text:
Talk:Function

Added "Function Drinks" to the list
When I searched for "Function" (looking for the beverage company) I had trouble finding it since it wasn't on this list. I added it for anyone who may be searching for "Function" in the future. LaughinSkull (talk) 00:53, 22 August 2010 (UTC)

Merge to Talk:Function (mathematics)
Now that this page is a disambiguation page, the material on here related to Function (mathematics) should be moved to Talk:Function (mathematics) Ae-a 11:28, 9 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * User:Brianjd archived some of it to Talk:Function (mathematics)/archive 1 in November 2004; i moved the rest just now.  This discussion should probably serve as a pointer.  --Piet Delport 02:25, 7 July 2007 (UTC)

Opening paragraph
The opening paragraph had the following as a comment: "Is this whole paragraph anything but nonsense babble? Can someone fix it or remove it please?" I had to read through it a few times before I understood it myself. I've tried to fix some of the awkward language, but I'm not an engineer, so it'd be good if someone could have a look at what I've done. One thing that bugs me is that the very first sentence doesn't really make clear what an "entity" is. Given that this is a disambig, the whole thing should probably be moved somewhere. - RedWordSmith 04:11, August 17, 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree that the opening paragraph is pretty bad. I at least removed the reference to "TOGA meta-theory", which appears to be vanity, or original research, or even crankery.  I just can't believe that the second-most-important thing people whould know about "function" is how it relates to "TOGA meta-theory".  But I think more work is needed on this paragraph. -- Dominus 13:19, 17 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Having looked into it a little more, I think the TOGA thing is at best original research. There is no discussion of this on the web except for:
 * This article and copies of it
 * The web sites in the casaccia.enea.it domain, apparently home of "A. M. Gadomski", the inventor of this theory
 * Other material directly related to Gadomski, such as this conference talk announcement

 * Moreover, the changes on 27 May 2005 that added TOGA to the explanation of Function were made by an anonymous user at address 192.107.75.158, which resolves to nat-75-158.casaccia.enea.it, who is presumably Mr. Gadomski.

 * So it appears that "TOGA meta-theory" is a recent invention of Mr. Gadomski, and not something that is widely understood or studied, and not appropriate for inclusion in the opening paragraph of this article. -- Dominus 13:31, 17 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Please also see User_talk:192.107.77.3 where we can collect information as this isn't the only article this user edited. Sbwoodside 06:53, 29 October 2005 (UTC)

Hi, thank you for your critical comments. I am not the author of the previous modifications but I am "Mr. Gadomski", and I'm feeling responsible for this confusion. I do not want to enter in details of your argumentations what I consider not essential for the definition of function. My proposal is based on the systemic generalization of the specific notions of this term ( systemic generalization means the selection of essential properties of a preselected concept, necessary and sufficient in order to use it in different contexts).

In the case of function, its unique common feature is to be a property necessary for something planed or designed. Of course, this idea is possible to express in different manner. In the TOGA meta-theory, the concept function is inserted into the formal specification of the relation between a system and its design-goal, in the domain-of-activity of every intelligent agent/system/object/entity. Therefore, it is defined using the previously defined TOGA concepts. In such systemic (== systems theory)context, function is recognized as every goal-oriented property of a process or a system, where: - goal is a requested state, - property is an abstact-system composed of the attributes of the system of interest.

Summarizing, my definition of function is possible to consider as a universal one which unifies numerous locally "functioning" definitions, and therefore it should be added explicitly.

From this moment, I am the unique User: 192.107.77.3: Adam Maria Gadomski

P.S 1. I would I to notice that whole esplanation below is a part or directly results from TOGA, and more precisely speaking from the [http://hid.casaccia.enea.it/TOto\pdf\(1)an%20application%20of%20spg%20approach%20to%20the%20triga%20rc1.pdf. SPG conceptualisation, 1988].

''"In engineering, functions are necessary consequences of design goals. The direct carrier of a dynamic function is a process, and the direct carrier of a static function is a system. Therefore it is possible to realise the same function using different physical processes and systems, and one process or system can be a carrier of multiple functions. For example, if the main function of a clock is to display the current time, that function can be realized by different physical processes, including atomic, electronic, and mechanical processes.

A system is said to be functioning if it is executing or if it is ready and able to execute its functions.''

P.S 2. Sorry, English is not my mather language, therefore maybe some corrections of the style are necessary.

 * Regardless of all that, Wikipedia is not a place to put your original research and ideas. If at some time in the future, your ideas become widely accepted, then that is the time to include them in Wikipedia, not before.  I have reverted your contributions to this article.  Please make sure you understand the policy at No original research before you edit this article again.  Thanks -- Dominus 05:15, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

OK, Mr. Dominus. In order to be consequent and ethically correct, it is necessary to remove my orginal definition (if without references) and its explenation, it means: "In general (not in the mathematical but in the engineering sense), a function is a goal-oriented property of an entity. The carrier of a function is a process; therefore, is possible to realise the same function using different physical processes, and one process can be a carrier of multiple functions. For example, the main function of a clock, the presentation of time, can be realized by different physical processes, including atomic, electronic, and mechanical processes. ". - By the way, after your simplifications you eliminated also static functions.. You should remember that, independently on your definitions, a carrier of every process is a system, and not all functions are dynamic. - Anyway, maybe, now is too early for my systemic generalized definition. Please return to many locally valid classical definitions, as you prefer. Thanks. - Mr. A.M.Gadomski

In order to stop continuous Dominus' corrections of my orginal (unfortunately) explenations of the term function, I have eliminated all my contributions to this article. I have reverted the opening paragraph to the previous form (history page: 05:18, 21 April 2005).

- I hope, now we have no problems with "orginal research" or "self promotion".

P.S. By the way, if an "orginal reserch" is anonimous, then is it not more an "orginal research"?

...I think, we need an explanation of this aspect in Wikipedia:No orginal research.

--Adam M. Gadomski 16:53, 14 November 2005 (UTC)

More on TOGA Meta-Theory
I have removed this yet again, for the same reasons as before. To wit: it is original research; it does not appear to be widely accepted by any scientific or philosophical community; it appears to be the ideas of a single individual a Mr. Adam Maria Gadomski; it appears to be a vanity placement. -- Dominus 19:03, 23 June 2006 (UTC)

Opening paragraph
The opening paragraph is still very hard to understand. I suggest we delete it until someone comes up with something better. If no one objects, I will do this in 7 days. Volfy 01:09, 24 November 2005 (UTC)

Reverting self-reference
I'm removing the following self-reference from the top of the article: For the Administrator Wikipedian, see User:Func.

It seems highly unlikely that someone typing "function" into Wikipedia would expect to be taken to the user page of a Wikipedian with a similar name. We don't have a disambiguation link from Neutral to User:Neutrality, and I don't think it's a good practice to start. —Caesura(t) 18:50, 6 December 2005 (UTC) (whose user page is thankfully not linked to from the Caesura article)
 * I definitely agree. I was going to remove this myself last time I was here. Don't actually remember why I didn't, but glad to see it go. -Ethan (talk) 09:09, 8 December 2005 (UTC)

Why I deleted the introduction.
Looking at other disambiguation pages, they do not attempt a general definition but procede directly to the disambuation. The current definition is cute but confusing. At first I tried to refine it, but decided that was inappropriate. Disambiguate first, then define. Rick Norwood 23:45, 22 December 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Function


text:
Francisco Goya

Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes (30 March 1746 – 16 April 1828) was a Spanish romantic painter and printmaker. He is considered the most important Spanish artist of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. His paintings, drawings, and engravings reflected contemporary historical upheavals and influenced important 19th- and 20th-century painters. Goya is often referred to as the last of the Old Masters and the first of the moderns.

Goya was born to a middle-class family in 1746, in Fuendetodos in Aragon. He studied painting from age 14 under José Luzán y Martinez and moved to Madrid to study with Anton Raphael Mengs. He married Josefa Bayeu in 1773. Goya became a court painter to the Spanish Crown in 1786 and this early portion of his career is marked by portraits of the Spanish aristocracy and royalty, and Rococo-style tapestry cartoons designed for the royal palace.

Although Goya's letters and writings survive, little is known about his thoughts. He had a severe and undiagnosed illness in 1793 that left him deaf, after which his work became progressively darker and more pessimistic. His later easel and mural paintings, prints and drawings appear to reflect a bleak outlook on personal, social and political levels, and contrast with his social climbing. He was appointed Director of the Royal Academy in 1795, the year Manuel Godoy made an unfavorable treaty with France. In 1799, Goya became Primer Pintor de Cámara (Prime Court Painter), the highest rank for a Spanish court painter. In the late 1790s, commissioned by Godoy, he completed his La maja desnuda, a remarkably daring nude for the time and clearly indebted to Diego Velázquez. In 1800–01, he painted Charles IV of Spain and His Family, also influenced by Velázquez.

In 1807, Napoleon led the French army into the Peninsular War against Spain. Goya remained in Madrid during the war, which seems to have affected him deeply. Although he did not speak his thoughts in public, they can be inferred from his Disasters of War series of prints (although published 35 years after his death) and his 1814 paintings The Second of May 1808 and The Third of May 1808. Other works from his mid-period include the Caprichos and Los Disparates etching series, and a wide variety of paintings concerned with insanity, mental asylums, witches, fantastical creatures and religious and political corruption, all of which suggest that he feared for both his country's fate and his own mental and physical health.

His late period culminates with the Black Paintings of 1819–1823, applied on oil on the plaster walls of his house the Quinta del Sordo (House of the Deaf Man) where, disillusioned by political and social developments in Spain, he lived in near isolation. Goya eventually abandoned Spain in 1824 to retire to the French city of Bordeaux, accompanied by his much younger maid and companion, Leocadia Weiss, who may have been his lover. There he completed his La Tauromaquia series and a number of other works. Following a stroke that left him paralyzed on his right side, Goya died and was buried on 16 April 1828 aged 82.

Early years (1746–1771)
Francisco de Goya was born in Fuendetodos, Aragón, Spain, on 30 March 1746 to José Benito de Goya y Franque and Gracia de Lucientes y Salvador. The family had moved that year from the city of Zaragoza, but there is no record why; likely José was commissioned to work there. They were lower middle-class. José was the son of a notary and of Basque origin, his ancestors being from Zerain, earning his living as a gilder, specialising in religious and decorative craftwork. He oversaw the gilding and most of the ornamentation during the rebuilding of the Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar (Santa Maria del Pilar), the principal cathedral of Zaragoza. Francisco was their fourth child, following his sister Rita (b. 1737), brother Tomás (b. 1739) (who was to follow in his father's trade) and second sister Jacinta (b. 1743). There were two younger sons, Mariano (b. 1750) and Camilo (b. 1753).

His mother's family had pretensions of nobility and the house, a modest brick cottage, was owned by her family and, perhaps fancifully, bore their crest. About 1749 José and Gracia bought a home in Zaragoza and were able to return to live in the city. Although there are no surviving records, it is thought that Goya may have attended the Escuelas Pías de San Antón, which offered free schooling. His education seems to have been adequate but not enlightening; he had reading, writing and numeracy, and some knowledge of the classics. According to Robert Hughes the artist "seems to have taken no more interest than a carpenter in philosophical or theological matters, and his views on painting ... were very down to earth: Goya was no theoretician." At school he formed a close and lifelong friendship with fellow pupil Martín Zapater; the 131 letters Goya wrote to him from 1775 until Zapater's death in 1803 give valuable insight into Goya's early years at the court in Madrid.

Visit to Italy
At age 14 Goya studied under the painter José Luzán, where he copied stamps for 4 years until he decided to work on his own, as he wrote later on "paint from my invention". He moved to Madrid to study with Anton Raphael Mengs, a popular painter with Spanish royalty. He clashed with his master, and his examinations were unsatisfactory. Goya submitted entries for the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in 1763 and 1766 but was denied entrance into the academia.

Rome was then the cultural capital of Europe and held all the prototypes of classical antiquity, while Spain lacked a coherent artistic direction, with all of its significant visual achievements in the past. Having failed to earn a scholarship, Goya relocated at his own expense to Rome in the old tradition of European artists stretching back at least to Albrecht Dürer. He was an unknown at the time and so the records are scant and uncertain. Early biographers have him travelling to Rome with a gang of bullfighters, where he worked as a street acrobat, or for a Russian diplomat, or fell in love with a beautiful young nun whom he plotted to abduct from her convent. It is possible that Goya completed two surviving mythological paintings during the visit, a Sacrifice to Vesta and a Sacrifice to Pan, both dated 1771.

In 1771 he won second prize in a painting competition organized by the City of Parma. That year he returned to Zaragoza and painted elements of the cupolas of the Basilica of the Pillar (including Adoration of the Name of God), a cycle of frescoes for the monastic church of the Charterhouse of Aula Dei, and the frescoes of the Sobradiel Palace. He studied with the Aragonese artist Francisco Bayeu y Subías and his painting began to show signs of the delicate tonalities for which he became famous. He befriended Francisco Bayeu and married his sister Josefa (he nicknamed her "Pepa") on 25 July 1773. Their first child, Antonio Juan Ramon Carlos, was born on 29 August 1774. Of their seven children only one, a son named Javier, survived into adulthood.

Madrid (1775–1789)
Francisco Bayeu (Josefa Bayeu's brother), 1765 membership of the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, and directorship of the tapestry works from 1777 helped Goya earn a commission for a series of tapestry cartoons for the Royal Tapestry Factory. Over five years he designed some 42 patterns, many of which were used to decorate and insulate the stone walls of El Escorial and the Palacio Real del Pardo, the residences of the Spanish monarchs. While designing tapestries was neither prestigious nor well paid, his cartoons are mostly popularist in a rococo style, and Goya used them to bring himself to wider attention.

The cartoons were not his only royal commissions, and were accompanied by a series of engravings, mostly copies after old masters such as Marcantonio Raimondi and Velázquez. Goya had a complicated relationship to the latter artist; while many of his contemporaries saw folly in Goya's attempts to copy and emulate him, he had access to a wide range of the long-dead painter's works that had been contained in the royal collection. Nonetheless, etching was a medium that the young artist was to master, a medium that was to reveal both the true depths of his imagination and his political beliefs. His c. 1779 etching of The Garrotted Man ("El agarrotado" ) was the largest work he had produced to date, and an obvious foreboding of his later "Disasters of War" series.

Goya was beset by illness, and his condition was used against him by his rivals, who looked jealously upon any artist seen to be rising in stature. Some of the larger cartoons, such as The Wedding, were more than 8 by 10 feet, and had proved a drain on his physical strength. Ever resourceful, Goya turned this misfortune around, claiming that his illness had allowed him the insight to produce works that were more personal and informal. However, he found the format limiting, as it did not allow him to capture complex color shifts or texture, and was unsuited to the impasto and glazing techniques he was by then applying to his painted works. The tapestries seem as comments on human types, fashion and fads.

Other works from the period include a canvas for the altar of the Church of San Francisco El Grande in Madrid, which led to his appointment as a member of the Royal Academy of Fine Art.

Court painter
In 1783, the Count of Floridablanca, favorite of King Charles III, commissioned Goya to paint his portrait. He became friends with the King's half-brother Luis, and spent two summers working on portraits of both the Infante and his family. During the 1780s, his circle of patrons grew to include the Duke and Duchess of Osuna, the King and other notable people of the kingdom whom he painted. In 1786, Goya was given a salaried position as painter to Charles III.

Goya was appointed court painter to Charles IV in 1789. The following year he became First Court Painter, with a salary of 50,000 reales and an allowance of 500 ducats for a coach. He painted portraits of the king and the queen, and the Spanish Prime Minister Manuel de Godoy and many other nobles. These portraits are notable for their disinclination to flatter; his Charles IV of Spain and His Family is an especially brutal assessment of a royal family. Modern interpreters view the portrait as satirical; it is thought to reveal the corruption behind the rule of Charles IV. Under his reign his wife Louisa was thought to have had the real power, and thus Goya placed her at the center of the group portrait. From the back left of the painting one can see the artist himself looking out at the viewer, and the painting behind the family depicts Lot and his daughters, thus once again echoing the underlying message of corruption and decay.

Goya earned commissions from the highest ranks of the Spanish nobility, including Pedro Téllez-Girón, 9th Duke of Osuna and his wife María Josefa Pimentel, 12th Countess-Duchess of Benavente, José Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba and his wife María del Pilar de Silva, and María Ana de Pontejos y Sandoval, Marchioness of Pontejos. In 1801 he painted Godoy in a commission to commemorate the victory in the brief War of the Oranges against Portugal. The two were friends, even if Goya's 1801 portrait is usually seen as satire. Yet even after Godoy's fall from grace the politician referred to the artist in warm terms. Godoy saw himself as instrumental in the publication of the Caprichos and is widely believed to have commissioned La maja desnuda.

Middle period (1793–1799)
La Maja Desnuda (La maja desnuda) has been described as "the first totally profane life-size female nude in Western art" without pretense to allegorical or mythological meaning. The identity of the Majas is uncertain. The most popularly cited models are the Duchess of Alba, with whom Goya was sometimes thought to have had an affair, and Pepita Tudó, mistress of Manuel de Godoy. Neither theory has been verified, and it remains as likely that the paintings represent an idealized composite. The paintings were never publicly exhibited during Goya's lifetime and were owned by Godoy. In 1808 all Godoy's property was seized by Ferdinand VII after his fall from power and exile, and in 1813 the Inquisition confiscated both works as 'obscene', returning them in 1836 to the Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando.

In 1798 he painted luminous and airy scenes for the pendentives and cupola of the Real Ermita (Chapel) of San Antonio de la Florida in Madrid. His depiction of a miracle of Saint Anthony of Padua is devoid of the customary angels and instead treats the miracle as if it were a theatrical event performed by ordinary people.

At some time between late 1792 and early 1793 an undiagnosed illness left Goya deaf. He became withdrawn and introspective while the direction and tone of his work changed. He began the series of aquatinted etchings, published in 1799 as the Caprichos—completed in parallel with the more official commissions of portraits and religious paintings. In 1799 Goya published 80 Caprichos prints depicting what he described as "the innumerable foibles and follies to be found in any civilized society, and from the common prejudices and deceitful practices which custom, ignorance, or self-interest have made usual". The visions in these prints are partly explained by the caption "The sleep of reason produces monsters". Yet these are not solely bleak; they demonstrate the artist's sharp satirical wit, as in Capricho number 52, What a Tailor Can Do!

While convalescing between 1793 and 1794, Goya completed a set of eleven small pictures painted on tin that mark a significant change in the tone and subject matter of his art, and draw from the dark and dramatic realms of fantasy nightmare. Yard with Lunatics is a vision of loneliness, fear and social alienation. The condemnation of brutality towards prisoners (whether criminal or insane) is a subject that Goya assayed in later works that focused on the degradation of the human figure. It was one of the first of Goya's mid-1790s cabinet paintings, in which his earlier search for ideal beauty gave way to an examination of the relationship between naturalism and fantasy that would preoccupy him for the rest of his career. He was undergoing a nervous breakdown and entering prolonged physical illness, and admitted that the series was created to reflect his own self-doubt, anxiety and fear that he was losing his mind. Goya wrote that the works served "to occupy my imagination, tormented as it is by contemplation of my sufferings." The series, he said, consisted of pictures which "normally find no place in commissioned works."

Goya's physical and mental breakdown seems to have happened a few weeks after the French declaration of war on Spain. A contemporary reported, "The noises in his head and deafness aren't improving, yet his vision is much better and he is back in control of his balance." These symptoms may indicate a prolonged viral encephalitis, or possibly a series of miniature strokes resulting from high blood pressure and which affected the hearing and balance centers of the brain. Symptoms of tinnitus, episodes of imbalance and progressive deafness are typical of Ménière's disease. It is possible that Goya had cumulative lead poisoning, as he used massive amounts of lead white—which he ground himself —in his paintings, both as a canvas primer and as a primary color.

Other postmortem diagnostic assessments point toward paranoid dementia, possibly due to brain trauma, as evidenced by marked changes in his work after his recovery, culminating in the "black" paintings. Art historians have noted Goya's singular ability to express his personal demons as horrific and fantastic imagery that speaks universally, and allows his audience to find its own catharsis in the images.

Peninsular War (1808–1814)
The French army invaded Spain in 1808, leading to the Peninsular War of 1808–1814. The extent of Goya's involvement with the court of the "intruder king", Joseph I, the brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, is not known; he painted works for French patrons and sympathisers, but kept neutral during the fighting. After the restoration of the Spanish King Ferdinand VII in 1814, Goya denied any involvement with the French. By the time of his wife Josefa's death in 1812, he was painting The Second of May 1808 and The Third of May 1808, and preparing the series of etchings later known as The Disasters of War (Los desastres de la guerra). Ferdinand VII returned to Spain in 1814 but relations with Goya were not cordial. The artist completed portraits of the king for a variety of ministries, but not for the king himself.

Although Goya did not make his intention known when creating The Disasters of War, art historians view them as a visual protest against the violence of the 1808 Dos de Mayo Uprising, the subsequent Peninsular War and the move against liberalism in the aftermath of the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in 1814. The scenes are singularly disturbing, sometimes macabre in their depiction of battlefield horror, and represent an outraged conscience in the face of death and destruction. They were not published until 1863, 35 years after his death. It is likely that only then was it considered politically safe to distribute a sequence of artworks criticising both the French and restored Bourbons.

The first 47 plates in the series focus on incidents from the war and show the consequences of the conflict on individual soldiers and civilians. The middle series (plates 48 to 64) record the effects of the famine that hit Madrid in 1811–12, before the city was liberated from the French. The final 17 reflect the bitter disappointment of liberals when the restored Bourbon monarchy, encouraged by the Catholic hierarchy, rejected the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and opposed both state and religious reform. Since their first publication, Goya's scenes of atrocities, starvation, degradation and humiliation have been described as the "prodigious flowering of rage".

His works from 1814 to 1819 are mostly commissioned portraits, but also include the altarpiece of Santa Justa and Santa Rufina for the Cathedral of Seville, the print series of La Tauromaquia depicting scenes from bullfighting, and probably the etchings of Los Disparates.

Quinta del Sordo and Black Paintings (1819–1822)

Records of Goya's later life are relatively scant, and ever politically aware, he suppressed a number of his works from this period, working instead in private. He was tormented by a dread of old age and fear of madness. Goya had been a successful and royally placed artist, but withdrew from public life during his final years. From the late 1810s he lived in near-solitude outside Madrid in a farmhouse converted into a studio. The house had become known as "La Quinta del Sordo" (The House of the Deaf Man), after the nearest farmhouse that had coincidentally also belonged to a deaf man.

Art historians assume Goya felt alienated from the social and political trends that followed the 1814 restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, and that he viewed these developments as reactionary means of social control. In his unpublished art he seems to have railed against what he saw as a tactical retreat into Medievalism. It is thought that he had hoped for political and religious reform, but like many liberals became disillusioned when the restored Bourbon monarchy and Catholic hierarchy rejected the Spanish Constitution of 1812.

At the age of 75, alone and in mental and physical despair, he completed the work of his 14 Black Paintings, all of which were executed in oil directly onto the plaster walls of his house. Goya did not intend for the paintings to be exhibited, did not write of them, and likely never spoke of them. Around 1874, 50 years after his death, they were taken down and transferred to a canvas support by owner Baron Frédéric Émile d'Erlanger. Many of the works were significantly altered during the restoration, and in the words of Arthur Lubow what remain are "at best a crude facsimile of what Goya painted." The effects of time on the murals, coupled with the inevitable damage caused by the delicate operation of mounting the crumbling plaster on canvas, meant that most of the murals suffered extensive damage and loss of paint. Today, they are on permanent display at the Museo del Prado, Madrid.

Bordeaux (October 1824 – 1828)

Leocadia Weiss (née Zorrilla, 1790–1856), the artist's maid, younger by 35 years, and a distant relative, lived with and cared for Goya after Bayeu's death. She stayed with him in his Quinta del Sordo villa until 1824 with her daughter Rosario. Leocadia was probably similar in features to Goya's first wife Josefa Bayeu, to the point that one of his well-known portraits bears the cautious title of Josefa Bayeu (or Leocadia Weiss).

Not much is known about her beyond her fiery temperament. She was likely related to the Goicoechea family, a wealthy dynasty into which the artist's son, Javier, had married. It is known that Leocadia had an unhappy marriage with a jeweler, Isidore Weiss, but was separated from him since 1811, after he had accused her of "illicit conduct". She had two children before that time, and bore a third, Rosario, in 1814 when she was 26. Isidore was not the father, and it has often been speculated—although with little firm evidence—that the child belonged to Goya. There has been much speculation that Goya and Weiss were romantically linked; however, it is more likely the affection between them was sentimental.

Goya died on 16 April 1828. Leocadia was left nothing in Goya's will; mistresses were often omitted in such circumstances, but it is also likely that he did not want to dwell on his mortality by thinking about or revising his will. She wrote to a number of Goya's friends to complain of her exclusion but many of her friends were Goya's also and by then were old men or had died, and did not reply. Largely destitute, she moved into rented accommodation, later passing on her copy of the Caprichos for free.

Goya's body was later re-interred in the Real Ermita de San Antonio de la Florida in Madrid. Goya's skull was missing, a detail the Spanish consul immediately communicated to his superiors in Madrid, who wired back, "Send Goya, with or without head."

Goya's influence on modern and contemporary artists and writers
Goya is often referred to as the last of the Old Masters and the first of the moderns. Among the 20th-century painters influenced by Goya are the Spanish masters Pablo Picasso and Salvador Dalí who drew influence from Los caprichos and the Black Paintings of Goya. In the 21st century, American postmodern painters such as Michael Zansky and Bradley Rubenstein draw inspiration from "The Dream of Reason Produces Monsters" (1796–98) and Goya's Black Paintings. Zanksy's "Giants and Dwarf Series" (1990–2002) of large-scale paintings and wood carvings use imagery from Goya.

Goya's influence has extended beyond the visual arts:

 * The Spanish composer Enrique Granados wrote a suite for solo piano in 1911 based on Goya's paintings called Goyescas, and later wrote an opera of the same name based on the suite.
 * Spanish author Fernando Arrabal's novel The Burial of the Sardine was inspired by Goya's painting.
 * Russian poet Andrei Voznesensky's I Am Goya was inspired by Goya's anti-war paintings.
 * The video game Impasto was based on the works of Goya.

Films and television

 * Goya: Crazy Like a Genius (2002), a documentary by Ian MacMillan, presented by Robert Hughes
 * Goya's Ghosts (2006), directed by Miloš Forman
 * Volavérunt (1999), directed by Bigas Luna and based on the novel by Antonio Larreta
 * Goya in Bordeaux (1999), Spanish historical drama film written and directed by Carlos Saura about the life of Francisco de Goya
 * Goya or the Hard Way to Enlightenment (1971) (German: Goya – oder der arge Weg der Erkenntnis) is a 1971 East German drama film directed by Konrad Wolf. It was entered into the 7th Moscow International Film Festival where it won a Special Prize. It is based on a novel with the same title by Lion Feuchtwanger.
 * The Naked Maja (1958), directed by Henry Koster. A film about the painter Francisco Goya and the Duchess of Alba; Anthony Franciosa played Goya and Ava Gardner played The Duchess.
 * Tiempo de ilustrados (Time of the Enlightened) in the series The Ministry of Time. Goya (played by Pedro Casablanc) must repaint La maja desnuda after a cult called the Exterminating Angels destroy it.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Francisco Goya


text:
Frequentist probability

Frequentist probability or frequentism is an interpretation of probability; it defines an event's probability as the limit of its relative frequency in many trials (the long-run probability). Probabilities can be found (in principle) by a repeatable objective process (and are thus ideally devoid of opinion). The continued use of frequentist methods in scientific inference, however, has been called into question.

The development of the frequentist account was motivated by the problems and paradoxes of the previously dominant viewpoint, the classical interpretation. In the classical interpretation, probability was defined in terms of the principle of indifference, based on the natural symmetry of a problem, so, for example, the probabilities of dice games arise from the natural symmetric 6-sidedness of the cube. This classical interpretation stumbled at any statistical problem that has no natural symmetry for reasoning.

Definition
In the frequentist interpretation, probabilities are discussed only when dealing with well-defined random experiments. The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called the sample space of the experiment. An event is defined as a particular subset of the sample space to be considered. For any given event, only one of two possibilities may hold: It occurs or it does not. The relative frequency of occurrence of an event, observed in a number of repetitions of the experiment, is a measure of the probability of that event. This is the core conception of probability in the frequentist interpretation.

A claim of the frequentist approach is that, as the number of trials increases, the change in the relative frequency will diminish. Hence, one can view a probability as the limiting value of the corresponding relative frequencies.

Scope
The frequentist interpretation is a philosophical approach to the definition and use of probabilities; it is one of several such approaches. It does not claim to capture all connotations of the concept 'probable' in colloquial speech of natural languages.

As an interpretation, it is not in conflict with the mathematical axiomatization of probability theory; rather, it provides guidance for how to apply mathematical probability theory to real-world situations. It offers distinct guidance in the construction and design of practical experiments, especially when contrasted with the Bayesian interpretation. As to whether this guidance is useful, or is apt to mis-interpretation, has been a source of controversy. Particularly when the frequency interpretation of probability is mistakenly assumed to be the only possible basis for frequentist inference. So, for example, a list of mis-interpretations of the meaning of p-values accompanies the article on $p$-values; controversies are detailed in the article on statistical hypothesis testing. The Jeffreys–Lindley paradox shows how different interpretations, applied to the same data set, can lead to different conclusions about the 'statistical significance' of a result.

As Feller notes: "There is no place in our system for speculations concerning the probability that the sun will rise tomorrow. Before speaking of it we should have to agree on an (idealized) model which would presumably run along the lines 'out of infinitely many worlds one is selected at random ...' Little imagination is required to construct such a model, but it appears both uninteresting and meaningless."

History
The frequentist view may have been foreshadowed by Aristotle, in Rhetoric, when he wrote: "the probable is that which for the most part happens — Aristotle Rhetoric"

Poisson (1837) clearly distinguished between objective and subjective probabilities. Soon thereafter a flurry of nearly simultaneous publications by Mill, Ellis (1843) and Ellis (1854), Cournot (1843), and Fries introduced the frequentist view. Venn (1866, 1876, 1888) provided a thorough exposition two decades later. These were further supported by the publications of Boole and Bertrand. By the end of the 19th century the frequentist interpretation was well established and perhaps dominant in the sciences. The following generation established the tools of classical inferential statistics (significance testing, hypothesis testing and confidence intervals) all based on frequentist probability.

Alternatively, Bernoulli understood the concept of frequentist probability and published a critical proof (the weak law of large numbers) posthumously (Bernoulli, 1713). He is also credited with some appreciation for subjective probability (prior to and without Bayes theorem). Gauss and Laplace used frequentist (and other) probability in derivations of the least squares method a century later, a generation before Poisson. Laplace considered the probabilities of testimonies, tables of mortality, judgments of tribunals, etc. which are unlikely candidates for classical probability. In this view, Poisson's contribution was his sharp criticism of the alternative "inverse" (subjective, Bayesian) probability interpretation. Any criticism by Gauss or Laplace was muted and implicit. (However, note that their later derivations of least squares did not use inverse probability.)

Major contributors to "classical" statistics in the early 20th century included Fisher, Neyman, and Pearson. Fisher contributed to most of statistics and made significance testing the core of experimental science, although he was critical of the frequentist concept of "repeated sampling from the same population"; Neyman formulated confidence intervals and contributed heavily to sampling theory; Neyman and Pearson paired in the creation of hypothesis testing. All valued objectivity, so the best interpretation of probability available to them was frequentist.

All were suspicious of "inverse probability" (the available alternative) with prior probabilities chosen by using the principle of indifference. Fisher said, "... the theory of inverse probability is founded upon an error, [referring to Bayes theorem] and must be wholly rejected." While Neyman was a pure frequentist, Fisher's views of probability were unique: Both Fisher and Neyman had nuanced view of probability. von Mises offered a combination of mathematical and philosophical support for frequentism in the era.

Etymology
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term frequentist was first used by M.G. Kendall in 1949, to contrast with Bayesians, whom he called non-frequentists. Kendall observed
 * 3. ... we may broadly distinguish two main attitudes. One takes probability as 'a degree of rational belief', or some similar idea...the second defines probability in terms of frequencies of occurrence of events, or by relative proportions in 'populations' or 'collectives';
 * 12. It might be thought that the differences between the frequentists and the non-frequentists (if I may call them such) are largely due to the differences of the domains which they purport to cover.
 * I assert that this is not so ... The essential distinction between the frequentists and the non-frequentists is, I think, that the former, in an effort to avoid anything savouring of matters of opinion, seek to define probability in terms of the objective properties of a population, real or hypothetical, whereas the latter do not. [emphasis in original]
 * I assert that this is not so ... The essential distinction between the frequentists and the non-frequentists is, I think, that the former, in an effort to avoid anything savouring of matters of opinion, seek to define probability in terms of the objective properties of a population, real or hypothetical, whereas the latter do not. [emphasis in original]
 * I assert that this is not so ... The essential distinction between the frequentists and the non-frequentists is, I think, that the former, in an effort to avoid anything savouring of matters of opinion, seek to define probability in terms of the objective properties of a population, real or hypothetical, whereas the latter do not. [emphasis in original]

"The Frequency Theory of Probability" was used a generation earlier as a chapter title in Keynes (1921).

The historical sequence: The primary historical sources in probability and statistics did not use the current terminology of classical, subjective (Bayesian), and frequentist probability.
 * 1) Probability concepts were introduced and much of the mathematics of probability derived (prior to the 20th century)
 * 2) classical statistical inference methods were developed
 * 3) the mathematical foundations of probability were solidified and current terminology was introduced (all in the 20th century).

Alternative views
Probability theory is a branch of mathematics. While its roots reach centuries into the past, it reached maturity with the axioms of Andrey Kolmogorov in 1933. The theory focuses on the valid operations on probability values rather than on the initial assignment of values; the mathematics is largely independent of any interpretation of probability.

Applications and interpretations of probability are considered by philosophy, the sciences and statistics. All are interested in the extraction of knowledge from observations—inductive reasoning. There are a variety of competing interpretations; All have problems. The frequentist interpretation does resolve difficulties with the classical interpretation, such as any problem where the natural symmetry of outcomes is not known. It does not address other issues, such as the dutch book.

 * Classical probability assigns probabilities based on physical idealized symmetry (dice, coins, cards). The classical definition is at risk of circularity: Probabilities are defined by assuming equality of probabilities. In the absence of symmetry the utility of the definition is limited.

 * Subjective (Bayesian) probability (a family of competing interpretations) considers degrees of belief: All practical "subjective" probability interpretations are so constrained to rationality as to avoid most subjectivity. Real subjectivity is repellent to some definitions of science which strive for results independent of the observer and analyst. Other applications of Bayesianism in science (e.g. logical Bayesianism) embrace the inherent subjectivity of many scientific studies and objects and use Bayesian reasoning to place boundaries and context on the influence of subjectivities on all analysis. The historical roots of this concept extended to such non-numeric applications as legal evidence.

 * Propensity probability views probability as a causative phenomenon rather than a purely descriptive or subjective one.

title: Frequentist probability


text:
List of French-language poets

List of poets who have written in the French language:

A

 * Louise-Victorine Ackermann (1813–1890)
 * Adam de la Halle (v.1250 – v.1285)
 * Dominique Aguessy (1937– )
 * Pierre Albert-Birot (1876–1967)
 * Anne-Marie Albiach (1937–2012)
 * Pierre Alféri (1963)
 * Marc Alyn (1937)
 * Catherine d'Amboise (1475–1550)
 * Jean Amrouche (1906–1962)
 * Guillaume Apollinaire (1880–1918)
 * Louis Aragon (1897–1982)
 * Jacques Arnold (1912–1995)
 * Hans Arp (1887–1966)
 * Antonin Artaud (1896–1948)
 * Théodore Agrippa d'Aubigné (1552–1630)
 * Jacques Audiberti (1899–1965)
 * Pierre Autin-Grenier (1947–2014)

B

 * Jean-Antoine de Baïf (1532–1589)
 * Luisa Ballesteros Rosas (born 1957)
 * Théodore de Banville (1823–1891)
 * Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly (1807–1889)
 * Henri Auguste Barbier (1805–1882)
 * Natalie Clifford Barney (1876–1972)
 * Linda Maria Baros (1981)
 * Guillaume de Salluste Du Bartas (1544–1590)
 * Henry Bataille (1872–1922)
 * Henry Bauchau (1913–2012)
 * Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867)
 * Marcel Béalu (1908–1993)
 * Philippe Beck (1963)
 * Samuel Beckett (1906–1989)
 * Joachim du Bellay (1522–1560)
 * Rémy Belleau (1528–1577)
 * Charles Beltjens (1832–1890)
 * Tahar Ben Jelloun (1944)
 * Isaac de Benserade (1612–1691)
 * Annie Bentoiu (1927–2015)
 * Pierre-Jean de Béranger (1780–1857)
 * Christian Bernard (1950)
 * Béroul (12th century)
 * Louky Bersianik (1965)
 * Aloysius Bertrand (1807–1841)
 * Gérard Bessière (1928)
 * Maurice Blanchot (1907–2003)
 * Blondel de Nesle (12th–13th centuries)
 * Christian Bobin (1951–2022)
 * Jean Bodel (1165–1210)
 * Étienne de La Boétie (1530–1563)
 * Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux (1636–1711)
 * Bonaventure Des Périers (1500–1544)
 * Yves Bonnefoy (1923–2016)
 * Pétrus Borel (1809–1859)
 * Bertran de Born (1150–1215 ?)
 * Robert de Boron (12th–13th centuries)
 * Théodore Botrel (1868–1925)
 * André du Bouchet (1924–2001)
 * Daniel Boulanger (1922–2014)
 * Stéphane Bouquet (1967)
 * Joë Bousquet (1897–1950)
 * Georges Brassens (1921–1981)
 * Jacques Brault (1933–2022)
 * André Breton (1896–1966)
 * Nicole Brossard (1943)
 * Aristide Bruant (1851–1925)
 * Gace Brulé (c.1160 – after 1213)
 * Andrée Brunin (1937–1993)
 * Michel Butor (1926–2016)

C

 * Louis Calaferte (1928–1994)
 * Susana Calandrelli (1901–1978)
 * Jean-Pierre Calloc'h (1888–1917)
 * Émile Cammaerts (1878–1953)
 * Côtis-Capel (1915–1986)
 * Placide Cappeau (1808–1877)
 * Adolphe Joseph Carcassonne (1826–1891)
 * Francis Carco (1886–1958)
 * Maurice Carême (1899–1978)
 * Jean Cayrol (1911–2005)
 * Rose Celli (1895–1982)
 * Blaise Cendrars (1887–1961)
 * Aimé Césaire (1913–2008)
 * Jean Chapelain (1595–1674)
 * Maurice Chappaz (1916–2009)
 * René Char (1907–1988)
 * Alain Chartier (1385–1430)
 * François-René de Chateaubriand (1768–1848)
 * Malcolm de Chazal (1902–1981)
 * Andrée Chedid (1920–2011)
 * Charles-Julien Lioult de Chênedollé (1769–1833)
 * François Cheng (1929)
 * André Chénier (1762–1794)
 * Jacques Chessex (1934–2009)
 * Chrétien de Troyes (c.1135 – c.1183)
 * Paul Claudel (1868–1955)
 * William Cliff (1940)
 * Jean Cocteau (1889–1963)
 * Gabrielle de Coignard (1550–1586)
 * Louise Colet (1810–1876)
 * Danielle Collobert (1940–1978)
 * Claude Confortès (1928–2016)
 * Conon de Béthune (c.1150 – 1220)
 * Benoît Conort (1956)
 * François Coppée (1842–1908)
 * Tristan Corbière (1845–1875)
 * Pierre Corneille (1606–1684)
 * Charles Cotin (1604–1681)
 * Gaston Couté (1880–1911)
 * Watriquet de Couvin (active 1319–1329)
 * Octave Crémazie (1827–1879)
 * René Crevel (1900–1935)
 * Charles Cros (1842–1888)

D

 * Jean Daive (1941)
 * Léon-Gontran Damas (1914–1978)
 * René Daumal (1908–1944)
 * François David (1870–1939)
 * Anne-Marie de Backer (1908–1987)
 * Lise Deharme (1898–1979)
 * Lucie Delarue-Mardrus (1880–1945)
 * Yanette Delétang-Tardif (1902–1976)
 * Jacques Delille (1738–1813)
 * René Depestre (1926)
 * Tristan Derème (1889–1941)
 * Paul Déroulède (1846–1914)
 * Maryline Desbiolles (1959)
 * Marceline Desbordes-Valmore (1786–1859)
 * Émile Deschamps (1791–1871)
 * Eustache Deschamps (1346–1406)
 * Robert Desnos (1900–1945)
 * Philippe Desportes (1546–1606)
 * Jean-Pierre Desthuilliers (1939–2013)
 * Bruno Destrée (1867–1919)
 * Léon Deubel (1879–1913)
 * Souéloum Diagho
 * Mohammed Dib (1920–2003)
 * David Diop (1927–1960)
 * Charles Dobzynski (1929–2014)
 * Jean Dorat (1508–1588)
 * Hélène Dorion (1958)
 * Christian Dotremont (1922–1979)
 * Minou Drouet (1947)
 * Caroline Dubois (1960)
 * Bernard Dubourg (1945–1992)
 * Georges Duhamel (1884–1966)
 * Jacques Dupin (1927–2012)
 * Jean-Pierre Duprey (1930–1959)
 * Marie Dauguet (1860-1942)

E

 * Paul Éluard (1895–1952)
 * Claude Esteban (1935–2006)

F

 * Nabile Farès (1940–2016)
 * Léon-Paul Fargue (1876–1947)
 * Jean-Pierre Faye (1925)
 * Léo Ferré (1916–1993)
 * Jean Follain (1903–1971)
 * Xavier Forneret (1809–1884)
 * Paul Fort (1872–1960)
 * Marie de France (1154–1189)
 * Martin Le Franc (1410–1461)
 * Frankétienne (1936)
 * Pauline Fréchette (1889-1943)
 * André Frédérique (1915–1957)
 * Jean Froissart (v.1337-v.1410)

G

 * Pierre Gabriel (1926–1994)
 * Serge Gainsbourg (1928–1991)
 * Augièr Galhard (16th-century)
 * Pierre Gamarra (1919–2009)
 * Joachim Gasquet (1873–1921)
 * Armand Gatti (1924–2017)
 * Théophile Gautier (1811–1872)
 * Jean Genet (1910–1986)
 * Amélie Gex (1835–1883)
 * Henri Ghéon (1875–1644)
 * Roger Gilbert-Lecomte (1907–1943)
 * Iwan Gilkin (1858–1924)
 * Roger Giroux (1925–1974)
 * Edouard Glissant (1928–2011)
 * Guy Goffette (1947)
 * Claire Goll (1890–1977)
 * Yvan Goll (1891–1950)
 * Jean Ogier de Gombauld (1576–1666)
 * Remy de Gourmont (1858–1915)
 * Xavier Grall (1930–1981)
 * Benoît Gréan
 * Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gresset (1709–1777)
 * Jacques Grévin (1538–1570)
 * Jean Grosjean (1912–2006)
 * Maurice de Guérin (1810–1839)
 * Georges Guillain (1876–1961)
 * Guillaume de Lorris (c.1200 – c.1238)
 * Pernette du Guillet (1520–1545)
 * Eugène Guillevic (1907–1997)

H

 * Adam de la Halle (1237–1288)
 * Anne Hébert (1916–2000)
 * Markus Hediger (1959)
 * Bernard Heidsieck (1928–2014)
 * Georges Henein (1914–1973)
 * José-Maria de Heredia (1842–1905)
 * Antoine Héroet (d. 1567)
 * Michel Houellebecq (1958)
 * Victor Hugo (1802–1885)
 * Marie Huot (1965)

I

 * Jacques Izoard (1936–2008)

J

 * Edmond Jabès (1912–1991)
 * Philippe Jaccottet (1925–2021)
 * Max Jacob (1876–1944)
 * Francis Jammes (1868–1938)
 * Amadis Jamyn (1538–1592)
 * Alfred Jarry (1873–1907)
 * Sandra Jayat (c.1939)
 * Georges Jean (1920–2011)
 * Jean de Meung (1250 – c.1305)
 * Étienne Jodelle (1532–1573)
 * Jean Joubert (1928–2015)
 * Jacques Jouet (1947)
 * Alain Jouffroy (1928–2015)
 * Pierre Jean Jouve (1887–1976)
 * Charles Juliet (1934)

K

 * Gustave Kahn (1859–1936)
 * Kama Sywor Kamanda (1952)
 * Abdelkebir Khatibi (1938–2009)
 * Vénus Khoury-Ghata (1937)
 * Tristan Klingsor (1874–1966)
 * Anise Koltz (1928–2023)
 * Petr Kral (1941–2020)
 * Seyhan Kurt (1971)

L

 * Abdellatif Laâbi (1942)
 * Louise Labé (1524–1566)
 * Pierre Labrie (1972)
 * Jacques Lacarrière (1925–2005)
 * Jean de La Fontaine (1621–1695)
 * Jules Laforgue (1860–1887)
 * Jean Lahor (1840–1909)
 * Alphonse de Lamartine (1790–1869)
 * Bernard de La Monnoye (1641–1728)
 * Jane de La Vaudère (1857-1908)
 * Valery Larbaud (1881–1957)
 * Josaphat-Robert Large (1942–2017)
 * Rina Lasnier (1910–1997)
 * Isidore Ducasse, comte de Lautréamont (1846–1870)
 * Pierre-Antoine Lebrun (1785–1873)
 * Félix Leclerc (1914–1988)
 * Leconte de Lisle (1818–1894)
 * Michel Leiris (1901–1990)
 * Jean Lemaire de Belges (1473–1520)
 * Charles Le Quintrec (1926–2008)
 * Jean-François Leriget de La Faye (1674–1731)
 * Alain Le Roux (c. 1040 – 1093)
 * Hervé Le Tellier (1957)
 * Henry Jean-Marie Levet (1874–1906)
 * Tristan L'Hermite (1601–1655)
 * Liska (1956–2011)
 * Guillaume de Lorris (1200–1240)
 * Pierre Louÿs (1870–1925)
 * Ghérasim Luca (1913–1994)
 * Jean-Pierre Luminet (1951)

M

 * Guillaume de Machaut (1300–1377)
 * Maurice Maeterlinck (1862–1949)
 * François de Malherbe (1555–1628)
 * Stéphane Mallarmé (1842–1898)
 * Pierre de Marbeuf (1595–1645)
 * Clément Marot (1495–1544)
 * Jean Marot (1450–1526)
 * Anne de Marquets (1533-1588)
 * Fabien Marsaud (born 1977)
 * Charles Maurras (1868–1952)
 * Catulle Mendès (1841–1909)
 * Élisa Mercœur (1809–1835)
 * Thierry Metz (1956–1997)
 * Jean de Meun (1240–1304)
 * Henri Michaux (1899-1984)
 * Jean Michel (c. 1435–1501)
 * Jean Moréas (1856—1910)
 * Hégésippe Moreau (1810–1838)
 * Camille de Morel
 * Colin Muset
 * Alfred de Musset (1810–1857)

N

 * Marguerite de Navarre (1492–1549)
 * Émile Nelligan (1879–1941)
 * Gérard de Nerval (1808–1855)

O

 * René de Obaldia (1918–2022)
 * Charles, duc d'Orléans (1394–1465)

P

 * Évariste de Parny (1753–1814)
 * Charles Péguy (1873–1914)
 * Benjamin Péret (1899–1959)
 * Louis Pergaud (1882–1915)
 * Saint-John Perse (1887–1975)
 * Christine de Pizan (1364–c. 1430)
 * Francis Ponge (1899–1988)
 * Jacques Prévert (1900–1977)
 * Guiot de Provins
 * Sully Prudhomme (1839–1907)

Q

 * Raymond Queneau (1903–1976)

R

 * Nicolas Rapin (1535–1608)
 * Henri de Régnier (1864–1936)
 * Pierre Reverdy (1889–1960)
 * Arthur Rimbaud (1854–1891)
 * Jules Romains (1885–1972)
 * Pierre de Ronsard (1524–1585)
 * Jaufré Rudel (1113–1170)
 * Rutebeuf (1245–1285)

S

 * Janou Saint-Denis (1930–2000)
 * Hector de Saint-Denys Garneau (1912–1943)
 * Mellin de Saint-Gelais (1491–1558)
 * Jean François de Saint-Lambert (1716–1803)
 * Benoît de Sainte-Maure
 * André Salmon (1881–1969)
 * Albert Samain (1858–1900)
 * Henriette Sauret (1890–1976)
 * Paul Scarron (1610–1660)
 * Maurice Scève (1501–1564)
 * Georges Schehadé (1907–1989)
 * Pierre Seghers (1906–1987)
 * Léopold Senghor (1906–2001)
 * Louisa Siefert (1845–1877)
 * Dominique Sorrente (born 1953)
 * Philippe Soupault (1897–1990)
 * André Spire (1868–1966)
 * Jules Supervielle (1884-1960)

T

 * Taillefer (1001–1066)
 * Jean de La Taille (1535–1608)
 * Jean Tardieu (1903–1995)
 * Thomas of Britain
 * Khal Torabully (born 1956)
 * Julien Torma (1902–1933)
 * Paul-Jean Toulet (1867–1920)
 * Roland Michel Tremblay (born 1972)
 * Chrétien de Troyes
 * Pontus de Tyard (1521–1605)
 * Tristan Tzara (1896–1963)

V

 * Paul Valéry (1871–1945)
 * Jean-Pierre Vallotton (born 1955)
 * Léonise Valois (1868–1936)
 * Jean Venturini (1919–1940)
 * Serge Venturini (born 1955)
 * Emile Verhaeren (1855–1916)
 * Paul Verlaine (1844–1896)
 * Francis Viélé-Griffin (1864–1937)
 * Boris Vian (1920–1959)
 * Claude Vigée (1921–2020)
 * Alfred de Vigny (1797–1863)
 * François Villon (1431–1463)
 * Roger Vitrac (1899–1952)
 * Vincent Voiture (1597–1648)
 * Voltaire (1694–1778)

title: List of French-language poets


text:
FM-2030

FM-2030 (born Fereidoun M. Esfandiary; ; October 15, 1930 – July 8, 2000) was a Belgian-born Iranian-American author, teacher, transhumanist philosopher, futurist, consultant, and Olympic athlete.

He became notable as a transhumanist with the book Are You a Transhuman?: Monitoring and Stimulating Your Personal Rate of Growth in a Rapidly Changing World, published in 1989. In addition, he wrote a number of works of fiction under his original name F. M. Esfandiary.

Early life and education
FM-2030 was born Fereydoon M. Esfandiary on October 15, 1930, in Belgium to Iranian diplomat Abdol-Hossein “A. H.” Sadigh Esfandiary (1894–1986), who served from 1920 to 1960. He travelled widely as a child, having lived in 17 countries including Iran, India, and Afghanistan, by age 11. He represented Iran as a basketball player and wrestler at the 1948 Olympic Games in London. He attended primary school in Iran and England and completed his secondary education at Colleges Des Freres, a Jesuit school in Jerusalem. By the time he was 18, aside from his native Persian, he learned to speak 4 languages: Arabic, Hebrew, French and English. He then started his college education at the University of California, Berkeley, but later transferred to the University of California, Los Angeles, where he graduated in 1952. Afterwards, he served on the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine from 1952 to 1954.

Name change and views
In 1970, after publishing his book Optimism One, F. M. Esfandiary started going by FM-2030 for two main reasons: firstly, to reflect the hope and belief that he would live to celebrate his 100th birthday in 2030; secondly, and more importantly, to break free of the widespread practice of naming conventions that he saw as rooted in a collectivist mentality, and existing only as a relic of humankind's tribalistic past. He formalized his name change in 1988. He viewed traditional names as almost always stamping a label of collective identity – varying from gender to nationality – on the individual, thereby existing as prima facie elements of thought processes in the human cultural fabric, that tended to degenerate into stereotyping, factionalism, and discrimination. In his own words, "Conventional names define a person's past: ancestry, ethnicity, nationality, religion. I am not who I was ten years ago and certainly not who I will be in twenty years. [...] The name 2030 reflects my conviction that the years around 2030 will be a magical time. In 2030 we will be ageless and everyone will have an excellent chance to live forever. 2030 is a dream and a goal." As a staunch anti-nationalist, he believed "There are no illegal immigrants, only irrelevant borders."

In 1973, he published a political manifesto UpWingers: A Futurist Manifesto in which he portrays both the ideological left and right as outdated, and in their place proposes a schema of UpWingers (those who look to the sky and the future) and DownWingers (those who look to the earth and the past). FM-2030 identified with the former. He argued that the nuclear family structure and the idea of a city would disappear, being replaced by modular social communities he called mobilia, powered by communitarianism, which would persist and then disappear.

FM-2030 believed that synthetic body parts would one day make life expectancy irrelevant; shortly before his death from pancreatic cancer, he described the pancreas as "a stupid, dumb, wretched organ."

In terms of civilization, he stated: "No civilization of the past was great. They were all primitive and persecutory, founded on mass subjugation and mass murder." In terms of identity, he stated "The young modern is not losing his identity. He is gladly disencumbering himself of it." He believed that eventually, nations would disappear and that identities would shift from cultural to personal. In a 1972 op-Ed in The New York Times, he wrote that the leadership in the Arab–Israeli conflict had failed, and that the warring sides were "acting like adolescents, refuse to resolve their wasteful 25-year-old brawl" and believed that the world was "irreversibly evolving beyond the concept of national homeland."

Personal life
FM-2030 was a lifelong vegetarian and said he would not eat anything that had a mother. He famously refused to answer any questions about his nationality, age and upbringing, claiming that such questions were irrelevant and that he was a “global person”. FM-2030 once said, "I am a 21st century person who was accidentally launched in the 20th. I have a deep nostalgia for the future." As he spent much of his childhood in India, he was noted to have spoken English with a slight Indian accent. He taught at The New School, University of California, Los Angeles, and Florida International University. He worked as a corporate consultant for Lockheed and J. C. Penney. He was also an atheist. FM-2030 was, in his own words, a follower of "upwing" politics (i.e. neither right-wing nor left-wing but something else), and by which he meant that he endorsed universal progress. He had been in a non-exclusive "friendship" (his preferred term for relationship) with Flora Schnall, a lawyer and fellow Harvard Law Class of 1959 graduate, from the 1960s until his death. FM-2030 and Schnall attended the same class as Ruth Bader Ginsburg. He resided in Westwood, Los Angeles as well as Miami.

Death
FM-2030 died on July 8, 2000, from pancreatic cancer at a friend's apartment in Manhattan. He was placed in cryonic suspension at the Alcor Life Extension Foundation in Scottsdale, Arizona, where his body remains today. He did not yet have remote standby arrangements, so no Alcor team member was present at his death, but FM-2030 was the first person to be vitrified, rather than simply frozen as previous cryonics patients had been. FM-2030 was survived by four sisters and one brother.

Published works

 * Fiction
 * The Day of Sacrifice (1959) available as an eBook
 * The Beggar (1965)
 * Identity Card (1966) (ISBN 0-460-03843-5) available as an eBook

 * Non-fiction
 * Optimism one; the emerging radicalism (1970) (ISBN 0-393-08611-9)
 * UpWingers: A Futurist Manifesto (1973) (ISBN 0-381-98243-2) (pbk.) Available as an eBook ISBN FW00007527, Publisher: e-reads, Pub. Date: Jan 1973, File Size: 153K
 * Telespheres (1977) (ISBN 0-445-04115-3)
 * Are You a Transhuman?: Monitoring and Stimulating Your Personal Rate of Growth in a Rapidly Changing World (1989) (ISBN 0-446-38806-8).

Cultural references

 * In Dan Brown's novel Inferno, transhumanist characters who admire FM-2030 pay tribute to him by adopting his naming convention and taking names such as FS2080.
 * Several musical artists, such as the Reptaliens, Dataport, Ghosthack, Vorja, Gavin Osborn and Philip Sumner have created songs and albums named after FM-2030.
 * A film titled 2030 released in 2020, which explored the possibility of FM-2030's future revival.

title: FM-2030


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West Flemish

West Flemish (West-Vlams or West-Vloams or Vlaemsch (in French Flanders), West-Vlaams, flamand occidental) is a collection of Low Franconian varieties spoken in western Belgium and the neighbouring areas of France and the Netherlands.

West Flemish is spoken by about a million people in the Belgian province of West Flanders, and a further 50,000 in the neighbouring Dutch coastal district of Zeelandic Flanders (200,000 if including the closely related dialects of Zeelandic) and 10-20,000 in the northern part of the French department of Nord. Some of the main cities where West Flemish is widely spoken are Bruges, Dunkirk, Kortrijk, Ostend, Roeselare and Ypres.

West Flemish is listed as a "vulnerable" language in UNESCO's online Red Book of Endangered Languages.

Phonology
West Flemish has a phonology that differs significantly from that of Standard Dutch, being similar to Afrikaans in the case of long E, O and A. Also where Standard Dutch has sch, in some parts of West Flanders, West-Flemish, like Afrikaans, has sk. However, the best known traits are the replacement of Standard Dutch (pre-)velar fricatives g and ch in Dutch with glottal  h ,. The following differences are listed by their Dutch spelling, as some different letters have merged their sounds in Standard Dutch but remained separate sounds in West Flemish. Pronunciations can also differ slightly from region to region.

 * sch - is realised as,  or  (sh or sk).
 * ei - is realised as  or  (è or jè).
 * ij  - is realised as  (short ie, also written as y) and in some words as.
 * ui  - is realised as  (short u) and in some words as.
 * au - is realised as  (ow)
 * ou - is realised as  (short oe), it is very similar to the long "oe" that is also used in Standard Dutch, which can cause confusion
 * e - is realised as  or.
 * i - is realised as.
 * ie - is longer
 * aa - is realised as.

The absence of and  in West Flemish makes pronouncing them very difficult for native speakers. That often causes hypercorrection of the sounds to a  or.

Standard Dutch also has many words with an -en suffix (mostly plural forms of verbs and nouns). While Standard Dutch and most dialects do not pronounce the final n, West Flemish typically drops the e and pronounces the n inside the base word. For base words already ending with n, the final n sound is often lengthened to clarify the suffix. That makes many words become similar to those of English: beaten, listen etc.

The short o  can also be pronounced as a short u, a phenomenon also occurring in Russian and some other Slavic languages, called akanye. That happens spontaneously to some words, but other words keep their original short o sounds. Similarly, the short a can turn into a short o  in some words spontaneously.

The diphthong ui does not exist in West Flemish and is replaced by a long u  or a long ie. Like for the ui, the long o can be replaced by an  (eu) for some words but a  for others. That often causes similarities to ranchers English.

Here are some examples showing the sound shifts that are part of the vocabulary: * This is as an example as a lot of words are not the same. The actual word used for kom is menne.

Plural form
Plural forms in Standard Dutch most often add -en, but West Flemish usually uses -s, like the Low Saxon dialects and even more prominently in English in which -en has become very rare. Under the influence of Standard Dutch, -s is being used by fewer people, and younger speakers tend to use -en.

Verb conjugation
The verbs zijn ("to be") and hebben ("to have") are also conjugated differently.

Double subject
West Flemish often has a double subject.

Articles
Standard Dutch has an indefinite article that does not depend on gender, unlike in West Flemish. However, a gender-independent article is increasingly used. Like in English, n is pronounced only if the next word begins with a vowel sound.

Conjugation of yes and no
Another feature of West Flemish is the conjugation of ja and nee ("yes" and "no") to the subject of the sentence. That is somewhat related to the double subject, but even when the rest of the sentence is not pronounced, ja and nee are generally used with the first part of the double subject. It is also There is also an extra word, toet, negates the previous sentence but gives a positive answer. It is an abbreviation of " 't en doe 't" - it does it. The full version is also used - as in "ja'k en doe 't".

Ja and nee can also all be strengthened by adding mo- or ba-. Both mean "but" and are derived from Dutch but or maar) and can be even used together (mobajoat).

title: West Flemish


text:
Fritz Leiber

Fritz Reuter Leiber Jr. (December 24, 1910 – September 5, 1992) was an American writer of fantasy, horror, and science fiction. With writers such as Robert E. Howard and Michael Moorcock, Leiber is one of the fathers of sword and sorcery.

Life
Fritz Leiber was born December 24, 1910, in Chicago, Illinois, to the actors Fritz Leiber and Virginia Bronson Leiber. For a time, he seemed inclined to follow in his parents' footsteps; the theater and actors feature in his fiction. He spent 1928 touring with his parents' Shakespeare company (Fritz Leiber & Co.) before entering the University of Chicago, where he was elected to Phi Beta Kappa and received an undergraduate Ph.B. degree in psychology and physiology or biology with honors in 1932. From 1932 to 1933, he worked as a lay reader and studied as a candidate for the ministry, without taking a degree, at the General Theological Seminary in Chelsea, Manhattan, an affiliate of the Episcopal Church.

After pursuing graduate studies in philosophy at the University of Chicago from 1933 to 1934 and again not taking a degree, he remained in Chicago while touring under the stage name of "Francis Lathrop" intermittently with his parents' company and pursuing a literary career. Six short stories later included in the 2010 collection Strange Wonders: A Collection of Rare Fritz Leiber Works carry 1934 and 1935 dates. He also appeared alongside his father in uncredited parts in George Cukor's Camille (1936), James Whale's The Great Garrick (1937), and William Dieterle's The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939).

In 1936, he initiated a brief, intense correspondence with H. P. Lovecraft, who "encouraged and influenced [Leiber's] literary development" before Lovecraft died in March 1937. Leiber introduced Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser in "Two Sought Adventure", his first professionally published short story in the August 1939 edition of Unknown, edited by John W. Campbell.

Leiber married Jonquil Stephens on January 16, 1936. Their only child, philosopher and science fiction writer Justin Leiber, was born in 1938. From 1937 to 1941, Fritz Leiber was employed by Consolidated Book Publishing as a staff writer for the Standard American Encyclopedia. In 1941, the family moved to California, where Leiber served as a speech and drama instructor at Occidental College during the 1941–1942 academic year.

Unable to conceal his disdain for academic politics as the United States entered World War II, he decided that the struggle against fascism mattered more than his long-held pacifist convictions. He accepted a position with Douglas Aircraft in quality inspection, primarily working on the C-47 Skytrain. Throughout the war, he continued to regularly publish fiction.

Thereafter, the family returned to Chicago, where Leiber served as associate editor of Science Digest from 1945 to 1956. During this decade (forestalled by a fallow interregnum from 1954 to 1956), his output (including the 1947 Arkham House anthology Night's Black Agents) was characterized by Poul Anderson as "a lot of the best science fiction and fantasy in the business". In 1958, the Leibers returned to Los Angeles. By then, he could afford to relinquish his journalistic career and support his family as a full-time fiction writer.

Jonquil's death in 1969 precipitated Leiber's permanent relocation to San Francisco and exacerbated his longstanding alcoholism after twelve years of fellowship in Alcoholics Anonymous. He gradually regained sobriety, an effort impeded by comorbid barbiturate abuse, over the next two decades. Perhaps as a result of his substance abuse, Leiber seems to have suffered periods of penury in the 1970s; Harlan Ellison wrote of his anger at finding that the much-awarded Leiber had to write his novels on a manual typewriter propped up over the sink in his apartment. Marc Laidlaw wrote that, when visiting Leiber as a fan in 1976, he "was shocked to find him occupying one small room of a seedy San Francisco residence hotel, its squalor relieved mainly by walls of books". Other reports suggest that Leiber preferred to live simply in the city, spending his money on dining, movies, and travel. In the last years of his life, royalty checks from TSR, Inc. (the makers of Dungeons & Dragons, who had licensed the mythos of the Fafhrd and Gray Mouser series) were enough in themselves to ensure that he lived comfortably. In 1977, he returned to his original form with a fantasy novel set in modern-day San Francisco, Our Lady of Darkness, which is about a writer of weird tales who must deal with the death of his wife and his recovery from alcoholism.

In 1992, the last year of his life, Leiber married his second wife, Margo Skinner, a journalist and poet with whom he had been friends for years. Leiber died a few weeks after a physical collapse while traveling from a science fiction convention in London, Ontario, with Skinner. His cause of death was a stroke.

He wrote a 100-page-plus memoir, Not Much Disorder and Not So Early Sex, which can be found in The Ghost Light (1984).

Leiber's own literary criticism, including several essays on Lovecraft, was collected in the volume Fafhrd and Me (1990).

Theater
As the child of two Shakespearean actors, Leiber was fascinated with the stage, describing itinerant Shakespearean companies in stories like "No Great Magic" and "Four Ghosts in Hamlet", and creating an actor/producer protagonist for his novel A Specter is Haunting Texas.

Although his Change War novel, The Big Time, is about a war between two factions, the "Snakes" and the "Spiders", changing and rechanging history throughout the universe, all the action takes place in a small bubble of isolated space-time the size of a theatrical stage, and with only a handful of characters. Judith Merril (in the July 1969 issue of The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction) remarks on Leiber's acting skills when the writer won a science fiction convention costume ball. Leiber's costume consisted of a cardboard military collar over turned-up jacket lapels, cardboard insignia, an armband, and a spider pencilled large in black on his forehead, thus turning him into an officer of the Spiders, one of the combatants in his Change War stories. "The only other component," Merril writes, "was the Leiber instinct for theatre."

Films
The similarity of the names of the father and the son caused some filmographies to incorrectly attribute to Fritz Jr. roles which were in fact played by his father, Fritz Leiber Sr., who was the evil Inquisitor in the Errol Flynn adventure film The Sea Hawk (1940) and had played in many other movies from 1917 to the late 1950s. It is the elder Leiber, not the younger, who appears in the Vincent Price vehicle The Web (1947) and in Charlie Chaplin's Monsieur Verdoux (1947).

The younger Leiber can be seen briefly as Valentin in the 1936 film version of Camille starring Greta Garbo. In the cult horror film Equinox (1970) directed by Dennis Muren and Jack Woods, Leiber has a cameo appearance as a geologist, Dr. Watermann. In the edited second version of the movie, Leiber has no spoken dialogue but appears in a few scenes. The original version of the movie has a longer appearance by Leiber recounting the ancient book and a brief speaking role; all were cut from the re-release.

He also appears as Chavez in the 1979 Schick Sunn Classics documentary The Bermuda Triangle, based on the book by Charles Berlitz.

Writing career
Leiber was heavily influenced by H. P. Lovecraft, Robert Graves, John Webster, and Shakespeare in the first two decades of his career. Beginning in the late 1950s, he was increasingly influenced by the works of Carl Jung, particularly by the concepts of the anima and the shadow. In the mid-1960s, he began incorporating elements of Joseph Campbell's The Hero with a Thousand Faces. These concepts are often mentioned in his stories, especially the anima, which becomes a method of exploring his fascination with, but estrangement from, the female.

Leiber liked cats, which are featured in many of his stories. Tigerishka, for example, is a cat-like alien who is sexually attractive to the human protagonist yet repelled by human customs in the novel The Wanderer. Leiber's "Gummitch" stories feature a kitten with an I.Q. of 160, just waiting for his ritual cup of coffee so that he can become human, too.

His first stories in the 1930s and 40s were inspired by Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos. A notable critic and historian of the wider Mythos, S. T. Joshi, has singled out Leiber's "The Sunken Land" (Unknown Worlds, February 1942) as the most accomplished of the early stories based on Lovecraft's Mythos. Leiber also later wrote several essays on Lovecraft the man, such as "A Literary Copernicus" (1949), the publication of which formed a key moment in the emergence of a serious critical appreciation of Lovecraft's life and work.

Leiber's first professional sale was "Two Sought Adventure" (Unknown, August 1939), which introduced his most famous characters, Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser. In 1943, his first two novels were serialized in Unknown (the supernatural horror-oriented Conjure Wife, inspired by his experiences on the faculty of Occidental College) and Astounding Science Fiction (Gather, Darkness).

1947 marked the publication of his first book, Night's Black Agents, a short story collection containing seven stories grouped as 'Modern Horrors', one as a 'Transition', and two grouped as 'Ancient Adventures': "The Sunken Land" and "Adept's Gambit", which are both stories of Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser.

The science fiction novel Gather, Darkness followed in 1950. It deals with a futuristic world that follows the Second Atomic Age which is ruled by scientists, until in the throes of a new Dark Age, the witches revolt.

In 1951, Leiber was Guest of Honor at the World Science Fiction Convention in New Orleans. Further novels followed during the 1950s, and in 1958 The Big Time won the Hugo Award for Best Novel.

Leiber continued to publish in the 1960s. His novel The Wanderer (1964) also won the Hugo for Best Novel. In the novel, an artificial planet nicknamed the Wanderer materializes from hyperspace within earth's orbit. The Wanderer's gravitational field captures the moon and shatters it into something like one of Saturn's rings. On Earth, the Wanderer's gravity well triggers earthquakes, tsunamis, and tidal phenomena. The multi-threaded plot follows the exploits of an ensemble cast as they struggle to survive the global disaster.

In the same period, Leiber published "Black Gondolier", a short story in which a protagonist uncovers a cosmic conspiracy in which oil from ancient fossils preys upon human beings and human civilizations. Leiber received the Hugo Award for Best Novella in 1970 and 1971 for "Ship of Shadows" (1969) and "Ill Met in Lankhmar" (1970). "Gonna Roll the Bones" (1967), his contribution to Harlan Ellison's Dangerous Visions anthology, won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette and the Nebula Award for Best Novelette in 1968.

Our Lady of Darkness (1977), originally serialized in short form in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction under the title "The Pale Brown Thing" (1977), featured cities as the breeding grounds for new types of elementals called paramentals, summonable by the dark art of megapolisomancy, with such activities centering on the Transamerica Pyramid. Its main characters include Franz Westen, Jaime Donaldus Byers, and the magician Thibault de Castries. Our Lady of Darkness won the World Fantasy Award—Novel.

Leiber also wrote the 1966 novelization of the Clair Huffaker screenplay of Tarzan and the Valley of Gold.

Many of Leiber's most acclaimed works are short stories, especially in the horror genre, including "The Smoke Ghost", "The Girl With the Hungry Eyes", and "You're All Alone" (later expanded as The Sinful Ones). Leiber also challenged the conventions of science fiction through reflexive narratives such as "A Bad Day For Sales" (first published in Galaxy Science Fiction, July 1953), in which the protagonist, Robie, "America’s only genuine mobile salesrobot", references the title character of Isaac Asimov's idealistic robot story, "Robbie". Questioning Isaac Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics, Leiber imagines the futility of automatons in a post-apocalyptic New York City. In his later years, Leiber returned to short story horror in such works as "Horrible Imaginings", "Black Has Its Charms" and the award-winning "The Button Moulder".

The short parallel worlds story "Catch That Zeppelin!" (1975) won the Hugo Award for Best Short Story and the Nebula Award for Best Short Story in 1976. It presents an alternate reality much better than our own, as opposed to the usual parallel universe story depicting a world worse than our own. "Belsen Express" (1975) won the World Fantasy Award—Short Fiction.

Leiber was named the second Gandalf Grand Master of Fantasy by participants in the 1975 World Science Fiction Convention (Worldcon), after the posthumous inaugural award to J. R. R. Tolkien. Next year he won the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement. He was Guest of Honor at the 1979 Worldcon in Brighton, England (1979). The Science Fiction Writers of America made him its fifth SFWA Grand Master in 1981; the Horror Writers Association made him an inaugural winner of the Bram Stoker Award for Lifetime Achievement in 1988 (named in 1987); and the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted him in 2001, its sixth class of two deceased and two living writers.

Leiber was a founding member of the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA), a loose-knit group of Heroic fantasy authors founded in the 1960s and led by Lin Carter. Some works by SAGA members were published in Lin Carter's Flashing Swords! anthologies. Leiber himself is credited with inventing the term sword and sorcery for the particular subgenre of epic fantasy exemplified by his Fafhrd and Grey Mouser stories.

In an appreciation in the July 1969 "Special Fritz Leiber Issue" of The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, Judith Merril writes of Leiber's connection with his readers: "That this kind of personal response...is shared by thousands of other readers, has been made clear on several occasions." The November 1959 issue of Fantastic, for instance: Leiber had just come out of one of his recurrent dry spells, and editor Cele Lalli bought up all his new material until there was enough [five stories] to fill an issue; the magazine came out with a big black headline across its cover — Leiber Is Back!

Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser
His legacy has been consolidated by his most famous creations, the Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser stories, written over a span of 50 years. The first, "Two Sought Adventure", appeared in Unknown, August 1939. The stories are about an unlikely pair of heroes found in and around the city of Lankhmar. Fafhrd was based on Leiber himself and the Mouser on his friend Harry Otto Fischer, and the two characters were created in a series of letters exchanged by the two in the mid-1930s. These stories were among the progenitors of many of the tropes of sword and sorcery.

Some Fafhrd and Mouser stories were recognized by annual genre awards: "Scylla's Daughter" (1961) was "Short Story" Hugo finalist, and "Ill Met in Lankhmar" (1970) won the "Best Novella" Hugo and Nebula Awards. Leiber's last major work, The Knight and Knave of Swords (1991), closed out the series while leaving room for possible sequels. In his last year, Leiber considered allowing other writers to continue the series, but his sudden death made this more difficult. One new Fafhrd and the Mouser novel, Swords Against the Shadowland, by Robin Wayne Bailey, appeared in 1998.

The stories influenced the shaping of sword and sorcery and other works. Joanna Russ' stories about thief-assassin Alyx (collected in 1976 in The Adventures of Alyx) were in part inspired by Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser, and Alyx made guest appearances in two of Leiber's stories. More recently, playing off the visit of Fafhrd and the Grey Mouser to our world in Adept's Gambit (set in second century B.C. Tyre), Steven Saylor's short story "Ill Seen in Tyre" takes his Roma Sub Rosa series hero Gordianus to the city of Tyre a hundred years later, where the two visitors from Nehwon are remembered as local legends.

Fischer and Leiber contributed to the original design of the 1976 wargame Lankhmar from TSR.

Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser series

 * 1) Two Sought Adventure (1958). Collection of six short stories. Later expanded and retitled as Swords Against Death.
 * 2) Swords and Deviltry (1970). Collection of 3 short stories.
 * 3) Swords Against Death (1970). Collection of 10 short stories; an expanded edition of Two Sought Adventure
 * 4) Swords in the Mist (1968). Collection of 6 short stories.
 * 5) Swords Against Wizardry (1968). Collection of 4 short stories.
 * 6) The Swords of Lankhmar (1968). Expanded from "Scylla's Daughter" in Fantastic, 1963.
 * 7) Swords and Ice Magic (1977). Collection of 8 short stories. (Though see Rime Isle below.)
 * 8) The Knight and Knave of Swords (1988). Collection of 4 short stories. Retitled Farewell to Lankhmar (2000, UK).
 * 9) Ill Met In Lankhmar (Copyright 1970, published in book format 1996, The Science Fiction Collection Book Club.)

Novels and novellas

 * Conjure Wife (originally appeared in Unknown Worlds, April 1943) — This novel relates a college professor's discovery that his wife (and many other women) are regularly using magic against and for one another and their husbands.
 * Gather, Darkness! (serialized in Astounding, May, June, and July 1943) – a dystopian, satirical depiction of a future theocracy and the revolution that brings it down.
 * Destiny Times Three (1945, first in Astounding) (reprinted 1957 as Galaxy Novel number 28)
 * The Sinful Ones (1953), an adulterated version of You're All Alone (1950 Fantastic Adventures abridged); Leiber rewrote the inserted passages and saw published a revised edition in 1980.
 * The Green Millennium (1953)
 * The Night of the Long Knives (Amazing Science Fiction Stories, January 1960)
 * The Big Time (expanded 1961 from a version serialized in Galaxy, March and April 1958, which won a Hugo) — Change War series. Also available in Ship of Shadows (1979) – see Collections below.
 * The Silver Eggheads (1961; a shorter version was published in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction in 1959)
 * The Wanderer (1964)
 * Tarzan and the Valley of Gold (1966) (novelisation of a Clair Huffaker screenplay)
 * A Specter Is Haunting Texas (1969)
 * You're All Alone (1972) (the first book edition includes two shorter works as well, a revised version was issued as The Sinful Ones)
 * Our Lady of Darkness (1977) This novel, the title of which is drawn from Thomas de Quincey's Suspiria de Profundis, was published the same year as the release of Dario Argento's Suspiria, which referenced the same idea in de Quincey. It also makes fictional reference to fellow novelists Jack London, Clark Ashton Smith and H. P. Lovecraft and others.
 * Rime Isle (1977) (somewhere between a novella and a two-novelette collection, composed of "The Frost Monstreme" and "Rime Isle" offered as a unitary volume)
 * Ervool (Cheap Street, 1980—limited ed of 200 numbered copies). A standalone edition of a short story originally published in the 1940s fanzine The Acolyte.
 * The Dealings of Daniel Kesserich (1997) — H. P. Lovecraftian novella written in 1936 and lost for decades
 * Dark Ladies (NY: Tor Books, 1999). Omnibus edition of Conjure Wife and Our Lady of Darkness

Collections

 * Night's Black Agents (Arkham House, 1947). Reprinted by Berkley, 1978 with the addition of two stories – "The Girl With the Hungry Eyes" and "A Bit of the Dark World". The definitive hardcover edition is the Gregg Press (1980) edition, which adds a foreword by Richard Powers to the complete contents of the Berkley edition.
 * The Mind Spider and Other Stories (1961). Collection of 6 short stories.
 * Shadows With Eyes (1962). Collection of 6 short stories.
 * A Pail of Air (1964). Collection of 11 short stories.
 * Ships to the Stars (1964). Collection of 6 short stories.
 * The Night of the Wolf (1966). Collection of 4 short stories.
 * The Secret Songs (1968). Collection of 11 short stories.
 * Night Monsters (1969). Collection of 4 short stories. UK (1974) edition drops 1 story and adds 4.
 * The Best of Fritz Leiber (1974). Collection of 22 short stories. (Introduction by Poul Anderson, "The Wizard of Nehwon")
 * The Book of Fritz Leiber (1974). Collection of 10 stories and 9 articles.
 * The Second Book of Fritz Leiber (1975). Collection of 4 stories, 1 play, and 6 articles.
 * The Worlds of Fritz Leiber (Ace Books, 1976). Collection of 22 short stories including "Catch That Zeppelin!".
 * Bazaar of the Bizarre (1978)
 * Heroes and Horrors (1978). Collection of 9 stories.
 * Ship of Shadows (1979). Collection of 5 award-winning short stories [ 3 stories 2 novellas & 1 novelThe BigTime.]
 * Changewar (1983). Collection of the Changewar short stories (7 stories).
 * The Ghost Light (1984). Collection of 9 stories with illustrations and an autobiographic essay with photographs.
 * The Leiber Chronicles (1990) Collection of 44 short stories.
 * Gummitch and Friends (1992). Leiber's cat stories, the first five of which feature Gummitch.
 * Ill Met in Lankhmar (White Wolf Publishing, 1995, ISBN 1-56504-926-8) combines Swords and Deviltry (1970) and Swords Against Death (1970).
 * Lean Times in Lankhmar (White Wolf Publishing, 1996, ISBN 1-56504-927-6) combines Swords in the Mist (1970) and Swords Against Wizardry (1970)
 * Return to Lankhmar (White Wolf Publishing, 1997, ISBN 1-56504-928-4) combines The Swords of Lankhmar (1968) and Swords and Ice Magic (1977)
 * Farewell to Lankhmar (White Wolf Publishing, 1999, ISBN 1-56504-897-0)
 * The Black Gondolier (2000) Collection of 18 short stories.
 * Smoke Ghost and Other Apparitions (2002) Collection of 18 short stories.
 * Day Dark, Night Bright (Collection of 20 short stories, 2002)
 * Horrible Imaginings (2004) Collection of 15 short stories.
 * Strange Wonders (Subterranean Press, 2010). Edited by Benjamin Szumskyj. Collection of 48 unpublished and uncollected works (drafts, fragments, poems, essays, and a play).
 * Fritz Leiber: Selected Stories (Night Shade Books, 2010). Edited by Jonathan Strahan and Charles N. Brown. Collection of 17 stories, with an introduction by Neil Gaiman.

Plays

 * Quicks Around the Zodiac: A Farce. (Newcastle, VA: Cheap Street, 1983). (Reprinted in Strange Wonders, 2010).

Essays

 * The Mystery of the Japanese Clock. A standalone essay on the workings of a digital Japanese clock. Montgolfier Press, 1982, with Introduction by his son Justin Leiber. (Reprinted in Strange Wonders, 2010).

Poetry

 * Demons of the Upper Air (Glendale, CA: Roy A. Squires, 1969).
 *  Sonnets to Jonquil and All (Glendale, CA: Roy A. Squires, 1978).

Screen adaptations
Conjure Wife has been made into feature films four times under other titles:
 * Weird Woman (1944) starring Lon Chaney Jr. One of six Inner Sanctum mystery films made by Universal Studios based upon the old Inner Sanctum radio series.
 * Conjure Wife was also adapted for the 1960 TV series Moment of Fear (episode title "The Accomplice")
 * Night of the Eagle (also known as Burn, Witch, Burn!) (1962) (screenplay by Charles Beaumont, Richard Matheson and George Baxt, directed by Sidney Hayers, produced by Albert Fennell)
 * Witches' Brew (also known as Which Witch is Which?) (1980) Directed by Richard Shore and starring Teri Garr and Richard Benjamin.

"The Girl with the Hungry Eyes" was filmed under that title by Kastenbaum Films in 1995. (This film is not to be confused with the 1967 William Rotsler film The Girl with the Hungry Eyes which is entirely unrelated to Leiber's story).

Two Leiber stories were filmed for TV for Rod Serling's Night Gallery. These were "The Girl with the Hungry Eyes" (1970) (adapted by Robert M. Young and directed by John Badham) and "The Dead Man" (adapted and directed by Douglas Heyes).

title: Fritz Leiber