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Civilian Conservation Corps

The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) was a voluntary government work relief program that ran from 1933 to 1942 in the United States for unemployed, unmarried men ages 18–25 and eventually expanded to ages 17–28. The CCC was a major part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal that supplied manual labor jobs related to the conservation and development of natural resources in rural lands owned by federal, state, and local governments. The CCC was designed to supply jobs for young men and to relieve families who had difficulty finding jobs during the Great Depression in the United States. There was eventually a smaller counterpart program for unemployed women called the She-She-She Camps, which were championed by Eleanor Roosevelt.

Robert Fechner was the first director of this agency, succeeded by James McEntee following Fechner's death. The largest enrollment at any one time was 300,000. Through the course of its nine years in operation, three million young men took part in the CCC, which provided them with shelter, clothing, and food, together with a monthly wage of $30, $25 of which had to be sent home to their families.

The American public made the CCC the most popular of all the New Deal programs. Sources written at the time claimed an individual's enrollment in the CCC led to improved physical condition, heightened morale, and increased employability. The CCC also led to a greater public awareness and appreciation of the outdoors and the nation's natural resources, and the continued need for a carefully planned, comprehensive national program for the protection and development of natural resources.

The CCC operated separate programs for veterans and Native Americans. Approximately 15,000 Native Americans took part in the program, helping them weather the Great Depression.

By 1942, with World War II raging and the draft in effect, the need for work relief declined, and Congress voted to close the program.

Founding
As governor of New York, Franklin D. Roosevelt had run a similar program on a much smaller scale, known as the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration (TERA). It was started in early 1932 to "use men from the lists of the unemployed to improve our existing reforestation areas." In its first year alone, more than 25,000 unemployed New Yorkers were active in its paid conservation work. Long interested in conservation, as president Roosevelt proposed a full-scale national program to Congress on March 21, 1933: "I propose to create [the CCC] to be used in complex work, not interfering with normal employment and confining itself to forestry, the prevention of soil erosion, flood control, and similar projects. I call your attention to the fact that this type of work is of definite, practical value, not only through the prevention of great present financial loss but also as a means of creating future national wealth."

He promised this law would provide 250,000 young men with meals, housing, workwear, and medical care in exchange for their work in the national forests and other government properties. The Emergency Conservation Work (ECW) Act was introduced to Congress the same day and enacted by voice vote on March 31. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 6101 on April 5, 1933, which established the CCC organization and appointed a director, Robert Fechner, a former labor union official who served until 1939. The organization and administration of the CCC was a new experiment in operations for a federal government agency. The order directed that the program be supervised jointly by four government departments: Labor, which recruited the young men; War, which operated the camps; the Agriculture; and Interior, which organized and supervised the work projects. A CCC Advisory Council was composed of a representative from each of those departments. In addition, the Office of Education and Veterans Administration participated in the program. To overcome opposition from labor unions, which wanted no training programs started when so many of their members were unemployed, Roosevelt chose Robert Fechner, vice president of the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers, as director of the Corps. William Green, head of the American Federation of Labor, was taken to the first camp to see that there was no job training involved beyond simple manual labor.

U.S. Army
Reserve officers from the U.S. Army were in charge of the camps, but there was no military training. General Douglas MacArthur was placed in charge of the program, but said that the number of army officers and soldiers assigned to the camps was affecting the readiness of the regular army. However, the army also found numerous benefits in the program. When the draft began in 1940, the policy was to make CCC alumni corporals and sergeants. The CCC also provided command experience to Organized Reserve Corps officers. George Marshall "embraced" the CCC, unlike many of his brother officers.

Through the CCC, the regular army could assess the leadership performance of both regular and reserve officers. The CCC provided lessons which the army used in developing its wartime mobilization plans for training camps.

History
An implicit goal of the CCC was to restore morale in an era of 25% unemployment for all men and much higher rates for poorly educated teenagers. Jeffrey Suzik argues in "'Building Better Men': The CCC Boy and the Changing Social Ideal of Manliness" that the CCC provided an ideology of manly outdoor work to counter the Depression, as well as cash to help the family budget. Through a regime of heavy manual labor, civic and political education, and an all-male living and working environment, the CCC tried to build "better men" who would be economically independent and self-reliant. By 1939, there was a shift in the ideal from the hardy manual worker to the highly trained citizen soldier ready for war.

Early years, 1933–1937

The legislation and mobilization of the program occurred quite rapidly. Roosevelt made his request to Congress on March 21, 1933; the legislation was submitted to Congress the same day; Congress passed it by voice vote on March 31; Roosevelt signed it the same day, then issued an executive order on April 5 creating the agency, appointing Fechner its director, and assigning War Department corps area commanders to begin enrollment. The first CCC enrollee was selected April 8, and lists of unemployed men were subsequently supplied by state and local welfare and relief agencies for immediate enrollment. On April 17, the first camp, NF-1, Camp Roosevelt, was established at George Washington National Forest near Luray, Virginia. On June 18, the first of 161 soil erosion control camps was opened in Clayton, Alabama. By July 1, 1933, there were 1,463 working camps with 250,000 junior enrollees 18–25 years of age; 28,000 veterans; 14,000 Native Americans; and 25,000 adults in the Local Experienced Men (LEM) program.

Enrollees
The typical CCC enrollee was a U.S. citizen, unmarried, unemployed male, 18–25 years of age. Normally his family was on local relief. Each enrollee volunteered and, upon passing a physical exam and/or a period of conditioning, was required to serve a minimum six-month period, with the option to serve as many as four periods, or up to two years if employment outside the Corps was not possible. Enrollees worked 40 hours per week over five days, sometimes including Saturdays if poor weather dictated. In return they received $30 per month with a compulsory allotment of $25 (about ) sent to a family dependent, as well as housing, food, clothing, and medical care.

Veterans Conservation Corps
Following the second Bonus Army march on Washington, D.C., President Roosevelt amended the CCC program on May 11, 1933, to include work opportunities for veterans. Veteran qualifications differed from the junior enrollee; one needed to be certified by the Veterans Administration by an application. They could be any age, and married or single as long as they were in need of work. Veterans were generally assigned to entire veteran camps. Enrollees were eligible for the following "rated" positions to help with camp administration: senior leader, mess steward, storekeeper and two cooks; assistant leader, company clerk, assistant educational advisor and three second cooks. These men received additional pay ranging from $36 to $45 per month depending on their rating.

Camps
Each CCC camp was located in the area of particular conservation work to be performed and organized around a complement of up to 200 civilian enrollees in a designated numbered "company" unit. The CCC camp was a temporary community in itself, structured to have barracks (initially Army tents) for 50 enrollees each, officer/technical staff quarters, medical dispensary, mess hall, recreation hall, educational building, lavatory and showers, technical/administrative offices, tool room/blacksmith shop and motor pool garages.

The company organization of each camp had a dual-authority supervisory staff: firstly, Department of War personnel or Reserve officers (until July 1, 1939), a "company commander" and junior officer, who were responsible for overall camp operation, logistics, education and training; and secondly, ten to fourteen technical service civilians, including a camp "superintendent" and "foreman", employed by either the Departments of Interior or Agriculture, responsible for the particular fieldwork. Also included in camp operation were several non-technical supervisor LEMs, who provided knowledge of the work at hand, "lay of the land," and paternal guidance for inexperienced enrollees. Enrollees were organized into work detail units called "sections" of 25 men each, according to the barracks they resided in. Each section had an enrollee "senior leader" and "assistant leader" who were accountable for the men at work and in the barracks.

Work classifications
The CCC performed 300 types of work projects in nine approved general classifications:
 * 1) Structural improvements: bridges, fire lookout towers, service buildings
 * 2) Transportation: truck trails, minor roads, foot trails and airfields
 * 3) Erosion control: check dams, terracing, and vegetable covering
 * 4) Flood control: irrigation, drainage, dams, ditching, channel work, riprapping
 * 5) Forest culture: tree planting, fire prevention, fire pre-suppression, firefighting, insect and disease control
 * 6) Landscape and recreation: public camp and picnic ground development, lake and pond site clearing and development
 * 7) Range: stock driveways, elimination of predatory animals
 * 8) Wildlife: stream improvement, fish stocking, food and cover planting
 * 9) Miscellaneous: emergency work, surveys, mosquito control

The responses to this seven-month experimental conservation program were enthusiastic. On October 1, 1933, Director Fechner was directed to arrange for the second period of enrollment. By January 1934, 300,000 men were enrolled. In July 1934, this cap was increased by 50,000 to include men from Midwest states that had been affected by drought. The temporary tent camps had also developed to include wooden barracks. An education program had been established, emphasizing job training and literacy.

Approximately 55% of enrollees were from rural communities, a majority of which were non-farm; 45% came from urban areas. Level of education for the enrollee averaged 3% illiterate; 38% had less than eight years of school; 48% did not complete high school; and 11% were high school graduates. At the time of entry, 70% of enrollees were malnourished and poorly clothed. Few had work experience beyond occasional odd jobs. Peace was maintained by the threat of "dishonorable discharge". "This is a training station; we're going to leave morally and physically fit to lick 'Old Man Depression,'" boasted the newsletter, Happy Days, of a North Carolina camp.

African American people
Because of the power of conservative Solid South white Democrats in Congress, who insisted on racial segregation, most New Deal programs were racially segregated; African American and white people rarely worked alongside each other. At this time, all the states of the South had passed legislation imposing racial segregation and, since the turn of the century, laws and constitutional provisions that disenfranchised most African Americans; they were excluded from formal politics. Because of discrimination by white officials at the local and state levels, African Americans in the South did not receive as many benefits as white people from New Deal programs.

In the first few weeks of operation, CCC camps in the North were integrated. By July 1935, however, all camps in the United States were segregated. Enrollment peaked at the end of 1935, when there were 500,000 men in 2,600 camps in operation in every state. All received equal pay and housing. Black leaders lobbied to secure leadership roles. Adult white men held the major leadership roles in all the camps. Director Fechner refused to appoint Black adults to any supervisory positions except that of education director in the all-Black camps.

Indian Division
The CCC operated a separate division for members of federally recognized tribes: the "Indian Emergency Conservation Work Division" (IECW or CCC-ID). Native men from reservations worked on roads, bridges, clinics, shelters, and other public works near their reservations. Although they were organized as groups classified as camps, no permanent camps were established for Native Americans. Instead, organized groups moved with their families from project to project and were provided with an additional rental allowance. The CCC often provided the only paid work, as many reservations were in remote rural areas. Enrollees had to be between the ages of 17 and 35.

During 1933, about half the male heads of households on the Sioux reservations in South Dakota were employed by the CCC-ID. With grants from the Public Works Administration (PWA), the Indian Division built schools and conducted a road-building program in and around many reservations to improve infrastructure. The mission was to reduce erosion and improve the value of Indian lands. Crews built dams of many types on creeks, then sowed grass on the eroded areas from which the damming material had been taken. They built roads and planted shelter-belts on federal lands. The steady income helped participants regain self-respect, and many used the funds to improve their lives. John Collier, the federal Commissioner of Indian Affairs and Daniel Murphy, the director of the CCC-ID, both based the program on Indian self-rule and the restoration of tribal lands, governments, and cultures. The next year, Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, which ended allotments and helped preserve tribal lands, and encouraged tribes to re-establish self-government.

Collier said of the CCC-Indian Division, "no previous undertaking in Indian Service has so largely been the Indians' own undertaking". Educational programs trained participants in gardening, stock raising, safety, native arts, and some academic subjects. IECW differed from other CCC activities in that it explicitly trained men in skills to be carpenters, truck drivers, radio operators, mechanics, surveyors, and technicians. With the passage of the National Defense Vocational Training Act of 1941, enrollees began participating in defense-oriented training. The government paid for the classes and after students completed courses and passed a competency test, guaranteed automatic employment in defense work. A total of 85,000 Native Americans were enrolled in this training. This proved valuable social capital for the 24,000 alumni who later served in the military and the 40,000 who left the reservations for city jobs supporting the war effort.

Expansion, 1935–1936
Responding to public demand to alleviate unemployment, Congress approved the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935, on April 8, 1935, which included continued funding for the CCC program through March 31, 1937. The age limit was expanded to 17–28 to include more men. April 1, 1935, to March 31, 1936, was the period of greatest activity and work accomplished by the CCC program. Enrollment peaked at 505,782 in about 2,900 camps by August 31, 1935, followed by a reduction to 350,000 enrollees in 2,019 camps by June 30, 1936. During this period the public response to the CCC program was overwhelmingly popular. A Gallup poll of April 18, 1936, asked: "Are you in favor of the CCC camps?"; 82% of respondents said "yes", including 92% of Democrats and 67% of Republicans.

Change of purpose, 1937–1938
On June 28, 1937, the Civilian Conservation Corps was legally established and transferred from its original designation as the Emergency Conservation Work program. Funding was extended for three more years by Public Law No. 163, 75th Congress, effective July 1, 1937. Congress changed the age limits to 17–23 years old and changed the requirement that enrollees be on relief to "not regularly in attendance at school, or possessing full-time employment." The 1937 law mandated the inclusion of vocational and academic training for a minimum of 10 hours per week. Students in school were allowed to enroll during summer vacation. During this period, the CCC forces contributed to disaster relief following 1937 floods in New York, Vermont, and the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys, and response and clean-up after the 1938 hurricane in New England.

From conservation to defense, 1939–1940
In 1939 Congress ended the independent status of the CCC, transferring it to the control of the Federal Security Agency. The National Youth Administration, U.S. Employment Service, the Office of Education, and the Works Progress Administration also had some responsibilities. About 5,000 reserve officers serving in the camps were affected, as they were transferred to federal Civil Service, and military ranks and titles were eliminated. Despite the loss of overt military leadership in the camps by July 1940, with war underway in Europe and Asia, the government directed an increasing number of CCC projects to resources for national defense. It developed infrastructure for military training facilities and forest protection. By 1940 the CCC was no longer wholly a relief agency, was rapidly losing its non-military character, and it was becoming a system for work-training, as its ranks had become increasingly younger and inexperienced.

Decline and disbandment 1941–1942
Although the CCC was probably the most popular New Deal program, it never was authorized as a permanent agency. The program was reduced in scale as the Depression waned and employment opportunities improved. After conscription began in 1940, fewer eligible young men were available. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the Roosevelt administration directed all federal programs to emphasize the war effort. Most CCC work, except for wildland firefighting, was shifted onto U.S. military bases to help with construction.

The CCC disbanded one year earlier than planned, as the 77th United States Congress ceased funding it. Operations were formally concluded at the end of the federal fiscal year on June 30, 1942. The end of the CCC program and closing of the camps involved arrangements to leave the incomplete work projects in the best possible state, the separation of about 1,800 appointed employees, the transfer of CCC property to the War and Navy Departments and other agencies, and the preparation of final accountability records. Liquidation of the CCC was ordered by Congress by the Labor-Federal Security Appropriation Act (56 Stat. 569) on July 2, 1942, and virtually completed on June 30, 1943. Liquidation appropriations for the CCC continued through April 20, 1948.

Some former CCC sites in good condition were reactivated from 1941 to 1947 as Civilian Public Service camps where conscientious objectors performed "work of national importance" as an alternative to military service. Other camps were used to hold Japanese, German and Italian Americans interned under the Western Defense Command's Enemy Alien Control Program, as well as Axis prisoners of war. Most of the Japanese American internment camps were built by the people held there. After the CCC disbanded, the federal agencies responsible for public lands organized their own seasonal fire crews, modeled after the CCC. These have performed a firefighting function formerly done by the CCC and provided the same sort of outdoor work experience for young people. Approximately 47 young men have died while in this line of duty.

Museums

 * Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at DeSoto State Park, Fort Payne, Alabama
 * Civilian Conservation Corps Museum and Memorial, at Monte Sano State Park, Huntsville, Alabama
 * Colossal Cave Mountain Park, Vail, Arizona
 * Conservation Corps State Museum at Camp San Luis Obispo, San Luis Obispo, California
 * North East States Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Camp Conner, Stafford, Connecticut
 * Florida Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Highlands Hammock State Park, Sebring, Florida
 * Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Vogel State Park, Blairsville, Georgia
 * Civilian Conservation Corps Camp in Kokeʻe State Park, Waimea, Kauai County, Hawaii
 * Starved Rock State Park (CCC Section in the visitors' center) Oglesby, Illinois
 * Iowa Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Backbone State Park, Strawberry Point, Iowa
 * Houghton's Pond, Blue Hills Reservation, Milton, Massachusetts
 * Michigan Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Roscommon, Michigan
 * Bear Brook State Park Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Camp Historic District, Allenstown, New Hampshire
 * New York State Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Gilbert Lake State Park, New Lisbon, New York
 * Masker Museum at Promised Land State Park, Greentown, Pennsylvania
 * Lou and Helen Adams Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Parker Dam State Park, Huston Township, Clearfield County, Pennsylvania
 * Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Lake Greenwood State Recreation Area, Ninety Six, South Carolina
 * Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Pocahontas State Park, Chesterfield, Virginia
 * Civilian Conservation Corps Legacy, Edinburg, Virginia
 * Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Rhinelander, Wisconsin
 * West Virginia CCC Museum, Harrison County, West Virginia
 * Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Guernsey State Park, Guernsey, Wyoming
 * James F. Justin Civilian Conservation Corps Museum
 * Civilian Conservation Corps History Center at the Minnesota Discovery Center Museum in Chisholm Minnesota

Notable alumni and administrators

 * David "Stringbean" Akeman, enrollee, country music singer
 * Norman Borlaug, leader, agronomist, Nobel Peace Prize recipient
 * Raymond Burr, enrollee, actor
 * Borden Deal, enrollee
 * Hutton Gibson, author
 * Archie Green, enrollee, folklorist
 * Henry Gurke, enrollee
 * Ralph Hauenstein. Army officer in charge of camp
 * Hubert D. Humphreys, historian
 * Aldo Leopold, former technical forester, ecologist, environmentalist
 * Stanley Makowski, enrollee
 * Walter Matthau, enrollee, actor
 * Robert Mitchum, enrollee, actor
 * Archie Moore, enrollee, the Light Heavyweight Boxing Champion of the World
 * Stan Musial, enrollee, professional baseball player
 * Edward R. Roybal, enrollee, politician
 * Red Schoendienst, enrollee, baseball player/manager
 * Dan White, enrollee, American actor in vaudeville, theater, radio, film and television
 * Conrad L. Wirth, U.S. administrator, National Park Service supervisor of CCC Program
 * Chuck Yeager, enrollee, test pilot
 * Alvin C. York, a project superintendent

Statues
In several cities where CCC workers worked, statues were erected to commemorate them.

In media

 * Pride of the Bowery (1940), the fourth movie in the East Side Kid series, is a movie about friendship, trouble, and boxing at a CCC camp.
 * The American Experience PBS series showcased documentaries on American history; it portrayed the life in Civilian Conservation Corps in 2009, in the first episode of Season 22.
 * Jeanette Ingold's novel Hitch (2012) is a young adult book about a teenager in the CCC.

Inspired programs
The CCC program was never officially terminated. Congress provided funding for closing the remaining camps in 1942 with the equipment being reallocated. It became a model for conservation programs that were implemented in the period after World War II. Present-day corps are national, state, and local programs that engage primarily youth and young adults (ages 16–25) in community service, training, and educational activities. The nation's approximately 113 corps programs operate in 41 of the 50 states and Washington, D.C. During 2004, they enrolled more than 23,000 young people. The Corps Network, known originally as the National Association of Service and Conservation Corps (NASCC), works to expand and enhance corps-type programs throughout the country. The Corps Network began in 1985 when the nation's first 24 Corps directors banded together to secure an advocate at the federal level and a repository of information on how best to start and manage a corps. Early financial assistance from the Ford, Hewlett and Mott Foundations was critical to establishing the association.

Similar active programs in the United States are: the National Civilian Community Corps, part of the AmeriCorps program, a team-based national service program in which young adults ages 18–24 spend 10 months working for non-profit and government organizations; and the Civilian Conservation Corps, USA, (CCCUSA) managed by its president, Thomas Hark, in 2016. Hark, his co-founder Mike Rama, currently the Deputy Director of the Corporate Eco Forum (CEF) founded by M. R. Rangaswami, and their team of strategic advisors have reimagined the federal Civilian Conservation Corps program of the 1930s as a private, locally governed, national social franchise. The goal of this recently established CCCUSA is to enroll a million young people annually, building a core set of values in each enrollee, who will then become the catalyst in their own communities and states to create a more civil society and stronger nation.

Student Conservation Association
The CCC program became a model for the creation of team-based national service youth conservation programs such as the Student Conservation Association (SCA). The SCA, founded in 1959, is a nonprofit organization that offers conservation internships and summer trail crew opportunities to more than 4,000 people each year.

California Conservation Corps
In 1976, Governor of California Jerry Brown established the California Conservation Corps. This program had many similar characteristics - residential centers, high expectations for participation, and emphasis on hard work on public lands. Young adults from different backgrounds were recruited for a term of one year. Corps members attended a training session called the Corpsmember Orientation Motivation Education and Training (COMET) program before being assigned to one of the various centers. Project work is also similar to the original CCC of the 1930s - work on public forests, state and federal parks.

Nevada Conservation Corps
The Nevada Conservation Corps is a non-profit organization that partners with public land management agencies such as the Bureau of Land Management, United States Forest Service, National Park Service, and Nevada State Parks to complete conservation and restoration projects throughout Nevada. Conservation work includes fuel reductions through thinning, constructing and maintaining trails, invasive species removal, and performing biological surveys. The Nevada Conservation Corps was created through the Great Basin Institute and is part of the AmeriCorps program.

Minnesota Conservation Corps
Conservation Corps Minnesota & Iowa provides environmental stewardship and service-learning opportunities to youth and young adults while accomplishing conservation, natural resource management projects and emergency response work through its Young Adult Program and the Summer Youth Program. These programs emphasize the development of job and life skills by conservation and community service work.

Montana Conservation Corps
The Montana Conservation Corps (MCC) is a non-profit organization with a mission to equip young people with the skills and values to be vigorous citizens who improve their communities and environment. Collectively, MCC crews contribute more than 90,000 work hours each year. The MCC was established in 1991 by Montana's Human Resource Development Councils in Billings, Bozeman and Kalispell. Originally, it was a summer program for disadvantaged youth, although it has grown into an AmeriCorps-sponsored non-profit organization with six regional offices that serve Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, North Dakota, and South Dakota. All regions also offer Montana YES (Youth Engaged in Service) summer programs for teenagers who are 14 to 17 years old.

Texas Conservation Corps
Established in 1995, Environmental Corps, now Texas Conservation Corps (TxCC), is an American YouthWorks program which allows youth, ages 17 to 28, to contribute to the restoration and preservation of parks and public lands in Texas. The only conservation corps in Texas, TxcC is a nonprofit corporation based in Austin, Texas, which serves the entire state. Their work ranges from disaster relief to trail building to habitat restoration. TxCC has done projects in national, state, and city parks.

Washington Conservation Corps
The Washington Conservation Corps (WCC) is a sub-agency of the Washington State Department of Ecology. It employs men and women 18 to 25 years old in a program to protect and enhance Washington's natural resources. WCC is a part of the AmeriCorps program.

Vermont Youth Conservation Corps
The Vermont Youth Conservation Corps (VYCC) is a non-profit, youth service and education organization that hires Corps Members, aged 16–24, to work on high-priority conservation projects in Vermont. Through these work projects, Corps Members develop a strong work ethic, strengthen their leadership skills, and learn how to take personal responsibility for their actions. VYCC Crews work at VT State Parks, U.S. Forest Service Campgrounds, in local communities, and throughout the state's backcountry. The VYCC has also given aid to a similar program in North Carolina, which is currently in its infancy.

Youth Conservation Corps
The Youth Conservation Corps is a youth conservation program present in federal lands around the country. The program gives youth aged 13–17 the opportunity to participate in conservation projects in a team setting. YCC programs are available in land managed by the National Park Service, the Forest Service, and the Fish and Wildlife Service. Projects can last up to 10 weeks and typically run over the summer. Some YCC programs are residential, meaning the participants are given housing on the land they work on. Projects may necessitate youth to camp in backcountry settings in order to work on trails or campsites. Most require youth to commute daily or house youth for only a few days a week. Youth are typically paid for their work. YCC programs contribute to the maintenance of public lands and instill a value for hard work and the outdoors in those who participate.

Conservation Legacy
Conservation Legacy is a non-profit employment, job training, and education organization with locations across the United States including Arizona Conservation Corps in Tucson and Flagstaff, Arizona; Conservation Corps New Mexico in Las Cruces, New Mexico; Southwest Conservation Corps in Durango and Salida, Colorado; and Southeast Conservation Corps in Chattanooga, Tennessee. Conservation Legacy also operates an AmeriCorps VISTA team serving to improve the environment and economies of historic mining communities in the American West and Appalachia. Conservation Legacy also hosts the Environmental Stewards Program - providing internships with federal, state, municipal and NGO land management agencies nationwide. Conservation Legacy formed as a merger of the Southwest Youth Corps, San Luis Valley Youth Corps, The Youth Corps of Southern Arizona, and Coconino Rural Environmental Corps.

Conservation Legacy engages young adults ages 14 to 26 and U.S. military veterans of all ages in personal and professional development experiences involving conservation projects on public lands. Corp members live, work, and learn in teams of six to eight for terms of service ranging from 3 months to 1 year.

Sea Ranger Service
The Sea Ranger Service is a social enterprise, based in Netherlands, that has taken its inspiration from the Civilian Conservation Corps in running a permanent youth training program, supported by veterans, to manage ocean areas and carry out underwater landscape restoration. Unemployed youths are trained up as Sea Rangers during a bootcamp and subsequently offered full-time employment to manage and regenerate Marine Protected Areas and aid ocean conservation. The Sea Ranger Service works in close cooperation with the Dutch government and national maritime authorities.

Aina Corps
The Aina Corps performed environmental restoration work in Hawaii in 2020, funded by the CARES Act.

American Climate Corps
The American Climate Corps is an organization created by the Joe Biden administration. It was inspired by the Civilian Conservation Corps and aims to mobilize young people to stop climate change, while giving them a job at the same time. It is financed from the Inflation Reduction Act and the federal budget. It should have 9,000 members by the end of June 2024. Later, the number of participants should rise to 20,000.

Civilian Conservation Corps by state

 * CCC in Idaho Video produced by Idaho Public Television
 * CCC History Archives in Massachusetts
 * Rosentreter, Roger L. "Roosevelt's Tree Army: Michigan's Civilian Conservation Corps", with photographs
 * Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, "Civilian Conservation Corps"
 * A New Deal for Texas Parks - interactive web album of CCC activities in Texas
 * CCC camps map, a guide to projects in Washington State, with rare photographs. Great Depression in Washington State Project
 * Webster M. Pidgeon Papers: Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) photographs and memorabilia from the Rhode Island State Archives
 * Built To Last: The Legacy of the Civilian Conservation Corps in Minnesota

Individual camps

 * PelMar Publishing Henderson, James D. Lost in the Woods–The Legacy of CCC Camp Pelican], (2009).

Images

 * Images of the Civilian Conservation Corps on the Oregon State University Archives Flickr Commons page.
 * CNY Heritage Digital Library, featuring images of Civilian Conservation Corps members constructing Green Lakes State Park in Central New York (1929–1948).

Documentary, feature and TV movies

 * "The Great Depression, Displaced Mountaineers in Shenandoah National Park, and the Civilian Conservation Corps (C.C.C.)", on YouTube
 * Youth Jobs Program (CCC) During Great Depression, The March of Time
 * President Visits Foresters (CCC), Roosevelt 1933/08/14, newsreel
 * Recreation Resources, 1935, West Virginia, available through NARA (National Archives and Records Administration)
 * A Nationwide System of Parks 1939, NARA
 * Alabama Highlands 1937 Alabama State Parks, NARA
 * Down Mobile Way, 1935 Alabama State Parks, NARA
 * The Cradle of the Father of Waters, 1938 Minnesota State Parks, Lake Itasca State Park, NARA
 * Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 1936, NARA
 * Land of the Giants, 1935 California, NARA
 * The East Side Kids (Pride of the Bowery, 1941), Leo Gorcey - Bobby Jordan
 * American Experience: The Civilian Conservation Corps, PBS American Experience, 2009
 * Parks Under the Lone Star, 1933 film detailing Texas CCC projects, Texas Archive of the Moving Image

title: Civilian Conservation Corps


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Caribbean Sea

The Caribbean Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean in the tropics of the Western Hemisphere. It is bounded by Mexico and Central America to the west and southwest, to the north by the Greater Antilles starting with Cuba, to the east by the Lesser Antilles, and to the south by the northern coast of South America. The Gulf of Mexico lies to the northwest. The entire Caribbean Sea area, the numerous islands of the West Indies, and adjacent mainland coastal regions are collectively known as the Caribbean.

The Caribbean Sea is one of the largest seas on Earth and has an area of about 2754000 km2. The sea's deepest point is the Cayman Trough, between the Cayman Islands and Jamaica, at 7686 m below sea level. The Caribbean coastline has many gulfs and bays: the Gulf of Gonâve, the Gulf of Venezuela, the Gulf of Darién, Golfo de los Mosquitos, the Gulf of Paria and the Gulf of Honduras.

The Caribbean Sea has the world's second-largest barrier reef, the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef. It runs 1000 km along the Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras coasts.

History

The name Caribbean derives from the Caribs, one of the region's dominant native people at the time of European contact during the late 15th century. After Christopher Columbus landed in The Bahamas in 1492 and later discovered some of the islands in The Caribbean, the Spanish term Antillas applied to the lands; stemming from this, the Sea of the Antilles became a common alternative name for the "Caribbean Sea" in various European languages. Spanish dominance in the region remained undisputed during the first century of European colonization.

From the 16th century, Europeans visiting the Caribbean region distinguished the "South Sea" (the Pacific Ocean south of the isthmus of Panama) from the "North Sea" (the Caribbean Sea north of the same isthmus).

The Caribbean Sea had been unknown to the populations of Eurasia until after 1492 when Christopher Columbus sailed into Caribbean waters on a quest to find a sea route to Asia. At that time the Americas were generally unknown to most Europeans, although they had been visited in the 10th century by the Vikings. Following Columbus's discovery of the islands, the area was quickly colonized by several Western cultures (initially Spain, then later England, the Dutch Republic, France, Courland and Denmark). Following the colonization of the Caribbean islands, the Caribbean Sea became a busy area for European-based marine trading and transports, and this commerce eventually attracted pirates such as Samuel Bellamy and Blackbeard.

the area is home to 22 island territories and borders 12 continental countries.

Extent
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Caribbean Sea as follows:

 * On the North. In the Windward Channel – a line joining Caleta Point (74°15′W) in Cuba and Pearl Point (19°40′N) in Haiti. In the Mona Passage – a line joining Cape Engaño and the extreme of Agujereada (18.51667°N, -67.13333°W) in Puerto Rico.

 * Eastern limits. From Point San Diego (Puerto Rico) Northward along the meridian thereof (65°39′W) to the 100-fathom line, thence Eastward and Southward, in such a manner that all islands, shoals and narrow waters of the Lesser Antilles are included in the Caribbean Sea as far as but not including Trinidad. From before Trinidad to Baja Point (9.53333°N, -61°W) in Venezuela.

Although Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados are on the same continental shelf, they are considered to be in the Atlantic Ocean rather than in the Caribbean Sea.

Geology
The Caribbean Sea is an oceanic sea on the Caribbean Plate. The Caribbean Sea is separated from the ocean by several island arcs of various ages. The youngest stretches from the Lesser Antilles to the Virgin Islands to north of Trinidad and Tobago, which is in the Atlantic. This arc was formed by the collision of the South American Plate with the Caribbean Plate. It included active and extinct volcanoes such as Mount Pelee, the Quill on Sint Eustatius in the Caribbean Netherlands, La Soufrière in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Morne Trois Pitons on Dominica. The larger islands in the northern part of the sea Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and Puerto Rico lie on an older island arc.

The geological age of the Caribbean Sea is estimated to be between 160 and 180 million years and was formed by a horizontal fracture that split the supercontinent called Pangea in the Mesozoic Era. It is assumed the proto-caribbean basin existed in the Devonian period and in the early Carboniferous movement of Gondwana to the north and its convergence with the Euramerica basin decreased in size. The next stage of the Caribbean Sea's formation began in the Triassic. Powerful rifting led to the formation of narrow troughs, stretching from modern Newfoundland to the Gulf of Mexico's west coast, forming siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. In the early Jurassic due to powerful marine transgression, water broke into the present area of the Gulf of Mexico creating a vast shallow pool. Deep basins emerged in the Caribbean during the Middle Jurassic rifting. The emergence of these basins marked the beginning of the Atlantic Ocean and contributed to the destruction of Pangaea at the end of the late Jurassic. During the Cretaceous the Caribbean acquired a shape close to today. In the early Paleogene due to marine regression the Caribbean became separated from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean by the land of Cuba and Haiti. The Caribbean remained like this for most of the Cenozoic until the Holocene when rising water levels of the oceans restored communication with the Atlantic Ocean.

The Caribbean's floor is composed of sub-oceanic sediments of deep red clay in the deep basins and troughs. On continental slopes and ridges calcareous silts are found. Clay minerals have likely been deposited by the mainland river Orinoco and the Magdalena River. Deposits on the bottom of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico have a thickness of about 1 km. Upper sedimentary layers relate to the period from the Mesozoic to the Cenozoic (250 million years ago) and the lower layers from the Paleozoic to the Mesozoic.

The Caribbean seafloor is divided into five basins separated from each other by underwater ridges and mountain ranges. Atlantic Ocean water enters the Caribbean through the Anegada Passage between the Lesser Antilles and the Virgin Islands and the Windward Passage between Cuba and Haiti. The Yucatán Channel between Mexico and Cuba links the Gulf of Mexico with the Caribbean. The deepest points of the sea lie in Cayman Trough with depths reaching approximately 7686 m. Despite this, the Caribbean Sea is considered a relatively shallow sea compared to other bodies of water. The pressure of the South American Plate to the east of the Caribbean causes the region of the Lesser Antilles to have high volcanic activity. A very serious eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902 caused many casualties.

The Caribbean sea floor is also home to two oceanic trenches: the Cayman Trench and the Puerto Rico Trench, which put the area at a high risk of earthquakes. Underwater earthquakes pose a threat of generating tsunamis which could have a devastating effect on the Caribbean islands. Scientific data reveals that over the last 500 years, the area has seen a dozen earthquakes above 7.5 magnitude. Most recently, a 7.1 earthquake struck Haiti on January 12, 2010.
 * List of islands in the Caribbean

Oceanography

The hydrology of the sea has a high level of homogeneity. Annual variations in monthly average water temperatures at the surface do not exceed 3 C-change. Over the past 50 years, the Caribbean has gone through three stages: cooling until 1974, a cold phase with peaks during 1974–1976 and 1984–1986, and finally a warming phase with an increase in temperature of 0.6 C-change per year. Virtually all temperature extremes were associated with the phenomena of El Niño and La Niña. The salinity of the seawater is about 3.6%, and its density is 1023.5 - 1024.0 kg/m3. The surface water color is blue-green to green.

The Caribbean's depth in its wider basins and deep-water temperatures are similar to those of the Atlantic. Atlantic deep water is thought to spill into the Caribbean and contribute to the general deep water of its sea. The surface water (30 m; 100 ft) acts as an extension of the northern Atlantic as the Guiana Current and part of the North Equatorial Current enter the sea on the east. On the western side of the sea, the trade winds influence a northerly current which causes an upwelling and a rich fishery near Yucatán.

Ecology
The Caribbean is home to about 9% of the world's coral reefs, covering about 50000 km2, most of which are located off the Caribbean Islands and the Central American coast. Among them stands out the Belize Barrier Reef, with an area of 963 km2, which was declared a World Heritage Site in 1996. It forms part of the Great Mayan Reef (also known as the MBRS) and, being over 1000 km in length, is the world's second longest. It runs along the Caribbean coasts of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala and Honduras.

Since 2005 unusually warm Caribbean waters have been increasingly threatening Caribbean coral reefs. Coral reefs support some of the most diverse marine habitats in the world, but they are fragile ecosystems. When tropical waters become unusually warm for extended periods of time, microscopic plants called zooxanthellae, which are symbiotic partners living within the coral polyp tissues, die off. These plants provide food for the corals and give them their color. The result of the death and dispersal of these tiny plants is called coral bleaching, and can lead to the devastation of large areas of reef. Over 42% of corals are completely bleached, and 95% are experiencing some type of whitening. Historically the Caribbean is thought to contain 14% of the world's coral reefs.

The habitats supported by the reefs are critical to such tourist activities as fishing and diving, and provide an annual economic value to Caribbean nations of US$3.1–4.6 billion. Continued destruction of the reefs could severely damage the region's economy. A Protocol of the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region came in effect in 1986 to protect the various endangered marine life of the Caribbean through forbidding human activities that would advance the continued destruction of such marine life in various areas. Currently this protocol has been ratified by 15 countries. Also, several charitable organisations have been formed to preserve the Caribbean marine life, such as Caribbean Conservation Corporation which seeks to study and protect sea turtles while educating others about them.

In connection with the foregoing, the Institute of Marine Sciences and Limnology of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, conducted a regional study, funded by the Department of Technical Cooperation of the International Atomic Energy Agency, in which specialists from 11 Latin American countries (Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Dominican Republic, Venezuela) plus Jamaica participated. The findings indicate that heavy metals such as mercury, arsenic, and lead, have been identified in the coastal zone of the Caribbean Sea. Analysis of toxic metals and hydrocarbons is based on the investigation of coastal sediments that have accumulated less than 50 meters deep during the last hundred and fifty years. The project results were presented in Vienna in the forum "Water Matters", and the 2011 General Conference of said multilateral organization.

After the Mediterranean, the Caribbean Sea is the second most polluted sea. Pollution (in the form of up to 300,000 tonnes of solid garbage dumped into the Caribbean Sea each year) is progressively endangering marine ecosystems, wiping out species, and harming the livelihoods of the local people, which is primarily reliant on tourism and fishing.

KfW took part in a €25.7 million funding agreement to eliminate marine trash and boost the circular economy in the Caribbean's Small Island Developing States. The project "Sustainable finance methods for marine preservation in the Caribbean" will assist remove solid waste and keep it out of the marine and coastal environment by establishing a new facility under the Caribbean Biodiversity Fund (CBF). Non-governmental organizations, universities, public institutions, civil society organizations, and the corporate sector are all eligible for financing. The project is estimated to prevent and remove at least 15 000 tonnes of marine trash, benefiting at least 20 000 individuals.

Climate

The climate of the Caribbean is driven by the low latitude and tropical ocean currents that run through it. The principal ocean current is the North Equatorial Current, which enters the region from the tropical Atlantic. The climate of the area is tropical, varying from tropical rainforest in some areas to tropical savanna in others. There are also some locations that are arid climates with considerable drought in some years.

Rainfall varies with elevation, size, and water currents (cool upwelling keep the ABC islands arid). Warm, moist trade winds blow consistently from the east, creating both rainforest and semi-arid climates across the region. The tropical rainforest climates include lowland areas near the Caribbean Sea from Costa Rica north to Belize, as well as the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, while the more seasonal dry tropical savanna climates are found in Cuba, northern Venezuela, and southern Yucatán, Mexico. Arid climates are found along the extreme northern coast of Venezuela out to the islands including Aruba and Curaçao, as well as the northern tip of Yucatán

Tropical cyclones are a threat to the nations that rim the Caribbean Sea. While landfalls are infrequent, the resulting loss of life and property damage makes them a significant hazard to life in the Caribbean. Tropical cyclones that impact the Caribbean often develop off the West coast of Africa and make their way west across the Atlantic Ocean toward the Caribbean, while other storms develop in the Caribbean itself. The Caribbean hurricane season as a whole lasts from June through November, with the majority of hurricanes occurring during August and September. On average around nine tropical storms form each year, with five reaching hurricane strength. According to the National Hurricane Center 385 hurricanes occurred in the Caribbean between 1494 and 1900.

Flora and fauna
The region has a high level of biodiversity and many species are endemic to the Caribbean.

Vegetation
The vegetation of the region is mostly tropical but differences in topography, soil and climatic conditions increase species diversity. Where there are porous limestone terraced islands these are generally poor in nutrients. It is estimated that 13,000 species of plants grow in the Caribbean of which 6,500 are endemic. For example, guaiac wood (Guaiacum officinale), the flower of which is the national flower of Jamaica and the Bayahibe rose (Pereskia quisqueyana) which is the national flower of the Dominican Republic and the ceiba which is the national tree of both Puerto Rico and Guatemala. The mahogany is the national tree of the Dominican Republic and Belize. The caimito (Chrysophyllum cainito) grows throughout the Caribbean. In coastal zones there are coconut palms and in lagoons and estuaries are found thick areas of black mangrove and red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle).

In shallow water flora and fauna is concentrated around coral reefs where there is little variation in water temperature, purity and salinity. Leeward side of lagoons provide areas of growth for sea grasses. Turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum) is common in the Caribbean as is manatee grass (Syringodium filiforme) which can grow together as well as in fields of single species at depths up to 20 m. Another type shoal grass (Halodule wrightii) grows on sand and mud surfaces at depths of up to 5 m. In brackish water of harbours and estuaries at depths less than 2.5 m widgeongrass (Ruppia maritima) grows. Representatives of three species belonging to the genus Halophila, (Halophila baillonii, Halophila engelmannii and Halophila decipiens) are found at depths of up to 30 m except for Halophila engelmani which does not grow below 5 m and is confined to the Bahamas, Florida, the Greater Antilles and the western part of the Caribbean. Halophila baillonii has been found only in the Lesser Antilles.

Fauna

Marine biota in the region have representatives of both the Indian and Pacific oceans which were caught in the Caribbean before the emergence of the Isthmus of Panama four million years ago. In the Caribbean Sea there are around 1,000 documented species of fish, including sharks (bull shark, tiger shark, silky shark and Caribbean reef shark), flying fish, giant oceanic manta ray, angel fish, spotfin butterflyfish, parrotfish, Atlantic Goliath grouper, tarpon and moray eels. Throughout the Caribbean there is industrial catching of lobster and sardines (off the coast of Yucatán Peninsula).

There are 90 species of mammals in the Caribbean including sperm whales, humpback whales and dolphins. The island of Jamaica is home to seals and manatees. The Caribbean monk seal which lived in the Caribbean is considered extinct. Solenodons and hutias are mammals found only in the Caribbean; only one extant species is not endangered.

There are 500 species of reptiles (94% of which are endemic). Islands are inhabited by some endemic species such as rock iguanas and American crocodile. The blue iguana, endemic to the island of Grand Cayman, is endangered. The green iguana is invasive to Grand Cayman. The Mona ground iguana which inhabits the island of Mona, Puerto Rico, is endangered. The rhinoceros iguana from the island of Hispaniola which is shared between Haiti and the Dominican Republic is also endangered. The region has several types of sea turtle (loggerhead, green turtle, hawksbill, leatherback turtle, Atlantic ridley and olive ridley). Some species are threatened with extinction. Their populations have been greatly reduced since the 17th century – the number of green turtles has declined from 91 million to 300,000 and hawksbill turtles from 11 million to less than 30,000 by 2006.

All 170 species of amphibians that live in the region are endemic. The habitats of almost all members of the toad family, poison dart frogs, tree frogs and leptodactylidae (a type of frog) are limited to only one island. The Golden coqui is in serious threat of extinction.

In the Caribbean, 600 species of birds have been recorded, of which 163 are endemic such as todies, Fernandina's flicker and palmchat. The American yellow warbler is found in many areas, as is the green heron. Of the endemic species 48 are threatened with extinction including the Puerto Rican amazon, and the Zapata wren. According to Birdlife International in 2006 in Cuba 29 species of bird are in danger of extinction and two species officially extinct. The black-fronted piping guan is endangered. The Antilles along with Central America lie in the flight path of migrating birds from North America so the size of populations is subject to seasonal fluctuations. Parrots and bananaquits are found in forests. Over the open sea can be seen frigatebirds and tropicbirds.

Economy and human activity

The Caribbean region has seen a significant increase in human activity since the colonization period. The sea is one of the largest oil production areas in the world, producing approximately 170 million per year. The area also generates a large fishing industry for the surrounding countries, accounting for 500000 t of fish a year.

Human activity in the area also accounts for a significant amount of pollution. The Pan American Health Organization estimated in 1993 that only about 10% of the sewage from the Central American and Caribbean Island countries is properly treated before being released into the sea.

The Caribbean region supports a large tourism industry. The Caribbean Tourism Organization calculates that about 12 million people a year visit the area, including (in 1991–1992) about 8 million cruise ship tourists. Tourism based upon scuba diving and snorkeling on coral reefs of many Caribbean islands makes a major contribution to their economies.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Caribbean Sea


text:
Colin Maclaurin

Colin Maclaurin (Cailean MacLabhruinn; February 1698 – 14 June 1746) was a Scottish mathematician who made important contributions to geometry and algebra. He is also known for being a child prodigy and holding the record for being the youngest professor. The Maclaurin series, a special case of the Taylor series, is named after him.

Owing to changes in orthography since that time (his name was originally rendered as M'Laurine ), his surname is alternatively written MacLaurin.

Early life
Maclaurin was born in Kilmodan, Argyll. His father, John Maclaurin, minister of Glendaruel, died when Maclaurin was in infancy, and his mother died before he reached nine years of age. He was then educated under the care of his uncle, Daniel Maclaurin, minister of Kilfinan. A child prodigy, he entered university at age 11.

Academic career
At eleven, Maclaurin, a child prodigy at the time, entered the University of Glasgow. He graduated Master of Arts three years later by defending a thesis on the Power of Gravity, and remained at Glasgow to study divinity until he was 19, when he was elected professor of mathematics in a ten-day competition at Marischal College and University in Aberdeen. This record as the world's youngest professor endured until March 2008, when the record was officially given to Alia Sabur.

In the vacations of 1719 and 1721, Maclaurin went to London, where he became acquainted with Isaac Newton, Benjamin Hoadly, Samuel Clarke, Martin Folkes, and other philosophers. He was admitted as a member of the Royal Society.

In 1722, having provided a locum for his class at Aberdeen, he travelled on the Continent as tutor to George Hume, the son of Alexander Hume, 2nd Earl of Marchmont. During their time in Lorraine, he wrote his essay on the percussion of bodies (Demonstration des loix du choc des corps), which gained the prize of the Royal Academy of Sciences in 1724. Upon the death of his pupil at Montpellier, Maclaurin returned to Aberdeen.

In 1725, Maclaurin was appointed deputy to the mathematical professor at the University of Edinburgh, James Gregory (brother of David Gregory and nephew of the esteemed James Gregory), upon the recommendation of Isaac Newton. On 3 November of that year Maclaurin succeeded Gregory, and went on to raise the character of that university as a school of science. Newton was so impressed with Maclaurin that he had offered to pay his salary himself.

Contributions to mathematics
Maclaurin used Taylor series to characterize maxima, minima, and points of inflection for infinitely differentiable functions in his Treatise of Fluxions. Maclaurin attributed the series to Brook Taylor, though the series was known before to Newton and Gregory, and in special cases to Madhava of Sangamagrama in fourteenth century India. Nevertheless, Maclaurin received credit for his use of the series, and the Taylor series expanded around 0 is sometimes known as the Maclaurin series. Maclaurin also made significant contributions to the gravitation attraction of ellipsoids, a subject that furthermore attracted the attention of d'Alembert, A.-C. Clairaut, Euler, Laplace, Legendre, Poisson and Gauss. Maclaurin showed that an oblate spheroid was a possible equilibrium in Newton's theory of gravity. The subject continues to be of scientific interest, and Nobel Laureate Subramanyan Chandrasekhar dedicated a chapter of his book Ellipsoidal Figures of Equilibrium to Maclaurin spheroids. Maclaurin corresponded extensively with Clairaut, Maupertuis, and d'Ortous de Mairan.

Independently from Euler and using the same methods, Maclaurin discovered the Euler–Maclaurin formula. He used it to sum powers of arithmetic progressions, derive Stirling's formula, and to derive the Newton–Cotes numerical integration formulas which includes Simpson's rule as a special case.

Maclaurin contributed to the study of elliptic integrals, reducing many intractable integrals to problems of finding arcs for hyperbolas. His work was continued by d'Alembert and Euler, who gave a more concise approach.

In his Treatise of Algebra (Ch. XII, Sect 86), published in 1748 two years after his death, Maclaurin proved a rule for solving square linear systems in the cases of 2 and 3 unknowns, and discussed the case of 4 unknowns. This publication preceded by two years Cramer's publication of a generalization of the rule to n unknowns, now commonly known as Cramer's rule.

Personal life
In 1733, Maclaurin married Anne Stewart, the daughter of Walter Stewart, the Solicitor General for Scotland, by whom he had seven children. His eldest son John Maclaurin studied Law, was a Senator of the College of Justice, and became Lord Dreghorn; he was also joint founder of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Maclaurin actively opposed the Jacobite rising of 1745 and superintended the operations necessary for the defence of Edinburgh against the Highland army. Maclaurin compiled a diary of his exertions against the Jacobites, both within and without the city. When the Highland army entered the city, however, he fled to York, where he was invited to stay by the Archbishop of York.

On his journey south, Maclaurin fell from his horse, and the fatigue, anxiety, and cold to which he was exposed on that occasion laid the foundations of dropsy. He returned to Edinburgh after the Jacobite army marched south, but died soon after his return.

He is buried at Greyfriars Kirkyard, Edinburgh. The simple table stone is inscribed simply "C. M. Nat MDCXCVIII Ob MDCCXLVI" and stands close to the south-west corner of the church but is supplemented by a more wordy memorial on the outer wall of the church.

The mathematician and former MIT President Richard Cockburn Maclaurin was from the same family.

The Maclaurin Society (MacSoc), the Mathematics and Statistics Society at Glasgow University, is named in his honour.

Colin MacLaurin Road within Edinburgh University's King's Buildings complex is named in his honour.

Notable works
Some of his important works are:

 * Geometria Organica – 1720
 * De Linearum Geometricarum Proprietatibus – 1720
 * Treatise on Fluxions – 1742 (763 pages in two volumes. The first systematic exposition of Newton's methods.)
 * Treatise of Algebra – 1748 (two years after his death.)
 * Account of Newton's Discoveries – Incomplete upon his death and published in 1748

Colin Maclaurin was the name used for the new Mathematics and Actuarial Mathematics and Statistics Building at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh.

title: Colin Maclaurin


text:
Celestial globe

Celestial globes show the apparent positions of the stars in the sky. They omit the Sun, Moon, and planets because the positions of these bodies vary relative to those of the stars, but the ecliptic, along which the Sun moves, is indicated.

There is an issue regarding the “handedness” of celestial globes. If the globe is constructed so that the stars are in the positions they actually occupy on the imaginary celestial sphere, then the star field will appear reversed on the surface of the globe (all the constellations will appear as their mirror images). This is because the view from Earth, positioned at the centre of the celestial sphere, is of the gnomonic projection inside of the celestial sphere, whereas the celestial globe is orthographic projection as viewed from the outside. For this reason, celestial globes are often produced in mirror image, so that at least the constellations appear as viewed from earth. This ambiguity is famously evident in the astronomical ceiling of New York City's Grand Central Terminal, whose inconsistency was deliberately left uncorrected though it was noticed shortly after installation.

Some modern celestial globes address this problem by making the surface of the globe transparent. The stars can then be placed in their proper positions and viewed through the globe, so that the view is of the inside of the celestial sphere. However, the proper position from which to view the sphere would be from its centre, but the viewer of a transparent globe must be outside it, far from its centre. Viewing the inside of the sphere from the outside, through its transparent surface, produces serious distortions. Opaque celestial globes that are made with the constellations correctly placed, so they appear as mirror images when directly viewed from outside the globe, are often viewed in a mirror, so the constellations have their familiar appearances. Written material on the globe, e.g. constellation names, is printed in reverse, so it can easily be read in the mirror.

Before Copernicus’s 16th-century discovery that the solar system is ‘heliocentric rather than geocentric and geostatic’ (that the earth orbits the sun and not the other way around) ‘the stars have been commonly, though perhaps not universally, perceived as though attached to the inside of a hollow sphere enclosing and rotating about the earth’. Working under the incorrect assumption that the cosmos was geocentric the second-century Greek astronomer Ptolemy composed the Almagest in which ‘the movements of the planets could be accurately represented by means of techniques involving the use of epicycles, deferents, eccentrics (whereby planetary motion is conceived as circular with respect to a point displaced from Earth), and equants (a device that posits a constant angular rate of rotation with respect to a point displaced from Earth)’. Guided by these ideas astronomers of the middle ages, Muslim and Christian alike, created celestial globes to ‘represent in a model the arrangement and movement of the stars’. In their most basic form celestial globes represent the stars as if the viewer were looking down upon the sky as a globe that surrounds the earth.

Ancient Greece
The Roman writer Cicero ‘reported the statements of the Roman astronomer Gaius Sulpicius Gallus of the second century BC, the first globe was constructed by Thales of Miletus’. This could indicate that Celestial Globes were in production throughout antiquity however, without any Celestial Globes surviving from this time, it is difficult to say for sure. What is known is that in book VIII, chapter 3 of Ptolemy’s Almagest he outlines ideas for the design and production of a Celestial Globe. This includes some notes on how the globe should be decorated, suggesting ‘the sphere a dark colour resembling the night sky’.

The Farnese Atlas, a 2nd-century AD Roman marble sculpture of Atlas which probably copies an earlier work of the Hellenistic era, is holding a celestial globe 65 cm in diameter, which for many years was the only known celestial globe from the ancient world. No stars are depicted on the globe, but it shows over 40 classical Greek constellations in substantial detail. In the 1990s, two smaller celestial globes from antiquity became public: one from brass measuring 11 cm held by the Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, and one from gilt silver measuring 6.3 cm privately held by the Kugel family.

Al-Sufi's The Book of Fixed Stars

Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi was an important 10th-century astronomer whose works were instrumental in the Islamic development of the Celestial Globe. His book, The Book of Fixed Stars, designed for accuracy for the year 964, was a "description of the constellations that combines Greek/ Ptolemaic traditions with Arabic/Bedouin ones". The Book of Fixed Stars then served as an important source of star coordinates for makers of astrolabes and globes across the Islamic world. Similarly, it was "instrumental in displacing the traditional Bedouin constellation imagery and replacing it with the Greek/Ptolemaic system which ultimately came to dominate all astronomy".

11th century
The earliest surviving Celestial Globe was made between 1080 and 1085 C.E by Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli, a well known astrolabe maker working in Valencia, Spain. Although the imagery on this globe appears to be unrelated to that in al-Sufi’s The Book of the Constellations al-Wazzan does seem to have been aware of this work as ‘all forty-eight of the classical Greek constellations are illustrated on the globe, just as in al-Sufi's treatise, with the stars indicated by circles’.

13th century
In the 13th century a Celestial Globe, now housed in the  Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon in Dresden, ‘was produced at one of the most important centres of astronomy in intellectual history, the Ilkhanid observatory at Maragha in north-western Iran constructed in 1259 and headed by Nasir al-Dln TusT (d. 1274), the renowned polymath.’ This particular scientific instrument was made by the son of the renowned scientist Mu'ayyad al-’Urdi al-Dimashqi, Muhammad b. Mu'ayyad al-'Urdl in 1288. This globe is an interesting example of how Celestial Globes demonstrate both the scientific and the artistic talents of those who make them. All ‘forty-eight classical constellations used in Ptolemy's Almagest are represented on the globe, meaning it could then be ‘used in calculations for astronomy and astrology, such as navigation, time-keeping or determining a horoscope’. Artistically, this globe is an exciting insight into thirteenth century Iranian illustration as the ‘thirteenth century was a period when inlaid brass became a premier medium for figural imagery’ and so ‘the globes from this period are duly exceptional for the detail and clarity of their engraved figures’.

17th century
A 17th-century celestial globes was made by Diya’ ad-din Muhammad in Lahore, 1668 (now in Pakistan). It is now housed at the National Museum of Scotland. It is encircled by a meridian ring and a horizon ring. The latitude angle of 32° indicates that the globe was made in the Lahore workshop. This specific 'workshop claims 21 signed globes—the largest number from a single shop’ making this globe a good example of Celestial Globe production at its peak. The globe itself has been manufactured in one piece, so as to be seamless.

There are grooves which encircle the surface of the globe that create 12 sections of 30° which pass through the ecliptic poles. While they are no longer used in astronomy today, they are called “ecliptic latitude circles” and help astronomers of the Arabic and Greek worlds find the co-ordinates of a particular star. Each of the 12 sections corresponds to a house in the zodiac.

title: Celestial globe


text:
Talk:CANDU reactor

requesting more references
I placed two cn after two statements I thought needed references -- namely:
 * {| class="wikitable"

WRT the second assertion -- surely this was true for every nation that developed a nuclear industry?
 * 1) "At the time of its design, Canada lacked the heavy industry to cast and machine the large, heavy steel pressure vessel used in most light water reactors..."
 * 2) "Canada also lacked access to uranium enrichment facilities, which were then extremely expensive to construct and operate..."
 * }
 * }

WRT the first assertion -- this may very well be correct. But it is not what I remember when I first read about the CANDU design.

Cheers! Geo Swan (talk) 16:19, 20 March 2010 (UTC)

 * I don't know about the 1st, but as to the 2nd, no, I think the other nations working on nuclear power had already developed enrichment capability as part of their nuclear weapons programs.
 * —WWoods (talk) 04:34, 24 March 2010 (UTC)

 * Both assertions are true - and in fact are still true for most of the world. Whitlock (talk) 12:33, 25 March 2010 (UTC)

Pressurized or not?
I dont know if this is really an error, but I was confused when I got to this part..

 * "The heavy water is unpressurized, and a cooling system is required to keep it from boiling.

 * At the time of its design, Canada lacked the heavy industry to cast and machine the large, heavy steel pressure vessel used in most light water reactors.[citation needed] Instead, the pressure is contained in much smaller tubes, "

It seems rather contradictory. 24.141.10.136 (talk) 06:31, 17 March 2011 (UTC)
 * The moderator is heavy water in a large tank (calandria) at atmospheric pressure which must be kept cool by the moderator heat exchangers.

The primary fuel coolant (also heavy water) is pressurised but flows through tubes containing the fuel which run horizontally through the calandria. These tubes are a lot easier to fabricate than the thick walled pressure vessels used in Pressurised water Reactors which contain both the fuel and light water which acts as a moderator and coolant. Dabbler (talk) 14:35, 17 March 2011 (UTC)

I'm not 100% sure of your source of confusion, but maybe I can help. I'm not a nuclear engineer, but based on reading the article and looking at the colored "schematic" of the reactor, I can say this:

 * heavy water is used for two purposes in the CANDU reactor. It is used as the moderator (pink on the diagram) and it is used in the primary heat carrying loop (yellow and orange on the diagram, although the orange looks to me more like a darker yellow), carrying heat from the reactor to the steam generator.

 * the heavy water used to carry heat to the steam generator is pressurized, the heavy water uses as the moderator is not pressurized. (I don't know if the terminology "atmospheric pressure" adds to the confusion--to say something is at atmospheric pressure essentially means it is not pressurized--it is at the same pressure as the rest of the atmosphere around it--you don't need a special high strength tank (pressurized vessel) to contain it)

 * so, the pink is at atmospheric pressure, and the tank holding it (the calandria) does not have to be built to deal with pressure higher than atmospheric--it is, in the common parlance, not a pressurized vessel

 * the yellow and orange is pressurized, but note (if you can) that the orange and yellow is contained in pipes built in and through the calandria--those pipes must (and are built to) contain the pressurized moderated water

Hope that helps! Rhkramer (talk) 12:40, 17 June 2011 (UTC)

Picture of fuel bundle.
I believe that the picture of the fuel bundle with text that states '"Two CANDU fuel bundles: Each about 50 cm in length and 10 cm in diameter, and generating about 1 GWh of electricity during its time in the reactor. Photo courtesy of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited.' has a problem.

I think it should say 1 GW or 1 GWe.

1 GWh is worth about $ 80.00 ( at $ .08/KWh retail ).

Could someone who knows more check and make the change if I am correct please.

Thank you,

Rob Walker. RS Walker (talk) 17:30, 31 March 2011 (UTC)
 * 1 GWh(e) is correct:
 * nominal CANDU burnup = 7500 MWd/Te
 * 1 CANDU bundle = 20 kg U (roughly)
 * therefore, 1 CANDU bundle's energy output = 7500 * 20/1000 = 150 MWd = 3.6 GWh ~ 1 GWh(e)
 * Also, at $ 0.08/kWh 1 GWh(e) would be $80,000, not $80
 * Whitlock (talk) 05:59, 1 April 2011 (UTC)

Thank you for clearing that up. It makes sense now.RS Walker (talk) 19:31, 1 April 2011 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by RS Walker (talk • contribs) 19:29, 1 April 2011 (UTC)

"Relieved"? Should be some other word: "believed", "discovered"
In this sentence: "The deal for the reactor had not been opened to competition, and it was later relieved that a $20 million payment had been made to an "agent" to sell the system. Construction started in 1977 and commercial operation began in April 1983."

"relieved" is not the appropriate word. Even if there is a meaning of relieved that applies here, I have not found it, so it must be a rather obscure meaning. Better would be a word like "believed" or "discovered". As I don't know which is the case, I'm thinking of waiting until someone else comes forward who knows the facts.

Quite possibly, next time I think of it, I'll come back and, if no one has resolved the problem, I'll choose a new word, possibly at random lacking knowledge. ;-) Or maybe I'll try to indicate ambiguity today, with something like "[ believed | discovered (uncertain of the facts) ]"

Hmm, maybe that is better, unless it prompts someone to delete the sentence. Rhkramer (talk) 12:19, 17 June 2011 (UTC)

 * I think it should have been "revealed" and I have altered it to suit and put the comment into hiding! Dabbler (talk) 13:47, 17 June 2011 (UTC)
 * To no end, as it turns out. Our local CANDU apologist has removed the entire statement as being "off topic". I believe a separate section on this might be in order. Maury Markowitz (talk) 11:14, 20 June 2011 (UTC)

POV Section Tag
I have tagged this section because it uses a mixture of cost bases and it is not clear which cost estimates are used to calculate the cost overruns, early initial ones or final detailed once once the project scope was finalised? It quotes costs/kWhj without stating the base year and compares with other values and draws conclusions without allowing for inflation etc. It also compares the performance of a couple of restarted elderly units with the anticipated performance of proposed refurbished of much younger ones despite the vastly different scope of work involved. I also suggest that the Clean Air Alliance as an advocacy group is an inherently biassed source. Dabbler (talk) 17:49, 27 June 2011 (UTC)

 * Please tag the pecific sentences you believe are POV, with notes here on each one as to why you believe them to be POV. Many of the generalized complaints you note here are fully referenced in the article, so I want to make sure there's an actual problem to fix.
 * The CAA's numbers are fully referenced and are all taken from OPG, OPA, and the COP. One might suggest these sources are "inherently biassed" as well, but not in the way that is being implied here. Maury Markowitz (talk) 11:28, 28 June 2011 (UTC)

Economic performance
I think the economic performance section should be updated to include information on some of the non-Ontario units. This link from the Canadian Nuclear Association include some information on the capacity factors. It might also be good to include reference to the capacity factors or cost of competing designs to give context? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Hologram0110 (talk • contribs) 04:07, 8 December 2011 (UTC)

Design: Is This Information Necessary or Relevant?
"A CANDU power plant generates power in the same fashion as a fossil fuel power station; heat is generated by "burning" fuel, and that heat is used to drive a steam turbine, normally located in a separate "power hall". A typical coal-fired plant burns coal and air and produces mostly carbon dioxide and fly ash, the CANDU burns nuclear fuel in-situ; when the fuel is "burned up" it is removed from the reactor and stored." That entire bit there can be replaced by a single sentence including a hyperlink: "CANDU power plants generate power through the same basic design principle at the heart of all nuclear power plants." This intro is misleading and out of place in an article about a highly specific proprietary power plant design. It would be appropriate in a general article on nuclear power generation.68.6.76.31 (talk) 08:55, 23 January 2012 (UTC)

 * I tend to favor such introductory material be placed in-situ, it saves considerable click-itis. If we do as you suggest, then the reader would have to click out to some other article, locate the description in question, read it, and then page back. I think a single para as it is helps rather than hinders. Maury Markowitz (talk) 19:38, 5 March 2012 (UTC)

Safety coverage inadequate
The article lists safety features but does not actually discuss operational safety. This is like the Ford Explorer article mentioning that it has brakes and safety belts without mentioning that it's vulnerable to high speed tire blowout and subsequent rollover if the driver responds incorrectly (For the record, the Explorer article does cover this concern.) The article mentions that CANDU has a smaller positive void co-efficient than RBMK reactors, which gives operators more time to react to problems. However, what needs to be addressed is the effect of the CANDU positive void co-efficient in the event of a Three Mile Island type incident (ie, one in which coolant voids develop without the operators noticing) or Chernobyl type incident (ie, safety systems are disabled by accident or on purpose)

Similarly, the article mentions that CANDU plants continue to put out 7% of maximum power after shutdown and so have several cooling systems. What needs to be addressed is the ability of CANDU plants to deal with a Fukishima type incident (ie, the reactor is successfully shutdown but all power to run cooling systems is lost.)

I'm digging out some references that address this, but in the meantime invite anyone with the knowledge or references to weigh in on these points. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2.27.196.231 (talk) 05:42, 29 March 2012 (UTC)

 * Fukushima response is not part of the original CANDU design since by definition it is a "Beyond design basis" event. Each utility has to assess its own response to the events that they consider appropriate. OPG did not consider 9.5 earthquakes and 30 metre tsunamis on Lake Ontario because they are physically not crediblem they did consider tornados etc. They have decided to buy diesel pumps and generators and hoses to maintain cooling in the evnt of a complete loss of the electrical grid and internal power supplies which was the worst beyond design event that was credible.

 * I am not saying that this should not be addressed just that each plant will have its own problems and solutions. Dabbler (talk) 11:42, 29 March 2012 (UTC)

 * Excellent point Dabbler, I think I was probably not clear enough. The aspect of Fukishima I'm looking at here is not specifically the mechanism that takes cooling offline, but how (or if) CANDU can handle an extended station blackout (ie, neither internal nor external power available to run the cooling systems).  Obviously Ontario isn't given to large earthquakes and tsunami, however events beyond design basis do occur - in fact it's safe to say that no nuclear accident is a design basis event, since the plants are designed not have those accidents.  CANDU certainly faces the possibility of a station blackout even in Ontario.  For example the Quebec ice-storm had some areas with neither power nor road access for over a week.  This would strain the fuel reserves of the backup generators.  Loss of station power could also occur via a maintenance problem (eg, contaminated generator fuel or a faulty valve that dumped it all), or via a Stuxnet-type computer virus, - or most likely through a series of individually trivial events that no-one could have predicted would line up to disaster, as at Three Mile Island. I don't want to get too deep into this - it's not for Wiki to get into exploring various hypothetical disaster scenarios.   However we definitely need to give at least as much coverage to safety in nuclear power plants as we do to safety in the Ford Explorer.  The current safety section doesn't address operational safety, it just lists safety systems, and there are some very pertinent reference-supported facts we should get in there.  Is it possible for a CANDU reactor to melt down, even after it's been shut down, as Fukishima did?  Is loss of all internal and external power enough to cause this?  If so, how long after power fails will the meltdown start?  There's sixty years of research on CANDU out there, surely there's data on this somewhere. 2.27.196.231 (talk) 22:03, 30 March 2012 (UTC)
 * The post-Fukushima assessment for OPG did focus on the possibility of an extended grid blackout and that was the reason for the purchase of the pumps and generators. The assumption is that diesel fuel could still be trucked in as a priority in any provincial emergency.
 * CANDUs have the demonstrated capability for cooling of the shutdown heat from the non-critical core by natural circulation without any pump circulation, i.e. the layout of the heat transport pipework will maintain a slow flow of hot water from the core through the steam generators where the core water can be cooled if the SGs are kept topped up with feedwater (from the emergency pumps and generators if required).
 * Unlike the PWR, a CANDU has a large cool tank of moderator water surrounding the core which would also buy some time to hook up the emergency pumps. Here is a Toronto Star story which describes most of what I have mentioned. http://www.thestar.com/news/insight/article/967796--failsafe-inside-the-candu-safety-net Dabbler (talk) 22:55, 30 March 2012 (UTC)
 * Read the article, thanks Dabbler. Evidently the core shuts down automatically and quite reliably if the external power fails, but will melt down if cooling fails, just as at Fukishima.  However it won't happen right away if the pumps fail, since there is passive convection in the core and the presence of cool moderator, etc. What I need to find is how long is the delay before meltdown(minutes? years?).  The article also mentions the possibility of a hydrogen explosion if the zirconium fuel tubes overheat.  I didn't know that part! Still unaddressed is the question of primary coolant loss (eg, pipe fracture or mis-set valve) as happened at Three Mile Island.  Will this result in immediate meltdown, or will there still be a delay?   Another unanswered question is whether the fuel pools will boil dry or not (also a Fukishima problem), and of course I'm still looking in the positive void co-efficient.  It might be worth adding a separate risks/vulnerabilities section on top of a proper operational safety section.

2.27.196.231 (talk) 13:14, 1 April 2012 (UTC)
 * I think I've got at least a preliminary answer. Even without power, the primary coolant loop will convect enough heat to the secondary loop indefinitely, but loss of primary coolant (eg through valve mis-set or pipe rupture) or secondary cooling (by any mechanism) will stop that process and cause a meltdown.  Heating up the moderator and shield water will postpone this for several hours, and gravity fed tanks to cool the steam generators will postpone it somewhat longer.  It would be nice to put some numbers on these, but as a first-guess, a CANDU has perhaps half a day between a station blackout event and a meltdown.  Anyone have any numerical data?2.27.196.231 (talk) 13:54, 1 April 2012 (UTC)
 * These specific questions on detailed performance in specific scenario types will have different answers for different plants. Pickering 'A' is not Pickering 'B' is not Qinshan is not a (theoretical) new build today. For the older plants in particular the information may not be available if it wasn't a design-basis accident at the time. Hearings/submissions from/to the CNRC post-Fukishima may shed some light on existing plants if anyone has the time and expertise (I don't). On PVR specifically there is a lot of older post-Chernobyl coverage on CANteach. Don't know if anyone has an answer on cooling pond boil-off but the residual decay of the fuel is much lower v. BWR so I don't know. I believe the risk of hydrogen explosion is siginficantly reduced by the use of hydrogen recombiners in even the older plants (retrofit) - can anyone confirm this? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.239.118.172 (talk) 04:36, 15 August 2012 (UTC)

NPOV and missing reference
"mainly from external factors" This claim requires a reference.

It is followed by a claim concerning success in China with no reference to an reputable auditor or international organization but instead public relations material from "Canteach", a PDF file at http://canteach.candu.org/library/20031701.pdf

I am not an opponent of nuclear power, but this is SNC-Lavalin who is the owner now and an experienced wikipedia editor needs to look at reference 10 and what it means in this context that the prior claim has no reference.

Canadians long tolerated Atomic Energy of Canada exaggerations, but since the Libya-Mexico affair, I believe that fewer Canadians have illusions about the lack of scruples of SNC-Lavalin.

In the past I worked on the world's "best selling" audit software (post-Enron) and I now have some considerable skepticism even of claims by big name auditors (that OEM firm is owned by the owners of Reuters, so we all have a lesson there in having doubts about "references" when these big corporations "speak for themselves", let alone "report" on economic results in China.)

Here is a University of Toronto publication relating to transparency and governance where CANDU is concerned: http://www.utppublishing.com/The-Politics-of-CANDU-Exports.html byDuane Bratt, IPAC Series in Public Management and Governance, University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Div., 2006, 336 Pages.

The Calgary Herald blog site says of Duane Bratt: " Duane Bratt is Chair and Professor in the Department of Policy Studies at Mount Royal University (Calgary, Alberta). He was educated at the Universities of Windsor (BA 1991, MA 1992) and Alberta (Ph.D 1996). He teaches in the area of international relations and Canadian public policy, with specialty in the sub-field of Canadian foreign policy. His primary research interest is in the area of Canadian nuclear policy " http://blogs.calgaryherald.com/author/duanetbratt/

The book is suggested reading in the Bennett Lewis article.

The IPAC site on GRC is http://ipac.ca/PMandG

For a glimpse of the challenge of NPOV for Canadian commentators on this subject, I suggest the OCI website https://oci-aic.org/ where it may not be obvious to a visitor that this is the Organization of CANDU Industry suppliers (the "C" is not for Canada) as they prefer to only use the moniker OCI on their web pages and even their "ABOUT OCI" page does not state the origin of the acronym.

Governance at CANDU: the players include an SNC-L internal auditor (Senior V-P, F and A)

http://www.candu.com/en/home/aboutcandu/governance.aspx former Vice President, Finance and Administration at SNC-Lavalin Inc. former Director of Finance, Middle East Oil and Gas at SNC-Lavalin Inc. former Internal Auditor at SNC-Lavalin Inc.

G. Robert Shiplett 01:18, 30 March 2012 (UTC)
 * It strikes me that there's two different items here - one is about a specific reference / potential weasel wording, and CANteach can't be considered neutral but it looks like the link is dead anyway. Not sure I follow what's wrong with the reference on political interference but the wording you highlighted of "mainly from external factors" does seem to have a ring of opinion to it. Respectfully, the rest of this section seems unfocused in its criticism which makes it hard to respond to; however, the original/first point seems clear and fair enough. 99.239.118.172 (talk) 04:56, 15 August 2012 (UTC)

readability
this article needs to be cleand up. so many typos and run ons etc. I kept rereading it. does anyone agree?Longinus876 (talk) 17:45, 13 August 2012 (UTC)

Basic design and operation section
I removed the following paragraph from the Basic design and operation section:

"A CANDU power plant generates power in the same fashion as a fossil-fuel power station: heat is generated by "burning" fuel, and that heat is used to drive a steam turbine, normally located in a separate "power hall". Whereas a typical coal-fired plant burns coal and air and produces mostly carbon dioxide and fly ash, the CANDU consumes nuclear fuel in-situ; when the fuel is "burned up" it is removed from the reactor and stored as high level radioactive waste."

There are a couple of issues here...

For one, nothing here is specific to a CANDU reactor - as opposed to any old solid uranium-fueled, once-through cycle reactor. People reading this article will want to know specifics about *this* reactor type - what makes it unique - e.g. it can run on un-enriched uranium, uses heavy water, etc.

There's also something of a POV issue here and heavy use of non-sequitors. Yes, nuclear reactors use heat to make steam to turn turbines - the same as any thermal power plant - be it fossil or biomass or solar-thermal. Why is this being featured in the intro to the design section for the *CANDU* article?

It seems there's an agenda to pain nuclear (including CANDU) with the same brush as fossil fuels. There are some (at least superficial) similarities - both involve fuel being consumed and some amount of waste products. There are also some big differences though - e.g. nuclear using about a million times less fuel for the same amount of energy. In any event though - not a debate to be sorted out in this section of this article. -Helvetica (talk) 11:36, 27 December 2014 (UTC)

Number of CANDU's
I'm confused. The article says there are 29 reactors but then lists them by country and there are 31 reactors on the list. Can someone explain or correct this? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 142.134.242.106 (talk) 13:38, 5 August 2015 (UTC)

Nuclear nonproliferation
The CANDU_reactor section of the article makes the unsourced claim that,

"There is a common misconception that plutonium for India's first nuclear detonation, Operation Smiling Buddha in 1974, was produced in a CIRUS design. In fact, it was produced in the safeguarded indigenously built PHWR reactor."

This is contradicted by sourced claims on the articles Heavy_water_reactor and CIRUS_reactor. I'd suggest that it be removed and replaced with a statement congruent with the other articles and their sources. If there is legitimate controversy as to whether CANDU/CIRUS reactors were used to make the weapons material, then a reference for that should be cited. 202.155.85.18 (talk) 02:43, 31 August 2015 (UTC)

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SNC Lavalin now AtkinsRéalis
This article needs some updates to reflect the name change of the company. The company formerly called SNC Lavalin is now called AtkinsRéalis. I am not sure the best/simplest way to show that change here. 70.178.193.113 (talk) 10:43, 24 May 2024 (UTC)
 * What was the name of the company at the time it worked on CANDU? Articles are about their subjects; the whole weary history of corporate name-changes can be accessed by a mouse click and is not relevant to this article. --Wtshymanski (talk) 23:47, 29 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:CANDU reactor