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Artistic License

The Artistic License is an open-source license used for certain free and open-source software packages, most notably the standard implementation of the Perl programming language and most CPAN modules, which are dual-licensed under the Artistic License and the GNU General Public License (GPL).

Artistic License 1.0
The original Artistic License was written by Larry Wall. The name of the license is a reference to the concept of artistic license.

Whether or not the original Artistic License is a free software license is largely unsettled. The Free Software Foundation explicitly called the original Artistic License a non-free license, criticizing it as being "too vague; some passages are too clever for their own good, and their meaning is not clear". The FSF recommended that the license not be used on its own, but approved the common AL/GPL dual-licensing approach for Perl projects.

In response to this, Bradley Kuhn, who later worked for the Free Software Foundation, made a minimal redraft to clarify the ambiguous passages. This was released as the Clarified Artistic License and was approved by the FSF. It is used by the Paros Proxy, the JavaFBP toolkit and NcFTP.

The terms of the Artistic License 1.0 were at issue in Jacobsen v. Katzer in the initial 2009 ruling by the United States District Court for the Northern District of California declared that FOSS-like licenses could only be enforced through contract law rather than through copyright law, in contexts where contract damages would be difficult to establish. On appeal, a federal appellate court "determined that the terms of the Artistic License are enforceable copyright conditions". The case was remanded to the District Court, which did not apply the superior court's criteria on the grounds that, in the interim, the governing Supreme Court precedent applicable to the case had changed. However, this left undisturbed the finding that a free and open-source license nonetheless has economic value. Jacobsen ultimately prevailed in 2010, and the Case established a new standard making terms and conditions under Artistic License 1.0 enforceable through copyright statutes and relevant precedents.

Artistic License 2.0
In response to the Request for Comments (RFC) process for improving the licensing position for Perl 6, Kuhn's draft was extensively rewritten by Roberta Cairney and Allison Randal for readability and legal clarity, with input from the Perl community. This resulted in the Artistic License 2.0, which has been approved as both a free software and open source license.

The Artistic license 2.0 is also notable for its excellent license compatibility with other FOSS licenses due to a relicensing clause, a property other licenses like the GPL lack. "You may Distribute your Modified Version as Source (either gratis or for a Distributor Fee, and with or without a Compiled form of the Modified Version) [...] provided that you do at least ONE of the following: [...] (c) allow anyone who receives a copy of the Modified Version to make the Source form of the Modified Version available to others under

(i) the Original License or

(ii) a license that permits the licensee to freely copy, modify and redistribute the Modified Version using the same licensing terms that apply to the copy that the licensee received, and requires that the Source form of the Modified Version, and of any works derived from it, be made freely available in that license fees are prohibited but Distributor Fees are allowed." It has been adopted by some of the Perl 6 implementations, the Mojolicious framework, NPM, and has been used by the Parrot virtual machine since version 0.4.13. It is also used by the SNEeSe emulator, which was formerly licensed under the Clarified Artistic License.

The OSI recommends that all developers and projects licensing their products with the Artistic License adopt Artistic License 2.0.

title: Artistic License


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Afrikaans

Afrikaans  is a West Germanic language, spoken in South Africa, Namibia and (to a lesser extent) Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It evolved from the Dutch vernacular of South Holland (Hollandic dialect) spoken by the predominantly Dutch settlers and enslaved population of the Dutch Cape Colony, where it gradually began to develop distinguishing characteristics in the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Although Afrikaans has adopted words from other languages, including German and the Khoisan languages, an estimated 90 to 95% of the vocabulary of Afrikaans is of Dutch origin. Differences between Afrikaans and Dutch often lie in the more analytic morphology and grammar of Afrikaans, and different spellings. There is a large degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages, especially in written form.

Etymology
The name of the language comes directly from the Dutch word Afrikaansch (now spelled Afrikaans) meaning "African". It was previously referred to as "Cape Dutch" (Kaap-Hollands/Kaap-Nederlands), a term also used to refer to the early Cape settlers collectively, or the derogatory "kitchen Dutch" (kombuistaal) from its use by slaves of colonial settlers "in the kitchen".

Origin
The Afrikaans language arose in the Dutch Cape Colony, through a gradual divergence from European Dutch dialects, during the course of the 18th century. As early as the mid-18th century and as recently as the mid-20th century, Afrikaans was known in standard Dutch as a "kitchen language" (kombuistaal), lacking the prestige accorded, for example, even by the educational system in Africa, to languages spoken outside Africa. Other early epithets setting apart Kaaps Hollands ("Cape Dutch", i.e. Afrikaans) as putatively beneath official Dutch standards included geradbraakt, gebroken and onbeschaafd Hollands ("mutilated/broken/uncivilised Dutch"), as well as verkeerd Nederlands ("incorrect Dutch").

Den Besten theorises that modern Standard Afrikaans derives from two sources:
 * Cape Dutch, a direct transplantation of European Dutch to Southern Africa, and
 * 'Hottentot Dutch', a pidgin that descended from 'Foreigner Talk' and ultimately from the Dutch pidgin spoken by slaves, via a hypothetical Dutch creole.

So Afrikaans, in his view, is neither a creole nor a direct descendant of Dutch, but a fusion of two transmission pathways.

Development
Most of the first settlers whose descendants today are the Afrikaners were from the United Provinces (now Netherlands), with up to one-sixth of the community of French Huguenot origin, and a seventh from Germany.

African and Asian workers, Cape Coloured children of European settlers and Khoikhoi women, and slaves contributed to the development of Afrikaans. The slave population was made up of people from East Africa, West Africa, India, Madagascar, and the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia). A number were also indigenous Khoisan people, who were valued as interpreters, domestic servants, and labourers. Many free and enslaved women married or cohabited with the male Dutch settlers. M. F. Valkhoff argued that 75% of children born to female slaves in the Dutch Cape Colony between 1652 and 1672 had a Dutch father. Sarah Grey Thomason and Terrence Kaufman argue that Afrikaans' development as a separate language was "heavily conditioned by nonwhites who learned Dutch imperfectly as a second language."

Beginning in about 1815, Afrikaans started to replace Malay as the language of instruction in Muslim schools in South Africa, written with the Arabic alphabet: see Arabic Afrikaans. Later, Afrikaans, now written with the Latin script, started to appear in newspapers and political and religious works in around 1850 (alongside the already established Dutch).

In 1875 a group of Afrikaans-speakers from the Cape formed the Genootskap vir Regte Afrikaaners ("Society for Real Afrikaners"), and published a number of books in Afrikaans including grammars, dictionaries, religious materials and histories.

Until the early 20th century Afrikaans was considered a Dutch dialect, alongside Standard Dutch, which it eventually replaced as an official language. Before the Boer wars, "and indeed for some time afterwards, Afrikaans was regarded as inappropriate for educated discourse. Rather, Afrikaans was described derogatorily as 'a kitchen language' or 'a bastard jargon', suitable for communication mainly between the Boers and their servants."

Recognition

In 1925 Afrikaans was recognised by the South African government as a distinct language, rather than simply a vernacular of Dutch. On 8 May 1925, twenty-three years after the Second Boer War ended, the Official Languages of the Union Act of 1925 was passed—mostly due to the efforts of the Afrikaans-language movement—at a joint sitting of the House of Assembly and the Senate, in which the Afrikaans language was declared a variety of Dutch. The Constitution of 1961 reversed the position of Afrikaans and Dutch, so that English and Afrikaans were the official languages, and Afrikaans was deemed to include Dutch. The Constitution of 1983 removed any mention of Dutch altogether.

The Afrikaans Language Monument is on a hill overlooking Paarl in the Western Cape Province. Officially opened on 10 October 1975, it was erected on the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Society of Real Afrikaners, and the 50th anniversary of Afrikaans being declared an official language of South Africa in distinction to Dutch.

Standardisation
The earliest Afrikaans texts were some doggerel verse from 1795 and a dialogue transcribed by a Dutch traveller in 1825. Afrikaans used the Latin alphabet around this time, although the Cape Muslim community used the Arabic script. In 1861, L.H. Meurant published his Zamenspraak tusschen Klaas Waarzegger en Jan Twyfelaar ("Conversation between Nicholas Truthsayer and John Doubter"), which is considered to be the first book published in Afrikaans.

The first grammar book was published in 1876; a bilingual dictionary was later published in 1902. The main modern Afrikaans dictionary in use is the Verklarende Handwoordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal (HAT). A new authoritative dictionary, called Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal (WAT), was under development as of 2018. The official orthography of Afrikaans is the Afrikaanse Woordelys en Spelreëls, compiled by Die Taalkommissie.

The Afrikaans Bible
The Afrikaners primarily were Protestants, of the Dutch Reformed Church of the 17th century. Their religious practices were later influenced in South Africa by British ministries during the 1800s. A landmark in the development of the language was the translation of the whole Bible into Afrikaans. While significant advances had been made in the textual criticism of the Bible, especially the Greek New Testament, the 1933 translation followed the Textus Receptus and was closely akin to the Statenbijbel. Before this, most Cape Dutch-Afrikaans speakers had to rely on the Dutch Statenbijbel. This Statenvertaling had its origins with the Synod of Dordrecht of 1618 and was thus in an archaic form of Dutch. This was hard for Dutch speakers to understand, and increasingly unintelligible for Afrikaans speakers.

C. P. Hoogehout, Arnoldus Pannevis, and Stephanus Jacobus du Toit were the first Afrikaans Bible translators. Important landmarks in the translation of the Scriptures were in 1878 with C. P. Hoogehout's translation of the Evangelie volgens Markus (Gospel of Mark, lit. Gospel according to Mark); however, this translation was never published. The manuscript is to be found in the South African National Library, Cape Town.

The first official translation of the entire Bible into Afrikaans was in 1933 by J. D. du Toit, E. E. van Rooyen, J. D. Kestell, H. C. M. Fourie, and BB Keet. This monumental work established Afrikaans as 'n suiwer en ordentlike taal, that is "a pure and proper language" for religious purposes, especially among the deeply Calvinist Afrikaans religious community that previously had been sceptical of a Bible translation that varied from the Dutch version that they were used to.

In 1983 a fresh translation marked the 50th anniversary of the 1933 version. The final editing of this edition was done by E. P. Groenewald, A. H. van Zyl, P. A. Verhoef, J. L. Helberg and W. Kempen. This translation was influenced by Eugene Nida's theory of dynamic equivalence which focused on finding the nearest equivalent in the receptor language to the idea that the Greek, Hebrew or Aramaic wanted to convey.

A new translation, Die Bybel: 'n Direkte Vertaling was released in November 2020. It is the first truly ecumenical translation of the Bible in Afrikaans as translators from various churches, including the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches, were involved.

Classification

 * Indo-European languages
 * Germanic
 * West Germanic
 * Low Franconian
 * Dutch
 * Afrikaans

Afrikaans descended from Dutch dialects in the 17th century. It belongs to a West Germanic sub-group, the Low Franconian languages. Other West Germanic languages related to Afrikaans are German, English, the Frisian languages, and the unstandardised languages Low German and Yiddish.

Statistics
[[File:South Africa Afrikaans speakers proportion map.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|The geographical distribution of Afrikaans in South Africa: proportion of the population that speaks Afrikaans at home.

{{legend|#EDF8E9|0–20%}} {{legend|#BAE4B3|20–40%}} {{legend|#74C476|40–60%}} {{legend|#31A354|60–80%}} {{legend|#006D2C|80–100%}} ]]

Sociolinguistics
[[File:South Africa Afrikaans speakers density map.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|The geographical distribution of Afrikaans in South Africa: density of Afrikaans home-language speakers.

{{legend|#ffffcc|<1 /km2}} {{legend|#ffeda0|1–3 /km2}} {{legend|#fed976|3–10 /km2}} {{legend|#feb24c|10–30 /km2}} {{legend|#fd8d3c|30–100 /km2}} {{legend|#fc4e2a|100–300 /km2}} {{legend|#e31a1c|300–1000 /km2}} {{legend|#bc0026|1000–3000 /km2}} {{legend|#800026|>3000 /km2}} ]]

Afrikaans is also widely spoken in Namibia. Before independence, Afrikaans had equal status with German as an official language. Since independence in 1990, Afrikaans has had constitutional recognition as a national, but not official, language. There is a much smaller number of Afrikaans speakers among Zimbabwe's white minority, as most have left the country since 1980. Afrikaans was also a medium of instruction for schools in Bophuthatswana, an Apartheid-era Bantustan. Eldoret in Kenya was founded by Afrikaners.

In 1976, secondary-school pupils in Soweto began a rebellion in response to the government's decision that Afrikaans be used as the language of instruction for half the subjects taught in non-White schools (with English continuing for the other half). Although English is the mother tongue of only 8.2% of the population, it is the language most widely understood, and the second language of a majority of South Africans. Afrikaans is more widely spoken than English in the Northern and Western Cape provinces, several hundred kilometres from Soweto. The Black community's opposition to Afrikaans and preference for continuing English instruction was underlined when the government rescinded the policy one month after the uprising: 96% of Black schools chose English (over Afrikaans or native languages) as the language of instruction. Afrikaans-medium schools were also accused of using language policy to deter Black African parents. Some of these parents, in part supported by provincial departments of education, initiated litigation which enabled enrolment with English as language of instruction. By 2006 there were 300 single-medium Afrikaans schools, compared to 2,500 in 1994, after most converted to dual-medium education. Due to Afrikaans being viewed as the "language of the white oppressor" by some, pressure has been increased to remove Afrikaans as a teaching language in South African universities, resulting in bloody student protests in 2015.

Under South Africa's Constitution of 1996, Afrikaans remains an official language, and has equal status to English and nine other languages. The new policy means that the use of Afrikaans is now often reduced in favour of English, or to accommodate the other official languages. In 1996, for example, the South African Broadcasting Corporation reduced the amount of television airtime in Afrikaans, while South African Airways dropped its Afrikaans name Suid-Afrikaanse Lugdiens from its livery. Similarly, South Africa's diplomatic missions overseas now display the name of the country only in English and their host country's language, and not in Afrikaans. Meanwhile, the constitution of the Western Cape, which went into effect in 1998, declares Afrikaans to be an official language of the province alongside English and Xhosa.

The Afrikaans-language general-interest family magazine Huisgenoot has the largest readership of any magazine in the country.

When the British design magazine Wallpaper described Afrikaans as "one of the world's ugliest languages" in its September 2005 article about the monument, South African billionaire Johann Rupert (chairman of the Richemont Group), responded by withdrawing advertising for brands such as Cartier, Van Cleef & Arpels, Montblanc and Alfred Dunhill from the magazine. The author of the article, Bronwyn Davies, was an English-speaking South African.

Mutual intelligibility with Dutch
An estimated 90 to 95% of the Afrikaans lexicon is ultimately of Dutch origin, and there are few lexical differences between the two languages. Afrikaans has a considerably more regular morphology, grammar, and spelling. There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages, particularly in written form.

Afrikaans acquired some lexical and syntactical borrowings from other languages such as Malay, Khoisan languages, Portuguese, and Bantu languages, and Afrikaans has also been significantly influenced by South African English. Dutch speakers are confronted with fewer non-cognates when listening to Afrikaans than the other way round. Mutual intelligibility thus tends to be asymmetrical, as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch.

In general, mutual intelligibility between Dutch and Afrikaans is far better than between Dutch and Frisian or between Danish and Swedish. The South African poet writer Breyten Breytenbach, attempting to visualise the language distance for Anglophones once remarked that the differences between (Standard) Dutch and Afrikaans are comparable to those between the Received Pronunciation and Southern American English.

Current status
Afrikaans is an official language of the Republic of South Africa and a recognised national language of the Republic of Namibia. Post-apartheid South Africa has seen a loss of preferential treatment by the government for Afrikaans, in terms of education, social events, media (TV and radio), and general status throughout the country, given that it now shares its place as official language with ten other languages. Nevertheless, Afrikaans remains more prevalent in the media – radio, newspapers and television – than any of the other official languages, except English. More than 300 book titles in Afrikaans are published annually. South African census figures suggest a decreasing number of first language Afrikaans speakers in South Africa from 13.5% in 2011 to 10.6% in 2022. The South African Institute of Race Relations (SAIRR) projects that a growing majority of Afrikaans speakers will be Coloured. Afrikaans speakers experience higher employment rates than other South African language groups, though  half a million were unemployed.

Despite the challenges of demotion and emigration that it faces in South Africa, the Afrikaans vernacular remains competitive, being popular in DSTV pay channels and several internet sites, while generating high newspaper and music CD sales. A resurgence in Afrikaans popular music since the late 1990s has invigorated the language, especially among a younger generation of South Africans. A recent trend is the increased availability of pre-school educational CDs and DVDs. Such media also prove popular with the extensive Afrikaans-speaking emigrant communities who seek to retain language proficiency in a household context.

Afrikaans-language cinema showed signs of new vigour in the early 21st century. The 2007 film Ouma se slim kind, the first full-length Afrikaans movie since Paljas in 1998, is seen as the dawn of a new era in Afrikaans cinema. Several short films have been created and more feature-length movies, such as Poena is Koning and Bakgat (both in 2008) have been produced, besides the 2011 Afrikaans-language film Skoonheid, which was the first Afrikaans film to screen at the Cannes Film Festival. The film Platteland was also released in 2011. The Afrikaans film industry started gaining international recognition via the likes of big Afrikaans Hollywood film stars, like Charlize Theron (Monster) and Sharlto Copley (District 9) promoting their mother tongue.

SABC3 announced early in 2009 that it would increase Afrikaans programming due to the "growing Afrikaans-language market and [their] need for working capital as Afrikaans advertising is the only advertising that sells in the current South African television market". In April 2009, SABC3 started screening several Afrikaans-language programmes. There is a groundswell movement within Afrikaans to be inclusive, and to promote itself along with the indigenous official languages. In Namibia, the percentage of Afrikaans speakers declined from 11.4% (2001 Census) to 10.4% (2011 Census). The major concentrations are in Hardap (41.0%), ǁKaras (36.1%), Erongo (20.5%), Khomas (18.5%), Omaheke (10.0%), Otjozondjupa (9.4%), Kunene (4.2%), and Oshikoto (2.3%).

Some native speakers of Bantu languages and English also speak Afrikaans as a second language. It is widely taught in South African schools, with about 10.3 million second-language students.

Afrikaans is offered at many universities outside South Africa, including in the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Poland, Russia and the United States.

Grammar
In Afrikaans grammar, there is no distinction between the infinitive and present forms of verbs, with the exception of the verbs 'to be' and 'to have':

In addition, verbs do not conjugate differently depending on the subject. For example,

Only a handful of Afrikaans verbs have a preterite, namely the auxiliary wees ("to be"), the modal verbs, and the verb dink ("to think"). The preterite of mag ("may") is rare in contemporary Afrikaans.

All other verbs use the perfect tense, het + past participle (ge-), for the past. Therefore, there is no distinction in Afrikaans between I drank and I have drunk. (In colloquial German, the past tense is also often replaced with the perfect.)

When telling a longer story, Afrikaans speakers usually avoid the perfect and simply use the present tense, or historical present tense instead (as is possible, but less common, in English as well).

A particular feature of Afrikaans is its use of the double negative; it is classified in Afrikaans as ontkennende vorm and is something that is absent from the other West Germanic standard languages. For example,

 * Hy kan nie Afrikaans praat nie
 * Hij spreekt geen Afrikaans.
 * English: He can not speak Afrikaans. / He can't speak Afrikaans.

Both French and San origins have been suggested for double negation in Afrikaans. While double negation is still found in Low Franconian dialects in West Flanders and in some "isolated" villages in the centre of the Netherlands (such as Garderen), it takes a different form, which is not found in Afrikaans. The following is an example:
 * Ek wil nie dit doen nie.* (lit. I want not this do not.)
 * Ik wil dit niet doen.
 * English: I do not want to do this.

 * Compare with Ek wil dit nie doen nie, which changes the meaning to "I want not to do this." Whereas Ek wil nie dit doen nie emphasizes a lack of desire to act, Ek wil dit nie doen nie emphasizes the act itself.

The -ne was the Middle Dutch way to negate but it has been suggested that since -ne became highly non-voiced, nie or niet was needed to complement the -ne. With time the -ne disappeared in most Dutch dialects.

The double negative construction has been fully grammaticalised in standard Afrikaans and its proper use follows a set of fairly complex rules as the examples below show:

A notable exception to this is the use of the negating grammar form that coincides with negating the English present participle. In this case there is only a single negation.
 * Hy is in die hospitaal, maar hy eet nie.
 * Hij is in het ziekenhuis, maar hij eet niet.
 * English: He is in [the] hospital, though he doesn't eat.

Certain words in Afrikaans would be contracted. For example, moet nie, which literally means "must not", usually becomes moenie; although one does not have to write or say it like this, virtually all Afrikaans speakers will change the two words to moenie in the same way as do not is contracted to don't in English.

The Dutch word het ("it" in English) does not correspond to het in Afrikaans. The Dutch words corresponding to Afrikaans het are heb, hebt, heeft and hebben.

Vowels

 * As phonemes, and  occur only in the words spieël  'mirror' and koeël  'bullet', which used to be pronounced with sequences  and, respectively. In other cases,  and  occur as allophones of, respectively,  and  before.
 * is phonetically long before.
 * is always stressed and occurs only in the word wîe 'wedges'.
 * The closest unrounded counterparts of are central, rather than front.
 * occur only in a few words.
 * occurs as an allophone of before, though this occurs primarily dialectally, most commonly in the former Transvaal and Free State provinces.

Diphthongs

 * occur mainly in loanwords.

Consonants

 * All obstruents at the ends of words are devoiced, so that e.g. a final is realized as.
 * occur only in loanwords. is also an allophone of  in some environments.
 * is most often uvular . Velar occurs only in some speakers.
 * The rhotic is usually an alveolar trill or tap . In some parts of the former Cape Province, it is realized uvularly, either as a trill  or a fricative.

Dialects

Following early dialectal studies of Afrikaans, it was theorised that three main historical dialects probably existed after the Great Trek in the 1830s. These dialects are the Northern Cape, Western Cape, and Eastern Cape dialects. Northern Cape dialect may have resulted from contact between Dutch settlers and the Khoekhoe people between the Great Karoo and the Kunene, and Eastern Cape dialect between the Dutch and the Xhosa. Remnants of these dialects still remain in present-day Afrikaans, although the standardising effect of Standard Afrikaans has contributed to a great levelling of differences in modern times.

There is also a prison cant, known as Sabela, which is based on Afrikaans, yet heavily influenced by Zulu. This language is used as a secret language in prison and is taught to initiates.

Patagonian Afrikaans dialect
Patagonian Afrikaans is a distinct dialect of Afrikaans is spoken by the 650-strong South African community of Argentina, in the region of Patagonia.

Malay
Due to the early settlement of a Cape Malay community in Cape Town, who are now known as Coloureds, numerous Classical Malay words were brought into Afrikaans. Some of these words entered Dutch via people arriving from what is now known as Indonesia as part of their colonial heritage. Malay words in Afrikaans include:
 * baie, which means 'very'/'much'/'many' (from banyak) is a very commonly used Afrikaans word, different from its Dutch equivalent veel or erg.
 * baadjie, Afrikaans for jacket (from baju, ultimately from Persian), used where Dutch would use jas or vest. The word baadje in Dutch is now considered archaic and only used in written, literary texts.
 * bobotie, a traditional Cape-Malay dish, made from spiced minced meat baked with an egg-based topping.
 * piesang, which means banana. This is different from the common Dutch word banaan. The Indonesian word pisang is also used in Dutch, though usage is less common.
 * piering, which means saucer (from piring, also from Persian).

Portuguese
Some words originally came from Portuguese such as sambreel ("umbrella") from the Portuguese sombreiro, kraal ("pen/cattle enclosure") from the Portuguese curral and mielie ("corn", from milho). Some of these words also exist in Dutch, like sambreel "parasol", though usage is less common and meanings can slightly differ.

Khoisan languages

 * dagga, meaning cannabis
 * geitjie, meaning lizard, diminutive adapted from a Khoekhoe word
 * gogga, meaning insect, from the Khoisan xo-xo
 * karos, blanket of animal hides
 * kierie, walking stick from Khoekhoe

Some of these words also exist in Dutch, though with a more specific meaning: assegaai for example means "South-African tribal javelin" and karos means "South-African tribal blanket of animal hides".

Bantu languages
Loanwords from Bantu languages in Afrikaans include the names of indigenous birds, such as mahem and sakaboela, and indigenous plants, such as maroela and tamboekie(gras).
 * fundi, from the Zulu word umfundi meaning "scholar" or "student", but used to mean someone who is a student of/expert on a certain subject, i.e. He is a language fundi.
 * lobola, meaning bride price, from (and referring to) lobolo of the Nguni languages
 * mahem, the grey crowned crane, known in Latin as Balearica regulorum
 * maroela, medium-sized dioecious tree known in Latin as Sclerocarya birrea
 * tamboekiegras, species of thatching grass known as Hyparrhenia
 * tambotie, deciduous tree also known by its Latin name, Spirostachys africana
 * tjaila / tjailatyd, an adaption of the word chaile, meaning "to go home" or "to knock off (from work)".

French
The revoking of the Edict of Nantes on 22 October 1685 was a milestone in the history of South Africa, for it marked the beginning of the great Huguenot exodus from France. It is estimated that between 250,000 and 300,000 Protestants left France between 1685 and 1700; out of these, according to Louvois, 100,000 had received military training. A measure of the calibre of these immigrants and of their acceptance by host countries (in particular South Africa) is given by H. V. Morton in his book: In Search of South Africa (London, 1948). The Huguenots were responsible for a great linguistic contribution to Afrikaans, particularly in terms of military terminology as many of them fought on the battlefields during the wars of the Great Trek.

Most of the words in this list are descendants from Dutch borrowings from French, Old French or Latin, and are not direct influences from French on Afrikaans.

Orthography
The Afrikaans writing system is based on Dutch, using the 26 letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet, plus 16 additional vowels with diacritics. The hyphen (e.g. in a compound like see-eend 'sea duck'), apostrophe (e.g. ma's 'mothers'), and a whitespace character (e.g. in multi-word units like Dooie See 'Dead Sea') is part of the orthography of words, while the indefinite article ŉ is a ligature. All the alphabet letters, including those with diacritics, have capital letters as allographs; the ŉ does not have a capital letter allograph. This means that Afrikaans has 88 graphemes with allographs in total. In Afrikaans, many consonants are dropped from the earlier Dutch spelling. For example, slechts ('only') in Dutch becomes slegs in Afrikaans. Also, Afrikaans and some Dutch dialects make no distinction between and, having merged the latter into the former; while the word for "south" is written zuid in Dutch, it is spelled suid in Afrikaans (as well as dialectal Dutch writings) to represent this merger. Similarly, the Dutch digraph ĳ, normally pronounced as, corresponds to Afrikaans y, except where it replaces the Dutch suffix –lijk which is pronounced as , as in waarschijnlijk > waarskynlik.

Another difference is the indefinite article, 'n in Afrikaans and een in Dutch. "A book" is n boek in Afrikaans, whereas it is either een boek or n boek in Dutch. This 'n is usually pronounced as just a weak vowel,, just like English "a".

The diminutive suffix in Afrikaans is -tjie, -djie or -ie, whereas in Dutch it is -tje or dje, hence a "bit" is ŉ bietjie in Afrikaans and beetje in Dutch.

The letters c, q, x, and z occur almost exclusively in borrowings from French, English, Greek and Latin. This is usually because words that had c and ch in the original Dutch are spelled with k and g, respectively, in Afrikaans. Similarly original qu and x are most often spelt kw and ks, respectively. For example, ekwatoriaal instead of equatoriaal, and ekskuus instead of excuus.

The vowels with diacritics in non-loanword Afrikaans are: á, ä, é, è, ê, ë, í, î, ï, ó, ô, ö, ú, û, ü, ý. Diacritics are ignored when alphabetising, though they are still important, even when typing the diacritic forms may be difficult. For example, geëet ("ate") instead of the 3 e's alongside each other: *geeet, which can never occur in Afrikaans, or sê, which translates to "say", whereas se is a possessive form. The acute's (á, é, í, ó, ú, ý) primary function is to place emphasis on a word (i.e. for emphatic reasons), by adding it to the emphasised syllable of the word. For example, sál ("will" (verb)), néé ('no'), móét ("must"), hý ("he"), gewéét ("knew"). The acute is only placed on the i if it is the only vowel in the emphasised word: wil ('want' (verb)) becomes wíl, but lui ('lazy') becomes lúi. Only a few non-loan words are spelled with acutes, e.g. dié ('this'), ná ('after'), óf ... óf ('either ... or'), nóg ... nóg ('neither ... nor'), etc. Only four non-loan words are spelled with the grave: nè ('yes?', 'right?', 'eh?'), dè ('here, take this!' or '[this is] yours!'), hè ('huh?', 'what?', 'eh?'), and appèl ('(formal) appeal' (noun)).

Initial apostrophes
A few short words in Afrikaans take initial apostrophes. In modern Afrikaans, these words are always written in lower case (except if the entire line is uppercase), and if they occur at the beginning of a sentence, the next word is capitalised. Three examples of such apostrophed words are 'k, 't, 'n. The last (the indefinite article) is the only apostrophed word that is common in modern written Afrikaans, since the other examples are shortened versions of other words (ek and het, respectively) and are rarely found outside of a poetic context.

Here are a few examples:

The apostrophe and the following letter are regarded as two separate characters, and are never written using a single glyph, although a single character variant of the indefinite article appears in Unicode, ŉ.

Table of characters
For more on the pronunciation of the letters below, see Help:IPA/Afrikaans.

Sample text
Psalm 23 1983 translation:

 Die Here is my Herder, ek kom niks kort nie. Hy laat my rus in groen weivelde. Hy bring my by waters waar daar vrede is. Hy gee my nuwe krag. Hy lei my op die regte paaie tot eer van Sy naam. Selfs al gaan ek deur donker dieptes, sal ek nie bang wees nie, want U is by my. In U hande is ek veilig.

Psalm 23 1953 translation:

 Die Here is my Herder, niks sal my ontbreek nie. Hy laat my neerlê in groen weivelde; na waters waar rus is, lei Hy my heen. Hy verkwik my siel; Hy lei my in die spore van geregtigheid, om sy Naam ontwil. Al gaan ek ook in 'n dal van doodskaduwee, ek sal geen onheil vrees nie; want U is met my: u stok en u staf die vertroos my.

Lord's Prayer (Afrikaans New Living Version translation):

 Ons Vader in die hemel, laat u Naam geheilig word. Laat u koninkryk kom. Laat u wil hier op aarde uitgevoer word soos in die hemel. Gee ons die porsie brood wat ons vir vandag nodig het. En vergeef ons ons sondeskuld soos ons ook óns skuldenaars vergewe het. Bewaar ons sodat ons nie aan verleiding sal toegee nie; maar bevry ons van die greep van die bose. Want aan U behoort die koningskap, en die krag, en die heerlikheid, vir altyd. Amen.

Lord's Prayer (Original translation):

 Onse Vader wat in die hemel is, laat U Naam geheilig word; laat U koninkryk kom; laat U wil geskied op die aarde, net soos in die hemel. Gee ons vandag ons daaglikse brood; en vergeef ons ons skulde soos ons ons skuldenaars vergewe en laat ons nie in die versoeking nie maar verlos ons van die bose Want aan U behoort die koninkryk en die krag en die heerlikheid tot in ewigheid. Amen

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Afrikaans


text:
Aeolus

In Greek mythology, Aeolus or Aiolos (Αἴολος, ) is a name shared by three mythical characters. These three personages are often difficult to tell apart, and even the ancient mythographers appear to have been perplexed about which Aeolus was which. Diodorus Siculus made an attempt to define each of these three (although it is clear that he also became muddled), and his opinion is followed here.
 * The first Aeolus was a son of Hellen and the eponymous founder of the Aeolian race.
 * The second Aeolus was a son of Poseidon, who led a colony to islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea.
 * The third Aeolus was a son of Hippotes who is mentioned in the Odyssey and the Aeneid as the ruler of the winds.

All three men named Aeolus appear to be connected genealogically, although the precise relationship, especially regarding the second and third Aeolus, is often ambiguous as their identities seem to have been merged by many ancient writers.

Aeolus was also the name of the following minor characters:
 * Aeolus, a defender of Thebes in the war of the Seven against Thebes. He was killed by Parthenopaeus.
 * Aeolus, a Trojan companion of Aeneas in Italy, where he was killed by Turnus, King of the Rutulians. Aeolus was the father of Clytius and Misenus.

title: Aeolus


text:
ABC

ABC are the first three letters of the Latin script.

ABC or abc may also refer to:

Broadcasting

 * Aliw Broadcasting Corporation, Philippine broadcast company
 * American Broadcasting Company, a commercial U.S. TV broadcaster
 * Disney–ABC Television Group, the former name of the parent organization of ABC
 * Australian Broadcasting Corporation, one of the national publicly funded broadcasters of Australia
 * ABC Television (Australian TV network), the national television network of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation
 * ABC TV (Australian TV channel), the flagship TV station of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation
 * ABC Canberra (TV station), Canberra, and other ABC TV local stations in state capitals
 * ABC Australia (Southeast Asian TV channel), an international pay TV channel
 * ABC Radio (disambiguation), several radio stations
 * Associated Broadcasting Corporation, the former name of TV5 Network, Inc., a Philippine media company
 * ABC-5, the former name of TV5, a Philippine free-to-air television network
 * ABC (Swedish TV programme), a former Swedish regional news programme
 * ABC Weekend TV, a former British television company
 * Asahi Broadcasting Corporation, a Japanese commercial television and radio station
 * Associated Broadcasting Company, a former name of Associated Television, a British television company
 * African Barter Company, a pan-African barter broadcast syndication company

Albums

 * ABC (Jin album), a 2007 album by rapper MC Jin
 * ABC (Kreidler album), a 2014 album by Kreidler
 * ABC (The Jackson 5 album), a 1970 album by The Jackson 5

Groups

 * A.B.C., the former name of Japanese boy band A.B.C-Z
 * ABC (band), an English pop band
 * Acid Black Cherry, a Japanese rock band
 * Alien Beat Club, a Danish pop and R&B band
 * Another Bad Creation, an American hip hop and new jack swing group

Labels

 * ABC Classics, an Australian record label
 * ABC Records, an American record label

Other music

 * ABC song (disambiguation), several songs
 * ABC notation, a musical notation language
 * O2 ABC Glasgow, a music venue

Periodicals

 * ABC (magazine), an Italian magazine published between 1960 and 1977
 * ABC (newspaper), a Spanish daily newspaper founded in 1903
 * ABC (Monterrey newspaper), a Mexican newspaper founded in 1985
 * ABC Color, a Paraguayan newspaper founded in 1967

Other arts, entertainment and media

 * ABC Cinemas, a UK cinema chain
 * Alphabet book, a type of children's book depicting the alphabet
 * America's Best Comics, an imprint of DC Comics

Financial

 * Agricultural Bank of China, a bank in the People's Republic of China
 * Arab Banking Corporation, an international bank headquartered in Bahrain

Food and beverage

 * ABC (food), an Indonesian-based food division of the H. J. Heinz Company
 * Aerated Bread Company, a British bakery and tea-room chain
 * Alcoholic Beverage Control (disambiguation), or Alcoholic Beverage Commission, U.S. states' regulation over alcohol sales
 * Appalachian Brewing Company, an American brewery

Transport

 * ABC Motors, an English manufacturer of aircraft, aero engines and cars
 * ABC Rail Guide, British railway guide published between 1853 and 2007
 * ABC motorcycles, a British motorcycle manufacturer

Other companies

 * ABC Learning, a former Australian childcare business
 * ABC (Lebanon), a chain of department stores and shopping centers, and operator of fashion boutiques in Lebanon
 * ABC Stores, a chain of convenience stores in Hawaii
 * Aircraft Builders Council, a provider of aviation products liability insurance
 * Anglo Belgian Corporation, a diesel engine manufacturer
 * Audit Bureau of Circulations (disambiguation), publication circulation auditing companies
 * Audit Bureau of Circulations (India), a non-profit circulation-auditing organisation
 * Audit Bureau of Circulations, former name for the North American non-profit industry organization Alliance for Audited Media
 * Audit Bureau of Circulations (UK), a non-profit organisation

Economics and law

 * ABC analysis, an inventory categorization technique
 * Activity-based costing, an accounting method
 * Assignment for the benefit of creditors, a concept in bankruptcy law

Politics and unions

 * Abantu Batho Congress, a South African political party
 * ABC (Cuba), Cuban political organization 1931–1952, named after the system for labeling its clandestine cells
 * ABC Vancouver, a municipal political party in Canada
 * All Basotho Convention, a political party in Lesotho
 * Alliance for Barangay Concerns, a political party in the Philippines
 * American Bakery and Confectionery Workers' International Union, a predecessor of the Bakery, Confectionery, Tobacco Workers and Grain Millers' International Union
 * Americans Battling Communism, an anti-communist organization founded in 1947
 * Anarchist Black Cross, an anarchist support organization
 * Anything But Conservative, a 2008 Canadian political campaign
 * Armagh City, Banbridge and Craigavon Borough Council, a local government council in Northern Ireland
 * Association of Barangay Captains or Association of Barangay Councils, former names of the Philippine organization League of Barangays
 * Association of British Counties, a non-party-political society

Religious

 * American Baptist Convention, former name of American Baptist Churches USA
 * Association of Baptist Churches in Ireland, in Ireland and the United Kingdom

Sports

 * ABC Futebol Clube, a football (soccer) club based in Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
 * American Bowling Congress, which merged in 2005 with other bowling organizations to form the United States Bowling Congress
 * Association of Boxing Commissions, a North American not-for-profit professional boxing and mixed martial arts organization
 * Indianapolis ABCs, a 1900s Negro league baseball team

Other organizations

 * Academia Británica Cuscatleca, a school in Santa Tecla, El Salvador
 * Accessible Books Consortium, a subunit of the World Intellectual Property Organization
 * Afrikan Black Coalition, a University of California student organization
 * American Bird Conservancy, a non-profit membership organization
 * Andres Bonifacio College, in Dipolog City, Philippines
 * Association of Black Cardiologists, a North American non-profit
 * Australian Bird Count, a project of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union

Places

 * ABC countries, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile
 * ABC Islands (Alaska), Admiralty Island, Baranof Island, and Chichagof Island
 * ABC islands (Leeward Antilles), Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao
 * ABC Region, an industrial area outside of São Paulo, Brazil
 * Albacete Airport, a joint civilian/military airport serving Albacete, Spain (IATA: ABC)
 * Altnabreac railway station, Scotland, by National Rail code
 * Appa Balwant Chowk, area of Pune, India, noted for its bookshops

Biology and medicine

 * Abacavir, an antiretroviral drug used to treat HIV/AIDS
 * ABC (medicine), a mnemonic for "Airway, Breathing, Circulation"
 * ABC model of flower development, a genetic model
 * Abortion–breast cancer hypothesis, a posited connection between breast cancer and abortion
 * Alien big cat, a large feline outside its indigenous range
 * Aneurysmal bone cyst, a kind of lesion
 * ATP-binding cassette transporter, a transmembrane protein

Hardware

 * ABC, a line of computers by Dataindustrier AB
 * Acorn Business Computer, a series of microcomputers announced at the end of 1983 by the British company Acorn Computers
 * Atanasoff–Berry computer, an early electronic digital computer

Software

 * ABC (computer virus), a memory-resident, file-infecting computer virus
 * ABC (programming language), a programming language and environment
 * ABC (stream cipher), a stream cipher algorithm
 * Abstract base class, a programming language concept
 * Artificial bee colony algorithm, a search algorithm
 * .abc, several file formats

Mathematics

 * ABC formula
 * Approximate Bayesian computation, a family of statistical techniques
 * abc conjecture, a concept in number theory

Other science and technology

 * ABC dry chemical, a fire extinguishing agent
 * ABC weapon, a weapon of mass destruction (atomic, biological, and chemical); now Chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear
 * Accelerated bridge construction, a technique for building bridges
 * Aerial bundled cable, for power lines
 * Airborne Cigar, a British military electronic countermeasure system used during World War II
 * Atomic, biological, and chemical defense, now rendered as chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear defense

Psychology

 * ABC data collection, a descriptive functional behavior assessment method in applied behavior analysis
 * Affective-behavioral-cognitive model, an attitude component model

Transportation

 * Active Body Control, a type of automobile suspension technology
 * Advance Booking Charter, a type of air travel
 * Automatic Buffer Couplers, a type of railway couplers

Cars

 * ABC (1906 automobile), an American car by Albert Bledsoe Cole
 * ABC (1920 automobile), an English car by ABC Motors
 * ABC (1922 automobile), a planned American car

Other uses

 * ABC strategy, for "abstinence, be faithful, use a condom", a sex-education strategy
 * ABC trial of Crispin Aubrey, John Berry and Duncan Campbell in 1978 in the United Kingdom
 * Abecedarium, an inscription consisting of the letters of an alphabet
 * Air batu campur, also known as ais kacang, a Malaysian dessert
 * American-born Chinese, people of Chinese ethnicity born in the United States
 * Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope (1883–1963), nicknamed ABC, British WWII admiral
 * Architectural, building and construction, an industry; for example, see Industry Foundation Classes
 * Australian-born Chinese, people of Chinese ethnicity born in Australia

title: ABC


text:
Alford plea

In United States law, an Alford plea, also called a Kennedy plea in West Virginia, an Alford guilty plea,  and the Alford doctrine,  is a guilty plea in criminal court,   whereby a defendant in a criminal case does not admit to the criminal act and asserts innocence, but accepts imposition of a sentence. This plea is allowed even if the evidence to be presented by the prosecution would be likely to persuade a judge or jury to find the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. This can be caused by circumstantial evidence and testimony favoring the prosecution, and difficulty finding evidence and witnesses that would aid the defense.

Alford pleas are legally permissible in nearly all U.S. federal and state courts, except in the state courts of Indiana, Michigan, and New Jersey, or in the courts of the United States Armed Forces.

Origin
The Alford guilty plea is named after the United States Supreme Court case of North Carolina v. Alford (1970). Henry Alford had been indicted on a charge of first-degree murder in 1963. Evidence in the case included testimony from witnesses that Alford himself had said, after the victim's death, that he had killed the individual. Court testimony showed that Alford and the victim had argued at the victim's house. Alford left the house, and afterwards the victim received a fatal gunshot wound when he opened the door responding to a knock.

Alford was faced with the possibility of capital punishment if convicted by a jury trial. The death penalty was the default sentence by North Carolina law at the time, if two requisites in the case were satisfied: the defendant had to have pleaded not guilty, and the jury did not instead recommend a life sentence. Had he pleaded guilty to first-degree murder, Alford would have had the possibility of a life sentence and would have avoided the death penalty, but he did not want to admit guilt. Nonetheless, Alford pleaded guilty to second-degree murder and said he was doing so to avoid a death sentence, were he to be convicted of first-degree murder, after attempting to contest that charge. Alford was sentenced to 30 years in prison after the trial judge accepted the plea bargain and ruled that the defendant had been adequately advised by his defense lawyer.

Alford appealed and requested a new trial, arguing he was forced into a guilty plea because he was afraid of receiving a death sentence. The Supreme Court of North Carolina ruled that the defendant had voluntarily entered the guilty plea with knowledge of what that meant. Following this ruling, Alford petitioned for a writ of habeas corpus in the United States District Court for the Middle District of North Carolina, which upheld the initial ruling, and subsequently to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, which ruled that Alford's plea was not voluntary, because it was made under fear of the death penalty. "I just pleaded guilty because they said if I didn't, they would gas me for it," wrote Alford in one of his appeals.

The case was then appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, where Justice Byron White wrote the majority decision. He held that for the plea to be accepted, the defendant must have been advised by a competent lawyer who could inform him that his best option was to enter a guilty plea. The Court ruled that the defendant can enter such a plea "when he concludes that his interests require a guilty plea and the record strongly indicates guilt." The Court allowed the guilty plea with a simultaneous protestation of innocence only because there was enough evidence to show that the prosecution had a strong case for a conviction and the defendant was entering such a plea to avoid this possible sentencing. The Court went on to note that even if the defendant could have shown that he would not have entered a guilty plea "but for" the rationale of receiving a lesser sentence, the plea itself would not have been ruled invalid. As evidence existed that could have supported Alford's conviction, the Supreme Court held that his guilty plea was allowable while the defendant himself still maintained that he was not guilty.

Alford died in prison in 1975.

Definition
The Dictionary of Politics: Selected American and Foreign Political and Legal Terms defines the term "Alford plea" as: "A plea under which a defendant may choose to plead guilty, not because of an admission to the crime, but because the prosecutor has sufficient evidence to place a charge and to obtain conviction in court. The plea is commonly used in local and state courts in the United States." According to University of Richmond Law Review, "When offering an Alford plea, a defendant asserts his innocence but admits that sufficient evidence exists to convict him of the offense." A Guide to Military Criminal Law notes that under the Alford plea, "the defendant concedes that the prosecution has enough evidence to convict, but the defendant still refuses to admit guilt." The book Plea Bargaining's Triumph: A History of Plea Bargaining in America published by Stanford University Press defines the plea as one in "which the defendant adheres to his/her claim of innocence even while allowing that the government has enough evidence to prove his/her guilt beyond a reasonable doubt". According to the book Gender, Crime, and Punishment published by Yale University Press, "Under the Alford doctrine, a defendant does not admit guilt but admits that the state has sufficient evidence to find him or her guilty, should the case go to trial." Webster's New World Law Dictionary defines Alford plea as: "A guilty plea entered as part of a plea bargain by a criminal defendant who denies committing the crime or who does not actually admit his guilt. In federal courts, such plea may be accepted as long as there is evidence that the defendant is actually guilty."

The Alford guilty plea is "a plea of guilty containing a protestation of innocence". The defendant pleads guilty, but does not have to specifically admit to the guilt itself. The defendant maintains a claim of innocence, but agrees to the entry of a conviction in the charged crime. Upon receiving an Alford guilty plea from a defendant, the court may immediately pronounce the defendant guilty and impose sentence as if the defendant had otherwise been convicted of the crime. Sources disagree, as may differing states' laws, as to what category of plea the Alford plea falls under: Some sources state that the Alford guilty plea is a form of nolo contendere, where the defendant in the case states "no contest" to the factual matter of the case as given in the charges outlined by the prosecution. Others hold that an Alford plea is simply one form of a guilty plea, and, as with other guilty pleas, the judge must see there is some factual basis for the plea.

Defendants can take advantage of the ability to use the Alford guilty plea, by admitting there is enough evidence to convict them of a higher crime, while at the same time pleading guilty to a lesser charge. Defendants usually enter an Alford guilty plea if they want to avoid a possible worse sentence were they to lose the case against them at trial. It affords defendants the ability to accept a plea bargain, while maintaining innocence.

Court and government use
This form of guilty plea has been frequently used in local and state courts in the United States, though it constitutes a small percentage of all plea bargains in the U.S. This form of plea is not allowed in courts of the United States military. In 2000, the United States Department of Justice noted, "In an Alford plea the defendant agrees to plead guilty because he or she realizes that there is little chance to win acquittal because of the strong evidence of guilt. About 17% of State inmates and 5% of Federal inmates submitted either an Alford plea or a no contest plea, regardless of the type of attorney. This difference reflects the relative readiness of State courts, compared to Federal courts, to accept an alternative plea."

In the 1995 case State of Idaho v. Howry before the Idaho Court of Appeals, the Court commented on the impact of the Alford guilty plea on later sentencing. The Court ruled, "Although an Alford plea allows a defendant to plead guilty amid assertions of innocence, it does not require a court to accept those assertions. The sentencing court may, of necessity, consider a broad range of information, including the evidence of the crime, the defendant's criminal history and the demeanor of the defendant, including the presence or absence of remorse." In the 1999 South Carolina Supreme Court case State v. Gaines, the Court held that Alford guilty pleas were to be held valid even in the absence of a specific on-the-record ruling that the pleas were voluntary – provided that the sentencing judge acted appropriately in accordance with the rules for acceptance of a plea made voluntarily by the defendant. The Court held that a ruling that the plea was entered into voluntarily is implied by the act of sentencing.

In the 2006 case before the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, Ballard v. Burton, Judge Carl E. Stewart writing for the Court held that an Alford guilty plea is a "variation of an ordinary guilty plea". In October 2008, the United States Department of Justice defined an Alford plea as: "the defendant maintains his or her innocence with respect to the charge to which he or she offers to plead guilty".

In March 2009, the Minnesota House of Representatives characterized the Alford plea as: "a form of a guilty plea in which the defendant asserts innocence but acknowledges on the record that the prosecutor could present enough evidence to prove guilt." The Minnesota Judicial Branch similarly states: "Alford Plea: A plea of guilty that may be accepted by a court even where the defendant does not admit guilt. In an Alford plea, defendant has to admit that he has reviewed the state's evidence, a reasonable jury could find him guilty, and he wants to take advantage of a plea offer that has been made. Court has discretion as to whether to accept this type of plea."

The U.S. Attorneys' Manual states that in the federal system, Alford pleas "should be avoided except in the most unusual circumstances, even if no plea agreement is involved and the plea would cover all pending charges." U.S. Attorneys are required to obtain the approval of an Assistant Attorney General with supervisory responsibility over the subject matter before accepting such a plea.

Use in post-conviction proceedings
The Alford plea has received public attention for its use in resolving high-profile post-conviction proceedings for individuals who claim they were wrongfully convicted for crimes they did not commit. In 2011, the West Memphis Three—three men who had been convicted as teenagers of the 1993 murders of three children and sentenced to life in prison or, for one defendant, the death penalty—entered Alford pleas decades following their initial convictions. New evidence had come to light that might exonerate them, so the Arkansas Supreme Court ordered an evidentiary hearing to consider whether a new trial would be required. Instead of holding the hearing, the defendants and state prosecutors agreed that the court would vacate the prior convictions to permit the defendants to enter Alford pleas, be re-sentenced to "time served," and obtain immediate release from prison. As part of the plea deal, the men agreed not to sue the state seeking civil damages for their convictions and imprisonment.

Similarly, novelist Michael Peterson, who had been convicted in 2003 of murdering his wife, entered an Alford plea in 2017 to resolve the case against him. Peterson's case had been the subject of the 2004 documentary series The Staircase and other media scrutiny, and Peterson continued to challenge his conviction based on alleged law enforcement misconduct and judicial errors. He was eventually granted a new trial, but then agreed to enter an Alford plea to the lesser offense of voluntary manslaughter instead. The judge then imposed a sentence that, after being reduced to account for time already served, resulted in Peterson serving no additional time in prison. A 2022 scripted drama miniseries, also called The Staircase, portrayed the events of the case, including the legal battle and Alford plea.

Commentary
In his book American Criminal Justice (1972), Jonathan D. Casper comments on the Supreme Court decision, noting, "The Alford decision recognizes the plea-bargaining system, acknowledging that a man may maintain his innocence but still plead guilty in order to minimize his potential loss." Casper comments on the impact of the Supreme Court's decision to require evidence of guilt in such a plea: "By requiring that there be some evidence of guilt in such a situation, the decision attempts to protect the 'really' innocent from the temptations to which plea-bargaining and defense attorneys may subject them."

US Air Force attorney Steven E. Walburn argues in a 1998 article in The Air Force Law Review that this form of guilty plea should be adopted for usage by the United States military. "In fairness to an accused, if, after consultation with his defense counsel, he knowingly and intelligently determines that his best interest is served by an Alford-type guilty plea, he should be free to choose this path. The system should not force him to lie under oath, nor to go to trial with no promise of the ultimate outcome concerning guilt or punishment. We must trust the accused to make such an important decision for himself. The military provides an accused facing court-martial with a qualified defense attorney. Together, they are in the best position to properly weigh what the impact his decision, and the resulting conviction, will have upon himself and his family," writes Walburn. He emphasizes that when allowing these pleas, "trial counsel should establish as strong a factual basis as possible", in order to minimize the possible negative outcomes to "the public's perception of the administration of justice within the military".

Stephanos Bibas writes in a 2003 analysis for Cornell Law Review that Judge Frank H. Easterbrook and a majority of scholars "praise these pleas as efficient, constitutional means of resolving cases". Bibas notes that prominent plea bargain critic Albert Alschuler supports the use of this form of plea, writing, "He views them as a lesser evil, a way to empower defendants within a flawed system. As long as we have plea bargaining, he maintains, innocent defendants should be free to use these pleas to enter advantageous plea bargains without lying. And guilty defendants who are in denial should be empowered to use these pleas instead of being forced to stand trial." Bibas instead asserts that this form of plea is "unwise and should be abolished". Bibas argues, "These procedures may be constitutional and efficient, but they undermine key values served by admissions of guilt in open court. They undermine the procedural values of accuracy and public confidence in accuracy and fairness, by convicting innocent defendants and creating the perception that innocent defendants are being pressured into pleading guilty. More basically, they allow guilty defendants to avoid accepting responsibility for their wrongs."

Legal scholar Jim Drennan, an expert on the court system at the Institute of Government at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, told the Winston-Salem Journal in a 2007 interview that the ability to use this form of guilty plea as an option in courts had a far-reaching effect throughout the United States. Drennan commented, "We have lots of laws, but human interaction creates unique circumstances and the law has to adapt." He said of the Supreme Court case, "They had to make a decision about what to do. One of the things the court has to do is figure out how to answer new questions, and that is what happened in this case."

Common criticisms of Alford pleas include: harm to victims who are denied justice, harm to society from lack of respect for the criminal justice system, the incentive for coercion, violating the right against self-incrimination, hindering rehabilitation by avoiding treatment, and the arbitrary nature in which they are utilized, allowing a person to say one thing when they mean another.

title: Alford plea


text:
ABCD

ABCD may refer to:

Film

 * ABCD (film), a 2005 Indian Tamil-language romance
 * ABCD: American Born Confused Desi (disambiguation)
 * ABCD: Any Body Can Dance, a 2013 Indian Hindi-language dance-drama
 * ABCD 2, the 2015 sequel

Music

 * ABCD (song), a 2024 South Korean song by Nayeon of Twice

Medicine

 * ABCD, a variation of ABC (medicine), a medical mnemonic
 * ABCD guideline, used in diagnosis of melanoma
 * ABCD rating, a staging system for prostate cancer
 * ABCD syndrome, a genetic disorder

Other uses in science and technology

 * ABCD Schema, a data exchange and access model in biology
 * ABCD matrix analysis, or ray transfer matrix analysis
 * ABCD-parameters, in a two-port network
 * ABCd, an American TV streaming service
 * ABCD (add, browse, change, delete) a variation of create, read, update and delete in computer programming

Other uses

 * ABCD line, embargoes placed against the Japanese Empire by the Americans, British, Chinese and Dutch
 * ABCD Region, an industrial district outside of São Paulo, Brazil
 * ABCD ships (Atlanta, Boston, Chicago and Dolphin) of Delaware River Iron Ship Building and Engine Works
 * Action for Boston Community Development, an American organization
 * American-born confused desi, informal term for South Asian Americans
 * Asset-based community development, a methodology for the sustainable development of communities
 * Association of Better Computer Dealers, now CompTIA
 * "ABCD" companies that dominate world agricultural commodity trading: Archer-Daniels-Midland, Bunge, Cargill, Louis Dreyfus

title: ABCD


text:
Anti-realism

In analytic philosophy, anti-realism is a position which encompasses many varieties such as metaphysical, mathematical, semantic, scientific, moral and epistemic. The term was first articulated by British philosopher Michael Dummett in an argument against a form of realism Dummett saw as 'colorless reductionism'.

In anti-realism, the truth of a statement rests on its demonstrability through internal logic mechanisms, such as the context principle or intuitionistic logic, in direct opposition to the realist notion that the truth of a statement rests on its correspondence to an external, independent reality. In anti-realism, this external reality is hypothetical and is not assumed.

Anti-realism in its most general sense can be understood as being in contrast to a generic realism, which holds that distinctive objects of a subject-matter exist and have properties independent of one's beliefs and conceptual schemes. The ways in which anti-realism rejects these type of claims can vary dramatically. Because this encompasses statements containing abstract ideal objects (i.e. mathematical objects), anti-realism may apply to a wide range of philosophical topics, from material objects to the theoretical entities of science, mathematical statements, mental states, events and processes, the past and the future.

Metaphysical anti-realism
One kind of metaphysical anti-realism maintains a skepticism about the physical world, arguing either: 1) that nothing exists outside the mind, or 2) that we would have no access to a mind-independent reality, even if it exists. The latter case often takes the form of a denial of the idea that we can have 'unconceptualised' experiences (see Myth of the Given). Conversely, most realists (specifically, indirect realists) hold that perceptions or sense data are caused by mind-independent objects. But this introduces the possibility of another kind of skepticism: since our understanding of causality is that the same effect can be produced by multiple causes, there is a lack of determinacy about what one is really perceiving, as in the brain in a vat scenario. The main alternative to this sort of metaphysical anti-realism is metaphysical realism.

On a more abstract level, model-theoretic anti-realist arguments hold that a given set of symbols in a theory can be mapped onto any number of sets of real-world objects—each set being a "model" of the theory—provided the relationship between the objects is the same (compare with symbol grounding.)

In ancient Greek philosophy, nominalist (anti-realist) doctrines about universals were proposed by the Stoics, especially Chrysippus. In early modern philosophy, conceptualist anti-realist doctrines about universals were proposed by thinkers like René Descartes, John Locke, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, George Berkeley, and David Hume. In late modern philosophy, anti-realist doctrines about knowledge were proposed by the German idealist Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Hegel was a proponent of what is now called inferentialism: he believed that the ground for the axioms and the foundation for the validity of the inferences are the right consequences and that the axioms do not explain the consequence. Kant and Hegel held conceptualist views about universals. In contemporary philosophy, anti-realism was revived in the form of empirio-criticism, logical positivism, semantic anti-realism and scientific instrumentalism (see below).

Mathematical anti-realism
In the philosophy of mathematics, realism is the claim that mathematical entities such as 'number' have an observer-independent existence. Empiricism, which associates numbers with concrete physical objects, and Platonism, in which numbers are abstract, non-physical entities, are the preeminent forms of mathematical realism.

The "epistemic argument" against Platonism has been made by Paul Benacerraf and Hartry Field. Platonism posits that mathematical objects are abstract entities. By general agreement, abstract entities cannot interact causally with physical entities ("the truth-values of our mathematical assertions depend on facts involving platonic entities that reside in a realm outside of space-time" ). Whilst our knowledge of physical objects is based on our ability to perceive them, and therefore to causally interact with them, there is no parallel account of how mathematicians come to have knowledge of abstract objects.

Field developed his views into fictionalism. Benacerraf also developed the philosophy of mathematical structuralism, according to which there are no mathematical objects. Nonetheless, some versions of structuralism are compatible with some versions of realism.

Counterarguments
Anti-realist arguments hinge on the idea that a satisfactory, naturalistic account of thought processes can be given for mathematical reasoning. One line of defense is to maintain that this is false, so that mathematical reasoning uses some special intuition that involves contact with the Platonic realm, as in the argument given by Sir Roger Penrose.

Another line of defense is to maintain that abstract objects are relevant to mathematical reasoning in a way that is non causal, and not analogous to perception. This argument is developed by Jerrold Katz in his 2000 book Realistic Rationalism. In this book, he put forward a position called realistic rationalism, which combines metaphysical realism and rationalism.

A more radical defense is to deny the separation of physical world and the platonic world, i.e. the mathematical universe hypothesis (a variety of mathematicism). In that case, a mathematician's knowledge of mathematics is one mathematical object making contact with another.

Semantic anti-realism
The term "anti-realism" was introduced by Michael Dummett in his 1982 paper "Realism" in order to re-examine a number of classical philosophical disputes, involving such doctrines as nominalism, Platonic realism, idealism and phenomenalism. The novelty of Dummett's approach consisted in portraying these disputes as analogous to the dispute between intuitionism and Platonism in the philosophy of mathematics.

According to intuitionists (anti-realists with respect to mathematical objects), the truth of a mathematical statement consists in our ability to prove it. According to Platonic realists, the truth of a statement is proven in its correspondence to objective reality. Thus, intuitionists are ready to accept a statement of the form "P or Q" as true only if we can prove P or if we can prove Q. In particular, we cannot in general claim that "P or not P" is true (the law of excluded middle), since in some cases we may not be able to prove the statement "P" nor prove the statement "not P". Similarly, intuitionists object to the existence property for classical logic, where one can prove $$\exists x.\phi(x)$$, without being able to produce any term $$t$$ of which $$\phi$$ holds.

Dummett argues that this notion of truth lies at the bottom of various classical forms of anti-realism, and uses it to re-interpret phenomenalism, claiming that it need not take the form of reductionism.

Dummett's writings on anti-realism draw heavily on the later writings of Ludwig Wittgenstein, concerning meaning and rule following, and can be seen as an attempt to integrate central ideas from the Philosophical Investigations into the constructive tradition of analytic philosophy deriving from Gottlob Frege.

Scientific anti-realism
In philosophy of science, anti-realism applies chiefly to claims about the non-reality of "unobservable" entities such as electrons or genes, which are not detectable with human senses.

One prominent variety of scientific anti-realism is instrumentalism, which takes a purely agnostic view towards the existence of unobservable entities, in which the unobservable entity X serves as an instrument to aid in the success of theory Y and does not require proof for the existence or non-existence of X.

Moral anti-realism
In the philosophy of ethics, moral anti-realism (or moral irrealism) is a meta-ethical doctrine that there are no objective moral values or normative facts. It is usually defined in opposition to moral realism, which holds that there are objective moral values, such that a moral claim may be either true or false. Specifically the moral anti-realist is committed to denying at least one of the following three statements:

 * 1) The Semantic Thesis: Moral statements have meaning, they express propositions, or are the kind of things that can be true or false.
 * 2) The Alethic Thesis: Some moral propositions are true.
 * 3) The Metaphysical Thesis: The metaphysical status of moral facts is robust and ordinary, not importantly different from other facts about the world.

Different version of moral anti-realism deny different statements: specifically, non-cognitivism denies the first claim, arguing that moral statements have no meaning or truth content, error theory denies the second claim, arguing that all moral statements are false, and ethical subjectivism denies the third claim, arguing that the truth of moral statements is mind dependent.

Examples of anti-realist moral theories might be:

 * Ethical subjectivism
 * Non-cognitivism
 * Emotivism
 * Prescriptivism
 * Quasi-realism
 * Projectivism
 * Moral fictionalism
 * Moral nihilism
 * Moral skepticism

There is a debate as to whether moral relativism is actually an anti-realist position. While many versions deny the metaphysical thesis, some do not, as one could imagine a system of morality which requires you to obey the written laws in your country. Such a system would be a version of moral relativism, as different individuals would be required to follow different laws, but the moral facts are physical facts about the world, not mental facts, so they are metaphysically ordinary. Thus, different versions of moral relativism might be considered anti-realist or realist.

Epistemic anti-realism
Just as moral anti-realism asserts the nonexistence of normative facts, epistemic anti-realism asserts the nonexistence of facts in the domain of epistemology. Thus, the two are now sometimes grouped together as "metanormative anti-realism". Prominent defenders of epistemic anti-realism include Hartry Field, Simon Blackburn, Matthew Chrisman, and Allan Gibbard, among others.

title: Anti-realism


text:
Talk:Anti-realism

Anti-realism in the foundations of physics
Rovelli's 'Relational' interpretation of quantum mechanics is anti-realist (it should be called 'Perspectival'). In analytic philosophy, anti-realism is an epistemological position first articulated by British philosopher Michael Dummett. There are others. There are six types of Anti-realism, which is Metaphysical anti-realism, Mathematical anti-realism, Semantic anti-realism, Scientific anti-realism, Moral anti-realism, Epistemic anti-realism. 2601:647:CD01:628:5880:17FB:EA34:806D (talk) 19:42, 1 March 2017 (UTC)

Untitled
Actually I would rather describe anti-realists as being agnostics toward "reality" and Irrealists as being open to all workable versions. e.g. Realism works some of the time.Joseane 15:24, 15 August 2006 (UTC)

Might want to make a clearer definition in the link to Goodmanian Irrealism... JB

I've outlined the beginnings of a page here, but there is much more to be said. We need to mention the different kinds of anti-realism, and the major proponents of an anti-realist position in a variety of different areas... MRC

Added some comments about the use of the term "anti-realism" in the arts with a warning that the term may not be used as precisely as in pure philosophy.

Daniel C. Boyer

I don't think Hacking believes electrons don't exist because they are unobservable. As such the statement may be misleading. I think Hacking's position (see Leplin "Scientific Realism") is that once an entity is used as a tool the reality is assumed to exist. By way of example, since electron microscopes are used as tools scientists have committed to their ontological reality.

- We should also mention his non-philosophical activities: eg. his anti-racism, his work on election systems, his work on the history of Tarot.

- Surely that is better served as an independent page on the guy himself? - Entsuropi

Beliefs of classical logicians (mathematical realists)
I have re-worded:

Similarly, intuitionistists object to the failure of the existence property for classical logic, where one can prove $$\exists x.\phi(x)$$, without there being some term $$t$$ for which $$\phi(t)$$ is provable.

to be

Similarly, intuitionistists object to the failure of the existence property for classical logic, where one can prove $$\exists x.\phi(x)$$, without being able to produce any term $$t$$ of which $$\phi$$ holds.

I think that classical logicians believe that there real mathematical things which they cannot construct (I used the unformal word `produce'), but which nonetheless exist. So when a classical logician gives a non-constructive proof of $$\exists x.\phi(x)$$ he or she really does believe that there is some suitable term. But I confess I don't really understand what classical mathematicians mean when they say 'exists' Neil Leslie 10:54, 31 December 2005 (UTC)

 * The change is a good one. Classical logicians believe that one can have abstract grounds for believing in the existence of an entity without being able to produce it: the famous non-constructive proof of the existence of two irrationals that can be combined by the exponential operator to produce a rational shows what kind of grounds are indicated here.  If you want to get philosophical, Michael Dummett's talk about verification transcendence cuts to the meat here. --- Charles Stewart 13:41, 31 December 2005 (UTC)

Timothy Williamson's "Must Do Better"
I think it might be worth noting somewhere in this article Tim Williamson's paper "Must Do Better", which I think is available somewhere on his website, which criticizes anti-realism and made quite a stir when it was first given. Yesterdog 21:05, 25 April 2006 (UTC)

American Evangelicals are so special??
the material world, or even thought. Anti-realism, as a psychological construct, is most often found among American evangelical Christians.[citation needed]

This needs more than just a citation needed since:

1- It doesn't make much sense ( "As a psychological construct"?) 2- It is false.

 * Honestly I have a hard time believing that Evangelists are antirealists - if antirealism is "true" there is no objective reality and thus "God's view" is perspective and not actually "true". Please, please reference the American Evangelical bit! They might be anti-realists in one sense scientifcally (they don't believe electron's really exist, for example) but I thought if that happened they tended to believe God is there instead - "objectively" there, realistically there. Certain realists have given their POV that American Evangelists are anti-realist (and non-cognitive), but that doesn't mean they are. mr_happyhour

(I moved the last comments under this heading.) I agree; this line baffled me when I came across it. There's no other mention of a 'psychological construct', this article explores a philosophical one. And why should this particular group be singled out, anyway? Deleted.Eaglizard 07:38, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

External World
The article is very limited. It implies that anti-realists deny the existence of the external world. This isn't necessarily the case, certainly in the most simple (and I think sensible) interpretation. External, 'objective' things clearly 'exist', the anti-realist position as I understand it is that the concepts that define those external things only exist in the minds of the perceiver. The 'classic' example being the table that is actually a 'bunch' or 'bundle' of energy arranged in a certain way. That is its 'objective reality'. Its existence as a 'real' table is entirely dependent on the minds of the subjects perceiving it. Thus no 'thing' is real except by having been defined as such by something perceiving it. If there were no-one around to see it as a table and put stuff on it, it wouldn't be a table, even though the 'bundle of energy' we call a table would still be there.

I've just noticed the American Evangelical point. Denying the existence of something is very different to being an anti-realist. American Evangelicals are the ultimate realists, everything is real in the external, objective world, whether you perceive it correctly or not, because of the existence of God. God is the basis of the underlying reality of all things, the guarantor of the external world. If you believe in God (certainly as that word is usually understood) then you're a realist. Denying the existence of electrons is simply on a par with denying evolution. 00Mike26 (talk) 22:26, 20 March 2008 (UTC)

Solipsists claiming ...
The article says:
 * For example, an "anti-realist" who denies that other minds exist (i. e., a solipsist) is quite different from an "anti-realist" who claims that there is no fact of the matter as to whether or not there are unobservable other minds (i. e., a logical behaviorist).

To whom do they deny it? To themselves, then how do we know? To us, then why, and who are we? Rursus dixit. ( m bork3 !) 16:06, 14 May 2010 (UTC)

Actually, I once saw an article in New Scientist called "You do not exist. It's just a trick of the memes." It seemed to say (from what sense I could make of it) that memes are living creatures and we are simply tanks they swim around in.

As to why, don't get me started. LOL

198.228.199.172 (talk) 13:32, 17 July 2011 (UTC) Collin237

Putnam's anti-realism
While I'm not up on the details, I've added a section after Dummett to cover Putnam's anti-realism; someone more knowledgeable than I should feel free to expand; for now it just has a link to the section of Putnam's article that discusses internal realism BrideOfKripkenstein (talk) 02:19, 15 November 2010 (UTC)

Some corrections on Dummett's version of A-R
Well, there were a couple of errors and omissions in the Dummett section so I edited that up a bit.

Cheers Simon —Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.47.34.55 (talk) 22:35, 6 December 2010 (UTC)

Question raised in article summary
Cleaned up a dangling (citation needed?) in the summary which was not relevant. There was however an interesting point raised, although arm-chairish IMHO. In response to

 * For example, an "anti-realist" who denies that other minds exist (i. e., a solipsist) is quite different from an "anti-realist" who claims that there is no fact of the matter as to whether or not there are unobservable other minds (i. e., a logical behaviorist).

The inquisitor objects "Actually this presumes that there are declared solipsists; to whom do they declare themselves?"

This is a valid point, but I think it distracts from the summary and really confuses the matter. This is material for, say, a problem at the end of a section on anti-realism in a text on analytic philosophy intended for first-year students, but I don't think it is notable enough to warrant inclusion in the article proper. The article isn't meant to poke its head into all of the dark corners, but it may be of some interest to someone here. 173.239.78.54 (talk) 07:22, 26 November 2011 (UTC)

Intuitionism vs. Platonism vs. Formalism
The view presented in this article about intuitionism and platonism presents a false dichotomy and also fails to present the maximally anti-realist view of mathematics, namely that of formalism. From a formalist perspective, the 'truth' of a statement is not a question of consequence, and the truth of a statement is not derivable from within the theory. What we care about is the 'provability' of a statement, which obviously depends on our ability to derive it from the axioms of our mathematical theory (See N. Bourbaki's Theory of Sets for an explanation). Intuitionistic logic and classical logic then both can be expressed within this anti-realist framework. 'Truth' insofar as we care about is generally not even something we can make sense of, given the existence of unprovable 'true' statements. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.15.243.98 (talk) 09:45, 3 October 2012 (UTC)

What do I make of this?
In particular, we cannot in general claim that "P or not P" is true (the law of Excluded Middle), since in some cases we may not be able to prove the statement "P" nor prove the statement "not P"

How can you not prove "P or not P"? There is no cited reference, and in bivalent logic "not P" is not a proposition of its own, it's simply the inverse of P. Whatever P is, NOT P is the opposite, and as such "P or not P" is true. Who argues for the statement I am quoting, and on what basis? 83.254.193.127 (talk) 20:34, 27 June 2013 (UTC)

Criticism?
What flaws do realists find in anti-realism? This would round out the article nicely.

A question about moral anti-realism and relativism
, I have a quick question for you about the material recently added regarding the relation of moral relativism to moral anti-realism. It seems to me that there is an obvious retort to the claim that a relativism that makes reference only to written laws is any different to a relativism that makes direct reference to mental states, namely that the written laws are still just expressions of someone's mental states, and conversely, someone's brain-state encoding a mental state is just as physical as the ink on a page is; what matters is whether the morality-maker is just "because X says so" or not. I would be shocked if this is an original thought of my own, but you're clearly much better-versed in finding sources for things like this, so I was wondering if you were familiar with a source discussing this, both for my own further reading, and because it seems something like that should warrant inclusion in the encyclopedia. Thanks for your time. --Pfhorrest (talk) 22:24, 11 March 2021 (UTC)

. Hmmm. An interesting question. The challenge will come in determining exactly what is meant in the metaphysical thesis. There is at least some room for ambiguity here as Joyce's SEP article points out. "Of course, the notion of “mind-independence” is problematically indeterminate: Something may be mind-independent in one sense and mind-dependent in another. Cars, for example, are designed and constructed by creatures with minds, and yet in another sense cars are clearly concrete, non-subjective entities." One might consider a car a mental property, but this is likely a stretch Joyce insists that some versions of moral relativism are moral realist positions (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-anti-realism/index.html). My best estimation of that was the law following rule that if you think that laws are the kinds of things that are mind independent as they are made up of ink and paper and not in anyone's mind (though one might have a different definition of mind-independent as you mention, i.e. one might be concerned (as in Wittgenstein or Derrida) that there is ever an objective interpretation of a text outside of context or a language game). Maybe a better framing of it would be something like "If you think written laws are mind-independent, then the maxim that you must obey the laws of your country would be morally relative."

Even beyond that distinction, there is a controversy around how exactly the metaphysical thesis should be phrased and therefore whether relativism would be included. Vayrynen in MacMillan's Encyclopedia of Philosophy argues for a slightly different phrasing, which would include moral relativism in all cases.

I'm not sure of a good further reading on this, beyond starting with G.E. Moore's Principia Ethica and building up the various commentary on it from there. Those are talking about the similar but importantly different question of whether moral properties are natural (since naturalists and non-naturalists are generally both considered able to be realists). Or looking at Wittgenstein on Language Games or Derrida on textual interpretation for questions on how objective/mind independent the text of a law is. Carneadesofcyrene (talk) 01:29, 12 March 2021 (UTC)

Gödel's incompleteness theorems
Maybe I'm lost but is this description really exactly true: Since neither language nor logic can ever be a completely self-consistent domain, due to Gödel's incompleteness theorems ?

I'm not sure what work the phrase "self-consistent domain" is intended to exactly do here, but if it is trying to say that a system simply cannot be 'completely'(?) consistent, that is just afaik false -- the first theorem states that a (sufficiently nontrivial) consistent system is necessarily *incomplete* (not impossible), and the second theorem that consistency in such a system is *unprovable*, which is an important distinction.

Soo, you can actually, thankfully, have a consistent system, which seems to be denied in the sentence above, you just won't be able to prove it within the theory itself. afaik that is the exact position mathematicians (to the extent they think about it) suspect ZFC and similar axiomatizations of set theory have -- a belief that it actually *is* consistent (see wiki page on ZFC stating this explicitly), but merely on the basis that inconsistency has not yet been uncovered in it (well, and perhaps because it is provably consistent in other systems like MK, but that are then themselves in a similar situation). 141.138.39.237 (talk) 15:28, 5 December 2023 (UTC)
 * I solved this problem quite easily by removing the paragraph as unsourced per WP:V. Biogeographist (talk) 21:34, 5 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Anti-realism


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Talk:Anarchist

Why the page merge
I have left the version of Anarchist that I just deleted below, but first let me explain why I merged it with anarchism.

 * 1) The top half of this article was a pointless, incomplete summary of Anarchism. Why keep two pages up to say the same thing?
 * 2) The next portion was useful content that would do very nicely on the anarchism page, so I moved it there.
 * 3) The next portion were quotes, which, while interesting, didn't serve much of a purpose. WikipediaIsNotAQuoteRepository and all. After that was a link to a page that was much less informative than our excellent Anarchism page.

The concept of anarchist and anarchism seem so close that I can't understand why we'd maintain two seperate pages.

--DanKeshet

 * I disagree with this and have restored the original page. Anarchism and Anarchist are distinct topics and should have separate entries. The history of what it means to be an anarchist and how people have labeled anarchists in the media is not the same and a discussion of anarchism. You may not like quotes, but I think they are relevant here in terms of how anarchists have been viewed.

If you want this page to be Views of anarchists or Anarchists in the media or Famous anarchists, then let's make one of those. In any case, I find it very confusing to have this article summarizing the different types of anarchists right alongside the Anarchism article summarizing the same thing. --dk

A person who professes a belief in anarchy or Anarchism. Because anyone can claim to be an anarchist, there is no central authority on what it means to be an anarchist. Although the term anarchist generally means an opposition to all forms of governments, anarchists extend this concept to include quite a number of institutions.
 * The most well-known kind of anarchists, which is often what is referred to by the name "anarchist", is socialist anarchists, who claim that private property and anarchism are incompatible and that capitalism is inherently dependent upon the existence of a state.
 * A lesser-known kind of anarchists is the anarcho-capitalists who favor capitalism; they are part of the classical liberal tradition (see libertarianism) instead of socialist anarchist tradition, and are not considered as anarchists by socialist anarchists.
 * individualist anarchists are a brand of their own, more involved in personal freedom than on social organization.

See Anarchism for more details on the different flavors of anarchists and the sometimes hostile relationship between them.

Calling someone an "anarchist" has been a popular way for TV commentators and newspaper writers to demonize and de-legitimize non-mainstream viewpoints.

Historical Anarchist movements:
 * Spanish Civil War - During the Spanish civil war the anti-fascists forces were comprised of various factions including at least the communists and anarchists. Anarchist groups did in fact control terrirtory and factories for a time during that war. Fights broke out between the communists and anarchist in some cities. One of the Anarchist groups from that time, the CNT (Confederation National de Trabajos) still exists in Spain and has a website.

Well-known Anarchists of each different flavor:
 * Michael Bakunin (1814 - 1876), well-known early socialist anarchist
 * Gustave de Molinari (1819 - 1912), first theorist of anarcho-capitalism
 * Benjamin Tucker (1854 - 1939), great defender of individualist anarchism

Other anarchists:
 * Voltairine de Cleyre (1866 - 1912)
 * Emma Goldman (1869-1940)
 * Rudolph Rocker (1873 - 1958)

Quotes:
 * "When compared with the suppression of anarchy every other question sinks into insignificance. The anarchist is the enemy of humanity, the enemy of all mankind, and his is a deeper degree of criminality than any other. No immigrant is allowed to come to our shores if he is an anarchist; and no paper published here or abroad should be permitted circulation in this country if it propagates anarchist opinions." -President Theodore Roosevelt

 * I was attracted to anarchism as a young teenager, as soon as I began to think about the world beyond a pretty narrow range, and haven't seen much reason to revise those early attitudes since. I think it only makes sense to seek out and identify structures of authority, hierarchy, and domination in every aspect of life, and to challenge them; unless a justification for them can be given, they are illegitimate, and should be dismantled, to increase the scope of human freedom. Noam Chomsky, May 1995

What does it mean to be an Anarchist?

/Talk

It looks like this has come up before (albeit some time ago), but why do we need this page and one at anarchism? It seems that when it came up before (see above), somebody was concerned about mixing up what you might call "legitimate" anarchism and people simply attacking others as "anarchists", but I think this is covered in the main anarchism article anyway (under the section "Anarchism as Anomie").

If there are no objections, I'm going to integrate what's here into anarchism and make this page a redirect (or, of course, somebody else can do it). I'll leave it a few days in case there are strong views. --Camembert

 * Well, it's been weeks, and no voice of dissent. I've redirected it. --Camembert

disamb
I've change this page to a disamb page because I thought the "Marvel Comics" disamb notice on the top of Anarchism looked very out of place. -- infinity  0  19:47, 7 July 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Anarchist