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Computer music

Computer music is the application of computing technology in music composition, to help human composers create new music or to have computers independently create music, such as with algorithmic composition programs. It includes the theory and application of new and existing computer software technologies and basic aspects of music, such as sound synthesis, digital signal processing, sound design, sonic diffusion, acoustics, electrical engineering, and psychoacoustics. The field of computer music can trace its roots back to the origins of electronic music, and the first experiments and innovations with electronic instruments at the turn of the 20th century.

History
Much of the work on computer music has drawn on the relationship between music and mathematics, a relationship that has been noted since the Ancient Greeks described the "harmony of the spheres".

Musical melodies were first generated by the computer originally named the CSIR Mark 1 (later renamed CSIRAC) in Australia in 1950. There were newspaper reports from America and England (early and recently) that computers may have played music earlier, but thorough research has debunked these stories as there is no evidence to support the newspaper reports (some of which were speculative). Research has shown that people speculated about computers playing music, possibly because computers would make noises, but there is no evidence that they did it.

The world's first computer to play music was the CSIR Mark 1 (later named CSIRAC), which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard in the late 1940s. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIR Mark 1 to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1950 the CSIR Mark 1 was used to play music, the first known use of a digital computer for that purpose. The music was never recorded, but it has been accurately reconstructed. In 1951 it publicly played the "Colonel Bogey March" of which only the reconstruction exists. However, the CSIR Mark 1 played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice, as Max Mathews did, which is current computer-music practice.

The first music to be performed in England was a performance of the British National Anthem that was programmed by Christopher Strachey on the Ferranti Mark 1, late in 1951. Later that year, short extracts of three pieces were recorded there by a BBC outside broadcasting unit: the National Anthem, "Baa, Baa, Black Sheep", and "In the Mood"; this is recognized as the earliest recording of a computer to play music as the CSIRAC music was never recorded. This recording can be heard at the Manchester University site. Researchers at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch declicked and restored this recording in 2016 and the results may be heard on SoundCloud.

Two further major 1950s developments were the origins of digital sound synthesis by computer, and of algorithmic composition programs beyond rote playback. Amongst other pioneers, the musical chemists Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Isaacson worked on a series of algorithmic composition experiments from 1956 to 1959, manifested in the 1957 premiere of the Illiac Suite for string quartet. Max Mathews at Bell Laboratories developed the influential MUSIC I program and its descendants, further popularising computer music through a 1963 article in Science. The first professional composer to work with digital synthesis was James Tenney, who created a series of digitally synthesized and/or algorithmically composed pieces at Bell Labs using Mathews' MUSIC III system, beginning with Analog #1 (Noise Study) (1961). After Tenney left Bell Labs in 1964, he was replaced by composer Jean-Claude Risset, who conducted research on the synthesis of instrumental timbres and composed Computer Suite from Little Boy (1968).

Early computer-music programs typically did not run in real time, although the first experiments on CSIRAC and the Ferranti Mark 1 did operate in real time. From the late 1950s, with increasingly sophisticated programming, programs would run for hours or days, on multi million-dollar computers, to generate a few minutes of music. One way around this was to use a 'hybrid system' of digital control of an analog synthesiser and early examples of this were Max Mathews' GROOVE system (1969) and also MUSYS by Peter Zinovieff (1969).

Until now partial use has been exploited for musical research into the substance and form of sound (convincing examples are those of Hiller and Isaacson in Urbana, Illinois, US; Iannis Xenakis in Paris and Pietro Grossi in Florence, Italy).

In May 1967 the first experiments in computer music in Italy were carried out by the S 2F M studio in Florence in collaboration with General Electric Information Systems Italy. Olivetti-General Electric GE 115 (Olivetti S.p.A.) is used by Grossi as a performer: three programmes were prepared for these experiments. The programmes were written by Ferruccio Zulian and used by Pietro Grossi for playing Bach, Paganini, and Webern works and for studying new sound structures.

John Chowning's work on FM synthesis from the 1960s to the 1970s allowed much more efficient digital synthesis, eventually leading to the development of the affordable FM synthesis-based Yamaha DX7 digital synthesizer, released in 1983.

"Interesting sounds must have a fluidity and changeability that allows them to remain fresh to the ear. In computer music this subtle ingredient is bought at a high computational cost, both in terms of the number of items requiring detail in a score and in the amount of interpretive work the instruments must produce to realize this detail in sound."

In Japan
In Japan, experiments in computer music date back to 1962, when Keio University professor Sekine and Toshiba engineer Hayashi experimented with the TOSBAC computer. This resulted in a piece entitled TOSBAC Suite, influenced by the Illiac Suite. Later Japanese computer music compositions include a piece by Kenjiro Ezaki presented during Osaka Expo '70 and "Panoramic Sonore" (1974) by music critic Akimichi Takeda. Ezaki also published an article called "Contemporary Music and Computers" in 1970. Since then, Japanese research in computer music has largely been carried out for commercial purposes in popular music, though some of the more serious Japanese musicians used large computer systems such as the Fairlight in the 1970s.

In the late 1970s these systems became commercialized, notably by systems like the Roland MC-8 Microcomposer, where a microprocessor-based system controls an analog synthesizer, released in 1978. In addition to the Yamaha DX7, the advent of inexpensive digital chips and microcomputers opened the door to real-time generation of computer music. In the 1980s, Japanese personal computers such as the NEC PC-88 came installed with FM synthesis sound chips and featured audio programming languages such as Music Macro Language (MML) and MIDI interfaces, which were most often used to produce video game music, or chiptunes. By the early 1990s, the performance of microprocessor-based computers reached the point that real-time generation of computer music using more general programs and algorithms became possible.

Advances
Advances in computing power and software for manipulation of digital media have dramatically affected the way computer music is generated and performed. Current-generation micro-computers are powerful enough to perform very sophisticated audio synthesis using a wide variety of algorithms and approaches. Computer music systems and approaches are now ubiquitous, and so firmly embedded in the process of creating music that we hardly give them a second thought: computer-based synthesizers, digital mixers, and effects units have become so commonplace that use of digital rather than analog technology to create and record music is the norm, rather than the exception.

Research
There is considerable activity in the field of computer music as researchers continue to pursue new and interesting computer-based synthesis, composition, and performance approaches. Throughout the world there are many organizations and institutions dedicated to the area of computer and electronic music study and research, including the CCRMA (Center of Computer Research in Music and Acoustic, Stanford, USA), ICMA (International Computer Music Association), C4DM (Centre for Digital Music), IRCAM, GRAME, SEAMUS (Society for Electro Acoustic Music in the United States), CEC (Canadian Electroacoustic Community), and a great number of institutions of higher learning around the world.

Music composed and performed by computers
Later, composers such as Gottfried Michael Koenig and Iannis Xenakis had computers generate the sounds of the composition as well as the score. Koenig produced algorithmic composition programs which were a generalization of his own serial composition practice. This is not exactly similar to Xenakis' work as he used mathematical abstractions and examined how far he could explore these musically. Koenig's software translated the calculation of mathematical equations into codes which represented musical notation. This could be converted into musical notation by hand and then performed by human players. His programs Project 1 and Project 2 are examples of this kind of software. Later, he extended the same kind of principles into the realm of synthesis, enabling the computer to produce the sound directly. SSP is an example of a program which performs this kind of function. All of these programs were produced by Koenig at the Institute of Sonology in Utrecht in the 1970s. In the 2000s, Andranik Tangian developed a computer algorithm to determine the time event structures for rhythmic canons and rhythmic fugues, which were then "manually" worked out into harmonic compositions Eine kleine Mathmusik I and Eine kleine Mathmusik II performed by computer; for scores and recordings see.

Computer-generated scores for performance by human players
Computers have also been used in an attempt to imitate the music of great composers of the past, such as Mozart. A present exponent of this technique is David Cope, whose computer programs analyses works of other composers to produce new works in a similar style. Cope's best-known program is Emily Howell.

Melomics, a research project from the University of Málaga (Spain), developed a computer composition cluster named Iamus, which composes complex, multi-instrument pieces for editing and performance. Since its inception, Iamus has composed a full album in 2012, also named Iamus, which New Scientist described as "the first major work composed by a computer and performed by a full orchestra". The group has also developed an API for developers to utilize the technology, and makes its music available on its website.

Computer-aided algorithmic composition
Computer-aided algorithmic composition (CAAC, pronounced "sea-ack") is the implementation and use of algorithmic composition techniques in software. This label is derived from the combination of two labels, each too vague for continued use. The label computer-aided composition lacks the specificity of using generative algorithms. Music produced with notation or sequencing software could easily be considered computer-aided composition. The label algorithmic composition is likewise too broad, particularly in that it does not specify the use of a computer. The term computer-aided, rather than computer-assisted, is used in the same manner as computer-aided design.

Machine improvisation
Machine improvisation uses computer algorithms to create improvisation on existing music materials. This is usually done by sophisticated recombination of musical phrases extracted from existing music, either live or pre-recorded. In order to achieve credible improvisation in particular style, machine improvisation uses machine learning and pattern matching algorithms to analyze existing musical examples. The resulting patterns are then used to create new variations "in the style" of the original music, developing a notion of stylistic re-injection. This is different from other improvisation methods with computers that use algorithmic composition to generate new music without performing analysis of existing music examples.

Statistical style modeling
Style modeling implies building a computational representation of the musical surface that captures important stylistic features from data. Statistical approaches are used to capture the redundancies in terms of pattern dictionaries or repetitions, which are later recombined to generate new musical data. Style mixing can be realized by analysis of a database containing multiple musical examples in different styles. Machine Improvisation builds upon a long musical tradition of statistical modeling that began with Hiller and Isaacson's Illiac Suite for String Quartet (1957) and Xenakis' uses of Markov chains and stochastic processes. Modern methods include the use of lossless data compression for incremental parsing, prediction suffix tree, string searching and more. Style mixing is possible by blending models derived from several musical sources, with the first style mixing done by S. Dubnov in a piece NTrope Suite using Jensen-Shannon joint source model. Later the use of factor oracle algorithm (basically a factor oracle is a finite state automaton constructed in linear time and space in an incremental fashion) was adopted for music by Assayag and Dubnov and became the basis for several systems that use stylistic re-injection.

Implementations
The first implementation of statistical style modeling was the LZify method in Open Music, followed by the Continuator system that implemented interactive machine improvisation that interpreted the LZ incremental parsing in terms of Markov models and used it for real time style modeling developed by François Pachet at Sony CSL Paris in 2002. Matlab implementation of the Factor Oracle machine improvisation can be found as part of Computer Audition toolbox. There is also an NTCC implementation of the Factor Oracle machine improvisation.

OMax is a software environment developed in IRCAM. OMax uses OpenMusic and Max. It is based on researches on stylistic modeling carried out by Gerard Assayag and Shlomo Dubnov and on researches on improvisation with the computer by G. Assayag, M. Chemillier and G. Bloch (a.k.a. the OMax Brothers) in the Ircam Music Representations group. One of the problems in modeling audio signals with factor oracle is the symbolization of features from continuous values to a discrete alphabet. This problem was solved in the Variable Markov Oracle (VMO) available as python implementation, using an information rate criteria for finding the optimal or most informative representation.

Use of artificial intelligence
The use of artificial intelligence to generate new melodies, cover pre-existing music, and clone artists' voices, is a recent phenomenon that has been reported to disrupt the music industry.

Live coding
Live coding (sometimes known as 'interactive programming', 'on-the-fly programming', 'just in time programming') is the name given to the process of writing software in real time as part of a performance. Recently it has been explored as a more rigorous alternative to laptop musicians who, live coders often feel, lack the charisma and pizzazz of musicians performing live.

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Concept

A concept is defined as an abstract idea. It is understood to be a fundamental building block underlying principles, thoughts, and beliefs. Concepts play an important role in all aspects of cognition. As such, concepts are studied within such disciplines as linguistics, psychology, and philosophy, and these disciplines are interested in the logical and psychological structure of concepts, and how they are put together to form thoughts and sentences. The study of concepts has served as an important flagship of an emerging interdisciplinary approach, cognitive science.

In contemporary philosophy, three understandings of a concept prevail:
 * mental representations, such that a concept is an entity that exists in the mind (a mental object)
 * abilities peculiar to cognitive agents (mental states)
 * Fregean senses, abstract objects rather than a mental object or a mental state

Concepts are classified into a hierarchy, higher levels of which are termed "superordinate" and lower levels termed "subordinate". Additionally, there is the "basic" or "middle" level at which people will most readily categorize a concept. For example, a basic-level concept would be "chair", with its superordinate, "furniture", and its subordinate, "easy chair".

Concepts may be exact or inexact. When the mind makes a generalization such as the concept of tree, it extracts similarities from numerous examples; the simplification enables higher-level thinking. A concept is instantiated (reified) by all of its actual or potential instances, whether these are things in the real world or other ideas.

Concepts are studied as components of human cognition in the cognitive science disciplines of linguistics, psychology, and philosophy, where an ongoing debate asks whether all cognition must occur through concepts. Concepts are regularly formalized in mathematics, computer science, databases and artificial intelligence. Examples of specific high-level conceptual classes in these fields include classes, schema or categories. In informal use the word concept often just means any idea.

Ontology of concepts
A central question in the study of concepts is the question of what they are. Philosophers construe this question as one about the ontology of concepts—what kind of things they are. The ontology of concepts determines the answer to other questions, such as how to integrate concepts into a wider theory of the mind, what functions are allowed or disallowed by a concept's ontology, etc. There are two main views of the ontology of concepts: (1) Concepts are abstract objects, and (2) concepts are mental representations.

The psychological view of concepts
Within the framework of the representational theory of mind, the structural position of concepts can be understood as follows: Concepts serve as the building blocks of what are called mental representations (colloquially understood as ideas in the mind). Mental representations, in turn, are the building blocks of what are called propositional attitudes (colloquially understood as the stances or perspectives we take towards ideas, be it "believing", "doubting", "wondering", "accepting", etc.). And these propositional attitudes, in turn, are the building blocks of our understanding of thoughts that populate everyday life, as well as folk psychology. In this way, we have an analysis that ties our common everyday understanding of thoughts down to the scientific and philosophical understanding of concepts.

The physicalist view of concepts
In a physicalist theory of mind, a concept is a mental representation, which the brain uses to denote a class of things in the world. This is to say that it is literally, a symbol or group of symbols together made from the physical material of the brain. Concepts are mental representations that allow us to draw appropriate inferences about the type of entities we encounter in our everyday lives. Concepts do not encompass all mental representations, but are merely a subset of them. The use of concepts is necessary to cognitive processes such as categorization, memory, decision making, learning, and inference.

Concepts are thought to be stored in long term cortical memory, in contrast to episodic memory of the particular objects and events which they abstract, which are stored in hippocampus. Evidence for this separation comes from hippocampal damaged patients such as patient HM. The abstraction from the day's hippocampal events and objects into cortical concepts is often considered to be the computation underlying (some stages of) sleep and dreaming. Many people (beginning with Aristotle) report memories of dreams which appear to mix the day's events with analogous or related historical concepts and memories, and suggest that they were being sorted or organized into more abstract concepts. ("Sort" is itself another word for concept, and "sorting" thus means to organize into concepts.)

Concepts as abstract objects
The semantic view of concepts suggests that concepts are abstract objects. In this view, concepts are abstract objects of a category out of a human's mind rather than some mental representations.

There is debate as to the relationship between concepts and natural language. However, it is necessary at least to begin by understanding that the concept "dog" is philosophically distinct from the things in the world grouped by this concept—or the reference class or extension. Concepts that can be equated to a single word are called "lexical concepts".

The study of concepts and conceptual structure falls into the disciplines of linguistics, philosophy, psychology, and cognitive science.

In the simplest terms, a concept is a name or label that regards or treats an abstraction as if it had concrete or material existence, such as a person, a place, or a thing. It may represent a natural object that exists in the real world like a tree, an animal, a stone, etc. It may also name an artificial (man-made) object like a chair, computer, house, etc. Abstract ideas and knowledge domains such as freedom, equality, science, happiness, etc., are also symbolized by concepts. A concept is merely a symbol, a representation of the abstraction. The word is not to be mistaken for the thing. For example, the word "moon" (a concept) is not the large, bright, shape-changing object up in the sky, but only represents that celestial object. Concepts are created (named) to describe, explain and capture reality as it is known and understood.

A priori concepts
Kant maintained the view that human minds possess pure or a priori concepts. Instead of being abstracted from individual perceptions, like empirical concepts, they originate in the mind itself. He called these concepts categories, in the sense of the word that means predicate, attribute, characteristic, or quality. But these pure categories are predicates of things in general, not of a particular thing. According to Kant, there are twelve categories that constitute the understanding of phenomenal objects. Each category is that one predicate which is common to multiple empirical concepts. In order to explain how an a priori concept can relate to individual phenomena, in a manner analogous to an a posteriori concept, Kant employed the technical concept of the schema. He held that the account of the concept as an abstraction of experience is only partly correct. He called those concepts that result from abstraction "a posteriori concepts" (meaning concepts that arise out of experience). An empirical or an a posteriori concept is a general representation (Vorstellung) or non-specific thought of that which is common to several specific perceived objects (Logic, I, 1., §1, Note 1)

A concept is a common feature or characteristic. Kant investigated the way that empirical a posteriori concepts are created. "The logical acts of the understanding by which concepts are generated as to their form are:

 * 1) comparison, i.e., the likening of mental images to one another in relation to the unity of consciousness;
 * 2) reflection, i.e., the going back over different mental images, how they can be comprehended in one consciousness; and finally
 * 3) abstraction or the segregation of everything else by which the mental images differ ...

In order to make our mental images into concepts, one must thus be able to compare, reflect, and abstract, for these three logical operations of the understanding are essential and general conditions of generating any concept whatever. For example, I see a fir, a willow, and a linden. In firstly comparing these objects, I notice that they are different from one another in respect of trunk, branches, leaves, and the like; further, however, I reflect only on what they have in common, the trunk, the branches, the leaves themselves, and abstract from their size, shape, and so forth; thus I gain a concept of a tree."

Embodied content
In cognitive linguistics, abstract concepts are transformations of concrete concepts derived from embodied experience. The mechanism of transformation is structural mapping, in which properties of two or more source domains are selectively mapped onto a blended space (Fauconnier & Turner, 1995; see conceptual blending). A common class of blends are metaphors. This theory contrasts with the rationalist view that concepts are perceptions (or recollections, in Plato's term) of an independently existing world of ideas, in that it denies the existence of any such realm. It also contrasts with the empiricist view that concepts are abstract generalizations of individual experiences, because the contingent and bodily experience is preserved in a concept, and not abstracted away. While the perspective is compatible with Jamesian pragmatism, the notion of the transformation of embodied concepts through structural mapping makes a distinct contribution to the problem of concept formation.

Realist universal concepts
Platonist views of the mind construe concepts as abstract objects. Plato was the starkest proponent of the realist thesis of universal concepts. By his view, concepts (and ideas in general) are innate ideas that were instantiations of a transcendental world of pure forms that lay behind the veil of the physical world. In this way, universals were explained as transcendent objects. Needless to say, this form of realism was tied deeply with Plato's ontological projects. This remark on Plato is not of merely historical interest. For example, the view that numbers are Platonic objects was revived by Kurt Gödel as a result of certain puzzles that he took to arise from the phenomenological accounts.

Sense and reference
Gottlob Frege, founder of the analytic tradition in philosophy, famously argued for the analysis of language in terms of sense and reference. For him, the sense of an expression in language describes a certain state of affairs in the world, namely, the way that some object is presented. Since many commentators view the notion of sense as identical to the notion of concept, and Frege regards senses as the linguistic representations of states of affairs in the world, it seems to follow that we may understand concepts as the manner in which we grasp the world. Accordingly, concepts (as senses) have an ontological status.

Concepts in calculus
According to Carl Benjamin Boyer, in the introduction to his The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development, concepts in calculus do not refer to perceptions. As long as the concepts are useful and mutually compatible, they are accepted on their own. For example, the concepts of the derivative and the integral are not considered to refer to spatial or temporal perceptions of the external world of experience. Neither are they related in any way to mysterious limits in which quantities are on the verge of nascence or evanescence, that is, coming into or going out of existence. The abstract concepts are now considered to be totally autonomous, even though they originated from the process of abstracting or taking away qualities from perceptions until only the common, essential attributes remained.

Classical theory
The classical theory of concepts, also referred to as the empiricist theory of concepts, is the oldest theory about the structure of concepts (it can be traced back to Aristotle ), and was prominently held until the 1970s. The classical theory of concepts says that concepts have a definitional structure. Adequate definitions of the kind required by this theory usually take the form of a list of features. These features must have two important qualities to provide a comprehensive definition. Features entailed by the definition of a concept must be both necessary and sufficient for membership in the class of things covered by a particular concept. A feature is considered necessary if every member of the denoted class has that feature. A feature is considered sufficient if something has all the parts required by the definition. For example, the classic example bachelor is said to be defined by unmarried and man. An entity is a bachelor (by this definition) if and only if it is both unmarried and a man. To check whether something is a member of the class, you compare its qualities to the features in the definition. Another key part of this theory is that it obeys the law of the excluded middle, which means that there are no partial members of a class, you are either in or out.

The classical theory persisted for so long unquestioned because it seemed intuitively correct and has great explanatory power. It can explain how concepts would be acquired, how we use them to categorize and how we use the structure of a concept to determine its referent class. In fact, for many years it was one of the major activities in philosophy—concept analysis. Concept analysis is the act of trying to articulate the necessary and sufficient conditions for the membership in the referent class of a concept. For example, Shoemaker's classic "Time Without Change" explored whether the concept of the flow of time can include flows where no changes take place, though change is usually taken as a definition of time.

Arguments against the classical theory
Given that most later theories of concepts were born out of the rejection of some or all of the classical theory, it seems appropriate to give an account of what might be wrong with this theory. In the 20th century, philosophers such as Wittgenstein and Rosch argued against the classical theory. There are six primary arguments summarized as follows:
 * It seems that there simply are no definitions—especially those based in sensory primitive concepts.
 * It seems as though there can be cases where our ignorance or error about a class means that we either don't know the definition of a concept, or have incorrect notions about what a definition of a particular concept might entail.
 * Quine's argument against analyticity in Two Dogmas of Empiricism also holds as an argument against definitions.
 * Some concepts have fuzzy membership. There are items for which it is vague whether or not they fall into (or out of) a particular referent class. This is not possible in the classical theory as everything has equal and full membership.
 * Experiments and research showed that assumptions of well defined concepts and categories might not be correct. Researcher Hampton asked participants to differentiate whether items were in different categories. Hampton did not conclude that items were either clear and absolute members or non-members. Instead, Hampton found that some items were barely considered category members and others that were barely non-members. For example, participants considered sinks as barely members of kitchen utensil category, while sponges were considered barely non-members, with much disagreement among participants of the study. If concepts and categories were very well defined, such cases should be rare. Since then, many researches have discovered borderline members that are not clearly in or out of a category of concept.
 * Rosch found typicality effects which cannot be explained by the classical theory of concepts, these sparked the prototype theory. See below.
 * Psychological experiments show no evidence for our using concepts as strict definitions.

Prototype theory
Prototype theory came out of problems with the classical view of conceptual structure. Prototype theory says that concepts specify properties that members of a class tend to possess, rather than must possess. Wittgenstein, Rosch, Mervis, Berlin, Anglin, and Posner are a few of the key proponents and creators of this theory. Wittgenstein describes the relationship between members of a class as family resemblances. There are not necessarily any necessary conditions for membership; a dog can still be a dog with only three legs. This view is particularly supported by psychological experimental evidence for prototypicality effects. Participants willingly and consistently rate objects in categories like 'vegetable' or 'furniture' as more or less typical of that class. It seems that our categories are fuzzy psychologically, and so this structure has explanatory power. We can judge an item's membership of the referent class of a concept by comparing it to the typical member—the most central member of the concept. If it is similar enough in the relevant ways, it will be cognitively admitted as a member of the relevant class of entities. Rosch suggests that every category is represented by a central exemplar which embodies all or the maximum possible number of features of a given category. Lech, Gunturkun, and Suchan explain that categorization involves many areas of the brain. Some of these are: visual association areas, prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, and temporal lobe.

The Prototype perspective is proposed as an alternative view to the Classical approach. While the Classical theory requires an all-or-nothing membership in a group, prototypes allow for more fuzzy boundaries and are characterized by attributes. Lakoff stresses that experience and cognition are critical to the function of language, and Labov's experiment found that the function that an artifact contributed to what people categorized it as. For example, a container holding mashed potatoes versus tea swayed people toward classifying them as a bowl and a cup, respectively. This experiment also illuminated the optimal dimensions of what the prototype for "cup" is.

Prototypes also deal with the essence of things and to what extent they belong to a category. There have been a number of experiments dealing with questionnaires asking participants to rate something according to the extent to which it belongs to a category. This question is contradictory to the Classical Theory because something is either a member of a category or is not. This type of problem is paralleled in other areas of linguistics such as phonology, with an illogical question such as "is /i/ or /o/ a better vowel?" The Classical approach and Aristotelian categories may be a better descriptor in some cases.

Theory-theory
Theory-theory is a reaction to the previous two theories and develops them further. This theory postulates that categorization by concepts is something like scientific theorizing. Concepts are not learned in isolation, but rather are learned as a part of our experiences with the world around us. In this sense, concepts' structure relies on their relationships to other concepts as mandated by a particular mental theory about the state of the world. How this is supposed to work is a little less clear than in the previous two theories, but is still a prominent and notable theory. This is supposed to explain some of the issues of ignorance and error that come up in prototype and classical theories as concepts that are structured around each other seem to account for errors such as whale as a fish (this misconception came from an incorrect theory about what a whale is like, combining with our theory of what a fish is). When we learn that a whale is not a fish, we are recognizing that whales don't in fact fit the theory we had about what makes something a fish. Theory-theory also postulates that people's theories about the world are what inform their conceptual knowledge of the world. Therefore, analysing people's theories can offer insights into their concepts. In this sense, "theory" means an individual's mental explanation rather than scientific fact. This theory criticizes classical and prototype theory as relying too much on similarities and using them as a sufficient constraint. It suggests that theories or mental understandings contribute more to what has membership to a group rather than weighted similarities, and a cohesive category is formed more by what makes sense to the perceiver. Weights assigned to features have shown to fluctuate and vary depending on context and experimental task demonstrated by Tversky. For this reason, similarities between members may be collateral rather than causal.

Ideasthesia
According to the theory of ideasthesia (or "sensing concepts"), activation of a concept may be the main mechanism responsible for the creation of phenomenal experiences. Therefore, understanding how the brain processes concepts may be central to solving the mystery of how conscious experiences (or qualia) emerge within a physical system e.g., the sourness of the sour taste of lemon. This question is also known as the hard problem of consciousness. Research on ideasthesia emerged from research on synesthesia where it was noted that a synesthetic experience requires first an activation of a concept of the inducer. Later research expanded these results into everyday perception.

There is a lot of discussion on the most effective theory in concepts. Another theory is semantic pointers, which use perceptual and motor representations and these representations are like symbols.

Etymology
The term "concept" is traced back to 1554–60 (Latin conceptum – "something conceived").

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Concept


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Cell Cycle

Cell Cycle is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering all aspects of cell biology. It was established in 2002 with Mikhail V. Blagosklonny (Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center) as founding editor-in-chief. Originally published bimonthly, it is now published biweekly.

Abstracting and indexing
The journal is abstracted and indexed in: • Biological Abstracts

• BIOSIS Previews

• Chemical Abstracts Service

• Current Contents/Life Sciences

• Embase

• Index Medicus/MEDLINE/PubMed

• Science Citation Index Expanded

• Scopus According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2017 impact factor of 3.304.

title: Cell Cycle


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List of classical music competitions

European Classical music has long relied on music competitions to provide a public forum that identifies the strongest players and contributes to the establishment of their professional careers. This is a list of current competitions in classical music, with each competition and reference link given only once. Many offer competitions across a range of categories and in these cases they are listed under "General/mixed". Competitions with age restrictions are listed under "Young musicians".

Chamber music

 * Asia-Pacific Chamber Music Competition, for piano trios and string quartets, in Melbourne, Australia, every four years
 * Bucharest International Music Competition – Wind Quintet & Brass Quintet, Bucharest, Romania
 * Central European String Quartet International Composition Competition (Budapest, Hungary)
 * Chamber Music in Yellow Springs Annual Competition, Yellow Springs, Ohio, U.S.
 * Città di Barletta - International Young Musician Competition, comprising Young Soloist Prize, Chamber Music Prize, Young Pianist Prize, and Composition Prize (Barletta/Apulia, Italy)
 * Fischoff National Chamber Music Association, South Bend, Indiana, U.S.
 * International Chamber Music Competition Hamburg for piano trios and string quartets (Hamburg, Germany)
 * International Chamber Music Ensemble Competition of New England (Boston, Massachusetts, US)
 * International Contest–Festival of Chamber Ensemble Performance (Magnitogorsk, Russia)
 * International Maria Yudina Competition of Young Pianists, Duo Pianists and Chamber Ensembles (St. Petersburg, Russia)
 * International Radio Competition for Young Musicians Concertino Praga (Prague, Czech Republic)
 * International Shostakovich Chamber Music Competition (Moscow, Russia)
 * International String Quartet Competition Radom Chamber Orchestra (Radom, Poland)
 * Melbourne International Chamber Music Competition, held in Melbourne, Australia, every four years
 * Progressive Musicians Carnegie Hall Laureate Gala, Carnegie Hall, New York City, U.S.
 * Quebec Music Competition (Montreal, Quebec, Canada) Live and Online
 * St Martin's Chamber Music Competition (London, UK)
 * Salieri – Zinetti International Chamber Music Competition (Verona/ Mantova, Italy)
 * Sydney Eisteddfod: Chamber Music (18 Years & Under), and Chamber Music (18-26 Years) (Sydney, Australia)
 * Terem Crossover International Music Competition instrumental ensembles (Saint Petersburg, Russia)
 * Trondheim International Chamber Music Competition (Trondheim, Norway)
 * Triomphe de l'Art International Music Competition (Brussels, Belgium)
 * Triomphe de l'Art International Music Competition (Brussels, Belgium)

Choral/voice

 * Australian Concerto and Vocal Competition (Townsville, Australia)
 * Australian Singing Competition (Sydney, Australia)
 * Barry Alexander International Vocal Competition (US)
 * Bampton Classical Opera Young Singers' Competition (UK)
 * BBC Singer of the World competition (Cardiff, Wales)
 * Boris Christoff International Competition for Young Singers (Sofia, Bulgaria)
 * Concours international de chant de Toulouse (Toulouse, France)
 * Concours International Nei Stemmen (Luxemburg City, Luxemburg)
 * Concurs Internacional de Cant Francesc Viñas (Barcelona, Spain)
 * Concurs Internacional de cant Jaume Aragall (Barcelona, Spain)
 * Elena Obraztsova International Competition for young opera singers (St. Petersburg, Russia)
 * Elizabeth Connell Prize International Singing Competition for Sopranos
 * International Early Music Vocal Competition "Canticum Gaudium", Poznan, Poland
 * International Hans Gabor Belvedere Singing Competition (Vienna, Austria)
 * International Hilde Zadek Voice Competition (Vienna, Austria)
 * International Johann Sebastian Bach Competition (Leipzig, Germany)
 * International Singing Competition Neue Stimmen (Gütersloh, Germany)
 * International Stanisław Moniuszko Vocal Competition (Warsaw, Poland)
 * International Stasys Šimkus choir competition (Klaipėda, Lithuania)
 * International Tchaikovsky Competition (Moscow, Russia)
 * International Vocal Competition 's-Hertogenbosch ('s-Hertogenbosch, Netherlands)
 * International Voice Competition – Gerda Lissner Foundation (New York, US)
 * International Zdeněk Fibich Competition in interpretation of melodrama
 * The Featured NY. International Singing Competition (New York, US)
 * Jan, Edward, Józefina Reszke Vocal Competition
 * Joan Sutherland & Richard Bonynge Bel Canto Award
 * The Klaudia Taev Competition for Young Opera Singers (Pärnu, Estonia).
 * Lotte Lehman League Art Song Contest
 * Marilyn Horne Song Competition, competition for classical singers and piano accompanists since 1997.
 * Monte-Carlo Music Masters
 * Montserrat Caballe International Singing Competition (Zaragoza, Spain)
 * National Anthem Bicentennial (Fort McHenry, US)
 * Nuovo Canto Opera Competition in Milano
 * Operalia, The World Opera Competition (Paris, France)
 * Prague Christmas (Prague, Czech Republic)
 * Quebec Music Competition (Montreal, Quebec, Canada) Live and Online
 * Queen Elisabeth Music Competition (Brussels, Belgium)
 * Queen Sonja International Music Competition (Oslo, Norway)
 * Triomphe de l'Art International Music Competition (Brussels, Belgium)
 * Vancouver International Music Competition (Vancouver, Canada)
 * Youth Zeal Music Competition (Helsinki, Finland)

Composition

 * Progressive Musicians Carnegie Hall Laureate Gala
 * "Città di Barletta - International Young Musician Competition " International Young Musician Composition Competition (Barletta/Apulia, Italy)
 * Alba Rosa Viëtor Composition Competition (Amsterdam, the Netherlands)
 * Alexander Zemlinsky Prize for Composition (Cincinnati, US)
 * ARBORETUM Krzysztof Penderecki International Composers' Competition (Radom, Poland)
 * Bucharest International Music Competition | Composition for Wind Quintet & Brass Quintet
 * Classic Pure Vienna International Composition Competition (Vienna, Austria)
 * Competition for Young Composers dedicated to Maestro Gian Carlo Menotti (Spoleto, Italy)
 * Cum Laude Music Awards. International Consonant Chamber Music Composition Contest
 * Fifteen-Minutes-of-Fame (New York City, US)
 * Gardner Composition Competition (American Viola Society, US)
 * Gaudeamus International Composers Award (Netherlands)
 * George Enescu International Competition (Composition section) (Bucharest, Romania)
 * Henryk Mikołaj Górecki International Composers Competition (Cracow, Poland)
 * International Antonín Dvořák Composition Competition (Prague, Czech Republic)
 * I International Composition Competition of Vienna Classical Music Academy (Vienna, Austria)
 * International Composers Festival, Hastings and Bexhill, East Sussex, United Kingdom
 * International Composition Prize (Sacile PN, Italy)
 * International Uuno Klami Composition Competition (Kotka/Kouvola, Finland)
 * Isla Verde Bronces International Brass Composition Contest (Córdoba, Argentina)
 * Kazimierz Serocki International Composers' Competition (Warsaw, Poland)
 * Lake George Music Festival Composition Competition (New York, US)
 * Masterprize International Composing Competition
 * Mauricio Kagel Composition Competition (Vienna, Austria)
 * Midi & MP3 Composition Music Contest for Composers
 * Northwest Indiana Symphony Composition Competition (Indiana, US)
 * PARMA Student Composer Competition (North Hampton, US)
 * Project Trio Composition Competition (Brooklyn, US)
 * Quebec Music Competition (Montreal, Quebec, Canada) Live and Online
 * Queen Elisabeth Music Competition (Brussels, Belgium)
 * 60x60 – International (New York, US)
 * RED NOTE New Music Festival Composition Competition (Illinois, US)
 * Reveille Trumpet Collective Composition Prize
 * Royal Northern Sinfonia Young Composers' Competition (Newcastle, UK)
 * Tōru Takemitsu Composition Award (Tokyo, Japan)
 * Zvi Zeitlin Memorial International Composer's Competition

Conducting

 * Cadaqués Orchestra International Conducting Competition (Spain)
 * Donatella Flick Conducting Competition (UK)
 * Guido Cantelli Conducting Competition (Italy)
 * Gustav Mahler Conducting Competition (Germany)
 * International Besançon Competition for Young Conductors (France)
 * International Conducting Competition Jeunesses Musicales Bucharest (Romania)
 * Jorma Panula Conducting Competition (Finland)
 * Khachaturian International Competition (Armenia)
 * International Sergei Kussewitzky Conducting Competition (Italy)
 * Leeds Conductors Competition (UK)
 * Nicolai Malko Competition For Young Conductors (Denmark)
 * Sir Georg Solti International Conductors' Competition (Germany)
 * The Grzegorz Fitelberg International Competition for Conductors (Poland)
 * Tokyo International Music Competition for Conducting (Japan)

General/ mixed

 * American MSFC Young Artist Competition (Online)
 * Progressive Musicians Carnegie Hall Laureate Gala
 * "Città di Barletta - International Young Musician Competition " International Young Musician Chamber Music Competition (Barletta/Apulia, Italy)
 * American Virtuoso International Music Competition (Washington D.C., US)
 * Appassionato International Youth Music Festival (Quebec, Canada)
 * Brilliant Talent Discovery Awards International Music Competition
 * Vancouver International Music Competition (Vancouver, Canada)
 * The American Prize (Connecticut, US)
 * American Protege Gala Concert at Stern Auditorium (New York, US)
 * Balys Dvarionas International Competition for Young Pianists and Violinists (Lithuania)
 * Classic Pure Vienna International Music Competition (Vienna, Austria)
 * Cleveland Aradhana – South Indian Classical Music Competition (Cleveland, US)
 * E-Gré National Music Competition (Brandon, Canada)
 * EUROPAfest (Bucharest, Romania)
 * France Music Competition (Landes le Gaulois, France)
 * Franz Schubert and Modern Music International Music Competition, Graz
 * International Music Competition of Vienna Classical Music Academy (Vienna, Austria)
 * International Crescendo Music Awards Competition (Tulsa, US)
 * King's Peak International Music Competition (California, US)
 * Long-Thibaud-Crespin Competition (previously International Marguerite Long-Jacques Thibaud Competition; Paris, France)
 * Nishinihon International Music Competition (Fukuoka, Japan)
 * Mykola Lysenko International Music Competition (Kyiv, Ukraine)
 * On Stage International Classical Music Competition (Online Competition)
 * Quebec Music Competition (Montreal, Quebec, Canada) Live and Online
 * Rising Stars Grand Prix – International Music Competition (Berlin, Germany)
 * Naumburg Competition (New York, US)
 * Washington International Competition (Washington, US)
 * Windsor Festival International String Competition (Windsor, UK)
 * Vienna New Year’s Concert International Music Competition (Vienna, Austria)
 * The World Competition (entirely online; New York & Bologna)
 * Triomphe de l'Art International Music Competition (Brussels, Belgium)
 * MAP International Music Competition (USA)

Instrumental

 * Tartini International Music Competition (Piran, Slovenia)
 * Progressive Musicians Carnegie Hall Laureate Gala
 * American MSFC Young Artist Competition (Online)
 * “Vienna New Year’s Concert” International Music Competition
 * " International Piano Competition - Mauro Paolo Monopoli Prize " International Piano Competition (Barletta/Apulia, Italy)
 * "Città di Barletta - International Young Musician Competition" International Young Musician Competition (Barletta/Apulia, Italy)
 * Calabria International Piano Competition (Calabria, Italy)
 * American Protege International Concerto Competition (New York, US)
 * Viseu International Guitar Competition (Viseu, Portugal)
 * Vancouver International Music Competition (Vancouver, Canada)
 * "Arrasate Hiria" International Accordion Competition (Arrasate, Spain)
 * ARD International Music Competition (Munich, Germany)
 * Australian Concerto and Vocal Competition (Townsville, Australia)
 * Budapest International Guitar Competition (BIGC; Budapest, Hungary)
 * Berlin Prize for Young Artists (BPFYA; Berlin, Germany)
 * Canadian International Music Competition (Montreal, Canada)
 * Classica Nova International Music Competition (Hannover, Germany)
 * Euro Elite International Music Competition (Toronto, Canada)
 * Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy Conservatory Competition (Berlin, Germany)
 * The 1st International IMMA Records Classical Music Competition
 * Gaudeamus Competition (Netherlands)
 * Grand Maestro International Music Competition - Online (Canada)
 * Grand Metropolitan International Music Competition - Online (Canada)
 * International Guitar Competition & Festival (Berlin, Germany)
 * International Joseph Joachim Violin Competition Hanover
 * International Performers Competition Brno (Brno, Czech Republic)
 * International US New Star Strings Competition - Online (USA)
 * International Piano Competition for Young Pianists Kronberg (Germany)
 * International Radio Competition for Young Musicians Concertino Praga (Prague, Czech Republic)
 * Italy Percussion Competition (Montesilvano Pescara)
 * Leos Janacek International Competition (Brno, Czech Republic)
 * Monte-Carlo Music Masters
 * Montreal International Music Competition (Montreal, Canada)
 * Mykola Lysenko International Music Competition (Kyiv, Ukraine)
 * Matosinhos International Competition (Online)
 * North American Virtuoso International Music Competition (Online)
 * Quebec Music Competition (Montreal, Quebec, Canada) Live and Online
 * Queen Elisabeth Music Competition (Brussels, Belgium)
 * Ronald Sachs International Music Competition – Strings, Woodwinds, Brass, Piano (North Carolina, US)
 * Trinity International Music Competition - Online (Toronto, Canada)
 * TROMP international music competition & Festival (Eindhoven, Netherlands)
 * TONALi Music Competition (Hamburg, Germany)
 * SVIRÉL International Music Competition and Festival for Soloists and Chamber Groups (Slovenia)
 * Triomphe de l'Art International Music Competition (Brussels, Belgium)
 * Furioso Violin Competition (online)
 * Youth Zeal Music Competition (Helsinki, Finland)
 * Zodiac International Music Competition (online)

Large Ensembles

 * Ictus International Music Competition. (online international competition for bands, orchestras and jazz ensembles)

Musicology

 * Annual Musicology Competition (Worldwide)

Piano/keyboard
International Music Competition
 * Progressive Musicians Carnegie Hall Laureate Gala
 * " International Piano Competition - Mauro Paolo Monopoli Prize" International Piano Competition (Barletta/Apulia, Italy)
 * "Città di Barletta - International Young Musician Piano Competition" International Young Musician Piano Competition (Barletta/Apulia, Italy)
 * Vienna Youth International Piano Competition (Vienna, Austria)
 * Aarhus International Piano Competition (Aarhus, Denmark)
 * Ambitus Orgelconcours (The Netherlands)
 * American Paderewski Piano Competition (Los Angeles, US)
 * http://www.americanprotege.com/ps American Protege International Piano and Strings Competition (US)
 * Anton Rubinstein Competition (Dresden, Germany)
 * Artciál International Piano Competition (San Francisco, US)
 * Arthur Rubinstein International Piano Master Competition (Tel Aviv, Israel)
 * Astral National Auditions (Philadelphia, US)
 * Beethoven National Piano Competition (Chantilly, US)
 * BNDES International Piano Competition (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil)
 * Bradshaw and Buono International Piano Competition (New York, US)
 * César Franck International Piano Competition (Brussels, Belgium)
 * Ciutat de Carlet International Piano Competition (Valencia, Spain)
 * Clara Haskil International Piano Competition (Vevey, Switzerland)
 * Cleveland International Piano Competition (Cleveland, US)
 * Concours Géza Anda (Zurich, Switzerland)
 * Dallas Chamber Symphony International Piano Competition (Dallas, US)
 * The Dranoff International Two Piano Foundation (Dallas, US)
 * Dublin International Piano Competition (Dublin, Ireland)
 * Epinal International Piano Competition (Epinal, France)
 * EPTA - International Piano Competition Svetislav Stančić (Zagreb, Croatia)
 * Eugen d'Albert International Music Competition (Giubiasco, Switzerland)
 * Euro Elite International Music Competition (Toronto, Canada)
 * Ferruccio Busoni International Piano Competition (Bolzano, Italy)
 * Malta International Piano Competition, Valletta/Mdina, Malta
 * Festival for Creative Pianists (US)
 * George Enescu International Competition (Piano section) (Bucharest, Romania)
 * Gina Bachauer International Piano Competition (Salt Lake City, US)
 * Grand Maestro International Music Competition - Online (Canada)
 * Grand Metropolitan International Music Competition - Online (Canada)
 * Hamamatsu International Piano Competition (Hamamatsu, JP)
 * Hilton Head International Piano Competition (Hilton Head Island, South Carolina, US)
 * Globe International Piano Competition (Hilversum, Netherlands)
 * Honens International Piano Competition (Calgary, Canada)
 * International Carl Bechstein Piano Competition (various, Europe)
 * International Piano Competition for Young Pianists Kronberg (Germany)
 * International Piano Competition "Johann Sebastian Bach" (Würzburg, Germany)
 * International Beethoven Piano Competition Vienna (Internationaler Beethoven Klavierwettbewerb Wien; Vienna, Austria)
 * International Chopin Piano Competition (Poland)
 * International Cochran Piano Competition (Poland/Australia)
 * International Edvard Grieg Piano Competition (Bergen, Norway)
 * International Ettore Pozzoli Piano Competition (Seregno, Italy)
 * International Franz Liszt Piano Competition (Utrecht, Netherlands)
 * International Fryderyk Chopin Piano Competition for Children and Youth (Szafarnia, Poland)
 * International Geelvinck Fortepiano Concours (Amsterdam, the Netherlands)
 * International Goedicke Organ Competition (Moscow, Russia)
 * International Johann Sebastian Bach Competition (organ; Leipzig, Germany)
 * International Mozart Piano Competition (Frascati (Rome), Italy)
 * International Mozart Piano Competition (Salzburg, Austria)
 * International Piano Competition for Outstanding Amateurs (Paris, France)
 * International Radio Competition for Young Musicians Concertino Praga (Prague, Czech Republic)
 * International New Star Piano Competition-Online (USA)
 * International Tchaikovsky Competition (Russia)
 * International Telekom Beethoven Competition (Bonn, Germany)
 * ISANGYUN Competition (Tongyeong, South Korea)
 * JMIPC – James Mottram International Piano Competition at the Royal Northern College of Music (Manchester, England)
 * José Iturbi International Piano Competition (Los Angeles, US)
 * Khachaturian International Competition (Yerevan, Armenia)
 * Karlovac International Piano Competition (Karlovac, Croatia)
 * Kerikeri National Piano Competition (Kerikeri, New Zealand)
 * Kissingen Piano Olympics (Kissinger Klavierolymp, Bad Kissingen, Germany)
 * Lagny-sur-Marne International Piano Competition (Lagny, France)
 * Leeds International Pianoforte Competition (Leeds, UK)
 * Les Etoiles du Piano (Roubaix, France)
 * Maria Canals International Music Competition (Barcelona, Spain)
 * Monte-Carlo Music Masters
 * Mykola Lysenko International Music Competition (Kyiv, Ukraine)
 * New Orleans International Piano Competition (New Orleans, Louisiana)
 * North American Virtuoso International Music Competition (Online)
 * ON STAGE International Classical Music Competition (Online Competition)
 * Paloma O'Shea International Piano Competition (Santander, Spain)
 * Panama International Piano Competition (Panama City, Panama)
 * Peabody Mason International Piano Competition (Boston, US)
 * Petr Eben International Organ Competition (Opava, Czech Republic)
 * Pilar Bayona Piano Competition (Spain)
 * Quebec Music Competition (Montreal, Quebec, Canada) Live and Online
 * Queen Elisabeth Music Competition (Belgium)
 * Ricard Viñes International Piano Competition (Lleida, Spain)
 * Ronald Sachs International Music Competition
 * Rubato International Piano Competition (Oxford, Alabama, USA)
 * The Gurwitz International Piano Competition, (San Antonio, Texas, US)
 * San Diego International Piano Competition and Festival for Outstanding Amateurs (San Diego, California, US)
 * Scottish International Piano Competition (Glasgow, UK)
 * Seattle Symphony Piano Competition (Seattle, Washington, US)
 * Sendai International Music Competition (Sendai, Japan)
 * The Shean Piano Competition (Edmonton, Alberta, Canada)
 * St Albans International Organ Competition (St Albans, UK)
 * Sussex International Piano Competition (Worthing, UK)
 * Sydney International Piano Competition (Sydney, Australia)
 * Thailand International Chopin Piano Competition (Bangkok, Thailand)
 * Trinity International Music Competition - Online (Toronto, Canada)
 * Triomphe de l'Art International Music Competition (Brussels, Belgium)
 * US New Star Piano Competition (San Jose, US)
 * US New Star Etude Competition( Up to age 19) - Online (USA)
 * US New Star Competition by Composer(Up to age 19) - Online (USA)
 * US New Star Two Pianist (Duet and Duo) Competition(Up to age19) - Online (USA)
 * Valencia International Piano Competition Prize Iturbi (Valencia, Spain)
 * Van Cliburn International Piano Competition (Fort Worth, US)
 * Vancouver International Music Competition (Vancouver, Canada)
 * Vienna New Year’s Concert International Piano Competition
 * Vigo International Piano Competition (Vigo, Spain)
 * World International Piano Competition (Santa Fe, US)
 * Youth Zeal Music Competition (Helsinki, Finland)
 * Young Pianist of the North International competition (Newcastle upon Tyne, UK)

String instruments

 * American Protege International Piano and Strings Competition (US)
 * Animato International Violin Competition (Brisbane, Australia)
 * Antonio Janigro International Cello Competition (Croatia)
 * Appassionato International Youth Music Festival (Quebec, Canada)
 * Bach-Abel Viola da Gamba Competition (Köthen, Germany; 1997–)
 * Carl Flesch International Violin Competition (London, UK; 1945–1992)
 * Carl Nielsen International Music Competition (Odense, Denmark)
 * Città di Brescia International Violin Competition (Brescia, Italy)
 * "Città di Barletta - International Young Musician String Competition" International Young Musician String Competition (Barletta/Apulia, Italy)
 * Furioso violin Competition (online)
 * George Enescu International Competition (Violin, Cello section) (Bucharest, Romania)
 * Henryk Wieniawski Violin Competition (Poznań, Poland)
 * International Arthur Grumiaux Competition for Young Violinists (Brussels, Belgium)
 * International Brahms Competition (Pörtschach am Wörthersee, Austria)
 * International Fritz Kreisler Competition (Vienna, Austria)
 * The International Harp Contest in Israel (Jerusalem, Israel)
 * International Jean Sibelius Violin Competition (Helsinki, Finland)
 * International Radio Competition for Young Musicians Concertino Praga (Prague, Czech Republic)
 * International Tchaikovsky Competition (Moscow, Russia)
 * International Violin Competition Henri Marteau (Lichtenberg and Hof, Germany)
 * International Violin Competition of Indianapolis (Indianapolis, US)
 * International Violin Competition Leopold Mozart in Augsburg (Augsburg, Germany)
 * ISANGYUN Competition (Tongyeong, South Korea)
 * Johansen International Competition for Young String Players (Washington DC, US)
 * Klaipeda International Cello Competition (Klaipeda, Lithuania)
 * Klein Competition (San Francisco, US)
 * Lionel Tertis International Viola Competition (Isle of Man, UK)
 * Maurice Vieux International Viola Competition (France)
 * Michael Hill International Violin Competition (New Zealand)
 * Monte-Carlo Music Masters
 * Moscow International David Oistrakh Violin Competition (Moscow, Russia)
 * Mstislav Rostropovich International Cello Competition (Paris, France)
 * Mykola Lysenko International Music Competition (Kyiv, Ukraine)
 * National Chamber Ensemble Outstanding Young Artist Achievement Award Competition (Arlington, VA, US)
 * Nippon International Harp Competition (Soka City, Japan)
 * Paganini International Competition (Genoa, Italy)
 * Primrose International Viola Competition (Albuquerque, New Mexico)
 * Progressive Musicians Carnegie Hall Laureate Gala
 * Quebec Music Competition (Montreal, Quebec, Canada) Live and Online
 * Queen Elisabeth Music Competition (Belgium)
 * Ronald Sachs International Music Competition
 * Sendai International Music Competition (Sendai, Japan)
 * Schoenfeld International String Competition (Harbin, China)
 * The Shean Strings Competition (Edmonton, Alberta, Canada)
 * Shanghai Isaac Stern International Violin Competition (Shanghai, China)
 * Singapore International Violin Competition (Singapore)
 * Streichwerk International String Competition (Berlin, Germany)
 * Stulberg International String Competition (US)
 * Triomphe de l'Art International Music Competition (Brussels, Belgium)
 * USA International Harp Competition (Bloomington, Indiana, US)
 * Vancouver International Music Competition (Vancouver, Canada)
 * Washington International Competition for Strings (Washington, D.C., US)
 * Windsor Festival International String Competition (Windsor, UK)
 * Yehudi Menuhin International Competition for Young Violinists (Richmond, VA, US in 2021)
 * Young Talents with Orchestra, competition for violin and piano with orchestra (Milan, Italy)
 * Youth Zeal Music Competition (Helsinki, Finland)

Woodwind instruments

 * Progressive Musicians Carnegie Hall Laureate Gala
 * "Città di Barletta - International Young Musician Wind Competition" International Young Musician Wind Competition (Barletta/Apulia, Italy)
 * American Protege International Woodwinds and Brass Competition (US)
 * American Protege International Music Talent Competition (US)
 * Appassionato International Youth Music Festival (Quebec, Canada)
 * Australian Youth Classical Music Competition (Geelong, Australia)
 * Austral National Auditions (Philadelphia, US)
 * BBC Young Musician of the Year (UK)
 * Chetham's Flute Competition (Manchester, UK)
 * Città di Barletta Young Musician International Competition (Barletta, Italy)
 * Concours de Genève Prix international d'interprétation & de composition (Geneva, Switzerland)
 * Concours de Musique et des Beaux Arts – Quebec Music Competition|Concours International de Musique et des Beaux Arts (Quebec, Canada)
 * Fischoff National Chamber Music Competition (Indiana, US)
 * Forte International Music Competition and Festivals
 * Gillet-Hugo Fox Competition – Bassoon and Oboe competition (US)
 * Malta International Woondwinds Competition, Valletta/Mdina, Malta
 * Gregynog Young Musicians Competition (Wales, UK)
 * Henri Tomasi International Woodwind Quintet Competition (Marseille, France)
 * Hugo Kauder Society-International Music Competition (New Haven, US)
 * International Clarinet Celebration Young Artists Competition (Portland, OR)
 * International Chamber Music Competition for ensembles 20-30yrs (Wollongong, Australia)
 * International Competition for Young Classical Guitarists (Siracusa, Italy)
 * International Crescendo Music Awards Competition (Tulsa US)
 * International Flute Competition Camerata Strumentale (Timişoara, Romania)
 * International Independent Music Competition "Individualis" (Ukraine)
 * International Johann Sebastian Bach Competition (Leipzig, Germany)
 * International Radio Competition for Young Musicians Concertino Praga (Prague, Czech Republic)
 * International Russian Rotary Children Music Competition (Russia)
 * International Tchaikovsky Competition for Young Musicians (Moscow, Russia)
 * Jeunesses Musicales International (Various)
 * Midwest Young Artists Discover National Chamber Music Competition (Illinois, US)
 * National Young Artist Competition (Charleston, US)
 * National Arts Centre Orchestra Bursary Competition (Ottawa, Canada)
 * New York International Piano Competition (New York, US)
 * Olympic Challenge Competition (children; Montclair, US)
 * PianoArts North American Piano Competition for High School and College Students (US)
 * Prague Spring International Music Competition (Prague, Czech Republic)
 * Quebec Music Competition (Montreal, Quebec, Canada)
 * RESEO Award (Brussels, Belgium)
 * The Respighi Prize Music Competition for Young Composers & Soloists (New York, US)
 * Ronald Sachs International Music Competition
 * Russian Music Competition (US)
 * Saint Paul String Quartet Competition (US)
 * Sydney Eisteddfod (Sydney, Australia)
 * Tartini Music Competition for violin (Piran, Slovenia)
 * Vandoren Emerging Artist Competition – Saxophone and Clarinet (US)
 * VSA International Young Soloists Competition (Washington, DC, US)
 * Wideman Piano Competition (Shreveport, US)
 * William C. Byrd Young Artist Competition (Flint, US)

Young musicians

 * ABC Young Performers Awards (Sydney, Australia)
 * International New Star Piano Competition(Up to 26) - Online (USA)
 * International Piano Competition for Young Pianists Kronberg (Germany)
 * International Tchaikovsky Competition for Young Musicians (Russia)
 * Progressive Musicians Carnegie Hall Laureate Gala
 * US New Star Competition by Composer(Up to age 19) - Online (USA)
 * US New Star Etude Competition( Up to age 19) - Online (USA)
 * US New Star Strings Competition(Up to age 19) - Online (USA)
 * US New Star Two Pianist (Duet and Duo) Competition(Up to age19) - Online (USA)
 * Young Musician International Competition 'Città di Barletta' (Barletta - Italy) sections : Strings, Winds, Guitar, Piano, Chamber Music and Composition

title: List of classical music competitions