their culture and history was not worth conserving and thus should welcome Westernization.

Anthropologist Franz Boas saw the flaws in this formulaic approach to ranking and interpreting cultural development and committed himself to overthrowing this inaccurate reasoning due to many factors involving their individual characteristics. With his methodological innovations, Boas sought to show the error of the proposition that race determined cultural capacity. In his 1911 book The Mind of Primitive Man, Boas wrote that:It is somewhat difficult for us to recognize that the value which we attribute to our own civilization is due to the fact that we participate in this civilization, and that it has been controlling all our actions from the time of our birth; but it is certainly conceivable that there may be other civilizations, based perhaps on different traditions and on a different equilibrium of emotion and reason, which are of no less value than ours, although it may be impossible for us to appreciate their values without having grown up under their influence. Together, Boas and his colleagues propagated the certainty that there are no inferior races or cultures. This egalitarian approach introduced the concept of cultural relativism to anthropology, a methodological principle for investigating and comparing societies in as unprejudiced a way as possible and without using a developmental scale as anthropologists at the time were implementing. Boas and anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski argued that any human science had to transcend the ethnocentric views that could blind any scientist's ultimate conclusions.

Both had also urged anthropologists to conduct ethnographic fieldwork to overcome their ethnocentrism. To help, Malinowski would develop the theory of functionalism as guides for producing non-ethnocentric studies of different cultures. Classic examples of anti-ethnocentric anthropology include Margaret Mead's Coming of Age in Samoa (1928), which in time has met with severe criticism for its incorrect data and generalisations, Malinowski's The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia (1929), and Ruth Benedict's Patterns of Culture (1934). Mead and Benedict were two of Boas's students.

Scholars generally agree that Boas developed his ideas under the influence of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant. Legend has it that, on a field trip to the Baffin Islands in 1883, Boas would pass the frigid nights reading Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. In that work, Kant argued that human understanding could not be described according to the laws that applied to the operations of nature, and that its operations were therefore free, not determined, and that ideas regulated human action, sometimes independent of material interests. Following Kant, Boas pointed out the starving Eskimos who, because of their religious beliefs, would not hunt seals to feed themselves, thus showing that no pragmatic or material calculus determined their values.

Causes
Ethnocentrism is believed to be a learned behavior embedded into a variety of beliefs and values of an individual or group.

Due to enculturation, individuals in in-groups have a deeper sense of loyalty and are more likely to following the norms and develop relationships with associated members. Within relation to enculturation, ethnocentrism is said to be a transgenerational problem since stereotypes and similar perspectives can be enforced and encouraged as time progresses. Although loyalty can increase better in-grouper approval, limited interactions with other cultures can prevent individuals to have an understanding and appreciation towards cultural differences resulting in greater ethnocentrism.

The social identity approach suggests that ethnocentric beliefs are caused by a strong identification with one's own culture that directly creates a positive view of that culture. It is theorized by Henri Tajfel and John C. Turner that to maintain that positive view, people make social comparisons that cast competing cultural groups in an unfavorable light.

Alternative or opposite perspectives could cause individuals to develop naïve realism and be subject to limitations in understandings. These characteristics can also lead to individuals to become subject to ethnocentrism, when referencing out-groups, and black sheep effect, where personal perspectives contradict those from fellow in-groupers.

Realistic conflict theory assumes that ethnocentrism happens due to "real or perceived conflict" between groups. This also happens when a dominant group may perceive the new members as a threat. Scholars have recently demonstrated that individuals are more likely to develop in-group identification and out-group negatively in response to intergroup competition, conflict, or threat.

Although the causes of ethnocentric beliefs and actions can have varying roots of context and reason, the effects of ethnocentrism has had both negative and positive effects throughout history. The most detrimental effects of ethnocentrism resulting into genocide, apartheid, slavery, and many violent conflicts. Historical examples of these negative effects of ethnocentrism are The Holocaust, the Crusades, the Trail of Tears, and the internment of Japanese Americans. These events were a result of cultural differences reinforced inhumanely by a superior, majority group. In his 1976 book on evolution, The Selfish Gene, evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins writes that "blood-feuds and inter-clan warfare are easily interpretative in terms of Hamilton's genetic theory." Simulation-based experiments in evolutionary game theory have attempted to provide an explanation for the selection of ethnocentric-strategy phenotypes.

The positive examples of ethnocentrism throughout history have aimed to prohibit the callousness of ethnocentrism and reverse the perspectives of living in a single culture. These organizations can include the formation of the United Nations; aimed to maintain international relations, and the Olympic Games; a celebration of sports and friendly competition between cultures.

Effects
A study in New Zealand was used to compare how individuals associate with in-groups and out-groupers and has a connotation to discrimination. Strong in-group favoritism benefits the dominant groups and is different from out-group hostility and/or punishment. A suggested solution is to limit the perceived threat from the out-group that also decreases the likeliness for those supporting the in-groups to negatively react.

Ethnocentrism also influences consumer preference over which goods they purchase. A study that used several in-group and out-group orientations have shown a correlation between national identity, consumer cosmopolitanism, consumer ethnocentrism, and the methods consumers choose their products, whether imported or domestic. Consumer Ethnocentrism in which beliefs held by consumers in which they determine which they determine what foreign goods to consume. A study based on the study of consumers was used to determine that Chinese, we skeptical about purchasing product from Japan, due to the deaths created by World War II. Ethnocentrism not only causes effects upon a product

Ethnocentrism and racism
Ethnocentrism is usually associated with racism. However, as mentioned before, ethnocentrism does not necessarily implicate a negative connotation. In European research, the term racism is not linked to ethnocentrism because Europeans avoid applying the concept of race to humans; meanwhile, using this term is not a problem for American researchers. Since ethnocentrism implicated a strong identification with one's in-group, it mostly automatically leads to negative feelings and stereotyping to the members of the outgroup, which can be confused with racism. Finally, scholars agree that avoiding stereotypes is an indispensable prerequisite to overcome ethnocentrism; and mass media play a key role regarding this issue. The differences that each culture possess causes could hinder one another leading to ethnocentrism and racism. A Canadian study established the differences among French Canadian and English Canadian respondents based on products that would be purchased due to ethnocentrism and racism. Due to how diverse the world has become, society has begun to misinterpret the term cultural diversity, by using ethnocentrism to create controversy among all cultures.

Effects of ethnocentrism in the media
Mass media plays an important role in our current society. We are constantly exposed to media content every day. Researchers had found that ethnocentrism is dysfunctional in communication and similar fields because the lack of acceptance of other cultures leads to the creation of barriers for people of different backgrounds to interact with each other. The presence of ethnocentrism in media content creates an issue in the exchange of messages in the communication process. The media industry is dominated by the Global North, so Western ethnocentrism tends to be exposed in the media. This can be seen in the predominance of Western content in TV shows, film, and other forms of mass media. Some shows tend to depict foreign cultures as inferior or strange in contrast to their own culture.

Film
Cinema has been around in our society since the beginning of the 20th century, and it is an important tool made to entertain and/or educate the viewer. Western companies are usually the leaders of the film industry. Thus, it is common to be exposed to content based on Westerners' point of view. Examples of ethnocentrism are constantly seen in films, whether intentionally or unintentionally. An example of this can be seen on the American animated film Aladdin by Disney in 1992; the opening song of the movie is "Arabian Nights", it is mentioned in the lyrics that "it's barbaric, hey, but it's home," which had caused debates among the audience because it could lead to thinking that the Arabic culture is barbaric. Examples like this are numerous, featuring in many Hollywood films. Experts in the field propose that a way of overcoming ethnocentrism is to avoid the use of stereotypes in films. Therefore, the presence of ethnocentrism in cinema leads to stereotypical images of cultures that differ from the creators'. Another film example is a 2018 film named "Crazy Rich Asians", based on the book by Kevin Kwan.

Social media
A considerable number of people are exposed to social media, whose purpose is to encourage interaction among users. Social media has become a reliant source, to be able to interact among others across the world. The most common and popular social media platforms are Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, YouTube, and TikTok. Social media tends to play a positively constructive role within a society in which it educates, guides/entertain the public, and the bring more awareness towards other cultures by illustrating how each one is different from one another. Even though social media can produce positive outcomes within ethnocentrism, there are also negatives in which it allows for other cultures to judge one another and create controversy. Someone who is ethnocentric may hinder the exchange of information by diminishing the interest of interacting with people from other cultures.

title: Ethnocentrism