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Harry Kroto

Sir Harold Walter Kroto (born Harold Walter Krotoschiner; 7 October 1939 – 30 April 2016) was an English chemist. He shared the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Robert Curl and Richard Smalley for their discovery of fullerenes. He was the recipient of many other honors and awards.

Kroto ended his career as the Francis Eppes Professor of Chemistry at Florida State University, which he joined in 2004. Prior to this, he spent approximately 40 years at the University of Sussex.

Kroto promoted science education and was a critic of religious faith.

Early years
Kroto was born in Wisbech, Isle of Ely, Cambridgeshire, England, to Edith and Heinz Krotoschiner, his name being of Silesian origin. His father's family came from Bojanowo, Poland, and his mother's from Berlin. Both of his parents were born in Berlin and fled to Great Britain in the 1930s as refugees from Nazi Germany; his father was Jewish. Harry was raised in Bolton while the British authorities interned his father on the Isle of Man as an enemy alien during World War II. Kroto attended Bolton School, where he was a contemporary of the actor Ian McKellen. In 1955, Harold's father shortened the family name to Kroto.

As a child, he became fascinated by a Meccano set. Kroto credited Meccano, as well as his aiding his father in the latter's balloon factory after World War II – amongst other things – with developing skills useful in scientific research. He developed an interest in chemistry, physics, and mathematics in secondary school, and because his sixth form chemistry teacher (Harry Heaney – who subsequently became a university professor) felt that the University of Sheffield had the best chemistry department in the United Kingdom, he went to Sheffield.

Although raised Jewish, Kroto stated that religion never made any sense to him. He was a humanist who claimed to have three religions: Amnesty Internationalism, atheism, and humour. He was a distinguished supporter of the British Humanist Association. In 2003 he was one of 22 Nobel Laureates who signed the Humanist Manifesto.

In 2015, Kroto signed the Mainau Declaration 2015 on Climate Change on the final day of the 65th Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting. The declaration was signed by a total of 76 Nobel Laureates and handed to then-President of the French Republic, François Hollande, as part of the successful COP21 climate summit in Paris.

Education
Kroto was educated at Bolton School and went to the University of Sheffield in 1958, where he obtained a first-class honours BSc degree in Chemistry (1961) and a PhD in Molecular Spectroscopy (1964). During his time at Sheffield he also was the art editor of Arrows – the university student magazine, played tennis for the university team (reaching the UAU finals twice) and was President of the Student Athletics Council (1963–64). Among other things such as making the first phosphaalkenes (compounds with carbon phosphorus double bonds), his doctoral studies included unpublished research on carbon suboxide, O=C=C=C=O, and this led to a general interest in molecules containing chains of carbon atoms with numerous multiple bonds. He started his work with an interest in organic chemistry, but when he learned about spectroscopy it inclined him towards quantum chemistry; he later developed an interest in astrochemistry.

After obtaining his PhD, Kroto spent two-years as a postdoctoral fellow in the molecular spectroscopy group of Gerhard Herzberg at the National Research Council in Ottawa, Canada, and the subsequent year (1966–1967) at Bell Laboratories in New Jersey carrying out Raman studies of liquid phase interactions and worked on quantum chemistry.

Research at the University of Sussex
In 1967, Kroto began teaching and research at the University of Sussex in England. During his time at Sussex from 1967 to 1985, he carried out research mainly focused on the spectroscopic studies of new and novel unstable and semi-stable species. This work resulted in the birth of the various fields of new chemistry involving carbon multiply bonded to second and third row elements e.g. S, Se and P. A particularly important breakthrough (with Sussex colleague John Nixon) was the creation of several new phosphorus species detected by microwave spectroscopy. This work resulted in the birth of the field(s) of phosphaalkene and phosphaalkyne chemistry. These species contain carbon double and triple bonded to phosphorus (C=P and C≡P) such as cyanophosphaethyne.

In 1975, he became a full professor of Chemistry. This coincided with laboratory microwave measurements with Sussex colleague David Walton on long linear carbon chain molecules, leading to radio astronomy observations with Canadian astronomers surprisingly revealing that these unusual carbonaceous species exist in relatively large abundances in interstellar space as well as the outer atmospheres of certain stars – the carbon-rich red giants.

Discovery of buckminsterfullerene
In 1985, on the basis of the Sussex studies and the stellar discoveries, laboratory experiments (with co-workers James R. Heath, Sean C. O'Brien, Yuan Liu, Robert Curl and Richard Smalley at Rice University) which simulated the chemical reactions in the atmospheres of the red giant stars demonstrated that stable C60 molecules could form spontaneously from a condensing carbon vapour. The co-investigators directed lasers at graphite and examined the results. The C60 molecule is a molecule with the same symmetry pattern as a football, consisting of 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons of carbon atoms. Kroto named the molecule buckminsterfullerene, after Buckminster Fuller who had conceived of the geodesic domes, as the dome concept had provided a clue to the likely structure of the new species.

In 1985, the C60 discovery caused Kroto to shift the focus of his research from spectroscopy in order to probe the consequences of the C60 structural concept (and prove it correct) and to exploit the implications for chemistry and material science.

This research is significant for the discovery of a new allotrope of carbon known as a fullerene. Other allotropes of carbon include graphite, diamond and graphene. Kroto's 1985 paper entitled "C60: Buckminsterfullerene", published with colleagues J. R. Heath, S. C. O'Brien, R. F. Curl, and R. E. Smalley, was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, presented to Rice University in 2015. The discovery of fullerenes was recognized in 2010 by the designation of a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society at the Richard E. Smalley Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology at Rice University in Houston, Texas.

Research at Florida State University
In 2004, Kroto left the University of Sussex to take up a new position as Francis Eppes Professor of Chemistry at Florida State University. At FSU he carried out fundamental research on: Carbon vapour with Professor Alan Marshall; Open framework condensed phase systems with strategically important electrical and magnetic behaviour with Professors Naresh Dalal (FSU) and Tony Cheetham (Cambridge); and the mechanism of formation and properties of nano-structured systems. In addition, he participated in research initiatives at FSU that probed the astrochemistry of fullerenes, metallofullerenes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in stellar/circumstellar space, as well as their relevance to stardust.

Educational outreach and public service
In 1995, he jointly set up the Vega Science Trust, a UK educational charity that created high quality science films including lectures and interviews with Nobel Laureates, discussion programmes, careers and teaching resources for TV and Internet Broadcast. Vega produced over 280 programmes, that streamed for free from the Vega website which acted as a TV science channel. The trust closed in 2012.

In 2009, Kroto spearheaded the development of a second science education initiative, Geoset. Short for the Global Educational Outreach for Science, Engineering and Technology, GEOSET is an ever-growing online cache of recorded teaching modules that are freely downloadable to educators and the public. The program aims to increase knowledge of the sciences by creating a global repository of educational videos and presentations from leading universities and institutions.

In 2003, prior to the Blair/Bush invasion of Iraq on the pretext that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction, Kroto initiated and organised the publication of a letter to be signed by a dozen UK Nobel Laureates and published in The Times. It was composed by his friend the Nobel Peace Prize Laureate the late Sir Joseph Rotblat and published in The Times on 15 February 2003.

He wrote a set of articles, mostly opinion pieces, from 2002 to 2003 for the Times Higher Education Supplement, a weekly UK publication.

From 2002 to 2004, Kroto served as president of the Royal Society of Chemistry. In 2004, he was appointed to the Francis Eppes Professorship in the chemistry department at Florida State University, carrying out research in nanoscience and nanotechnology.

He spoke at Auburn University on 29 April 2010, and at the James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy at Rice University with Robert Curl on 13 October 2010.

In October 2010 Kroto participated in the USA Science and Engineering Festival's Lunch with a Laureate program where middle and high school students had the opportunity to engage in an informal conversation with a Nobel Prize–winning scientist.

He spoke at Mahatma Gandhi University, at Kottayam, in Kerala, India in January 2011, where he was an 'Erudite' special invited lecturer of the Government of Kerala, from 5 to 11 January 2011.

Kroto spoke at CSICon 2011, a convention "dedicated to scientific inquiry and critical thinking" organized by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry in association with Skeptical Inquirer magazine and the Center for Inquiry. He also delivered the IPhO 2012 lecture at the International Physics Olympiad held in Estonia.

In 2014, Kroto spoke at the Starmus Festival in the Canary Islands, delivering a lecture about his life in science, chemistry, and design.

Personal life
In 1963, Kroto married Margaret Henrietta Hunter, also a student of the University of Sheffield at the time. The couple had two sons. Throughout his life, Kroto was a lover of film, theatre, art, and music and published his own artwork.

Personal beliefs
Kroto was a "devout atheist" who thought that beliefs in immortality derive from lack of the courage to accept human mortality. He was a patron of the British Humanist Association. He was a supporter of Amnesty International. He referred to his view that religious dogma causes people to accept unethical or inhumane actions: "The only mistake Bernie Madoff made was to promise returns in this life." He held that scientists had a responsibility to work for the benefit of the entire species. On 15 September 2010, Kroto, along with 54 other public figures, signed an open letter published in The Guardian, stating their opposition to Pope Benedict XVI's state visit to the UK.

Kroto was an early Signatory of Asteroid Day.

In 2008, Kroto was critical of Michael Reiss for directing the teaching of creationism alongside evolution.

Kroto praised the increase of organized online information as an "Educational Revolution" and named it as the "GooYouWiki" world referring to Google, YouTube and Wikipedia.

Graphic design
The discovery of buckminsterfullerene caused Kroto to postpone his dream of setting up an art and graphic design studio – he had been doing graphics semi-professionally for years. However, Kroto's graphic design work resulted in numerous posters, letterheads, logos, book/journal covers, medal design, etc. He produced artwork after receiving graphic awards in the Sunday Times Book Jacket Design competition (1964) and the Moet Hennesy/Louis Vuitton Science pour l'Art Prize (1994). Other notable graphical works include the design of the Nobel UK Stamp for Chemistry (2001) and features at the Royal Academy (London) Summer Exhibition (2004).

Death and reactions
Kroto died on 30 April 2016 in Lewes, East Sussex, from complications of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis at the age of 76.

Richard Dawkins wrote a memorial for Kroto in which he mentioned Kroto's "passionate hatred of religion." The Wall Street Journal described him as "(spending much of his later life) jetting around the world to extol scientific education in a world he saw as blinded by religion." Slate's Zack Kopplin related a story about how Kroto gave him advice and support to fight Louisiana's creationism law, a law that allows public school science teachers to attack evolution and how Kroto defended the scientific findings of global warming. In an obituary published in the journal Nature, Robert Curl and James R. Heath described Kroto as having an "impish sense of humour similar to that of the British comedy group Monty Python".

Honours and awards
Kroto won numerous awards, individually and with others:

Major awards

 * Tilden Lecturer of the Royal Society of Chemistry, 1981–82
 * Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1990
 * International Prize for New Materials American Physical Society, 1992 (with Robert Curl and Richard Smalley)
 * Italgas Prize for Innovation in Chemistry, 1992
 * Royal Society of Chemistry Longstaff Medal, 1993
 * Hewlett Packard Europhysics Prize, 1994 (with Wolfgang Kraetschmer, Don Huffman and Richard Smalley)
 * Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1996 (shared with Robert Curl and Richard Smalley)
 * Carbon Medal, American Carbon Society Medal for Achievement in Carbon Science, 1997 (shared with Robert Curl and Richard Smalley)
 * Blackett Lectureship (Royal Society), 1999
 * Faraday Award and Lecture (Royal Society), 2001
 * Dalton Medal (Manchester Lit and Phil), 1998
 * Erasmus Medal of Academia Europaea, 2002
 * Copley Medal of the Royal Society, 2002
 * Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, 2002
 * Order of Cherubini (Torino), 2005
 * Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences, 2007
 * Kavli Lecturer, 2007
 * National Historic Chemical Landmark, American Chemical Society, 2010.
 * Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award, Division of History of Chemistry, American Chemical Society, 2015

Kroto was made a Knight Bachelor in the 1996 New Year Honours list.

The University of Sheffield North Campus contains two buildings named after Kroto: The Kroto Innovation Centre and the Kroto Research Institute.

Honorary degrees

 * 1) Université Libre de Bruxelles (Belgium)
 * 2) University of Stockholm (Sweden)
 * 3) University of Limburg (now Hasselt University) (Belgium)
 * 4) University of Sheffield (UK)
 * 5) University of Kingston (UK)
 * 6) University of Sussex (UK)
 * 7) University of Helsinki (Finland)
 * 8) University of Nottingham (UK)
 * 9) Yokohama City University (Japan)
 * 10) University of Sheffield-Hallam (UK)
 * 11) University of Aberdeen (Scotland)
 * 12) University of Leicester (UK)
 * 13) University of Aveiro (Portugal)
 * 14) University of Bielefeld (Germany)
 * 15) University of Hull (UK)
 * 16) Manchester Metropolitan University (UK)
 * 17) Hong Kong City University (HK China)
 * 18) Gustavus Adolphus College (Minnesota, US)
 * 19) University College London (UK)
 * 20) University of Patras (Greece)
 * 21) University of Dalhousie (Halifax, NovaScotia, Canada)
 * 22) University of Strathclyde (Scotland)
 * 23) University of Manchester (UK)
 * 24) AGH University of Science and Technology in Kraków (Poland)
 * 25) University of Durham (UK)
 * 26) Queens University Belfast (NI)
 * 27) University of Surrey (UK)
 * 28) Polytechnico di Torino (Italy)
 * 29) University of Chemical Technology – Beijing (China)
 * 30) University of Liverpool (UK)
 * 31) Florida Southern College (US)
 * 32) Keio University (Japan)
 * 33) University of Chiba (Japan)
 * 34) University of Bolton (UK)
 * 35) University of Hartford (US)
 * 36) University of Tel Aviv (Israel)
 * 37) University of Poitiers (France)
 * 38) Universidad Complutense de Madrid
 * 39) Naresuan University (Thailand)
 * 40) Vietnam National University (Hanoi)
 * 41) University of Edinburgh (Scotland)
 * 42) University of Primorska (Slovenia)

 * Returned due to closure of Chemistry Departments
 * 1) Hertfordshire University
 * 2) Exeter University

title: Harry Kroto


text:
Heimskringla

Heimskringla is the best known of the Old Norse kings' sagas. It was written in Old Norse in Iceland. While authorship of Heimskringla is nowhere attributed, some scholars assume it is written by the Icelandic poet and historian Snorri Sturluson (1178/79–1241) c. 1230. The title Heimskringla was first used in the 17th century, derived from the first two words of one of the manuscripts (kringla heimsins, "the circle of the world").

Heimskringla is a collection of sagas about Swedish and Norwegian kings, beginning with the saga of the legendary Swedish dynasty of the Ynglings, followed by accounts of historical Norwegian rulers from Harald Fairhair of the 9th century up to the death of the pretender Eystein Meyla in 1177.

Some of the exact sources of Heimskringla are disputed, but they include earlier kings' sagas, such as Morkinskinna, Fagrskinna and the 12th-century Norwegian synoptic histories and oral traditions, notably many skaldic poems. The author or authors explicitly name the now lost work Hryggjarstykki as their source for the events of the mid-12th century.

Authorship
No known manuscript attributes authorship to Heimskringla. The matter is summarized as follows by Anthony Faulkes:

 * The authorship of Heimskringla is not referred to within the text or in any surviving manuscript—as is usually the case for a medieval work—and its attribution to Snorri has been questioned. The first surviving works in which he is credited as author are the sixteenth-century translations of Heimskringla into Danish by the Norwegians Peder Claussøn Friis and Laurents Hanssøn ... who are generally believed to have used at least one now lost manuscript of Heimskringla that gave authority for their naming of Snorri.

Title
The title Heimskringla comes from the first words of the first saga in the compilation (Ynglinga saga), Kringla heimsins, "the orb of the Earth".

Manuscript history
The earliest parchment copy of the work is Kringla, now in the National and University Library of Iceland, catalogued as Lbs fragm 82. It is a single vellum leaf from c. 1260, a part of the Saga of St. Olaf; the rest of the manuscript was lost to fire in 1728.

Summary
Heimskringla consists of several sagas, often thought of as falling into three groups, giving the overall work the character of a triptych. The saga narrates the contests of the kings, the establishment of the kingdom of Norway, Norse expeditions to various European countries, ranging as far afield as Palestine in the saga of Sigurd the Crusader, where the Norwegian fleet is attacked by Arab Muslim pirates, referred to as Vikings. The stories are told with energy, giving a picture of human life in all its dimensions. The saga is a prose epic, relevant to the history of not only Scandinavia but the regions included in the wider medieval Scandinavian diaspora. The first part of the Heimskringla is rooted in Norse mythology; as the collection proceeds, fable and fact intermingle, but the accounts become increasingly historically reliable.

The first saga tells of the mythological prehistory of the Swedish and Norwegian royal dynasty, the Ynglings, tracing their lineage to Freyr (Yngve) of the Vanaland people, who arrived in Scandinavia with Odin from the legendary Asgard. The subsequent sagas are (with few exceptions) devoted to individual rulers, starting with Halfdan the Black.

A version of Óláfs saga helga, about the saint Olaf II of Norway, is the main and central part of the collection: Olaf's 15-year-long reign takes up about one third of the entire work.

Thereafter, the saga of Harald Hardrada narrates Harald's expedition to the East, his brilliant exploits in Constantinople, Syria, and Sicily, his skaldic accomplishments, and his battles in England against Harold Godwinson, the son of Godwin, Earl of Wessex, where he fell at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066, only a few days before Harold fell at the Battle of Hastings. After presenting a series of other kings, the saga ends with Magnus V of Norway.

Contents
Heimskringla contains the following sagas (see also List of Norwegian monarchs):
 * 1) Ynglinga saga
 * 2) Saga of Halfdanr svarti ("the Black")
 * 3) Saga of Haraldr hárfagi ("Finehair") (died c. 931)
 * 4) Saga of Hákon góði ("the Good") (died 961)
 * 5) Saga of King Haraldr gráfeldr ("Greycloak") (died 969)
 * 6) Saga of King Óláfr Tryggvason (died 1000)
 * 7) Saga of King Óláfr Haraldsson (died 1030), excerpt from conversion of Dale-Gudbrand
 * 8) Saga of Magnús góði ("the Good") (died 1047)
 * 9) Saga of Haraldr harðráði ("Hardruler") (died 1066)
 * 10) Saga of Óláfr Haraldsson kyrri ("the Gentle") (died 1093)
 * 11) Saga of Magnús berfœttr ("Barefoot") (died 1103)
 * 12) Saga of Sigurðr Jórsalafari ("Jerusalem-traveller") (died 1130) and his brothers
 * 13) Saga of Magnús blindi ("the Blind") (dethroned 1135) and of Haraldr Gilli (died 1136)
 * 14) Saga of Sigurðr (died 1155), Eysteinn (died 1157) and Ingi (died 1161), the sons of Haraldr
 * 15) Saga of Hákon herðibreiðs ("the Broadshouldered") (died 1162)
 * 16) Saga of Magnús Erlingsson (died 1184)

Historical reliability
Up until the mid-19th century, historians put great trust in the factual truth of Snorri's narrative, as well as other old Norse sagas. In the early 20th century, this trust was largely abandoned with the advent of saga criticism, pioneered by the Swedish historians Lauritz and Curt Weibull. These historians pointed out that Snorri's work had been written several centuries after most of the events it describes. In Norway, the historian Edvard Bull famously proclaimed that "we have to give up all illusions that Snorri's mighty epic bears any deeper resemblance to what actually happened" in the time it describes. A school of historians has come to believe that the motives Snorri and the other saga writers give to their characters owe more to conditions in the 13th century than in earlier times.

Heimskringla has, however, continued to be used as a historical source, though with more caution. It is not common to believe in the detailed accuracy of the historical narrative and historians tend to see little to no historical truth behind the first few sagas, however, they are still seen by many as a valuable source of knowledge about the society and politics of medieval Norway. The factual content of the work tends to be deemed more credible where it discusses more recent times, as the distance in time between the events described and the composition of the saga was shorter, allowing traditions to be retained in a largely accurate form, and because in the twelfth century the first contemporary written sources begin to emerge in Norway.

Influence
Whereas prior to Heimskringla there seems to have been a diversity of efforts to write histories of kings, Heimskringla seems thereafter to have been the basis for Icelandic writing about Scandinavian kings, and was expanded by scribes rather than entirely revised. Flateyjarbók, from the end of the fourteenth century, is the most extreme example of expansion, interweaving Heimskringla text with many þættir and other whole sagas, prominently Orkneyinga saga, Færeyinga saga, and Fóstbrœðra saga.

The text is also referenced in Journey to the Center of the Earth by Jules Verne; the work is the one Professor Liedenbrock finds Arne Saknussem's note in.

History of translations
By the mid-16th century, the Old Norse language was unintelligible to Norwegian, Swedish or Danish readers. At that time several translations of extracts were made in Norway into the Danish language, which was the literary language of Norway at the time. The first complete translation was made around 1600 by Peder Claussøn Friis, and printed in 1633. This was based on a manuscript known as Jofraskinna.

Subsequently, the Stockholm manuscript was translated into Swedish and Latin by Johan Peringskiöld (by order of Charles XI) and published in 1697 at Stockholm under the title Heimskringla, which is the first known use of the name. This edition also included the first printing of the text in Old Norse. A new Danish translation with the text in Old Norse and a Latin translation came out in 1777–83 (by order of Frederick VI as crown prince). An English translation by Samuel Laing was finally published in 1844, with a second edition in 1889. Starting in the 1960s English-language revisions of Laing appeared, as well as fresh English translations.

In the 19th century, as Norway was achieving independence after centuries of union with Denmark and Sweden, the stories of the independent Norwegian medieval kingdom won great popularity in Norway. Heimskringla, although written by an Icelander, became an important national symbol for Norway during the period of romantic nationalism. In 1900, the Norwegian parliament, the Storting, subsidized the publication of new translations of Heimskringla into both Norwegian written forms, landsmål and riksmål, "in order that the work may achieve wide distribution at a low price".

Editions

 * Google Books vols 1–2, Google Books vol. 3

Translations
The most recent English translation of Heimskringla is by Alison Finlay and Anthony Faulkes and is available open-access.

 * HTML (repr. Everyman's Library, 717, 722, 847).
 * vol 1 (1st edn); vol 1 (2nd edn); vol 2; vol. 3.
 * vol 1 (1st edn); vol 1 (2nd edn); vol 2; vol. 3.
 * vol 1 (1st edn); vol 1 (2nd edn); vol 2; vol. 3.
 * vol 1 (1st edn); vol 1 (2nd edn); vol 2; vol. 3.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Heimskringla


text:
Hamar

Hamar is a town in Hamar Municipality in Innlandet county, Norway. Hamar is the administrative centre of Hamar Municipality. It is located in the traditional region of Hedmarken. The town is located on the shores of Mjøsa, Norway's largest lake. Historically, it was the principal city of the former Hedmark county, now part of the larger Innlandet county.

The town of Hamar lies in the southwestern part of the municipality, and the urban area of the town actually extends over the municipal borders into both Ringsaker and Stange municipalities. The 13.95 km2 town has a population (2021) of 28,535 and a population density of 2045 PD/km2. About 1.5 km2 and 2,109 residents within the town are actually located in Ringsaker Municipality and another 0.29 km2 and 305 residents of the town are located within Stange Municipality.

Name
The municipality (originally the town) is named after the old Hamar farm (Hamarr). The medieval market was first built on this farm and that market eventually became a kjøpstad which in turn became a self-governing municipality. The name is identical with the word hamarr which means "rocky hill".

Coat of arms
The coat of arms were granted on 2 June 1896. The arms show a Black Grouse sitting in the top of a pine tree on a white background. An older version of the arms had been used for a long time. The old version was first described in the anonymous Hamar Chronicle, written in 1553.

History

Between 500 and 1000 AD, the Åker farm was one of the most important power centres in Norway, located just a few kilometres away from today's town of Hamar. Three coins found in Ringerike in 1895 have been dated to the time of Harald Hardråde and are inscribed Olafr a Hamri.

Middle Ages
At some point, presumably after 1030 but clearly before 1152, the centre was moved from Åker to the peninsula near Rosenlundvika (today Domkirkeodden) in what is now the town of Hamar. There are some indications Harald Hardråde initiated this move because he had property at the new site.

Much of the information about medieval Hamar is derived from the Hamar Chronicle, dated to about 1550. The town is said to have reached its apex in the early 14th century, dominated by the Hamar Cathedral, the bishop's manor, and a fortress, plus the surrounding urbanization. The town was known for its fragrant apple orchards, but there were also merchants, craftsmen, and fishermen in the town.

After the Christianization of Norway in 1030, Hamar began to gain influence as a centre for trade and religion. In 1152, the episcopal representative Nikolaus Breakspear founded Hamar Kaupangen as one of five dioceses in medieval Norway. This diocese included all of Hedemarkens Amt and Christians Amt, which were both separated from the Diocese of Oslo in 1152. The first bishop of Hamar was Arnold, Bishop of Gardar, Greenland (1124–1152). He began to build the (now ruined) Cathedral of Christ Church, which was completed about the time of Bishop Paul (1232–1252). Bishop Thorfinn (1278–1282) was exiled and died at Ter Doest abbey in Flanders, and was later canonised. Bishop Jörund (1285–1286) was transferred to Trondheim. A provincial council was held in 1380. Hamar remained an important religious and political centre in Norway, organized around the cathedral and the bishop's manor until the Reformation that took place in 1536–1537. At this time, Hamar lost its status as the seat of the Diocese after the last Catholic bishop, Mogens Lauritssøn (1513–1537), was taken prisoner in his castle at Hamar by Truid Ulfstand, a Danish noble, and then sent to Antvorskov in Denmark, where he was mildly treated until his death in 1542. At Hamar's peak, there was a Cathedral chapter with ten canons, a school, a Dominican Priory of St. Olaf, and a monastery of the Canons Regular of St. Anthony of Vienne.

Hamar, like most of Norway, was severely diminished by the Black Plague in 1349, and by all accounts continued this decline until the Reformation, after which it disappeared.

The Reformation in Norway took less than ten years to complete, from 1526 to 1536. During this time, the fortress in Hamar was made into the residence of the sheriff and renamed Hamarhus fortress. The cathedral was still used as a regular church, but it fell into disrepair culminating with the Swedish army's siege and attempted demolition in 1567, during the Northern Seven Years' War. The old bishop's manor was also devastated during this siege.

Reformation and decline
By 1587, merchants in Christiania had succeeded in moving all of Hamar's market activities to Oslo. Though some regional and seasonal trade persisted into the 17th century, Hamar as a town ceased to exist by then. In its place, the area was used for agriculture under the Storhamar farm, though the ruins of the cathedral, fortress, and lesser buildings became landmarks for centuries since then.

The King made Hamarhus a feudal seat until 1649, when Frederick III transferred the property known as Hammer to Hannibal Sehested, making it private property. In 1716, the estate was sold to Jens Grønbech (1666–1734). With this, a series of construction projects started, and the farm became known as Storhamar, passing through several owners until Norwegian nobility was abolished in 1831, when Erik Anker took over the farm.

The founding of modern Hamar

As early as 1755, the Danish government in Copenhagen expressed an interest in establishing a trading center on the shores of the lake Mjøsa. Elverum was considered a frontier town with frequent unrest, and there was even talk of encouraging the dissenting Hans Nielsen Hauge to settle in the area. Bishop Fredrik Julius Bech, one of the most prominent officials of his time, proposed establishing a town at or near Storhamar, at the foot of Furuberget.

In 1812, negotiations started in earnest, when the regional governor of Christians Amt, proposed establishing a market on Mjøsa. A four-person commission was named on 26 July 1814, with the mandate of determining a suitable site for a new town along the shore. On 8 June 1815, the commission recommended establishing such a town at Lillehammer, then also a farm, part of the prestegjeld of Fåberg.

Acting on objections to this recommendation, the department of the interior asked two professors, Ludvig Stoud Platou and Gregers Fougner Lundh, to survey the area and develop an alternative recommendation. It appears that Lundh in particular put great effort into this assignment, and in 1824 he presented to the Storting a lengthy report, that included maps and plans for the new town.

Lundh's premise was that the national economic interest reigned supreme, so he based his recommendation on the proposed town's ability to quickly achieve self-sustaining growth. He proposed that the name of the new town be called Carlshammer and proposed it be built along the shore just north of Storhamar and eastward. His plans were detailed, calling for streets that were 20 m wide, rectangular blocks with 12 buildings in each, 2 m separating each of them. He also proposed tax relief for 20 years for the town's first residents, that the state relinquish property taxes in favor of the town, and that the town be given monopoly rights to certain trade. He even proposed that certain types of foreigners be allowed to settle in the town to promote trade, in particular, the Quakers.

His recommendation was accepted in principle by the government, but the parliamentary committee equivocated on the location. It left the determination of the actual site to the king so as to not slow down things further. Another commission was named in June 1825, consisting of Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg, professor Lundh, and other prominent Norwegians. After surveying the entire lake, it submitted another report that considered eleven different locations, including sites near today's Eidsvoll, Minnesund, Tangen in Stange, Åker, Storhamar, Brumunddal, Nes, Moelven, Lillehammer, Gjøvik, and Toten. Each was presented with pros and cons. The commission itself was split between Lillehammer and Storhamar. The parliament finally decided on Lillehammer, relegating Hamar once more, it seemed, to be a sleepy agricultural area.

As steamboats were introduced on the lake, the urban elite developed an interest in the medieval Hamar, and in 1841, editorials appeared advocating the re-establishment of a town at Storhamar. By then, the limitations of Lillehammer's location had also become apparent, in particular those of its shallow harbor. After a few more years of discussions and negotiations both regionally and nationally, member of parliament Frederik Stang put on the table once more the possibility of a town in or near Storhamar. The governor at the time, Frederik Hartvig Johan Heidmann, presented a thorough deliberation of possible specific locations, and ended up proposing the current site, at Gammelhusbukten.

On 26 April 1848, the king signed into law the establishment of Hamar as a kjøpstad on the grounds of the farms of Storhamar and Holset, along the shores of the lake Mjøsa. The law stated that the town will be founded on the date its borders are settled, which turned out to be 21 March 1849. Hamar was given a trading zone up to 5 km from its border. The new town was taken out of the municipality of Vang and created established as Hamar Municipality under the formannskapsdistrikt law that was passed in 1838.

Building a city
The area of the new town and municipality covered an area measuring "400 mål" which is the equivalent to today's 40 ha. An army engineer, Røyem, drafted the initial plan. There would be three thoroughfares, at Strandgata, Torggata, and Grønnegate (the latter the name of a medieval road) and a grid system of streets between them. The orientation of the town was toward the shore. Røyem set aside space for three parks and a public square, and also room for a church just outside the town border.

There were critics of the plan, pointing out that the terrain was hilly and not suitable for the proposed rigid grid. Some adjustments were made, but the plan was largely accepted and is evident in today's Hamar. There were also lingering concerns about the town's vulnerability to flooding.

Construction began as soon as the law passed, in the spring of 1849. The first buildings were much like sheds, but there was great enthusiasm, and by the end of 1849, ten buildings were insured in the new town. None of these are standing today; the last two were adjacent buildings on Skappelsgate. By 1850, there were 31 insured houses, in 1852 there were 42; and in 1853, 56. Building slowed down for a few years and then picked up again in 1858, and by the end of 1860 there were a hundred insured houses in the town. The shore side properties were obliged to grow gardens, setting the stage for a leafy urban landscape.

Roads quickly became a challenge – in some places, it was necessary to ford creeks in the middle of town. The road inspector found himself under considerable stress, and it took until 1869 to settle on street names. Highways in and out of the city also caused considerable debate, especially regarding how to finance them.

The first passenger terminal in Hamar was in fact a crag in the lake, from which travelers were rowed into the city. In 1850, another pier was built with a two-storey terminal building. All this was complicated by the significant seasonal variations in water levels. In 1857 a canal was built around a basin that would allow freight ships to access a large warehouse. Although the canal and basin still were not deep enough to accommodate passenger steamships, the area became one of the busiest areas in the town and the point around which the harbor was further developed.

The Diocese of Hamar was established in 1864, and the Hamar Cathedral was consecrated in 1866 and remains a central point in the city.

A promenade came into being from the harbor area, past the gardens on the shore, and north toward the site of the old town.

Establishment of government
The first executive of Hamar was Johannes Bay, who arrived in October 1849 to facilitate an election of a board of supervisors and representatives. The town's royal charter called for the election of three supervisors and nine representatives. Elections were announced in the paper and through the town crier. Of the ten eligible town citizens, three supervisors were elected, and the remaining six were elected by consent to be representatives, resulting in a shortfall of three on the board. The first mayor of Hamar was Christian Borchgrevink.

The first order of business was the allocation of liquor licenses and the upper limit of alcohol that could be sold within the town limits. The board quickly decided to award licenses to both applicants and set the upper limit to 12,000 "pots" of liquor, an amount that was for all intents and purposes limitless.

The electorate increased in 1849 to 26, including merchants and various craftsmen, and the empty representative posts were filled in November. In 1850, the board allowed for unlimited exercise of any craft for which no citizenship had been taken out, which led to much unregulated craftsmanship. Part-time policemen were hired, and the town started setting taxes and a budget by the end of 1849. In 1850, a new election was held for the town board.

The painter Jakobsen had early on offered the use of his home for public meetings and assembly, and upon buying a set of solid locks, his basement also became the town prison. One merchant was designated as the town's firefighter and was given two buckets with equipment, and later a simple hose. By 1852 a full-time fire chief was named. There was also some controversy around the watchman who loudly reported the time to all the town's inhabitants every half-hour, every night. Hamar also had a scrupulously enforced ordinance against smoking (pipe) without a lid in public or private.

In Hamar's early days, the entire population consisted of young entrepreneurs, and little was needed in the way of social services. After a few years, a small number of indigent people needed support, and a poorhouse was erected.

On 1 January 1878, the town/municipality of Hamar was enlarged by annexing about 800 daa of land and 138 people from the neighboring municipality of Vang to Hamar.

Fires, floods and other disasters
In 1860, concerns about flooding were vindicated when a late and sudden spring caused the lake to flood, peaking around 24 June, when the street-level floor of the front properties was completely inundated. This was the worst flood recorded since 1789. By 9 July, the flooding had receded. In August, massive rainfall led to flash flooding in the area, putting several streets under water. This was immediately followed by unseasonably cold weather, freezing the potato crops and inconveniencing Hamar's residents. Then mild weather set in, and melted all the ice and accumulated snow, which lead to another round of flooding. By the time a particularly cold and snow-filled winter set in, there was mostly relief about getting some stability.

In 1876, the town was scandalized by the apprehension of one Kristoffer Svartbækken, arrested for the cold-blooded murder of 19-year-old Even Nilsen Dæhlin. Svartbækken was convicted for the murder and executed the following year in the neighboring rural community of Løten, with an audience of 3,000 locals, presumably the majority of Hamar's population at the time.

In 1878, as the firefighting capabilities of the young town were upgraded, a fire broke out in a bakery. The fire was put out without doing too much damage. In February 1879 at 2:00 in the morning another fire broke out after festivities, burning down an entire building that housed many historical items from the town. This was followed by a series of fires that left entire blocks in ashes. The fires kept happening until 1881, when a professional fire corps was hired.

In 1889, there were riots in Hamar over the arrest of one of their own constables, one sergeant Huse, who had been insubordinate while on a military drill at the cavalry camp at Gardermoen. In an act of poor judgment, Huse's superior sent him to Hamar's prison in place of military stockades. Partly led and partly tolerated by other constables, the town's population engaged in demonstrations, marches, and other unlawful but non-violent acts that were effectively ended when a company of soldiers arrived from the camp at Terningmoen near Elverum.

Composer Fredrikke Waaler founded and directed the first orchestra in Hamar in 1893. She also directed a choir and wrote a song for the city.

Modern era
In 1946, a large area in Vang that surrounded the town of Hamar (population: 4,087) was transferred out of Vang and merged into Hamar. The following year, a part of the municipality of Furnes (population: 821) was also merged into Hamar. On 1 January 1965, a part of Ringsaker with a population of about 100 people was transferred to Hamar.

In 1975, Storhamar Church was built to serve Hamar's growing population.

On 1 January 1992, the municipality of Vang (population: 9,103) was merged with the town of Hamar (population: 16,351) and parts of the Stensby, Hanstad, Viker, and Stammerud areas of Ringsaker (population: 224) to form a new, larger Hamar Municipality.

Cityscape
The Hedmark museum, located on Domkirkeodden, is an important historical landmark in Hamar, an outdoor museum with remains of the medieval church, in a protective glass housing, the episcopal fortress and a collection of old farm houses. The institution is a combined medieval, ethnological and archaeological museum, and has received architectural prizes for its approach to conservation and exhibition. It also houses a vast photographic archive for the Hedmark region.

Additionally, Hamar is known for its indoor long track speed skating and bandy arena, the Olympia Hall, better known as Vikingskipet ("The Viking ship") for its shape. It was built to host the speed skating competitions of the 1994 Winter Olympics that were held in nearby Lillehammer. Already in 1993 it hosted the Bandy World Championship. The Vikingskipet Olympic Arena was later used in the winter of 2007 as the service park for Rally Norway, the second round of the 2007 World Rally Championship season. It has been the host for the world's second largest computer party The Gathering starting on the Wednesday in Easter each year, for the last 13 years.

Also situated in Hamar is the Hamar Olympic Amphitheatre which hosted the figure skating and short track speed skating events of the 1994 Winter Olympics. The figure skating competition was highly anticipated. It featured Nancy Kerrigan and Tonya Harding, who drew most of the media attention, however the gold medal was won by Oksana Baiul of Ukraine.

The centre of Hamar is the pedestrian walkway in the middle of town, with the library, cinema and farmer's market on Stortorget (the big square) on the western side, and Østre Torg (the eastern square), which sits on top of an underground multi-story carpark, on the eastern side.

Transport
Hamar is an important railway junction between two different lines from Oslo to Trondheim. Rørosbanen, the old railway line, branches off from the mainline Dovre Line. The Norwegian Railway Museum (Norsk Jernbanemuseum) is also in Hamar. Hamar Airport, Stafsberg caters to general aviation.

Climate
Hamar has a humid continental climate (Dfb) with fairly dry and cold winters, and comfortably warm summers. The Hamar II weather station, at an elevation of 141 m, started recording in 1968. The all-time high 33 C was recorded in July 2018, which was the warmest month on record with average daily high 28.8 C and mean 21.6 C. The all-time low -29.8 C is from in December 2010, which was a very cold month with mean -14 C and average daily low -18.2 C. A previous weather station (Hamar I, at an elevation of 139 m) recorded the coldest month on record with mean -17.2 C in January 1917. In August 1975, the weather station "Staur Forsøksgård" in nearby Stange recorded 35 C.

Public Service

 * Claus Bendeke (1763–1828) a jurist and rep. at the Norwegian Constitutional Assembly
 * Hans Jevne (1849–1927) a grocer and civic leader in early Los Angeles
 * Gustav Heiberg (1856–1935) a barrister and mayor of Hamar in 1910's
 * Olav Johan Sopp (1860–1931) a Norwegian mycologist
 * Martin Rønne (1861–1932) a Norwegian sail maker and polar explorer
 * Katti Anker Møller (1868–1945) feminist, children's rights and civil rights activist
 * Carl Schiøtz (1877–1938) a physician and professor of hygiene and bacteriology
 * Einar Grill Fasting (1883–1958) Nazi, co-founded Hamar branch of Nasjonal Samling
 * WFK Christie (1885–1956) jurist in Hamar, co-founded Hamar branch of Nasjonal Samling
 * Thorolf Vogt (1888–1958) a geologist, professor and Arctic explorer
 * Kristian Bakken (1888–1954) labourer and politician, mayor of Hamar in the 1930s
 * Rikka Deinboll (1897–1973) librarian and translator
 * Kristian Birger Gundersen (1907–1977) politician, mayor of Hamar in the 1960s and 70s
 * Ingrid Semmingsen (1910–1995) the first female professor of history in Norway
 * Rut Brandt (1920–2006) writer, second wife of Willy Brandt
 * Haakon Melhuus (born 1947) a meteorologist and weather presenter
 * Einar Busterud (born 1953) politician, mayor of Hamar since 2015
 * Trygve Slagsvold Vedum (born 1978) a Norwegian politician, party leader and govt. minister
 * Anette Trettebergstuen (born 1981) openly lesbian politician

The Arts

 * Hulda Garborg (1862–1934) novelist, playwright, poet and folk dancer
 * Ulrikke Greve (1868–1951) a leading textile artist, excelling in tapestry work
 * Kirsten Flagstad (1895–1962) opera singer and highly regarded Wagnerian soprano
 * Rolf Jacobsen (1907–1994) author, poet and modernist writer
 * Øivind Bergh (1909-1987) Norwegian violinist and orchestral leader
 * Jens Book-Jenssen (1910–1999) a singer, songwriter, revue artist and theatre director
 * Sigurd Evensmo (1912–1978) a Norwegian author and journalist
 * Gerd Thoreid (1924–2020), stand-up comedian and singer
 * Kjell Heggelund (1932–2017) a literary researcher, lecturer, editor, poet and literary critic
 * Knut Faldbakken (born 1941) a Norwegian novelist and writer
 * Torill Kove (born 1958) a Canadian film director and award-winning animator
 * Ole Edvard Antonsen (born 1962) a Norwegian trumpeter, musician and conductor
 * Merete Morken Andersen (born 1965) a novelist, children's writer and magazine editor
 * Ole Børud (born 1976) singer, songwriter, and instrumentalist
 * Anders Baasmo Christiansen (born 1976) actor
 * Ryan Wiik (born 1981) an actor and entrepreneur, resides in Los Angeles
 * Mari Chauhan (born 1988) a beauty pageant titleholder, Miss Norway 2013
 * Elise Dalby (born 1995) a model and beauty pageant titleholder, Miss Norway 2014

Sport

 * Olaf Johannessen (1890–1977) sports shooter, competed at the 1924 Summer Olympics
 * Sverre Sørsdal (1900–1996) boxer, silver and bronze medallist at the 1920 & 1924 Summer Olympics
 * Egil Danielsen (1933-2019) Javelin thrower, gold medalist, at the 1956 Summer Olympics
 * Ivar Eriksen (born 1942) former speed skater, team silver medallist at the 1968 Winter Olympics
 * Terje Kojedal (born 1957) former footballer with 230 club caps and 66 for Norway
 * Erik Kristiansen (born 1963) former ice hockey player
 * Jon Inge Kjørum (born 1965) a former ski jumper, bronze medallist at the 1988 Winter Olympics
 * Vegard Skogheim (born 1966) former footballer with over 400 club caps and 13 for Norway
 * Kamilla Gamme (born 1969) diver
 * Ann Cathrin Lübbe (born 1971) a Norwegian Paralympic equestrian
 * Irene Dalby (born 1971) former top swimmer and three-time Olympian
 * Jan Frode Andersen (born 1972) tennis player
 * Audun Grønvold (born 1976) freestyle skier, bronze medallist at the 2010 Winter Olympics
 * Thorstein Helstad (born 1977) footballer with 448 club caps and 38 for Norway
 * Kristin Bekkevold (born 1977) footballer, team gold medallist at the 2000 Summer Olympics
 * Atle Gulbrandsen (born 1979), racing driver
 * Even Wetten (born 1982) former speed skater
 * Patrick Thoresen (born 1983) professional ice hockey player
 * Petter Vaagan Moen (born 1984) footballer with 376 club caps and 9 for Norway
 * Marius Holtet (born 1984) a retired Norwegian professional ice hockey forward
 * Marcus Pedersen (born 1990) footballer with over 250 club caps and 9 for Norway

Team sports
Hamar boasts several teams at the Norwegian top level in various sports:
 * Hamarkameratene (Ham-Kam) is a football club that plays in the Eliteserien, the top tier of Norwegian football.
 * Storhamar Ishockey is an ice hockey team which is currently playing in the Norwegian GET-ligaen. The club has won the title a total of seven times, most recently during the 2017–18 season.
 * Storhamar HE is a handball team that plays in Eliteserien.
 * Fart IL is a women's football team currently playing its first season in the top league.
 * Hamar Idrettslag has played in the highest bandy division recently, but this season, 2009–2010, they play in the 2nd.

Individual sports
Hamar is known for its speed skating history, both for its skaters and the championships that have been hosted by the city, already in 1894 Hamar hosted its first European championship, and the first World Championship the following year. After the Vikingskipet was built, Hamar has hosted international championships on a regular basis.

The most notable skaters from Hamar are Dag Fornæss and Even Wetten, both former World champions, allround and 1000m respectively. Amund Sjøbrend, Ådne Søndrål and Eskil Ervik have all been members of the local club Hamar IL, although they were not born in Hamar.

In Hamar on 17 July 1993, Scottish cyclist Graeme Obree set a world record for longest distance covered in an hour. His 51,596 metres broke the 51,151 set at altitude nine years earlier. The record lasted only six days, before Chris Boardman beat it in Bordeaux, France.

Motorcycle speedway has had a long association with Hamar, covering three venues. The Norwegian Championship was held at Hamar Idrettsplassen in 1939 and at the Briskebyen Utstillingsplassen in 1954. The Speedway Grand Prix of Norway was held at the Vikingskipet from 2002 to 2004.

Events
Hamar was the venue of three sports during the 1994 Winter Olympics, figure skating, short track and speed skating.

Twin towns – Sister cities
The following cities, both in Scandinavia and around the world, are twinned with Hamar: • 🇮🇸 Dalvík, Iceland

• 🇺🇸 Fargo, North Dakota, United States

• 🇩🇪 Greifswald, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany

• 🇮🇱 Karmiel, Northern District, Israel

• Khan Yunis, Gaza Strip, Palestinian territories

• 🇸🇪 Lund, Skåne County, Sweden

• 🇫🇮 Porvoo, Uusimaa, Finland

• Viborg, Region Midtjylland, Denmark

• 🇺🇸 Hamar, North Dakota, United States

In literature and popular culture
Part of the plot of "The Axe", the first volume of Sigrid Undset's "The Master of Hestviken", is set in the Medieval Hamar. The book's young lovers, denied the right to marry by malicious relatives, come to the town in order to try to get the help of the kindly and compassionate Bishop Thorfinn of Hamar.

Jorma Kaukonen, former guitarist of Jefferson Airplane, celebrated his love of speed-skating in the song Hamar Promenade on his 1974 album Quah.

Norwegian jazz-pop singer/songwriter Silje Nergaard dedicated her album Hamar Railway Station, released in December 2020, to Hamar's railway junction.

title: Hamar


text:
Talk:Hardcore

Untitled
nama erfan {kebangsaan indonesia

tinggal di parteng Gg.kurniaI

Hardcore Cadre
A disambiguation page is not an article, nor is it a dictionary page. It is a page for disambiguating Wikipedia articles. If there's no article for the term, and no article to link to that discusses the term, then it doesn't belong on the dab page. If you think the subject deserves its own article, then start it on its own page. But in this case, it still wouldn't belong on this dab page, because it is not something known as (or that might be known as) simply hardcore. -- Shelf Skewed  Talk  17:07, 8 February 2008 (UTC)

 * The section was modified to be a general application of the term Hardcore, but in any event, it's a dictionary definition, which is what we do not include per WP:DAB (here). --Cheeser1 (talk) 17:13, 8 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Should we add a brief dict def intro line? Some thing like "Hardcore refers to anything intense or explicit. The term is also used to describe a person or group strongly committed to an ideology, cause, or activity." -- Shelf Skewed  Talk  17:39, 8 February 2008 (UTC)

 * That does not appear to be the accepted practice. Refer to this and other relevant parts of the MoS. --Cheeser1 (talk) 17:41, 8 February 2008 (UTC)
 * The fact that the EU uses the term to refer to a core group of countries is not a dictionary definition and is encyclopedic and sourced. There are countless precedents of including such information. -- neon white user page talk 17:50, 8 February 2008 (UTC)
 * I repeat: Dab pages are are not articles. Citations and external links in general are not used on dab pages. And further, the European Union article nowhere mentions the term Hardcore, so linking to is not helpful. You say there are precedents for this kind of entry--well, yes, there are many incorrect disambiguation pages out there, and I'm sure you could find a precedent for anything. But it's still wrong.-- Shelf Skewed  Talk  17:58, 8 February 2008 (UTC)
 * And NW, please watch the 3RR. --Cheeser1 (talk) 18:01, 8 February 2008 (UTC)
 * You are incorrect, all main pages on wikipedia are articles and references are frequently used on many of these pages, they are articles like any other and need sourcing. The EU site clearly mentions the term. It is a possible use of the word 'hardcore', it is not a dictionary definition and there is no reason why it should not be included in this page. It is plainly a ridiculous POV to suggest that the term is only used in music, pornography and wrestling and ignore everything else. Your edits do not improve the encyclopedia, as ever edit should, but delete valuable information. WP:3RR does not apply to different edits. Please provide a proper reason why this use of the term should not be include or it will be considered a disruptive edit. -- neon white user page talk 21:52, 8 February 2008 (UTC)

The first line of the Manual of Style for disambiguation pages: "Disambiguation pages ("dab pages") are, like redirects, non-article pages in the article namespace." From the guidelines for individual entries: "Never include external links, either as entries or in descriptions. Disambiguation pages disambiguate Wikipedia articles, not the World-Wide Web. To note URLs that might be helpful in the future, include them as comments or on a talk page." Because dab pages disambiguate only Wikipedia articles, they don't require citations: The sourcing should be done in the article. As far as I can tell, the term "hardcore" does not appear in the article European Union, so that usage should not be on the dab page. And, to repeat Cheeser1's point, even if it were used in the article, the meaning is merely an extension of the dictionary definition. And to repeat my own point, the term Hardcore Cadre wouldn't belong here because it's not ambiguous--that is, it is not something known as just hardcore and likely to be confused with other uses of the word. -- Shelf Skewed  Talk  22:36, 8 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Exactly. I could be a "hardcore gamer." Or I could be a "hardcore conservative." It's just the dictionary use of the term "hardcore." --Cheeser1 (talk) 22:59, 8 February 2008 (UTC)
 * That is utterly incorrect, this is a term that refers to a well documented economic proposal concering the countries in the EU, it is in no way a dictionary defintion you will not find it in any dictionary. Everything on the page is an extension of the dictionary definition so that is a ludicrous point. MOS:DAB is merely a guideline it is not set in stone and in practice it is not generally followed in common practice. The sources clearly states "Hard core" refers to a limited group of countries able and willing to develop 'closer cooperation'. The European Union has many articles and branches and if it doesnt appear in one then it will soon. I'm not arguing for the inclusion of the term Hardcore Cadre, (i removed it) but the wide political usage of the term clearly belongs here. -- neon white user page talk 03:56, 9 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Now we're getting somewhere. If the particular political meaning of hardcore is a legitimate, noteworthy use of the term, then it should be treated in a separate article--Hardcore (politics), or something like--or, alternatively, added to an existing relevant article. Then it could have an entry on the dab page. But placing an entry on the dab page when there is no WP article to link to is not an acceptable substitute for the information being in an actual article. Dab pages disambiguate articles; they are not catchalls for stuff that isn't yet somewhere else. And please don't point out again that there are dab pages that don't adhere to this standard. I've already granted that there are many poorly maintained dab pages, just as there are many poorly maintained articles that, say, lack citations, which would not be valid evidence that I should be allowed to add unsourced material to an article if that material is challenged. -- Shelf Skewed  Talk  06:13, 9 February 2008 (UTC)

 * You're also still missing the fact that you're plucking the term out of a glossary, which is more or less the same as pulling it out of the dictionary. The source is not, as far as I can tell, a third-party source, and appears to be intended to delineate particular terminology constructed specifically for treaties among European nations. WP:NEOLOGISM? WP:DICT? WP:V? Is this a nonce word? I can't find any use of this term elsewhere, although I'd admit is not easy to look. Furthermore, the other terms on this page are not simply dictionary definitions, as you state, or they wouldn't have Wikipedia articles (at least not for long) and they wouldn't be on this disambiguation page. I have no idea where that claim came from, but it's absurd. --Cheeser1 (talk) 15:35, 9 February 2008 (UTC)
 * The eu glossary contains common terms used by the european union, it's not the same as a dictionary, this term is mentioned in many sources
 * it refers paricularly to a proposed ecomonic policy that is frequently referred to as the 'european hard core' since it's initial proposal which i believe was around 1995, much has been written about it so i dont think it can be a neologism, the word isn't being used as an adjective. I'm trying to find if anything is written about it in the various EU articles on wikipedia. I'd be suprised if it wasn't considering it can be well sourced. If it isn't i may consider putting in the time and creating an article from the sources. I did not state they were dictionary definitions, i said they were all extensions of dictionary definitions which they clearly are. In all cases the word hardcore was originally used as an adjective due to it's appropriate dictionary defintion. It wasnt applied randomly or made up. There are many disamb. pages that only have indirect links to related articles, such as products linking to the company that manufactured them. Songs with only a link only to artists or albums. So it doesnt look like common practice to have only entries that have an article. -- neon white user page talk 18:31, 9 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Now you are seeming deliberately obtuse. I never said that the topic must have a separate article. I have repeatedly said that it is acceptable to link to an article in which the topic being disambiguated is named and/or discussed. As for the three adjectival uses already on the page--music, pornography, and wrestling--I would point that in all three cases (particularly the first two--the third is more debatable) the particular topic is, in context, often referred to as simply hardcore--that is, the adjective becomes the name (an adjectival noun). Are there examples of a similar use of hardcore by itself in a political context? -- Shelf Skewed  Talk  19:07, 9 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Please refrain from personal attacks. It is reasonable to imagine someone looking up the term for more info on the political/econmonical usage. -- neon white user page talk 20:24, 9 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Yes, but we don't have any info on this political/economic usage. Which means it doesn't belong on the disambig page. --Cheeser1 (talk) 23:23, 9 February 2008 (UTC)

literature
Sorry if this is a weird question, but are comic books considered "literature"? --Cheeser1 (talk) 19:00, 15 February 2008 (UTC)
 * In its most general sense literature includes all written material, so it makes a good catch-all category for fiction, nonfiction, poetry, drama, comics, graphic novels, and so on when there are only one or two examples of each on a dab page. But since there are no other written works on this particular dab page, the category could be renamed Comics. -- Shelf Skewed  Talk  19:24, 15 February 2008 (UTC)

Hardcore foundation
I have added a reference to hardcore used as a foundation. It was discussed before, which can be found in the archive. "Hardcore" is definitely used on its own in the UK to mean a very coarse gravel or even bits of brick etc. used as a foundation for concrete. It's quite hard to find sources for it but there are some like here: -- Borb (talk) 13:18, 14 May 2009 (UTC)
 * An editor commented out such an entry, stating re precisely that ext lk
 * Commenting out entry not supported by linked article
 * If someone claims it does support the entry, they should quote here the wording that they think does support it (discussions like this, about what is suitable to paraphrase for the article, is the core of what fair use of copyright-protected material is about), and provide a lk to a WP article that treats the topic implied by the use of "hardcore" in foundation contexts. --Jerzy•t 04:38, 26 October 2009 (UTC)

Neophyte (band)
I rem'd
 * * Hardcore, a 1997 album by Neophyte (band)

They love to use the "word" in titles, but no album Hardcore. --Jerzy•t 04:52, 26 October 2009 (UTC)

Hardcore "Music"
Yesterday's "dab cleanup" merged all the various types of hardcore music simply into "hardcore music". I'm not going to revert this without knowing more about what dab cleanup is for, but there is no such thing as "hardcore music"; Wikipedia doesn't even have a page for it. There are three unrelated genres of music that have the word "hardcore" in them: hardcore punk, hardcore techno, hardcore hip hop. (And the page correctly listed these until yesterday.) This is exactly what disambiguation is for: completely unrelated things that share a name. All three should be listed, no? --173.48.248.79 (talk) 16:21, 27 October 2009 (UTC)

Incorrect definition
In reference to this: Hardcore (The opposite of "softcore"), a video game character dies permanently forcing the player to create a new character or restart a game. Also, a measure of difficulty to the extreme and not for casual gamers.

This definition is inappropriate for games as permadeath, when not referred to as permadeath, is referred to as ironman mode. Extreme difficulty is called hard, not hardcore. Hardcore is used by both industry and gamers, but usually in the slang sense of intense when referring to games, or as praise, connoting dedication when referring to gamers. Hardcore should also not be confused with core rules, an infrequent technical term. 69.168.144.136 (talk) 04:54, 28 August 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hardcore


text:
Book of Helaman

The Book of Helaman is one of the books that make up the Book of Mormon, a text held sacred by churches within the Latter Day Saint movement, including the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). The book continues the history of the Nephites and the Lamanites from approximately 50 BC to 1 BC. It discusses political unrest among the Nephites and the formation of a group of secret dissenters called the Gadianton Robbers. Helaman, son of Helaman leads the Nephites for a time, and his sons Nephi and Lehi go on a successful mission to the Lamanites. When Nephi returns home, he correctly identifies the murderer of the chief judge using his prophetic powers, and sends a famine to the Nephite which lasts three years. After a digression from Mormon, the book of Helaman ends with Samuel the Lamanite's prophecy of the signs that will precede Christ's birth and death. Helaman deals with themes of external and internal conflict, hidden information, Nephite racism, and Mormon's views of history as deduced by his redaction of it.

Summary
According to the narrative in the Book of Mormon, the Book of Helaman is set in 50-1 BC. Helaman is named for Alma's grandson, Helaman. The actions of the first three chapters center around him. Helaman's son Nephi is central to the rest of the record. The book of Helaman as a whole is edited and compiled by Mormon, who is the author of chapter 12. Events are related episodically. The miraculous incidents in Helaman 5 describe a significant conversion of many Lamanites to Book of Mormon Christianity.

In the first part of Helaman, a secret society, commonly called a secret combination, spurs political unrest among the Nephites. Pahoran's son, also named Pahoran, wins the election to be the new chief judge. Paanchi and his followers make an oath of secrecy and murder son Pahoran. A few months later, a Lamanite army captures the Nephite capital until the Nephites reclaim it. Helaman, son of Helaman is elected as the new chief judge. The same group who murdered Pahoran tries to murder Helaman, but a spy kills the assassin before he succeeds. The group retreats to the wilderness and they are referred to as a "band of robbers". (Chapters 1-2.)

The second part of Helaman covers a period of Nephite technological growth, war with the Lamanites, and proselyting to the Lamanites. Helaman reigns over the Nephites, who develop shipping, expand northward, and become wealthy and prideful. Helaman dies and his son Nephi becomes chief judge. Disagreements in the land of the Nephites lead to war with the Lamanites, where Moronihah conquers half of their land. After stepping down as chief judge, Nephi goes with his brother Lehi to preach to the Nephites and the Lamanites. Lamanites in Nephites lands imprison them. Angels and a pillar of fire manifest and their presence sparks the conversion of onlookers, who in turn convert the Lamanites, who peaceably leave the Nephite lands they were occupying. The Gadianton robbers return and murder Cezoram, who filled in for Nephi in the judgement seat. Meanwhile, the Lamanites' righteousness increases. (Chapters 3-6.)

In the third part of Helaman, Nephi prophesies about the Nephites and their future. Nephi comes home after his six-year mission to find that the Nephites have become wicked in his absence. He says that the Nephites' destruction is nigh. He prophesies that the chief judge has been murdered by his brother, and this prophecy is confirmed. He prophesies that the brother will deny murdering the chief judge, but that the blood on the skirts of his cloak will give him away. The Nephites are divided. God grants Nephi the power to do "all things" "according to [his] word". Nephi sends a famine into the land for three years, when many people return to their faith and Nephi prays the rain back. The Gadianton robbers become more powerful. (Chapters 7-11.)

In the last part of Helaman, Samuel the Lamanite prophesies that the Nephites will be destroyed in 400 years. He promises that their attempts to secure their future using money will fail. He says that unless the Nephites repent, their women and children will suffer and die. He foretells of the signs and wonders of Jesus' birth and death. The Nephites reject his prophecies.(Chapters 13-16)

War and contention
The short preface to the Book of Helaman is written by Mormon, the editor of the books following Omni according to the Book of Mormon narrative. Mormon describes the book of Helaman as being about "wars and contentions". According to Brant Gardner, author of a six-volume commentary that grew out of his work for the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, the goal of Mormon's compilation is theological, not historical. "Contentions" refers to internal conflicts, while "wars" refers to external ones. Mormon may have chosen to focus on contentions to fulfill Nephi's vision when Nephi sees "wars, and rumors of wars" as well as "wars and contentions in the land". For Gardner, Mormon isn't just trying to fulfill Nephi's vision, but also to show that Christ's coming is a type, and that it was and will be preceded by war and contention.

In Helaman, the Gadianton robbers are mentioned for the first time in the text of the Book of Mormon, a recurring instance of Nephite secret combinations important to the rest of the Book of Mormon narrative. According to Maxwell Institute scholar Kim Matheson, Helaman's contrasts show how the Nephites are constantly noticing the wrong things. Instead of noticing their own spiritual decay, they increase their wealth and military power. Important aspects of the plot are covert, like the secret combinations, assassins, and spiritual alignment with God.

Former dean of religious education at Brigham Young University, Robert J. Matthews, noticed that within the Nephite culture, because the majority of the people chose evil, the government became corrupt, even though it was a form of free government. People in government started to ignore the poor and there was a general disdain of the law. In the Book of Mormon Reference Companion, published by LDS Church publisher Deseret Book, John Tanner also highlights the passage in Helaman about how "they who chose evil were more numerous than they who chose good."

Nephite racism
Helaman ends with Samuel prophesying of Christ and the Nephites rejecting Samuel's prophecy. Samuel does not mention Christ's resurrection, but focuses on the signs of his birth and death. For Grant Hardy, in his The Annotated Book of Mormon, since Samuel is a Lamanite, it is possible that Nephite racism contributed to their rejection of him. For Matheson, Nephite racism causes them to reject Samuel, and their interest in comparing themselves to the Lamanites prevents them from honestly repenting of their misdeeds.

Pride cycle
In Mormon's digression in Helaman 12, he describes the cycle of righteousness and unrighteousness. He reveals his assumption that the righteousness of a people is the most important historical question to consider, relegating factors such as economic growth to their influence on the righteousness of the people. For Tanner, Mormon draws attention to his commentary with the phrase "thus we see," and his "fullest articulation of the cyclical pattern" is found in Helaman 12. Hardy describes this "pride cycle" as one of the main features of Helaman. Prosperous Nephites become prideful and forget God, which leads to their downfall. Humbled, they return to worshipping God and become prosperous again. Hardy draws a parallel to a similar cycle in the Biblical Book of Judges, noting that in Helaman, communal repentance plays a larger role. In the larger narrative of the Book of Mormon, this cycle is broken for 200 years after Jesus visits the land.

Textual variants
In the 1830 edition of the Book of Mormon, Joseph Smith originally gave his scribes an arrangement of five chapters that were larger than the chapters in modern editions of the Book of Mormon.

title: Book of Helaman


text:
Talk:Isaac Asimov

"Believing" ???
One sentence reads as follows:

"When the family arrived in the United States in 1923 and their name had to be spelled in the Latin alphabet, Asimov's father spelled it with an S, believing this letter to be pronounced like Z (as in German), and so it became Asimov."

This is a ridiculous statement, because S is often pronounced like a Z.

Consider the words "is", "as", "was", "does", "words", "trains", "cars", "cans", and many, many others that are not even slightly exceptions to any rule.

So Isaac Asimov's father did not merely "believe" that S is pronounced like a Z in English.

Rather, it very frequently is pronounced like a Z.

(Conversely, there are many cases where a Z is pronounced like an S, like "waltz". In its plural, "waltzes", the Z has an S sound and the S has a Z sound.) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:200:c082:2ea0:9cf0:82c3:f2ea:74c4 (talk) 18:33, 5 December 2023 (UTC)

Misbegotten sentence
"Asimov refused early suggestions of using a more common name as a pseudonym, believing that its recognizability helped his career."

This sentence contains no antecedent for the pronoun "its". — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:200:c082:2ea0:9cf0:82c3:f2ea:74c4 (talk) 18:36, 5 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Nobody is going to be in any doubt about what it is referring to. Richard75 (talk) 21:23, 5 December 2023 (UTC)

Suggested new section: "Controversy"
The following paragraph is hidden in "Writings > Other Writings," and I would strongly recommend that a new "Controversy" section be created to house it. I had to search the word "harass" to find it, so a reader who doesn't already know may not see it, and it's important. The wording of the paragraph itself is already very mild compared to the extent of his behavior, but at least it should be in a more logical category.

"Particularly in his later years, Asimov to some extent cultivated an image of himself as an amiable lecher. In 1971, as a response to the popularity of sexual guidebooks such as The Sensuous Woman (by "J") and The Sensuous Man (by "M"), Asimov published The Sensuous Dirty Old Man under the byline "Dr. 'A'"[181] (although his full name was printed on the paperback edition, first published 1972). However, by 2016, Asimov's habit of groping women was seen as sexual harassment and came under criticism, and was cited as an early example of inappropriate behavior that can occur at science fiction conventions.[182]" 142.115.97.35 (talk) 20:06, 19 February 2024 (UTC)
 * There is a "sexual harassment" section already. Schazjmd   (talk)  20:30, 19 February 2024 (UTC)
 * There is indeed, and it isn't hard to find. Look, there it is in the table of contents. You didn't need to do a word search. Richard75 (talk) 00:10, 20 February 2024 (UTC)

Picture used
Isaac wore big sideburns for most of his adult life. Is there any particular reason to use this atypical image? If not, should we use an image with his common look? Big Money Threepwood (talk) 04:44, 29 February 2024 (UTC)
 * It is probably because it is the only, or best, free image. Check the Commons category here; this is the only other image that is suitable. MarcGarver (talk) 08:45, 29 February 2024 (UTC)
 * I found a stack of cc 4.0 non commercial licensed images of him, I've updated the page with one. Please revert if it isn't up to snuff. I think wikimedia has some sort of clipping capability to improve the image I will look into Big Money Threepwood (talk) 07:22, 1 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Non-Commercial No Derivatives License (CC BY-NC-ND) are not acceptable I'm afraid. Wikimedia projects require commercial and derivative licenses. MarcGarver (talk) 12:53, 1 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Isaac Asimov


text:
Irina Krush

Irina Borisivna Krush (Ірина Борисівна Круш; born December 24, 1983) is an American chess Grandmaster. She is the only woman to earn the GM title while playing for the United States. Krush is an eight-time U.S. Women's Champion and a two-time Women's American Cup Champion.

Early life
Irina Krush was born into a Jewish family in Odesa, USSR (now Ukraine), and emigrated with her parents to Brooklyn in 1989. Her father, a college chess player, taught Irina the game. When she was 6, she won her first tournament, and at the age of 7 she represented the U.S. at the World Youth Championships for girls under 10 in Poland.

Chess career
At age 14, Krush won the 1998 U.S. Women's Chess Championship to become the youngest U.S. women's champion ever. She has won the championship on seven other occasions, in 2007, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2020.

In 1999, Krush took part in the "Kasparov versus the World" chess competition. Garry Kasparov played the white pieces and the Internet public, via a Microsoft host website, voted on moves for the black pieces, guided by the recommendations of Krush and three of her contemporaries, Étienne Bacrot, Elisabeth Pähtz and Florin Felecan. On the tenth move, Krush suggested a, for which the World team voted. Kasparov said later that he lost control of the game at that point, and wasn't sure whether he was winning or losing.

Krush played in the Group C of the 2008 Corus Chess Tournament, a 14-player round-robin tournament held in Wijk aan Zee, the Netherlands. She finished in joint fifth place having scored 7/13 points after five wins (including the one against the eventual winner, Fabiano Caruana), four draws and four losses.

In 2013, she was awarded the Grandmaster title due to her results at the NYC Mayor's Cup International GM Tournament in 2001, Women's World Team Chess Championship 2013 and Baku Open 2013.

In 2022, she won the 2022 American Cup (Women's field) in a double-elimination format. She tied with Jennifer Yu in the 2022 U.S. Women's Chess Championship but lost the playoff.

Team competitions
Krush has played on the U.S. national team in the Women's Chess Olympiad since 1998. The U.S. team won the silver medal in 2004 and bronze in 2008. In 2022 Krush was member of the U.S. women's team at the 44th Chess Olympiad; the team finished as fourth. She also competed as part of the US team in the Women's World Team Chess Championship in 2009 and 2013.

She played for the team Manhattan Applesauce in the U.S. Chess League in 2015; she previously played for the New York Knights (2005–2011, 2013). Krush and her ex-husband, Canadian Grandmaster Pascal Charbonneau, have played in the United Kingdom league for Guildford-ADC.

In May 2020, Krush played for the USA team in the FIDE Online Nations Cup.

Writing
Krush frequently contributes articles to Chess Life magazine and uschess.org. Her article on earning her grandmaster title in 2013 was honored as the "Best of US Chess" that year.

Personal life
Krush attended Edward R. Murrow High School in Brooklyn. She graduated in International Relations from New York University in 2006.

Krush identifies as a "Christian Jew", embracing both her Jewish heritage and Christian faith since her conversion in 2011.

In March 2016, Hillary Clinton was a guest on the Steve Harvey television show. On the show, Krush appeared along with two actresses trying to impersonate Krush. The trio answered questions from host Steve Harvey and Clinton regarding her life and chess career. Clinton successfully identified the real Irina Krush.

In March 2020, she was hospitalized and treated for a "moderate" COVID-19 infection, then released to recover under quarantine at home. While quarantined, she played in the Isolated Queens Swiss, an online women's blitz chess tournament. She scored 7.5/10 in the tournament, putting her in joint second place, a half point behind tournament winner GM Alexandra Kosteniuk.

On January 18, 2023, Krush appeared on a primetime special of The Price Is Right and won the Clock Game, but she failed to advance to the Showcases.

title: Irina Krush


text:
Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques

The Institut des hautes études scientifiques (IHÉS; English: Institute of Advanced Scientific Studies) is a French research institute supporting advanced research in mathematics and theoretical physics (also with a small theoretical biology group). It is located in Bures-sur-Yvette, just south of Paris. It is an independently governed research institute and a founding member of the University of Paris-Saclay.

History
The IHÉS was founded in 1958 by businessman and mathematical physicist Léon Motchane with the help of Robert Oppenheimer and Jean Dieudonné as a research centre in France, modeled on the renowned Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, United States. "IHÉS explicitly draws inspiration from the model of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton (IAS). ... IHÉS adopted its basic characteristics – the intellectual ones – as a high level institute dedicated to basic research – and certain practical ones – such as the tradition of tea being served daily, conducive to exchanges of views. Of equal importance was the relationship between Oppenheimer and Léon Motchane (1900–1990), the founder and first director of IHÉS. As life member of the scientific committee, advisor to the director, frequent visitor and regular correspondent, Oppenheimer played a major role in the crucial early years at IHÉS. ... Oppenheimer and Motchane ... exchanged long letters and short telegrams on all aspects of life at IHÉS. ... Visits by Oppenheimer were cleverly orchestrated by Léon Motchane and reported in the press. Oppenheimer's presence was an event in itself and his coming to lHÉS gave the Institute important official recognition. Oppenheimer was to come to IHÉS three times: from 16 to 19 September 1959, on 17 and 18 October 1961 (in Bures, although the Institute had not moved there yet), and from 14 to 17 May 1963. His last visit, planned for 1965, was cancelled for health reasons."

The strong personality of Alexander Grothendieck and the broad sweep of his revolutionizing theories were a dominating feature of the first ten years at the IHÉS. René Thom received an invitation from IHÉS in 1963 and after his appointment remained there until his death in 2002. Dennis Sullivan is remembered as one who had a special talent for encouraging fruitful exchanges among visitors and provoking a new and deeper insight into their ideas.

The IHÉS runs a highly regarded mathematical journal, Publications Mathématiques de l'IHÉS.

IHÉS celebrated its 40th anniversary in 1998 and its 50th in 2008.

Scientists associated with the IHES
Alain Connes (Fields Medal 1982), has been holding the Léon Motchane Chair since 1979. Several CNRS researchers are also based at the IHES: Ahmed Abbes, Cédric Deffayet, Ofer Gabber, Fanny Kassel, and Christophe Soulé.