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American Quarter Horse

The American Quarter Horse, or Quarter Horse, is an American breed of horse that excels at sprinting short distances. Its name is derived from its ability to outrun other horse breeds in races of 1/4 mi or less; some have been clocked at speeds up to 44 mph. The development of the Quarter Horse traces to the 1600s.

The American Quarter Horse is the most popular breed in the United States, and the American Quarter Horse Association is the largest breed registry in the world, with almost three million living American Quarter Horses registered in 2014. The American Quarter Horse is well known both as a race horse and for its performance in rodeos, horse shows, and as a working ranch horse.

The compact body of the American Quarter Horse is well suited for the intricate and quick maneuvers required in reining, cutting, working cow horse, barrel racing, calf roping, and other western riding events, especially those involving live cattle. The American Quarter Horse is also used in English disciplines, driving, show jumping, dressage, hunting, and many other equestrian activities.

The Texas Legislature designated the American Quarter Horse as the official "State Horse of Texas" in 2009, and Oklahoma also designated the Quarter Horse as its official state horse in 2022.

Colonial era
In the 1600s, imported English Thoroughbred horses were first bred with assorted local horses on the Eastern seaboard of colonial America.

One of the most famous of these early imports was Janus, a Thoroughbred who was the grandson of the Godolphin Arabian. He was foaled in 1746, and imported to colonial Virginia in 1756. The influence of Thoroughbreds like Janus contributed genes crucial to the development of the colonial "Quarter Horse". The resulting horse was small, hardy, quick, and was used as a work horse during the week and a race horse on the weekends.

As flat racing became popular with the colonists, the Quarter Horse gained even more popularity as a sprinter over courses that, by necessity, were shorter than the classic racecourses of England. These courses were often no more than a straight stretch of road or flat piece of open land. When competing against a Thoroughbred, local sprinters often won. As the Thoroughbred breed became established in America, many colonial Quarter Horses were included in the original American stud books. This began a long association between the Thoroughbred breed and what would later become officially known as the "Quarter Horse", named after the 1/4 mile race distance at which it excelled. Some Quarter Horses have been clocked at up to 44 mph.

Westward expansion
In the 19th century, pioneers heading West needed a hardy, willing horse. On the Great Plains, settlers encountered horses that descended from the Spanish stock Hernán Cortés and other Conquistadors had introduced into the viceroyalty of New Spain, which became the Southwestern United States and Mexico.

The horses of the West included herds of feral animals known as Mustangs, as well as horses domesticated by Native Americans, including the Comanche, Shoshoni and Nez Perce tribes. As the colonial Quarter Horse was crossed with these western horses, the pioneers found that the new crossbred had innate "cow sense", a natural instinct for working with cattle, making it popular with cattlemen on ranches.

Development as a distinct breed
Early foundation sires of Quarter Horse type included Steel Dust, foaled 1843; Shiloh (or Old Shiloh), foaled 1844; Old Cold Deck (1862); Lock's Rondo, one of many "Rondo" horses, foaled in 1880; Old Billy—again, one of many "Billy" horses—foaled c. 1880; Traveler, a stallion of unknown breeding, known to have been in Texas by 1889; and Peter McCue, foaled 1895, registered as a Thoroughbred but of disputed pedigree. Another early foundation sire for the breed was Copperbottom, foaled in 1828, who tracks his lineage through the Byerley Turk, a foundation sire of the Thoroughbred horse breed.

The main duty of the ranch horse in the American West was working cattle. Even after the invention of the automobile, horses were still irreplaceable for handling livestock on the range. Thus, major Texas cattle ranches, such as the King Ranch, the 6666 (Four Sixes) Ranch, and the Waggoner Ranch played a significant role in the development of the modern Quarter Horse. The skills required by cowboys and their horses became the foundation of the rodeo, a contest which began with informal competition between cowboys and expanded to become a major competitive event throughout the west. The Quarter Horse dominates in events that require speed as well as the ability to handle cattle.

Sprint races were also popular weekend entertainment and racing became a source of economic gain for breeders. As a result, more Thoroughbred blood was added into the developing American Quarter Horse breed. The American Quarter Horse also benefitted from the addition of Arabian, Morgan, and even Standardbred bloodlines.

In 1940, the American Quarter Horse Association (AQHA) was formed by a group of horsemen and ranchers from the Southwestern United States dedicated to preserving the pedigrees of their ranch horses. After winning the 1941 Fort Worth Exposition and Fat Stock Show grand champion stallion, the horse honored with the first registration number, P-1, was Wimpy, a descendant of the King Ranch foundation sire Old Sorrel. Other sires alive at the founding of the AQHA were given the earliest registration numbers Joe Reed P-3, Chief P-5, Oklahoma Star P-6, Cowboy P-12, and Waggoner's Rainy Day P-13. The Thoroughbred race horse Three Bars, alive in the early years of the AQHA, is recognized by the American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame as one of the significant foundation sires for the Quarter Horse breed. Other significant Thoroughbred sires seen in early AQHA pedigrees include Rocket Bar, Top Deck and Depth Charge.

"Appendix" and "Foundation" horses
Since the American Quarter Horse was formally established as a breed, the AQHA stud book has remained open to additional Thoroughbred blood via a performance standard. An "Appendix" American Quarter Horse is a first generation cross between a registered Thoroughbred and an American Quarter Horse or a cross between a "numbered" American Quarter Horse and an "appendix" American Quarter Horse. The resulting offspring is registered in the "appendix" of the American Quarter Horse Association's studbook, hence the nickname. Horses listed in the appendix may be entered in competition, but offspring are not initially eligible for full AQHA registration. If the Appendix horse meets certain conformational criteria and is shown or raced successfully in sanctioned AQHA events, the horse can earn its way from the appendix into the permanent studbook, making its offspring eligible for AQHA registration.

Since Quarter Horse/Thoroughbred crosses continue to enter the official registry of the American Quarter Horse breed, this creates a continual gene flow from the Thoroughbred breed into the American Quarter Horse breed, which has altered many of the characteristics that typified the breed in the early years of its formation. Some breeders argue that the continued addition of Thoroughbred bloodlines are beginning to compromise the integrity of the breed standard. Some favor the earlier style of horse and have created several separate organizations to promote and register "Foundation" Quarter Horses.

Modern American Quarter Horse
The American Quarter Horse is a show horse, race horse, reining and cutting horse, rodeo competitor, ranch horse, and all-around family horse. Quarter Horses are commonly used in rodeo events such as barrel racing, calf roping and team roping; and gymkhana or O-Mok-See. Other stock horse events such as cutting and reining are open to all breeds but are dominated by American Quarter Horse.

The breed is not only well-suited for western riding and cattle work. Many race tracks offer Quarter Horses a wide assortment of pari-mutuel horse racing with earnings in the millions. Quarter Horses have also been trained to compete in dressage and show jumping. They are also used for recreational trail riding and in mounted police units.

The American Quarter Horse has also been exported worldwide. European nations such as Germany and Italy have imported large numbers of Quarter Horses. Next to the American Quarter Horse Association (which also encompasses Quarter Horses from Canada), the second largest registry of Quarter Horses is in Brazil, followed by Australia. In the UK the breed is also becoming very popular, especially with the two Western riding Associations, the Western Horse Association and The Western Equestrian Society. The British American Quarter Horse breed society is the AQHA-UK. With the internationalization of the discipline of reining and its acceptance as one of the official seven events of the World Equestrian Games, there is a growing international interest in Quarter Horses. The American Quarter Horse is the most popular breed in the United States, and the American Quarter Horse Association is the largest breed registry in the world, with nearly 3 million American Quarter Horses registered worldwide in 2014.

Breed characteristics
The Quarter Horse has a small, short, refined head with a straight profile, and a strong, well-muscled body, featuring a broad chest and powerful, rounded hindquarters. They usually stand between high, although some Halter-type and English hunter-type horses may grow as tall as.

There are two main body types: the stock type and the hunter or racing type. The stock horse type is shorter, more compact, stocky and well-muscled, yet agile. The racing and hunter type Quarter Horses are somewhat taller and smoother muscled than the stock type, more closely resembling the Thoroughbred.

Quarter Horses come in nearly all colors. The most common color is sorrel, a brownish red, part of the color group called chestnut by most other breed registries. Other recognized colors include bay, black, brown, buckskin, palomino, gray, dun, red dun, grullo (also occasionally referred to as blue dun), red roan, blue roan, bay roan, perlino, cremello, and white. In the past, spotted color patterns were excluded, but now with the advent of DNA testing to verify parentage, the registry accepts all colors as long as both parents are registered.

Stock type
A stock horse is a horse of a type that is well suited for working with livestock, particularly cattle. Reining and cutting horses are smaller in stature, with quick, agile movements and very powerful hindquarters. Western pleasure show horses are often slightly taller, with slower movements, smoother gaits, and a somewhat more level topline – though still featuring the powerful hindquarters characteristic of the Quarter Horse.

Halter type
Horses shown in-hand in Halter competition are larger yet, with a very heavily muscled appearance, while retaining small heads with wide jowls and refined muzzles. There is controversy amongst owners, breeder and veterinarians regarding the health effects of the extreme muscle mass that is currently fashionable in the specialized halter horse, which typically is  and weighs in at over 1200 lb when fitted for halter competition. Not only are there concerns about the weight to frame ratio on the horse's skeletal system, but the massive build is also linked to hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP) in descendants of the stallion Impressive (see Genetic diseases below).

Racing and hunter type
Quarter Horse race horses are bred to sprint short distances ranging from 220 to 870 yards. Thus, they have long legs and are leaner than their stock type counterparts, but are still characterized by muscular hindquarters and powerful legs. Quarter Horses race primarily against other Quarter Horses, and their sprinting ability has earned them the nickname, "the world's fastest athlete." The show hunter type is slimmer, even more closely resembling a Thoroughbred, usually reflecting a higher percentage of appendix breeding. They are shown in hunter/jumper classes at both breed shows and in open USEF-rated horse show competition.

Genetic diseases
There are several genetic diseases of concern to Quarter Horse breeders. Most can now be identified by DNA testing so that breeders do not inadvertently produce foals with these conditions:
 * Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP), which is caused by an autosomal dominant gene originally linked to the stallion Impressive. It is characterized by uncontrollable muscle twitching and substantial muscle weakness or paralysis among affected horses.  Because it is a dominant gene, only one parent has to have the gene for it to be transmitted to offspring.  There is a DNA test for HYPP, which is required by the AQHA. Since 2007, the AQHA bars registration of horses who possess the homozygous form (H/H) of the gene, and though heterozygous (H/N) horses are still eligible for registration, altering that status is periodically discussed. Additionally, all Quarter Horses born 2007 or later that are confirmed to be descendants of Impressive must carry a note about the risks of HYPP on their registration papers. Due to HYPP, there have been some rule changes for show competition, including the creation of a "Performance Halter class" in which a horse must possess a Register of Merit  in performance or racing before it can compete.
 * Myosin-heavy chain myopathy (MYHM) is a genetic muscle disease added to the AQHA genetic testing panel in 2022. It is a genetic dominant condition, though not all horses who inherit the gene will show clinical signs of being affected and the environmental triggers are not well understood at present. An estimated 7% of all Quarter Horses carry this gene. There are two forms, both linked to the same genetic variant. Affected horses may exhibit one or both forms. The first is Immune-Mediated Myositis (IMM).  It may occur in response to a vaccine or infectious agent, where the immune system misinterprets the muscle cells as foreign and rapidly attacks them. Horses initially experience stiffness, weakness, and a decreased appetite followed by the rapid loss of 40% of muscle mass within 72 hours. The second presentation of MYHM is Nonexertional Rhabdomyolysis (compare to PSSM, below) and often presents as stiffness and possible swelling of muscles along the back and haunches without exercise. Clinical signs include pain, muscle cramping, and muscle damage, but may or may not result in muscle loss. When triggered, horses can recover but may have more frequent episodes. Horses that are homozygous (My/My) may have more severe symptoms.
 * Malignant hyperthermia (MH) causes a horse’s body to release uncontrolled amounts of calcium into the bloodstream when subjected to certain stressors, which results in painful muscle cramps, extremely high temperature up to 113 degrees Fahrenheit, irregular heart rhythm, excessive sweating and shallow breathing. It manifests when horses receive certain anesthesia drugs or by stressors such as overwork or excitement. Caused by a mutated allele, ryanodine receptor 1 gene (RyR1) at nucleotide C7360G, generating a R2454G amino acid substitution, it is inherited as an autosomal dominant.  Horses that carry PSSM or MYHM along with MH have more severe episodes.
 * Hereditary Equine Regional Dermal Asthenia (HERDA), also known as hyperelastosis cutis (HC). This is caused by an autosomal recessive gene, and thus produces affected offspring only when both parents transmit the gene, but may produce unaffected carriers if only one copy is transmitted.  When a horse is affected by this disease, there is a collagen defect that results in the layers of skin not being held firmly together. Thus, when the horse is ridden under saddle or suffers trauma to the skin, the outer layer often splits or separates from the deeper layer, or it can tear off completely. It rarely heals without disfiguring scars. Sunburn can also be a concern. In dramatic cases, the skin can split along the back and even roll down the sides, with the horse literally being skinned alive.  Most horses with HERDA are euthanized for humane reasons between the age of two and four years. Researchers at Cornell University and Mississippi State University theorized that the sire line of the foundation stallion Poco Bueno is linked to the disease. In 2007, Researchers working independently at Cornell University and at the University of California, Davis announced that a DNA test for HERDA has been developed. Over 1,500 horses were tested during the development phase of the test, which is now available to the general public through both institutions. Approximately 3.5% of all Quarter Horses are carriers, and as many as 28% of horses in cutting and related working cow horse disciplines.
 * Glycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED) is a recessive genetic disease where the horse is lacking an enzyme necessary for storing glycogen, the horse's heart muscle and skeletal muscles cannot function, leading to rapid death. The disease manifests in foals who are homozygous for the lethal GBED allele, meaning both parents carry one copy of the gene. The stallion King P-234 has been linked to this disease.  There is a DNA blood test available. Roughly 10% of all Quarter Horses carry this gene.
 * Equine polysaccharide storage myopathy, also called EPSM or PSSM, is a metabolic muscular condition in horses that causes tying up, and is also related to a glycogen storage disorder. There are two forms, PSSM-1 and PSSM-2. PSSM-1 is found in Quarter Horses and has a genetic test available. PSSM-2, which is primarily found in other breeds, has no genetic test available but can be diagnosed with a muscle biopsy. PSSM-1 has been traced to three specific but undisclosed bloodlines in Quarter Horses, with an autosomal recessive inheritance pattern. 11% of the Quarter Horse population carries PSSM, and 48% of Quarter Horses with symptoms of neuromuscular disease have PSSM.  To some extent it can be diet controlled with specialized low-starch diets, but genetic testing is advised before breeding, as the condition exists at a subclinical level in approximately 6% of the general Quarter Horse population.
 * Lethal White Syndrome (LWS) is fatal when homozygous. Affected foals are born pure white in color, with an underdeveloped intestinal tract, and cannot defecate, thus dying within days if not euthanized first.  Although "cropout" Quarter Horses with pinto markings were not allowed to be registered for many years because white markings were thought to be a result of undesirable crossbreeding, the gene that causes the condition also creates the frame overo color pattern when heterozygous, and the color pattern was not always visibly expressed. Thus, the condition continued to periodically appear in Quarter Horse foals. There is a DNA test for this condition, and in part because DNA testing can verify parentage and because the genetic mechanism of LWS  is now understood, AQHA repealed its cropout rules, allowing horses with white patterns to be registered.
 * Cleft Palate: a birth defect linked to multiple causative factors, including genetics, hormones, mineral deficiency, tranquilizers, or steroids. Cleft palates are extremely uncommon, but as most of the research done on the condition has utilized Quarter Horses, the defect is linked to the breed. The surgery to repair the cleft palate has about a 20% success rate. Clinical signs include: lifting head high when eating, dropping head low to drink, coughing when beginning of exercise, and taking an extremely long time to fully administer oral medications placed in the side of the jaw.

title: American Quarter Horse


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Abacá

Abacá (Spanish) (Abaka ), Musa textilis, is a species of banana endemic to the Philippines. The plant grows to 13 - 22 ft, and averages about 12 ft. The plant, also known as Manila hemp, has great economic importance, being harvested for its fiber, also called Manila hemp, extracted from the leaf-stems.

The lustrous fiber is traditionally hand-loomed into various indigenous textiles (abaca cloth or medriñaque) in the Philippines. They still figure prominently as the traditional material of the barong tagalog, the national male attire of the Philippines, as well as in sheer lace-like fabrics called nipis used in various clothing components. Native abaca textiles also survive into the modern era among various ethnic groups, like the t'nalak of the T'boli people and the dagmay of the Bagobo people. Abaca is also used in traditional Philippine millinery, as well as for bags, shawls, and other decorative items. The hatmaking straw made from Manila hemp is called tagal or tagal straw.

The fiber is also exceptionally strong, stronger than hemp and naturally salt-resistant, making it ideal for making twines and ropes (especially for maritime shipping). It became a major trade commodity in the colonial era for this reason. The abaca industry declined sharply in the mid-20th century when abaca plantations were decimated by World War II and plant diseases, as well as the invention of nylon in the 1930s (which eventually replaced the use of abacá in maritime cordage). Today, abaca is mostly used in a variety of specialized paper products including tea bags, filter paper and banknotes. Manila envelopes and Manila paper derive their name from this fiber.

Abaca is classified as a hard fiber, along with coir, henequin and sisal. Abaca is grown as a commercial crop in the Philippines, Ecuador, Costa Rica.

Description
The abacá plant is stoloniferous, meaning that the plant produces runners or shoots along the ground that then root at each segment. Cutting and transplanting rooted runners is the primary technique for creating new plants, since seed growth is substantially slower. Abacá has a "false trunk" or pseudostem about 6 - 15 in in diameter. The leaf stalks (petioles) are expanded at the base to form sheaths that are tightly wrapped together to form the pseudostem. There are from 12 to 25 leaves, dark green on the top and pale green on the underside, sometimes with large brown patches. They are oblong in shape with a deltoid base. They grow in succession. The petioles grow to at least 1 ft in length.

When the plant is mature, the flower stalk grows up inside the pseudostem. The male flower has five petals, each about 1.5 in long. The leaf sheaths contain the valuable fiber. After harvesting, the coarse fibers range in length from 6 - 12 ft long. They are composed primarily of cellulose, lignin, and pectin.

The fruit, which is inedible and is rarely seen as harvesting occurs before the plant fruits, grows to about 2 - 3 in in length and 1 in in diameter. It has black turbinate seeds that are 0.167 in in diameter.

Systematics
The abacá plant belongs to the banana family, Musaceae; it resembles the closely related wild seeded bananas, Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. Its scientific name is Musa textilis. Within the genus Musa, it is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), members of which have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

Genetic diversity
The Philippines, especially the Bicol region in Luzon, has the most abaca genotypes and cultivars. Genetic analysis using simple sequence repeats (SSR) markers revealed that the Philippines' abaca germplasm is genetically diverse. Abaca genotypes in Luzon had higher genetic diversity than Visayas and Mindanao. Ninety-five (95) percent was attributed to molecular variance within the population, and only 5% of the molecular variance to variation among populations. Genetic analysis by Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean (UPGMA) revealed several clusters irrespective of geographical origin.

History

Before synthetic textiles came into use, M. textilis was a major source of high quality fiber: soft, silky and fine. Ancestors of the modern abacá are thought to have originated from the eastern Philippines, where there is significant rainfall throughout the year. Wild varieties of abacá can still be found in the interior forests of the island province of Catanduanes, away from cultivated areas. Today, Catanduanes has many other modern kinds of abacá which are more competitive. For many years, breeders from various research institutions have made the cultivated varieties of Catanduanes even more competitive in local and international markets. This results in the optimum production of the island which had a consistent highest production throughout the archipelago.

16th century
Europeans first came into contact with Abacá fibre when Ferdinand Magellan landed in the Philippines in 1521, as the natives were already cultivating it and utilizing it in bulk for textiles. Throughout the Spanish colonial era, it was referred to as "medriñaque" cloth.

19th century
By 1897, the Philippines were exporting almost 100,000 tons of abacá, and it was one of the three biggest cash crops, along with tobacco and sugar. In fact, from 1850 through the end of the 19th century, sugar or abacá alternated with each other as the biggest export crop of the Philippines. This 19th-century trade was predominantly with the United States and the making of ropes was done mainly in New England, although in time rope-making shifted back to the Philippines.

From 1898 to 1946, the United States colonized the Philippines following the Spanish-American War. The Guggenheim claims the "colonial government found ways to prevent Filipinos from profiting off of the abaca crops, instead favoring the businesses of American expats and Japanese immigrants, as well as ensuring that the bulk of the abaca harvests were exported to the United States" for use in military initiatives.

20th century
In the early 1900s, a train running from Danao to Argao would transport Philippine abacá from the plantations to Cebu City for export. The railway system was destroyed during World War II; the abaca continues to be transported to Cebu by road.

Excluding the Philippines, abacá was first cultivated on a large scale in Sumatra in 1925 under the Dutch, who had observed its cultivation in the Philippines for cordage since the nineteenth century, followed up by plantings in Central America in 1929 sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. It also was transplanted into India and Guam. Commercial planting began in 1930 in British North Borneo; at the onset of World War II, the supply from the Philippines was eliminated by the Empire of Japan.

After the war, the U.S. Department of Agriculture started production in Panama, Costa Rica, Honduras, and Guatemala.

21st century
Today, abacá is produced primarily in the Philippines and Ecuador. The Philippines produces between 85% and 95% of the world's abacá, and the production employs 1.5 million people. Production has declined because of virus diseases.

Cultivation
The plant is normally grown in well-drained loamy soil, using rhizomes planted at the start of the rainy season. In addition, new plants can be started by seeds. Growers harvest abacá fields every three to eight months after an initial growth period of 12–25 months. Harvesting is done by removing the leaf-stems after flowering but before fruit appears. The plant loses productivity between 15 and 40 years. The slopes of volcanoes provide a preferred growing environment. Harvesting generally includes several operations involving the leaf sheaths:
 * tuxying (separation of primary and secondary sheath)
 * stripping (getting the fibers)
 * drying (usually following the tradition of sun-drying).

When the processing is complete, the bundles of fiber are pale and lustrous with a length of 6 - 12 ft.

In Costa Rica, more modern harvest and drying techniques are being developed to accommodate the very high yields obtained there.

According to the Philippine Fiber Industry Development Authority, the Philippines provided 87.4% of the world's abacá in 2014, earning the Philippines US$111.33 million. The demand is still greater than the supply. The remainder came from Ecuador (12.5%) and Costa Rica (0.1%). The Bicol region in the Philippines produced 27,885 metric tons of abacá in 2014, the largest of any Philippine region.

The Philippine Rural Development Program (PRDP) and the Department of Agriculture reported that in 2009–2013, Bicol Region had 39% share of Philippine abacá production while overwhelming 92% comes from Catanduanes Island. Eastern Visayas, the second largest producer had 24% and the Davao Region, the third largest producer had 11% of the total production. Around 42 percent of the total abacá fiber shipments from the Philippines went to the United Kingdom in 2014, making it the top importer. Germany imported 37.1 percent abacá pulp from the Philippines, importing around 7,755 metric tons (MT). Sales of abacá cordage surged 20 percent in 2014 to a total of 5,093 MT from 4,240 MT, with the United States holding around 68 percent of the market.

Pathogens
Abacá is vulnerable to a number of pathogens, notably abaca bunchy top virus, abaca bract mosaic virus, and abaca mosaic virus.

Uses
Due to its strength, it is a sought after product and is the strongest of the natural fibers. It is used by the paper industry for such specialty uses such as tea bags, banknotes and decorative papers. It can be used to make handcrafts such as hats, bags, carpets, clothing and furniture.

Lupis is the finest quality of abacá. Sinamay is woven chiefly from abacá.

Textiles
Abacá fibers were traditionally woven into sturdy textiles and clothing in the Philippines since pre-colonial times. Along with cotton, they were the main source of textile fibers used for clothing in the pre-colonial Philippines. Abacá cloth was often compared to calico in terms of texture and was a major trade commodity in the pre-colonial maritime trade and the Spanish colonial era. There are multiple traditional types and names of abaca cloth among the different ethnic groups of the Philippines. Undyed plain abacá cloth, woven from fine fibers of abaca, is generally known as sinamáy in most of the islands. Abacá cloth with a more delicate texture is called tinampipi. While especially fine lace-like abacá cloth is called nipis or lupis. Fine abacá fibers may also be woven with piña, silk, or fine cotton to create a fabric called jusi.

Traditional abacá textiles were often dyed in various colors from various natural dyes. These include blue from indigo (tarum, dagum, tayum, etc.); black from ebony (knalum or batulinao) leaves; red from noni roots and sapang; yellow from turmeric (kalawag, kuning, etc.); and so on. They were often woven into specific patterns, and further ornamented with embroidery, beadwork, and other decorations. Most clothing made from abacá took the form of the baro (also barú or bayú, literally "shirt" or "clothing"), a simple collar-less shirt or jacket with close-fitting long sleeves worn by both men and women in most ethnic groups in the pre-colonial Philippines. These were paired with wraparound sarong-like skirts (for both men and women), close-fitting pants, or loincloths (bahag).

During the Spanish colonial era, abacá cloth became known as medriñaque in Spanish (apparently derived from a native Cebuano name). They were exported to other Spanish colonies since the 16th century. A waistcoat of a native Quechua man in Peru was recorded as being made of medriñaque as early as 1584. Abacá cloth also appear in English records, spelled variously as medrinacks, medrianacks, medrianackes, and medrinacles, among other names. They were used as canvas for sails and for stiffening clothing like skirts, collars, and doublets.

Philippine indigenous tribes still weave abacá-based textiles like t'nalak, made by the Tiboli tribe of South Cotabato, and dagmay, made by the Bagobo people. Abacá cloth is found in museum collections around the world, like the Boston Museum of Fine Arts and the Textile Museum of Canada.

The inner fibers are also used in the making of hats, including the "Manila hats", hammocks, matting, cordage, ropes, coarse twines, and types of canvas.

Manila rope
Manila rope is a type of rope made from manila hemp. Manila rope is very durable, flexible, and resistant to salt water damage, allowing its use in rope, hawsers, ships' lines, and fishing nets. A 1 in rope can require 4 MT to break. Manilla rope is still the only material specified for lifeboat falls (the ropes with which a ship's lifeboat is lowered) in the United Kingdom.

Manila ropes shrink when they become wet. This effect can be advantageous under certain circumstances, but if it is not a wanted feature, it should be well taken into account. Since shrinkage is more pronounced the first time the rope becomes wet, new rope is usually immersed into water and put to dry before use so that the shrinkage is less than it would be if the rope had never been wet. A major disadvantage in this shrinkage is that many knots made with manila rope became harder and more difficult to untie when wet, thus becoming subject of increased stress. Manila rope will rot after a period of time when exposed to saltwater.

Manila hemp rope was previously the favoured variety of rope used for executions by hanging, both in the U.K. and USA. Usually 3/4 to 1 inch diameter, boiled prior to use to take out any overelasticity. It was also used in the 19th century as whaling line. Abacá fiber was once used primarily for rope, but this application is now of minor significance.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Abacá


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Abaddon

The Hebrew term Abaddon (אֲבַדּוֹן ’Ăḇaddōn, meaning "destruction", "doom"), and its Greek equivalent Apollyon (, Apollúōn meaning "Destroyer") appear in the Bible as both a place of destruction and an angel of the abyss. In the Hebrew Bible, abaddon is used with reference to a bottomless pit, often appearing alongside the place Sheol (שְׁאוֹל Šəʾōl), meaning the resting place of dead peoples.

In the Book of Revelation of the New Testament, an angel called Abaddon is described as the king of an army of locusts; his name is first transcribed in Koine Greek (Revelation 9:11—"whose name in Hebrew is Abaddon,") as Ἀβαδδών, and then translated Ἀπολλύων, Apollyon. The Vulgate and the Douay–Rheims Bible have additional notes not present in the Greek text, "in Latin Exterminans", exterminans being the Latin word for "destroyer".

In medieval Christian literature, Abaddon's portrayal diverges significantly, as seen in the "Song of Roland," an 11th-century epic poem. Abaddon is depicted as part of a fictional trinity, alongside Mahome (Mahound) and Termagant (Termagaunt), which the poem attributes to the religious practices of Muslims.

Etymology
According to the Brown–Driver–Briggs lexicon, the Hebrew אבדון is an intensive form of the Semitic root and verb stem אָבַד  "perish", transitive "destroy", which occurs 184 times in the Hebrew Bible. The Septuagint, an early Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, renders "Abaddon" as "ἀπώλεια", while the Greek is the active participle of ἀπόλλυμι , "to destroy".

Hebrew Bible
The term abaddon appears six times in the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible; abaddon means destruction or "place of destruction", or the realm of the dead, and is accompanied by Sheol.
 * Job 26:6: Sheol is naked before Him; Abaddon has no cover.
 * Job 28:22: Abaddon and Death say, “We have only a report of it.”
 * Job 31:12: A fire burning down to Abaddon, Consuming the roots of all my increase.
 * Psalm 88:11: Is your steadfast love declared in the grave, or your faithfulness in Abaddon?
 * Proverbs 15:11: Sheol and Abaddon lie exposed to the LORD, How much more the minds of men!
 * Proverbs 27:20: Sheol and Abaddon cannot be satisfied, Nor can the eyes of man be satisfied.

Second Temple era texts
The Thanksgiving Hymns — a text found amongst the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947 — tell of "the Sheol of Abaddon" and of the "torrents of Belial [that] burst into Abaddon". The Biblical Antiquities (misattributed to Philo) mention Abaddon as a place (destruction) rather than as an individual. Abaddon is also one of the compartments of Gehenna. By extension, the name can refer to an underworld abode of lost souls, or Gehenna.

Rabbinical literature
In some legends, Abaddon is identified as a realm where the damned lie in fire and snow, one of the places in Gehenna that Moses visited.

Christianity
The New Testament contains the first known depiction of Abaddon as an individual entity instead of a place.

In the Old Testament, Abaddon and Death can be personified: And,

And,

And,

The Hebrew text of Proverbs 6:32 does not contain the noun abaddon (אֲבַדּוֹן) but a participial form of the verb shachath (שָׁחַת). But the Septuagint uses apoleian (ἀπώλειαν), the accusative case of the noun apoleia (ἀπώλεια) with which it also translates abaddon in five of the six Hebrew verses that contain the word. (Though an English interlinear of the Septuagint might read "destruction the soul of him obtains", the reader should understand that "adulterer" is the subject, "soul" is the indirect object, and "destruction" is the direct object.)

In Revelation 9:11, Abaddon is described as "Destroyer", the angel of the Abyss, and as the king of a plague of locusts resembling horses with crowned human faces, women's hair, lions' teeth, wings, iron breast-plates, and a tail with a scorpion's stinger that torments for five months anyone who does not have the seal of God on their foreheads.

The symbolism of Revelation 9:11 leaves the identity of Abaddon open to interpretation. Protestant commentator Matthew Henry (1708) believed Abaddon to be the Antichrist, whereas the Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary (1871) and Henry Hampton Halley (1922) identified the angel as Satan.

Early in John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress the Christian pilgrim fights "over half a day" long with the demon Apollyon. This book permeated Christianity in the English-speaking world for 300 years after its first publication in 1678.

In contrast, the Methodist publication The Interpreter's Bible states, "Abaddon, however, is an angel not of Satan but of God, performing his work of destruction at God's bidding", citing the context at Revelation chapter 20, verses 1 through 3. Jehovah's Witnesses also cite Revelation 20:1-3 where the angel having "the key of the abyss" is actually shown to be a representative of God, concluding that "Abaddon" is another name for Jesus after his resurrection.

In Medieval Christian Literature
In medieval Christian literature, the depiction of Abaddon often mirrors the religious and cultural contexts of the time. A notable illustration of this is found in the Song of Roland, an 11th-century epic poem. This work associates Abaddon with figures such as Mahome (Mahound), Apollyon (Appolin), and Termagant, which are presented as deities in the context of the poem's portrayal of Muslims. The inclusion of Apollyon, a name sometimes linked with Abaddon in Christian texts, highlights the interpretative approaches of the period towards Islamic practices.

Such literary representations in medieval Christian literature are indicative of the broader context of interfaith understanding and relations during the Middle Ages. They reflect the complexities and nuances in the depiction of figures like Abaddon and their perceived associations with other faiths.

Mandaeism
Mandaean scriptures such as the Ginza Rabba mention the Abaddons as part of the World of Darkness. The Right Ginza mentions the existence of the "upper Abaddons" (ʿbdunia ʿlaiia) as well as the "lower Abaddons" (ʿbdunia titaiia). The final poem of the Left Ginza mentions the "House of the Abaddons" (bit ʿbdunia).

Häberl (2022) considers the Mandaic word ʿbdunia to be a borrowing from Hebrew.

Apocryphal texts
In the 3rd-century Gnostic text Acts of Thomas, Abaddon is the name of a demon, or the devil himself.

Abaddon is given particularly important roles in two sources, a homily entitled The Enthronement of Abaddon by pseudo-Timothy of Alexandria, and the Book of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, by Bartholomew the Apostle. In the homily by Timothy, Abaddon was first named Muriel, and had been given the task by God of collecting the earth that would be used in the creation of Adam. Upon completion of this task, the angel was appointed as a guardian. Everyone, including the angels, demons, and corporeal entities feared him. Abaddon was promised that any who venerated him in life could be saved. Abaddon is also said to have a prominent role in the Last Judgment, as the one who will take the souls to the Valley of Josaphat. He is described in the Book of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ as being present in the Tomb of Jesus at the moment of the resurrection of Jesus.

title: Abaddon


text:
Abadeh

Abadeh is a city in the Central District of Abadeh County, Fars province, Iran, serving as both capital of the district and of the county.

Abadeh is the largest city in the Northern Fars Region (South-Central Iran), which is famed for its carved wood-work, made of the wood of pear and box trees. Sesame oil, castor oil, grain, and various fruits are also produced there. The area is famous for its Abadeh rugs.

The city is closer in road distance to the four provincial capitals of Isfahan (193 km), Yasuj (197 km), Yazd (217 km), and Shahrekord (237 km) compared with the distance to its own provincial capital, Shiraz (260 km).

History
According to the texts of archaeologists, the settlement in the current area of Abadeh dates back to the first millennium BC. Nomadic Kurdish groups were the first to settle in the plain between Abadeh and Isfahan in the Achaemenid period. Remaining ancient monuments, such as the ancient castle of Izadkhas and Bahram Gur Palace in Surmaq, are proofs of the existence of culture and civilization in this geographical area. Abadeh city has a special position due to its location at the three-way communication between Isfahan, Yazd and Shiraz.

Population
At the time of the 2006 National Census, the city's population was 52,042 in 14,184 households. The following census in 2011 counted 55,758 people in 16,546 households. The 2016 census measured the population of the city as 59,116 people in 18,965 households.

Location
Abadeh is at an elevation of 6200 ft in a fertile plain on the high road between Isfahan and Shiraz, 190 km from the former and 270 km from the latter.

Abadeh is in the northernmost point of Fars province. The city is connected to Isfahan province from the north and west, Safacity and Eqlid from the south, and Yazd province from the east. The city is located 270 km north of Shiraz, 670 km south of Tehran, 200 km south of Isfahan, and 190 km southwest of Yazd. The geographical area of Abadeh is 6052 km2, which is about 11% of the total area of the province.

Climate
Abadeh features an arid climate (Köppen climate classification BWk) with heat and dryness over summer, and cold (extreme at times) and relatively wetter winters, with huge variations between daytime and nighttime throughout the year. The area can experience severely cold weather due to its high elevation.

Air defense base
In 2012 Iran announced it had started the construction of an air defense site in the city of Abadeh. The site is planned to be the largest in the country and will house 6,000 personnel for a variety of duties, including educational ones.

Mining
The mines located in this city are:

Esteghlal Abadeh large refractory soil mine is one of the largest producers of this mineral. In addition to the Esteghlal refractory mine, there is also an industrial mine around the city where the raw materials are from tile, ceramic and brick factories in the country.

Handicrafts
Abadeh woodwork is world famous and its examples are kept in world museums as the best works of art. The carvings of the Marble Palace were made by the artists of this city, such as Master Ahmad Emami. In 2017, the World Council of Handicrafts (WCC) introduced Abadeh as the world city of carving. Monbat Abadeh has 150 active domestic or commercial carving workshops and 5000 carving artists.

Abadeh crafts can be embroidered in cotton. The town also produces Abadeh rugs.

The rugs tend to be based on a cotton warp and have a thin, tightly knotted pile. Most Abadeh rugs are closely cut making them very flat. Although some of the older Abadehs vary in style, many of the new designs are easily recognisable. These new designs, known as Heybatlu consist of a single diamond shaped medallion in the centre with smaller medallions on each corner. The pattern is typically geometrical flowers or animals and the main colours are light reds or burnt orange on top of a dark blue background with strong green details. The corners or borders are generally ivory in colour. Although some Abadeh and Shiraz rugs appear similar Abadeh can normally be differentiated by their higher knot counts as well as the fact that the warp is invariably cotton. The rugs are almost always exclusively medium in size and the KPSI of an average Abadeh is around 90. As always in the rug-world you get what you pay for however in general Abadeh are well made and fairly popular items, particularly in modern interiors or those with a Mediterranean or North African style.

Transportation
Expressway 65 passes through Abadeh. This situation helps Abadeh to improve its capabilities compared to the neighboring city, Eqlid. Road 78 makes connections from Abadeh to Abarkuh, Yazd Eqlid and Yasuj. It has a junction with Abadeh Shiraz Expressway 24 km south of the city. A road starts from Abadeh Ring Road to Soqad and Semirom, Road 55.

The railroad from Isfahan to Shiraz passes Abadeh and there are train services at Abadeh Railway Station to Shiraz, Esfahan, Tehran and Mashad. Abadeh Airport (OISA) was planned to be built in the mid 1990s.

Historical monuments
Abadeh historical monuments include Emirate Kolah Farangi, Tymcheh Sarafyan and Khaje tomb, located in the Khoja mountains.

Sports
Abadeh's main sport is football, as in the rest of the country. The main stadium is Takhti Stadium located in Mo'allem Square. The main team in Abadeh is Behineh Rahbar Abadeh F.C. which is currently playing in Iran Football's 3rd Division after finishing first in Fars Provincial League (FPL) last year. It played in Hazfi Cup 2010-11 reaching the fourth round.

Education

 * Islamic Azad University, Abadeh branch

Notable people

 * Jalal Zolfonun was an Iranian musician

 * Mahmoud Zoufonoun was an Iranian-born American musician accomplished in the art of Persian traditional music.
 * Hooshmand Aghili is a prominent Iranian singer
 * Ruhollah Hosseinian was an Iranian principalist politician.
 * Rahmatollah Khosravi is an Iranian politician who was formerly a member of the Iranian Parliament and City Council of Tehran.
 * Mojtaba Heidarpanah is an Iranian cartoonist, illustrator, painter, character designer and animator.
 * Mahmoud Mohammadi (diplomat) is an Iranian diplomat and politician.
 * Seyed Mohammad Torbati researcher of world studies and politics, founder of the Scientific Association of World Studies
 * Owrang Khazraei Iranian left-wing poet and speaker in Goethe's Ten Nights
 * Bozorg Khazraei Iranian left-wing painter living in the Netherlands - the designer of Goethe's Ten Nights poster
 * Iman Islamian bank researcher and deputy of the Ministry of Roads and Urban Development
 * Mozneb Abadei a poet and Sufi during the Qajar period in Abadeh

title: Abadeh


text:
Abae

Abae (Ἄβαι, Abai) was an ancient town in the northeastern corner of ancient Phocis, in Greece, near the frontiers of the Opuntian Locrians, said to have been built by the Argive Abas, son of Lynceus and Hypermnestra, and grandson of Danaus. This bit of legend suggests an origin or at least an existence in the Bronze Age. Its protohistory supports a continued existence in Iron-Age antiquity. It was famous for its oracle of Apollo Abaeus, one of those consulted by Croesus, king of Lydia, and Mardonius, among others. The site of the oracle was rediscovered at Kalapodi and excavated in modern times. The results confirm an archaeological existence dating from the Bronze Age, as is suggested by the lore.

History
Before the Persian invasion, the temple was richly adorned with treasuries and votive offerings. It was twice destroyed by fire; the first time by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in their march through Phocis (480 BCE), and a second time by the Boeotians in the Sacred or Phocian War in 346 BCE. It was rebuilt by Hadrian. Hadrian caused a smaller temple to be built near the ruins of the former one. In the new temple there were three ancient statues in brass of Apollo, Leto, and Artemis, which had been dedicated by the Abaei, and had perhaps been saved from the former temple. The ancient agora and the ancient theatre still existed in the town in the time of Pausanias. According to the statement of Aristotle, as preserved by Strabo, Thracians from the Phocian town of Abae immigrated to Euboea, and gave to the inhabitants the name of Abantes.

Oracle
Despite destruction of the town, the oracle was still consulted, e.g. by the Thebans before the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE. The temple, along with the village of the same name, may have escaped destruction during the Third Sacred War (355–346 BCE), due to the respect given to the inhabitants; however, it was in a very dilapidated state when seen by Pausanias in the 2nd century CE, though some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple, was undertaken by Emperor Hadrian.

The sanctity of the shrine ensured certain privileges to the people of Abae, and these were confirmed by the Romans. The Persians did not reflect this opinion and would destroy all the temples that they overcame, Abae included. The Greeks pledged not to rebuild them as a memorial of the ravages of the Persians.

Among the most exciting recent archaeological discoveries in Greece is the recognition that the sanctuary site near the modern village of Kalapodi is not only the site of the oracle of Apollon at Abae, but that it was in constant use for cult practices from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period. It is thus the first site where the archaeology confirms the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion, which has been inferred from the presence of the names of Classical Greek divinities on Linear B texts from Pylos and Knossos.

The fortified site described below, originally identified as Abae by Colonel William Leake in the 19th century, is much more likely to be that of the Sanctuary of Artemis at Hyampolis:

"The polygonal walls of the acropolis may still be seen in a fair state of preservation on a circular hill standing about 500 ft. [150 m] above the little plain of Exarcho; one gateway remains, and there are also traces of town walls below. The temple site was on a low spur of the hill, below the town. An early terrace wall supports a precinct in which are a stoa and some remains of temples; these were excavated by the British School at Athens in 1894, but very little was found."

The oracle was mentioned in Oedipus Rex.

title: Abae


text:
Abakan

Abakan (Абака́н; Khakas: Ағбан, Ağban, or Абахан, Abaxan) is the capital city of Khakassia, Russia, located in the central part of the Minusinsk Depression, at the confluence of the Yenisei and Abakan Rivers. As of the 2010 Census, it had a population of 165,214 —a slight increase over 165,197 recorded during the 2002 Census and a further increase from 154,092 recorded during the 1989 Census.

History
Abakansky ostrog (Абаканский острог), also known as Abakansk (Абаканск), was built at the mouth of the Abakan River in 1675. In the 1780s, the selo of Ust-Abakanskoye (Усть-Абаканское) was established in this area. It was granted town status and given its current name on 30 April 1931.

In 1940, Russian construction workers found ancient ruins during the construction of a highway between Abakan and Askiz. When the site was excavated by Soviet archaeologists in 1941–1945, they realized that they had discovered a building absolutely unique for the area: a large (1500 square meters) Chinese-style, likely Han dynasty era (206 BC–220 AD) palace. The identity of the high-ranking personage who lived luxuriously in Chinese style, far outside the Han Empire's borders, has remained a matter for discussion ever since. Russian archaeologist Lidiya Yevtyukhova surmised, based on circumstantial evidence, that the palace may have been the residence of Li Ling, a Chinese general who had been defeated by the Xiongnu in 99 BCE, and defected to them as a result. While this opinion has remained popular, other views have been expressed as well. More recently, for example, it was claimed by Aleksey Kovalyov (archaeologist) as the residence of Lu Fang (盧芳), a Han throne pretender from the Guangwu era.

Lithuanian and Polish exiles
In the late 18th and during the 19th century, Lithuanian participants in the 1794, 1830–1831, and 1863 rebellions against Russian rule were exiled to Abakan. A group of camps was established where prisoners were forced to work in the coal mines. After Stalin's death, Lithuanian exiles from the nearby settlements moved in.

Also Polish exiles were deported to Khakassia, with the some descendants still living in the region. In 1994, a local Polish school was founded, which was supported by the local authorities until 2014, and in 1999, a Polish-language faculty was introduced at the local Khakassian State University.

Administrative and municipal status
Abakan is the capital of the republic. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the City of Abakan—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts As a municipal division, the City of Abakan is incorporated as Abakan Urban Okrug.

Economy
The city has an industry enterprises, Katanov State University of Khakasia, and three theatres. Furthermore, it has a commercial center that produces footwear, foodstuffs, and metal products.

Transportation
Abakan (together with Tayshet) was a terminal of the major Abakan-Taishet Railway. Now it is an important railway junction.

The city is served by the Abakan International Airport.

Military
The 100th Air Assault Brigade of the Russian Airborne Troops was based in the city until circa 1996.

Sites

Abakan's sites of interest include:
 * Holy Transfiguration Cathedral (Russian: Спасо-Преображенский кафедральный собор (Spaso-Preobrazhenskiy kafedral’nyy sobor))
 * "Good Angel of Peace" sculpture (Russian: Скульптура «Добрый ангел мира» (Skul’ptura «Dobryy angel mira»))
 * Park of Topiary Art (Russian: Парк топиарного искусства (Park Topiarnogo Iskusstva))
 * Khakas National local history museum named after Leonid Kyzlasov (Russian: Хакасский краеведческий музей имени Л.Р. Кызласова (Khakasskiy Natsional'nyy Krayevedcheskiy Muzey Im. L.R. Kyzlasova))

Sports
Bandy, similar to hockey, is one of the most popular sports in the city. Sayany-Khakassia was playing in the top-tier Super League in the 2012–13 season but was relegated for the 2013–14 season and has been playing in the Russian Bandy Supreme League ever since. Russian Government Cup was played here in 1988 and in 2012.

Climate
Abakan has a borderline Dry-winter continental (Köppen climate classification Dwb)/cold semi-arid climate (Köppen BSk). Temperature differences between seasons are extreme, which is typical for Siberia. Precipitation is concentrated in the summer and is less common because of rain shadows from nearby mountains.

Local government
The structure of the local government in the city of Abakan is as follows:
 * council of deputies of the city of Abakan - a representative body of the municipality;
 * the head of the city of Abakan - the head of the municipality;
 * the administration of the city of Abakan - the executive and administrative body of the municipality;
 * auditing commission of the municipality of the city of Abakan - the control and accounting body of the municipality.

The council consists of 28 deputies. Deputies are elected in single-member constituencies and on party lists. Elections of deputies of the VI convocation were held on a single voting day in 2018.
 * Council of Deputies

 * Head of the city (head of the municipality)
 * Alexey Viktorovich Lyomin

 * Chairman of the Council of Deputies
 * Albert Yuryevich Tupikin

In 2021, the annual Nikolai Bulakin Prize of Abakan was established for outstanding services and achievements in the city's development. The award includes a monetary reward of 200,000 rubles and a diploma.
 * Nikolai Bulakin Prize

title: Abakan


text:
Arc de Triomphe

The Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile, often called simply the Arc de Triomphe, is one of the most famous monuments in Paris, France, standing at the western end of the Champs-Élysées at the centre of Place Charles de Gaulle, formerly named Place de l'Étoile—the étoile or "star" of the juncture formed by its twelve radiating avenues. The location of the arc and the plaza is shared between three arrondissements, 16th (south and west), 17th (north), and 8th (east). The Arc de Triomphe honours those who fought and died for France in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, with the names of all French victories and generals inscribed on its inner and outer surfaces. Beneath its vault lies the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier from World War I.

The central cohesive element of the Axe historique (historic axis, a sequence of monuments and grand thoroughfares on a route running from the courtyard of the Louvre to the Grande Arche de la Défense), the Arc de Triomphe was designed by Jean Chalgrin in 1806; its iconographic programme pits heroically nude French youths against bearded Germanic warriors in chain mail. It set the tone for public monuments with triumphant patriotic messages. Inspired by the Arch of Titus in Rome, Italy, the Arc de Triomphe has an overall height of 50 m, width of 45 m and depth of 22 m, while its large vault is 29.19 m high and 14.62 m wide. The smaller transverse vaults are 18.68 m high and 8.44 m wide.

Paris's Arc de Triomphe was the tallest triumphal arch until the completion of the Monumento a la Revolución in Mexico City in 1938, which is 67 m high. The Arch of Triumph in Pyongyang, completed in 1982, is modeled on the Arc de Triomphe and is slightly taller at 60 m. The Grande Arche in La Défense near Paris is 110 metres high, and, if considered to be a triumphal arch, is the world's tallest.

Construction and late 19th century

The Arc de Triomphe is located on the right bank of the Seine at the centre of a dodecagonal configuration of twelve radiating avenues. It was commissioned in 1806, after the victory at Austerlitz by Emperor Napoleon at the peak of his fortunes. Laying the foundations alone took two years and, in 1810, when Napoleon entered Paris from the west with his new bride, Archduchess Marie-Louise of Austria, he had a wooden mock-up of the completed arch constructed. The architect, Jean Chalgrin, died in 1811 and the work was taken over by Jean-Nicolas Huyot.

During the Bourbon Restoration, construction was halted, and it would not be completed until the reign of Louis Philippe I, between 1833 and 1836, by the architects Goust, then Huyot, under the direction of Héricart de Thury. The final cost was reported at about 10,000,000 francs (equivalent to an estimated €65 million or $75 million in 2020).

On 15 December 1840, brought back to France from Saint Helena, Napoleon's remains passed under it on their way to the Emperor's final resting place at Les Invalides. Before burial in the Panthéon, the body of Victor Hugo was displayed under the Arc on the night of 22 May 1885.

20th century

The sword carried by the Republic in the Marseillaise relief broke off on the day, it is said, that the Battle of Verdun began in 1916. The relief was immediately hidden by tarpaulins to conceal the accident and avoid any undesired ominous interpretations.

On 7 August 1919 three weeks after the Paris victory parade in 1919 (marking the end of hostilities in World War I), Charles Godefroy flew his Nieuport biplane under the arch's primary vault, with the event captured on newsreel. Jean Navarre was the pilot who was tasked to make the flight, but he died on 10 July 1919 when he crashed near Villacoublay while training for the flight

Following its construction, the Arc de Triomphe became the rallying point of French troops parading after successful military campaigns and for the annual Bastille Day military parade. Famous victory marches around or under the Arc have included the Germans in 1871, the French in 1919, the Germans in 1940, and the French and Allies in 1944 and 1945. A United States postage stamp of 1945 shows the Arc de Triomphe in the background as victorious American troops march down the Champs-Élysées and U.S. airplanes fly overhead on 29 August 1944. After the interment of the Unknown Soldier, however, all military parades (including the aforementioned post-1919) have avoided marching through the actual arch. The route taken is up to the arch and then around its side, out of respect for the tomb and its symbolism. Both Hitler in 1940 and Charles de Gaulle in 1944 observed this custom.

By the early 1960s, the monument had grown very blackened from coal soot and automobile exhaust, and during 1965–1966 it was cleaned through bleaching. In the prolongation of the Avenue des Champs-Élysées, a new arch, the Grande Arche de la Défense, was built in 1982, completing the line of monuments that forms Paris's Axe historique. After the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel and the Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile, the Grande Arche is the third arch built on the same perspective.

In 1995, the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria placed a bomb near the Arc de Triomphe which wounded 17 people as part of a campaign of bombings.

On 12 July 1998, when France won the FIFA World Cup for the first time after defeating Brazil 3–0 at the Stade de France, images of the players including double goal scorer Zinedine Zidane and their names along with celebratory messages were projected onto the arch.

21st century
In late 2018, the Arc de Triomphe suffered acts of vandalism as part of the Yellow vests protests. The vandals sprayed the monument with graffiti and ransacked its small museum. In September 2021, the arc was wrapped in a silvery blue fabric and red rope, as part of L'Arc de Triomphe, Wrapped, a posthumous project planned by artists Christo and Jeanne-Claude since the early 1960s.

Monument

The astylar design is by Jean Chalgrin (1739–1811), in the Neoclassical version of ancient Roman architecture. Major academic sculptors of France are represented in the sculpture of the Arc de Triomphe: Jean-Pierre Cortot; François Rude; Antoine Étex; James Pradier and Philippe Joseph Henri Lemaire. The main sculptures are not integral friezes but are treated as independent trophies applied to the vast ashlar masonry masses, not unlike the gilt-bronze appliqués on Empire furniture. The four sculptural groups at the base of the Arc are The Triumph of 1810 (Cortot), Resistance and Peace (both by Antoine Étex), and the most renowned of them all, Departure of the Volunteers of 1792 commonly called La Marseillaise (François Rude). The face of the allegorical representation of France calling forth her people on this last was used as the belt buckle for the honorary rank of Marshal of France. Since the fall of Napoleon (1815), the sculpture representing Peace is interpreted as commemorating the Peace of 1815.

In the attic above the richly sculptured frieze of soldiers are 30 shields engraved with the names of major French victories in the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars. The inside walls of the monument list the names of 660 people, among which are 558 French generals of the First French Empire; The names of those generals killed in battle are underlined. Also inscribed, on the shorter sides of the four supporting columns, are the names of the major French victories in the Napoleonic Wars. The battles that took place in the period between the departure of Napoleon from Elba to his final defeat at Waterloo are not included.

For four years from 1882 to 1886, a monumental sculpture by Alexandre Falguière topped the arch. Titled Le triomphe de la Révolution ("The Triumph of the Revolution"), it depicted a chariot drawn by horses preparing "to crush Anarchy and Despotism".

Inside the monument, a permanent exhibition, conceived by artist Maurice Benayoun and architect Christophe Girault, opened in February 2007.

Tomb of the Unknown Soldier

Beneath the Arc is the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier from World War I. Interred on Armistice Day 1920, an eternal flame burns in memory of the dead who were never identified (now in both world wars).

A ceremony is held at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier every 11 November on the anniversary of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 signed by the Entente Powers and Germany in 1918. It was originally decided on 12 November 1919 to bury the unknown soldier's remains in the Panthéon, but a public letter-writing campaign led to the decision to bury him beneath the Arc de Triomphe. The coffin was put in the chapel on the first floor of the Arc on 10 November 1920, and put in its final resting place on 28 January 1921. The slab on top bears the inscription: Ici repose un soldat français mort pour la Patrie, 1914–1918 ("Here rests a French soldier who died for the Fatherland, 1914–1918").

In 1961, U.S. President John F. Kennedy and First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy paid their respects at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, accompanied by President Charles de Gaulle. After the 1963 assassination of President Kennedy, Mrs. Kennedy remembered the eternal flame at the Arc de Triomphe and requested that an eternal flame be placed next to her husband's grave at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia.

Details

 * The four main sculptural groups on each of the Arc's pillars are:
 * Le Départ de 1792 (or La Marseillaise), by François Rude. The sculptural group celebrates the cause of the French First Republic during the 10 August uprising. Above the volunteers is the winged personification of Liberty. This group served as a recruitment tool in the early months of World War I and encouraged the French to invest in war loans in 1915–1916.
 * Le Triomphe de 1810, by Jean-Pierre Cortot celebrates the Treaty of Schönbrunn. This group features Napoleon, crowned by the goddess of Victory.
 * La Résistance de 1814, by Antoine Étex commemorates the French Resistance to the Allied Armies during the War of the Sixth Coalition.
 * La Paix de 1815, by Antoine Étex commemorates the Treaty of Paris, concluded in that year.

Access
The Arc de Triomphe is accessible by the RER and Métro, with exit at the Charles de Gaulle–Étoile station. Because of heavy traffic on the roundabout of which the Arc is the centre, it is recommended that pedestrians use one of two underpasses located at the Champs-Élysées and the Avenue de la Grande Armée. A lift will take visitors almost to the top – to the attic, where a small museum contains large models of the Arc and tells its story from the time of its construction. Another 40 steps remain to climb to reach the top, the terrasse, from where one can enjoy a panoramic view of Paris.

The location of the arc, as well as the Place de l'Étoile, is shared between three arrondissements, 16th (south and west), 17th (north), and 8th (east).

Replicas
While many structures around the world resemble the Arc de Triomphe, some were actually inspired by it. Replicas that used its design as a model include Arch of Triumph in Pyongyang, North Korea; Arcul de Triumf in Bucharest, Romania; Rosedale World War I Memorial Arch in Kansas City, Kansas, US; and a miniature version at the Paris Casino in Las Vegas, US.

title: Arc de Triomphe


text:
April 21

Pre-1600

 * 753 BC – Romulus founds Rome (traditional date).
 * 43 BC – Battle of Mutina: Mark Antony is again defeated in battle by Aulus Hirtius, who is killed. Antony fails to capture Mutina and Decimus Brutus is murdered shortly after.
 * 900 – The Laguna Copperplate Inscription (the earliest known written document found in what is now the Philippines): the Commander-in-Chief of the Kingdom of Tondo, as represented by the Honourable Jayadewa, Lord Minister of Pailah, pardons from all debt the Honourable Namwaran and his relations.
 * 1092 – The Diocese of Pisa is elevated to the rank of metropolitan archdiocese by Pope Urban II
 * 1506 – The three-day Lisbon Massacre comes to an end with the slaughter of over 1,900 suspected Jews by Portuguese Catholics.
 * 1509 – Henry VIII ascends the throne of England on the death of his father, Henry VII.
 * 1526 – The last ruler of the Lodi dynasty, Ibrahim Lodi is defeated and killed by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat.

1601–1900

 * 1615 – The Wignacourt Aqueduct is inaugurated in Malta.
 * 1782 – The city of Rattanakosin, now known internationally as Bangkok, is founded on the eastern bank of the Chao Phraya River by King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke.
 * 1789 – John Adams sworn in as first US Vice President (nine days before George Washington).
 * 1789  – George Washington's reception at Trenton is hosted by the Ladies of Trenton as he journeys to New York City for his first inauguration.
 * 1792 – Tiradentes, a revolutionary leading a movement for Brazil's independence, is hanged, drawn and quartered.
 * 1802 – Twelve thousand Wahhabis sack Karbala, killing over three thousand inhabitants.
 * 1806 – Action of 21 April 1806: A French frigate escapes British forces off the coast of South Africa.
 * 1809 – Two Austrian army corps are driven from Landshut by a First French Empire army led by Napoleon as two French corps to the north hold off the main Austrian army on the first day of the Battle of Eckmühl.
 * 1821 – Benderli Ali Pasha arrives in Constantinople as the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire; he remains in power for only nine days before being sent into exile.
 * 1836 – Texas Revolution: The Battle of San Jacinto: Republic of Texas forces under Sam Houston defeat troops under Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna.
 * 1856 – Australian labour movement: Stonemasons and building workers on building sites around Melbourne march from the University of Melbourne to Parliament House to achieve an eight-hour day.
 * 1894 – Norway formally adopts the Krag–Jørgensen bolt-action rifle as the main arm of its armed forces, a weapon that would remain in service for almost 50 years.
 * 1898 – Spanish–American War: The United States Navy begins a blockade of Cuban ports. When the U.S. Congress issued a declaration of war on April 25, it declared that a state of war had existed from this date.

1901–present

 * 1914 – Ypiranga incident: A German arms shipment to Mexico is intercepted by the U.S. Navy near Veracruz.
 * 1918 – World War I: German fighter ace Manfred von Richthofen, better known as "The Red Baron", is shot down and killed over Vaux-sur-Somme in France.
 * 1926 – Al-Baqi cemetery, former site of the mausoleum of four Shi'a Imams, is leveled to the ground by Wahhabis.
 * 1934 – The "Surgeon's Photograph", the most famous photo allegedly showing the Loch Ness Monster, is published in the Daily Mail (in 1994, it is revealed to be a hoax).
 * 1945 – World War II: Soviet forces south of Berlin at Zossen attack the German High Command headquarters.
 * 1946 – The U.S. Weather Bureau publish a paper which stated the width of a tornado which struck the city of Timber Lake, South Dakota was 4 mi, which would make this the widest tornado ever documented in history.
 * 1948 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 47 relating to Kashmir conflict is adopted.
 * 1950 – The Nainital wedding massacre occurs, killing 22 members of the Harijan caste.
 * 1952 – Secretary's Day (now Administrative Professionals' Day) is first celebrated.
 * 1958 – United Air Lines Flight 736 collides with a United States Air Force fighter jet near Arden, Nevada in what is now Enterprise, Nevada.
 * 1960 – Brasília, Brazil's capital, is officially inaugurated. At 09:30, the Three Powers of the Republic are simultaneously transferred from the old capital, Rio de Janeiro.
 * 1962 – The Seattle World's Fair (Century 21 Exposition) opens. It is the first World's Fair in the United States since World War II.
 * 1963 – The first election of the Universal House of Justice is held, marking its establishment as the supreme governing institution of the Baháʼí Faith.
 * 1964 – A Transit-5bn satellite fails to reach orbit after launch; as it re-enters the atmosphere, 2.1 lb of radioactive plutonium in its SNAP RTG power source is widely dispersed.
 * 1965 – The 1964–1965 New York World's Fair opens for its second and final season.
 * 1966 – Rastafari movement: Haile Selassie of Ethiopia visits Jamaica, an event now celebrated as Grounation Day.
 * 1967 – A few days before the general election in Greece, Colonel George Papadopoulos leads a coup d'état, establishing a military regime that lasts for seven years.
 * 1972 – Astronauts John Young and Charles Duke fly Apollo 16's Apollo Lunar Module to the Moon's surface, the fifth NASA Apollo Program crewed lunar landing.
 * 1975 – Vietnam War: President of South Vietnam Nguyễn Văn Thiệu flees Saigon, as Xuân Lộc, the last South Vietnamese outpost blocking a direct North Vietnamese assault on Saigon, falls.
 * 1977 – Annie opens on Broadway.
 * 1982 – Baseball: Rollie Fingers of the Milwaukee Brewers becomes the first pitcher to record 300 saves.
 * 1985 – The compound of the militant group The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord surrenders to federal authorities in Arkansas after a two-day government siege.
 * 1987 – The Tamil Tigers are blamed for a car bomb that detonates in the Sri Lankan capital city of Colombo, killing 106 people.
 * 1989 – Tiananmen Square protests of 1989: In Beijing, around 100,000 students gather in Tiananmen Square to commemorate Chinese reform leader Hu Yaobang.
 * 1993 – The Supreme Court in La Paz, Bolivia, sentences former dictator Luis García Meza to 30 years in jail without parole for murder, theft, fraud and violating the constitution.
 * 2004 – Five suicide car bombers target police stations in and around Basra, killing 74 people and wounding 160.
 * 2010 – The controversial Kharkiv Pact (Russian Ukrainian Naval Base for Gas Treaty) is signed in Kharkiv, Ukraine, by Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev; it was unilaterally terminated by Russia on March 31, 2014.
 * 2012 – Two trains are involved in a head-on collision near Sloterdijk, Amsterdam, in the Netherlands, killing one person and injuring 116 others.
 * 2014 – The American city of Flint, Michigan switches its water source to the Flint River, beginning the ongoing Flint water crisis which has caused lead poisoning in up to 12,000 people, and at least 12 deaths from Legionnaires' disease, ultimately leading to criminal indictments against 15 people, five of whom have been charged with involuntary manslaughter.
 * 2019 – Eight bombs explode at churches, hotels, and other locations in Sri Lanka on Easter Sunday, killing at least 269.
 * 2021 – Indonesian Navy submarine KRI Nanggala (402) sinks in the Bali Sea during a military drill, killing all 53 on board.

Pre-1600

 * 1132 – Sancho VI, king of Navarre (d. 1194)
 * 1488 – Ulrich von Hutten, German religious reformer (d. 1523)
 * 1523 – Marco Antonio Bragadin, Venetian lawyer and military officer (d. 1571)
 * 1555 – Ludovico Carracci, Italian painter and etcher (d. 1619)

1601–1900

 * 1619 – Jan van Riebeeck, Dutch founder of Cape Town (d. 1677)
 * 1630 – Pieter Gerritsz van Roestraten, Dutch-English painter (d. 1700)
 * 1631 – Francesco Maidalchini, Catholic cardinal (d. 1700)
 * 1642 – Simon de la Loubère, French mathematician, poet, and diplomat (d. 1729)
 * 1651 – Joseph Vaz, Sri Lankan priest, missionary, and saint (d. 1711)
 * 1652 – Michel Rolle, French mathematician and academic (d. 1719)
 * 1671 – John Law, Scottish economist (d. 1729)
 * 1673 – Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1742)
 * 1713 – Louis de Noailles, French general (d. 1793)
 * 1730 – Antonín Kammel, Czech violinist and composer (d. 1788)
 * 1752 – Pierre-Alexandre-Laurent Forfait, French engineer, hydrographer, and politician, French Minister of Marine and the Colonies (d. 1807)
 * 1752  – Humphry Repton, English gardener and author (d. 1818)
 * 1774 – Jean-Baptiste Biot, French physicist, astronomer, and mathematician (d. 1862)
 * 1775 – Alexander Anderson, Scottish-American illustrator and engraver (d. 1870)
 * 1783 – Reginald Heber, English priest (d. 1821)
 * 1790 – Manuel Blanco Encalada, Spanish-Chilean admiral and politician, 1st President of Chile (d. 1876)
 * 1810 – John Putnam Chapin, American politician, 10th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1864)
 * 1811 – Alson Sherman, American merchant and politician, 8th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1903)
 * 1814 – Angela Burdett-Coutts, 1st Baroness Burdett-Coutts, English art collector and philanthropist (d. 1906)
 * 1816 – Charlotte Brontë, English novelist and poet (d. 1855)
 * 1837 – Fredrik Bajer, Danish lieutenant and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1922)
 * 1838 – John Muir, Scottish-American environmentalist and author (d. 1914)
 * 1854 – William Stang, German-American bishop (d. 1907)
 * 1864 – Max Weber, German economist and sociologist (d. 1920)
 * 1868 – Alfred Henry Maurer, American painter (d. 1932)
 * 1868  – Mary Rogers Miller, American author and educator (d. 1971)
 * 1870 – Edwin Stanton Porter, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1941)
 * 1874 – Vincent Scotto, French composer and actor (d. 1952)
 * 1882 – Percy Williams Bridgman, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1961)
 * 1885 – Tatu Kolehmainen, Finnish runner (d. 1967)
 * 1887 – Joe McCarthy, American baseball manager (d. 1978)
 * 1889 – Marcel Boussac, French businessman (d. 1980)
 * 1889  – Paul Karrer, Russian-Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)
 * 1889  – Efrem Zimbalist, Sr., Russian-American violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1985)
 * 1892 – Freddie Dixon, English motorcycle racer and racing driver (d. 1956)
 * 1893 – Romeo Bertini, Italian runner (d. 1973)
 * 1897 – Odd Lindbäck-Larsen, Norwegian Army general and war historian (d. 1975)
 * 1898 – Maurice Wilson, English soldier, pilot, and mountaineer (d. 1934)
 * 1899 – Randall Thompson, American composer and academic (d. 1984)

1901–present

 * 1903 – Luis Saslavsky, Argentinian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1995)
 * 1904 – Jean Hélion, French painter (d. 1987)
 * 1904  – Odilo Globocnik, Italian-Austrian SS officer (d. 1945)
 * 1905 – Pat Brown, American lawyer and politician, 32nd Governor of California (d. 1996)
 * 1911 – Ivan Combe, American businessman, developed Clearasil (d. 2000)
 * 1911  – Kemal Satır, Turkish physician and politician  (d. 1991)
 * 1912 – Eve Arnold, Russian-American photojournalist (d. 2012)
 * 1912  – Marcel Camus, French director and screenwriter (d. 1982)
 * 1913 – Norman Parkinson, English photographer (d. 1990)
 * 1914 – Angelo Savoldi, Italian-American wrestler and promoter, co-founded International World Class Championship Wrestling (d. 2013)
 * 1915 – Garrett Hardin, American ecologist, author, and academic (d. 2003)
 * 1915  – Anthony Quinn, Mexican-American actor (d. 2001)
 * 1916 – Estella B. Diggs, American businesswoman and politician (d. 2013)
 * 1918 – Eddy Christiani, Dutch singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016)
 * 1919 – Don Cornell, American singer (d. 2004)
 * 1919  – Roger Doucet, Canadian tenor (d. 1981)
 * 1919  – Licio Gelli, Italian financer (d. 2015)
 * 1922 – Alistair MacLean, Scottish novelist and screenwriter (d. 1987)
 * 1922  – Allan Watkins, Welsh-English cricketer (d. 2011)
 * 1923 – John Mortimer, English lawyer and author (d. 2009)
 * 1924 – Ira Louvin, American singer-songwriter and mandolin player (d. 1965)
 * 1925 – Anthony Mason, Australian soldier and judge, 9th Chief Justice of Australia
 * 1925  – John Swinton of Kimmerghame, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Berwickshire (d. 2018)
 * 1926 – Elizabeth II, Queen of the United Kingdom and her other realms (d. 2022)
 * 1926  – Arthur Rowley, English footballer, manager, and cricketer (d. 2002)
 * 1927 – Ahmed Arif, Turkish poet and author (d. 1991)
 * 1928 – Jack Evans, Welsh-Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1996)
 * 1930 – Hilda Hilst, Brazilian author, poet, and playwright (d. 2004)
 * 1930  – Silvana Mangano, Italian actress (d. 1989)
 * 1930  – Dieter Roth, German-Swiss illustrator and sculptor (d. 1998)
 * 1930  – Jack Taylor, English footballer and referee (d. 2012)
 * 1931 – Morgan Wootten, American high school basketball coach (d. 2020)
 * 1932 – Slide Hampton, African-American trombonist and composer (d. 2021)
 * 1932  – Elaine May, American actress, comedian, director, and screenwriter
 * 1932  – Angela Mortimer, English tennis player
 * 1933 – Edelmiro Amante, Filipino lawyer and politician (d. 2013)
 * 1933  – Easley Blackwood, Jr., American pianist, composer, and educator (d. 2023)
 * 1933  – Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, Iraqi patriarch (d. 2014)
 * 1935 – Charles Grodin, American actor and talk show host (d. 2021)
 * 1935  – Thomas Kean, American academic and politician, 48th Governor of New Jersey
 * 1936 – James Dobson, American evangelist, psychologist, and author, founded Focus on the Family
 * 1936  – Reg Fleming, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 2009)
 * 1937 – Gary Peters, American baseball player (d. 2023)
 * 1937  – Ben Zinn, Israeli-born American academic and former international soccer player
 * 1939 – John McCabe, English pianist and composer (d. 2015)
 * 1939  – Sister Helen Prejean, American nun, activist, and author
 * 1939  – Reni Santoni, American actor (d. 2020)
 * 1940 – Jacques Caron, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
 * 1940  – Souleymane Cissé, Malian director, producer, and screenwriter
 * 1941 – David L. Boren, American lawyer and politician, 21st Governor of Oklahoma
 * 1942 – Geoffrey Palmer, New Zealand politician, 33rd Prime Minister of New Zealand
 * 1945 – Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan, Indian cricketer and umpire
 * 1945  – Mark Wainberg, Canadian researcher and HIV/AIDS activist (d. 2017)
 * 1945  – Diana Darvey, English actress, singer and dancer (d. 2000)
 * 1947 – Al Bumbry, American baseball player
 * 1947  – Iggy Pop, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor
 * 1947  – John Weider, English bass player
 * 1948 – Gary Condit, American businessman and politician
 * 1948  – Paul Davis, American singer-songwriter and musician (d. 2008)
 * 1948  – Josef Flammer, Swiss ophthalmologist
 * 1948  – Dieter Fromm, German runner
 * 1949 – Patti LuPone, American actress and singer
 * 1950 – Shivaji Satam, Indian actor
 * 1951 – Tony Danza, American actor and producer
 * 1951  – Michael Freedman, American mathematician and academic
 * 1951  – Bob Varsha, American sportscaster
 * 1951  – Steve Vickers, Canadian ice hockey player
 * 1952 – Gerald Early, American author and academic
 * 1952  – Cheryl Gillan, British businesswoman and politician, Secretary of State for Wales (d. 2021)
 * 1953 – John Brumby, Australian politician, 45th Premier of Victoria
 * 1954 – Ebiet G. Ade, Indonesian singer-songwriter and guitarist
 * 1954  – James Morrison, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
 * 1954  – Mike Wingfield, South African academic and scientist
 * 1955 – Murathan Mungan, Turkish author, poet, and playwright
 * 1956 – Peter Kosminsky, English director, producer, and screenwriter
 * 1956  – Phillip Longman, German-American demographer and journalist
 * 1957 – Hervé Le Tellier, French linguist and author
 * 1957  – Herbert Wetterauer, German painter, sculptor, and author
 * 1958 – Andie MacDowell, American model, actress, and producer
 * 1958  – Yoshito Usui, Japanese illustrator (d. 2009)
 * 1958  – Michael Zarnock, American author
 * 1959 – Tim Jacobus, American illustrator and painter
 * 1959  – Robert Smith, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
 * 1961 – David Servan-Schreiber, French physician, neuroscientist, and author (d. 2011)
 * 1963 – Ken Caminiti, American baseball player (d. 2004)
 * 1965 – Fiona Kelleghan, American academic, critic and librarian
 * 1969 – Toby Stephens, English actor
 * 1970 – Rob Riggle, American actor and comedian
 * 1971 – Michael Turner, American author and illustrator (d. 2008)
 * 1973 – Steve Backshall, English naturalist, writer, and television presenter
 * 1977 – Gyula Koi, Hungarian scholar and educator
 * 1979 – Virginie Basselot, French chef
 * 1979  – James McAvoy, Scottish actor
 * 1980 – Tony Romo, American football player and announcer
 * 1983 – Tarvaris Jackson, American football player (d. 2020)
 * 1988 – Ricky Berens, American swimmer
 * 1988  – Jencarlos Canela, American singer-songwriter and actor
 * 1989 – Nikki Cross, Scottish wrestler
 * 1992 – Isco, Spanish footballer
 * 1992  – Joc Pederson, American baseball player
 * 1994 – Ludwig Augustinsson, Swedish footballer
 * 1996 – Arianne Hartono, Dutch tennis player
 * 1997 – Mikel Oyarzabal, Spanish footballer
 * 1998 – Jarrett Allen, American basketball player
 * 2003 – Xavi Simons, Dutch footballer
 * 2007 – Princess Isabella of Denmark, daughter of King Frederik X and Queen Mary of Denmark

Pre-1600

 * 234 – Emperor Xian of Han, Chinese emperor (b. 181)
 * 586 – Liuvigild, king of the Visigoths
 * 847 – Odgar, Frankish archbishop of Mainz
 * 866 – Bardas, de facto regent of the Byzantine Empire
 * 941 – Bajkam, de facto regent of the Abbasid Caliphate
 * 1073 – Pope Alexander II
 * 1109 – Anselm of Canterbury, Italian-English archbishop and saint (b. 1033)
 * 1136 – Stephen, Count of Tréguier Breton noblemen (b. c. 1058/62)
 * 1142 – Peter Abelard, French philosopher and theologian (b. 1079)
 * 1213 – Maria of Montpellier, Lady of Montpellier, Queen of Aragon (b. 1182)
 * 1329 – Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1282)
 * 1400 – John Wittlebury, English politician (b. 1333)
 * 1509 – Henry VII of England (b. 1457)
 * 1557 – Petrus Apianus, German mathematician and astronomer (b. 1495)
 * 1574 – Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b. 1519)
 * 1591 – Sen no Rikyū, Japanese exponent of the tea ceremony (b. 1522)

1601–1900

 * 1650 – Yagyū Jūbei Mitsuyoshi, Japanese samurai (b. 1607)
 * 1668 – Jan Boeckhorst, Flemish painter (b. c. 1604)
 * 1699 – Jean Racine, French playwright and poet (b. 1639)
 * 1719 – Philippe de La Hire, French mathematician and astronomer (b. 1640)
 * 1720 – Antoine Hamilton, Irish-French soldier and author (b. 1646)
 * 1722 – Robert Beverley, Jr., English historian and author (b. 1673)
 * 1736 – Prince Eugene of Savoy (b. 1663)
 * 1740 – Thomas Tickell, English poet and author (b. 1685)
 * 1758 – Francesco Zerafa, Maltese architect (b. 1679)
 * 1815 – Joseph Winston, American soldier and politician (b. 1746)
 * 1825 – Johann Friedrich Pfaff, German mathematician and academic (b. 1765)
 * 1852 – Ivan Nabokov, Russian general (b. 1787)
 * 1863 – Sir Robert Bateson, 1st Baronet, Irish politician (b. 1782)
 * 1900 – Vikramatji Khimojiraj, Indian ruler (b. 1819)

1901–present

 * 1910 – Mark Twain, American novelist, humorist, and critic (b. 1835)
 * 1918 – Manfred von Richthofen, German captain and pilot (b. 1892)
 * 1924 – Eleonora Duse, Italian actress (b. 1858)
 * 1930 – Robert Bridges, English poet and author (b. 1844)
 * 1932 – Friedrich Gustav Piffl, Bohemian cardinal (b. 1864)
 * 1938 – Allama Muhammad Iqbal, Pakistani National philosopher and poet (b. 1877)
 * 1941 – Fritz Manteuffel, German gymnast (b. 1875)
 * 1945 – Walter Model, German field marshal (b. 1891)
 * 1946 – John Maynard Keynes, English economist and philosopher (b. 1883)
 * 1948 – Aldo Leopold, American ecologist and author (b. 1887)
 * 1952 – Leslie Banks, American actor, director and producer (b. 1890)
 * 1954 – Emil Leon Post, Polish-American mathematician and logician (b. 1897)
 * 1956 – Charles MacArthur, American playwright and screenwriter (b. 1895)
 * 1965 – Edward Victor Appleton, English-Scottish physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1892)
 * 1971 – François Duvalier, Haitian physician and politician, 40th President of Haiti (b. 1907)
 * 1973 – Arthur Fadden, Australian accountant and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1894)
 * 1973  – Kemal Tahir, Turkish journalist and author (b. 1910)
 * 1977 – Gummo Marx, American vaudevillian and talent agent (b. 1892)
 * 1978 – Sandy Denny, English singer-songwriter (b. 1947)
 * 1978  – Thomas Wyatt Turner, American biologist and academic (b. 1877)
 * 1980 – Alexander Oparin, Russian biochemist and academic (b. 1894)
 * 1980  – Sohrab Sepehri, Iranian poet and painter (b. 1928)
 * 1983 – Walter Slezak, Austrian-American actor and singer (b. 1902)
 * 1984 – Marcel Janco, Romanian-Israeli artist (b. 1895)
 * 1984  – Hristo Prodanov, Bulgarian engineer and mountaineer (b. 1943)
 * 1985 – Rudi Gernreich, Austrian-American fashion designer, created the monokini (b. 1922)
 * 1985  – Tancredo Neves, Brazilian banker and politician, Prime Minister of Brazil (b. 1910)
 * 1986 – Marjorie Eaton, American painter and actress (b. 1901)
 * 1986  – Salah Jahin, Egyptian poet, playwright, and composer (b. 1930)
 * 1987 – Gustav Bergmann, Austrian-American philosopher from the Vienna Circle (b. 1906)
 * 1990 – Erté, Russian-French illustrator (b. 1892)
 * 1991 – Willi Boskovsky, Austrian violinist and conductor (b. 1909)
 * 1992 – Väinö Linna, Finnish author (b. 1920)
 * 1996 – Abdul Hafeez Kardar, Pakistani cricketer (b. 1925)
 * 1996  – Jimmy Snyder, American sportscaster (b. 1919)
 * 1998 – Jean-François Lyotard, French sociologist and philosopher (b. 1924)
 * 1999 – Buddy Rogers, American actor (b. 1904)
 * 2003 – Nina Simone, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and activist (b. 1933)
 * 2005 – Zhang Chunqiao, Chinese writer and politician, member of the Gang of Four (b. 1917)
 * 2010 – Gustav Lorentzen, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1947)
 * 2010  – Juan Antonio Samaranch, Spanish businessman, seventh President of the International Olympic Committee (b. 1920)
 * 2010  – Kanagaratnam Sriskandan, Sri Lankan-English engineer and civil servant (b. 1930)
 * 2011 – Catharina Halkes, Dutch theologian and academic (b. 1920)
 * 2012 – Doris Betts, American author and academic (b. 1932)
 * 2013 – Shakuntala Devi, Indian mathematician and astrologer (b. 1929)
 * 2013  – Leopold Engleitner, Austrian Holocaust survivor, author, and educator (b. 1905)
 * 2014 – George H. Heilmeier, American engineer (b. 1936)
 * 2014  – Win Tin, Burmese journalist and politician, co-founded the National League for Democracy (b. 1930)
 * 2016 – Prince, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor (b. 1958)
 * 2017 – Ugo Ehiogu, English footballer (b. 1972)
 * 2018 – Nabi Tajima, Japanese supercentenarian (b. 1900)
 * 2019 – Polly Higgins, Scottish barrister, author and environmental lobbyist (b. 1968)
 * 2024 – Terry A. Anderson, American journalist (b. 1947)

Holidays and observances

 * Christian feast day:
 * Abdecalas
 * Anastasius Sinaita
 * Anselm of Canterbury
 * Beuno
 * Conrad of Parzham
 * Holy Infant of Good Health
 * Shemon Bar Sabbae
 * Wolbodo
 * April 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
 * Parilia (ancient Rome)
 * Civil Service Day (India)
 * Grounation Day (Rastafari)
 * Heroic Defense of Veracruz (Mexico)
 * Kang Pan-sok's Birthday (North Korea)
 * Kartini Day (Indonesia)
 * Local Self Government Day (Russia)
 * National Tea Day (United Kingdom)
 * National Tree Planting Day (Kenya)
 * San Jacinto Day (Texas)
 * Queen or King's Official Birthday (Falkland Islands)
 * Tiradentes' Day (Brazil)
 * Vietnam Book Day (Vietnam)

title: April 21


text:
ATM

ATM or atm often refers to:

 * Atmosphere (unit) (symbol ), a unit of atmospheric pressure
 * Automated teller machine (ATM), a cash dispenser or cash machine

ATM or atm may also refer to:

Computing, telecommunications, electronics, software

 * ATM (computer), a ZX Spectrum clone developed in Moscow in 1991
 * Adobe Type Manager, a computer program for managing fonts
 * Accelerated Turing machine, or Zeno machine, a model of computation used in theoretical computer science
 * Alternating Turing machine, a model of computation used in theoretical computer science
 * Asynchronous Transfer Mode, a telecommunications protocol used in networking
 * ATM adaptation layer
 * ATM Adaptation Layer 5

Arts, Entertainment, Media

 * Amateur Telescope Making (books), a series of books by Albert Graham Ingalls
 * "ATM" (song), a 2018 song by J. Cole from KOD
 * @fter Midnight (TV series) (logo:  -- at-m), U.S. late night comedy celebrity game show

Film

 * ATM (2012 film), an American film
 * ATM: Er Rak Error, a 2012 Thai film
 * Azhagiya Tamil Magan, a 2007 Indian film

Groups, companies, organizations

 * Abiding Truth Ministries, anti-LGBT organization in Springfield, Massachusetts, US
 * Association of Teachers of Mathematics, UK
 * Acrylic Tank Manufacturing, US aquarium manufacturer, televised in Tanked
 * ATM FA, a football club in Malaysia
 * Atlético Madrid (abbreviated AtM), football club in Spain
 * African Transformation Movement, South African political party founded in 2018
 * The a2 Milk Company (NZX ticker symbol ATM)

Science and engineering

 * Apollo Telescope Mount, a solar observatory
 * ATM serine/threonine kinase, a serine/threonine kinase activated by DNA damage
 * The Airborne Topographic Mapper, a laser altimeter among the instruments used by NASA's Operation IceBridge

Transportation

 * Active traffic management, a motorway scheme on the M42 in England
 * Air traffic management, a concept in aviation
 * Altamira Airport (IATA airport code ), Brazil
 * Azienda Trasporti Milanesi, the municipal public transport company of Milan
 * Airlines of Tasmania (ICAO airline code )

Catalonia, Spain

 * Autoritat del Transport Metropolità (ATM Àrea de Barcelona), in the Barcelona metropolitan area
 * Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat del Camp de Tarragona (ATM Camp de Tarragona), in the Camp de Tarragona area
 * Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat de l'Àrea de Girona (ATM Àrea de Girona), in the Girona area
 * Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat de l'Àrea de Lleida (ATM Àrea de Lleida), in the Lleida area

Other uses

 * A. T. M. Wilson (1906–1978), British psychiatrist
 * Actun Tunichil Muknal, a cave in Belize
 * Anti-tank missile, a missile designed to destroy tanks
 * Ass to mouth, a sexual act
 * At the money, moneyness where the strike price is the same as the current spot price
 * At-the-market offering, a type of follow-on offering of stock
 * Automatenmarken, a variable value stamp
 * "at the moment" (atm) in the common abbreviation in SMS language
 * Texas A&M University, whose lettermark resembles "ATM"

title: ATM


text:
Amazonite

Amazonite, also known as amazonstone, is a green tectosilicate mineral, a variety of the potassium feldspar called microcline. Its chemical formula is KAlSi3O8, which is polymorphic to orthoclase.

Its name is taken from that of the Amazon River, from which green stones were formerly obtained, though it is unknown whether those stones were amazonite. Although it has been used for jewellery for well over three thousand years, as attested by archaeological finds in Middle and New Kingdom Egypt and Mesopotamia, no ancient or medieval authority mentions it. It was first described as a distinct mineral only in the 18th century.

Green and greenish-blue varieties of potassium feldspars that are predominantly triclinic are designated as amazonite. It has been described as a "beautiful crystallized variety of a bright verdigris-green" and as possessing a "lively green colour". It is occasionally cut and used as a gemstone.

Occurrence
Amazonite is a mineral of limited occurrence. In Bronze Age Egypt, it was mined in the southern Eastern Desert at Gebel Migif. In early modern times, it was obtained almost exclusively from the area of Miass in the Ilmensky Mountains, 50 mi southwest of Chelyabinsk, Russia, where it occurs in granitic rocks.

Amazonite is now known to occur in various places around the world. Those places are, among others, as follows:

Australia:

 * Eyre Peninsula, Koppio, Baila Hill Mine (Koppio Amazonite Mine)

China: Libya: Mongolia:
 * Baishitouquan granite intrusion, Hami Prefecture, Xinjiang: found in granite
 * Jabal Eghei, Tibesti Mountains: found in granitic rocks
 * Avdar Massif, Töv Province: found in alkali granite

South Africa:

 * Mogalakwena, Limpopo Province
 * Khâi-Ma, Northern Cape
 * Kakamas, Northern Cape
 * Ceres Valley, Western Cape

Sweden:
 * Skuleboda mine, Västra Götaland County: found in pegmatite

United States:
 * Colorado:
 * Deer Trail, Arapahoe County :233
 * Custer County :234
 * Devils Head, Douglas County :234
 * Pine Creek, Douglas County :234
 * Crystal Park, El Paso County :234
 * Pikes Peak, El Paso County: found in coarse granites or pegmatite
 * St. Peter's Dome, El Paso County :234
 * Tarryall Mountains, Park County :235
 * Crystal Peak, Teller County :235
 * Wyoming
 * Virginia:
 * Morefield Mine, Amelia County: found in pegmatite
 * Rutherford Mine, Amelia County
 * Pennsylvania:
 * Media, Delaware County :244
 * Middletown, Delaware County :244

Color
For many years, the source of amazonite's color was a mystery. Some people assumed the color was due to copper because copper compounds often have blue and green colors. A 1985 study suggests that the blue-green color results from quantities of lead and water in the feldspar. Subsequent 1998 theoretical studies by A. Julg expand on the potential role of aliovalent lead in the color of microcline.

Other studies suggest the colors are associated with the increasing content of lead, rubidium, and thallium ranging in amounts between 0.00X and 0.0X in the feldspars, with even extremely high contents of PbO, lead monoxide, (1% or more) known from the literature. A 2010 study also implicated the role of divalent iron in the green coloration. These studies and associated hypotheses indicate the complex nature of the color in amazonite; in other words, the color may be the aggregate effect of several mutually inclusive and necessary factors.

Health
A 2021 study by the German Institut für Edelsteinprüfung (EPI) found that the amount of lead that leaked from an 11 g sample of Amazonite into an acidic solution simulating saliva exceeded European Union standard DIN EN 71-3:2013's recommended amount by five times. This experiment was to simulate a child swallowing amazonite, and could also apply to new alternative medicine practices such as inserting the mineral into oils or drinking water for days.

title: Amazonite