text:
Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/E - H

symbols - B -- C - D -- E - H -- I - K -- L - N -- O - Q -- R - S -- T - W -- X - Z -- FOLDOC Status Page

E NO IMPORT - Duplicate info. E1 NO IMPORT - Esoteric E2 NO IMPORT - Esoteric E3 NO IMPORT - Esoteric E4 NO IMPORT - Esoteric E5 NO IMPORT - Esoteric EAF NO IMPORT - Esoteric EAG DONE eager evaluation Eagle NO IMPORT - Esoteric EAI NO IMPORT - Duplicate info. EAPROM NO IMPORT - Insignificant info. earliest deadline first DONE Early PL/I DONE EARN EAROM NO IMPORT - Duplicate info. earthquake NO IMPORT - Jargon Ease NO IMPORT - Duplicate info. EASE II NO IMPORT - Esoteric EASIAC NO IMPORT - Esoteric EAST NO IMPORT - Esoteric easter egg Easter egging Eastern Washington University EASY FOX NO IMPORT - Esoteric eat flaming death EBASIC EBCDIC EBCIDIC EBNF Ebone ec EC++ ECAP II E-carrier system Ecash ECC Eccles-Jordan circuit Echidna echo echo cancellation ECHT ECIP2 ECIS Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation ECL ECLIPSE ECM ECMA e-commerce Econet ECOOP ECP ECRC ECRC-Prolog ECSL ECSP ECSS II ECSSL ed EDA e-ddress Eden EDF EDI EDIF EDIFACT Edinburgh Multi Access System Edinburgh Prolog Edinburgh SML Edison EDL EDM EdML EDMS EDO DRAM EDO memory EDO RAM EDP EDRAM e-dress EDS+ edu edutainment Edward Lorenz Edward Yourdon ee EEMA EEPROM EER E. F. Codd EFF effective computable effective number of bits Effort Adjustment Factor EFL EFNet Eforth E-Forth EFT EFTS eg EGA egosurfing EGP egrep Eh eh EHTS EIA EIA-232 EIDE Eiffel Eiffel source checker eigenvalue eigenvector eight-bit clean eight queens problem eight queens puzzle eighty-column mind EISA -- DONE (redirected to Extended Industry Standard Architecture) EJB EL1 el(alpha) Elan El Camino Bignum elder days Electing a Pope Electrically Alterable Programmable Read-Only Memory Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory Electromagnetic Compatibility electromigration electron electronic commerce Electronic Commerce Dictionary electronic data interchange Electronic Data Processing Electronic Design Automation Electronic Frontier Foundation electronic funds transfer electronic funds transfer system electronic magazine electronic mail electronic mail address electronic meeting Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer Electronic Performance Support System Electronics Industry Association electronic whiteboarding electron model electron tube Electrostatic Discharge elegant element elephant elephantine elevator controller ELF ELI Eli Compiler Construction System ELISP elite ELIZA DONE ELIZA effect DONE Elk ELLA Ellemtel Ellie ELLIS elm ELMAGUIDE ELMAMETA ELP ELSIE Elvis elvish EM EM-1 EMA Emacs Emacs Lisp e-mail e-mail address EMAS Embedded Lisp Interpreter Embedded Mode embedded system embedding EMBLA Pro embosser EMC EMD Enterprises, Inc. EMDIR Emerald Emitter Coupled Logic EML EMM EMM386 emote emoticon empeg empire empty element tag EMS emTeX EMU8000 emulation emulator Emulator program EMX enabling Encapsulated PostScript encapsulation encode encoder encryption -endian endless loop End Of Line End of Medium End Of Text End Of Transmission end tag End Transmission Block end-user Engelbart, Douglas engine English programming language Enhanced Capabilities Port Enhanced Dynamic Random Access Memory Enhanced Graphics Adapter Enhanced IDE Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics enhanced parallel port Enhanced Small Disk Interface enhancement ENIAC Enigma ENOB ENQ Ente Nazionale Italiano di Unificazione enterprise Enterprise Application Integration Enterprise JavaBeans Enterprise Resource Planning Enterprise Systems CONnectivity EntireX entity-relationship diagram entity-relationship model entropy Entry Sequenced Data Set enumerated type enumeration environment environment variable Envoy EOF DONE EOL EOT EOU EOUG EP EPCS EPILOG EPIM EPL epoch EPP EPROM EPROM OTP EPROS EPS EPSILON epsilon epsilon squared EPSIMONE EPSS EqL EQLOG EQLog Eqn equals equational logic Equel equivalence class equivalence class partitioning equivalence relation ER er ERA DONE (Engineering Research Associates) era Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory erase ERC ERCIM ERD EREW PRAM ERFPI ergonomic ergonomics ERGO-Shell Eric Conspiracy Eric S. Raymond Eris Erlang erotica ERP error error-based testing error correcting memory error detection and correction es ES-1 ESA ESC ESCAPE escape escape sequence ESCD ESCON escrow ESD ESDI ESF ESI esim ESL ESLPDPRO ESML ESMTP ESP ESPOL ESPRIT ESR essential complexity Estelle Esterel EstPC ET et ET++ eta abstraction eta conversion eta expansion eta reduction ETB ETC e-text ETHER EtherGate Ethernet DONE Ethernet address Ethernet meltdown EtherTalk ethics ETM ETRN ETSI ETX Euclid Euclidean Algorithm Euclid's Algorithm Eudora EULA EULER EuLisp EUnet Ltd. Euphoria Eureka Eureka step Eurisko Eurocard Euro-ISDN EuroNet EuropaNET European Academic and Research Network European Computer-Industry Research Centre GmbH European Strategic Programme for Research in Information Technology European Telecommunications Standards Institute EUUG EV6 Eva EVALUATE evaluation evaluation strategy evaluator EVE event event-driven EVGA evil evil and rude evolutionary algorithm evolutionary computation evolutionary programming evolution strategy EWOS exa- Exabyte exabyte examining the entrails EXAPT Exceed Excel Excelan Excelerator exception exception handler EXCH Exchange Server excl exclamation mark EXE EXEC exec EXEC 2 EXEC 8 executable executable content execute execution executive Executive Systems Programming Oriented Language exercise, left as an exhaustive testing existential quantifier EXODUS eXodus EXOS expanded memory expanded memory manager expanded memory page frame Expanded Memory Specification expansion card expansion slot expect eXperimental LISP Experimental Physics Control Systems Experimental Programming Language Expert Judgement Models expert system Expert Systems Ltd. explicit parallelism explicit type conversion exploit Exploratory Data Analysis exponent exponential exponential-time exponential-time algorithm Express expression expression tree extend extended addressing Extended Affix Grammar DONE Extended ALGOL Extended Architecture Extended Backus-Naur Form Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code Extended BNF Extended C++ Extended Capabilities Port Extended Concurrent Prolog Extended Data Out Dynamic Random Access Memory Extended Data Out Random Access Memory Extended Fortran Language eXtended Graphics Array Extended Industry-Standard Architecture extended memory extended memory manager Extended Memory Specification Extended ML Extended Pascal Extended Self-containing Prolog Extended System Configuration Data Extended Tiny Extended Video Graphics Array eXtended Video Graphics Array extensible extensible database Extensible Markup Language Extensible Shell Extensible Stylesheet Language Extensible VAX Editor extension extensional extensional equality extensionality Extension Language Kit Exterior Gateway Protocol eXternal Data Representation external memory EXTRA extranet EXUG eyeball search DONE EZ ezd e-zine f2c F2F F68K FAC face time face-to-face Facile facsimile FACT fact factor FAD failover failure failure-directed testing FAIR Fairchild F8 fall back fall forward fall over fall through fall thru FALSE fandango on core FAP FAQ FAQL FAQ list faradise farkled farm farming FARNET fas FASBOL fascist FASE FAST Fast ATA Fast ATA-2 Fast Ethernet Fast Fourier Transform Fast Packet Fast Page Mode Dynamic Random Access Memory Fast SCSI FAT FAT32 fatal fatal error fatal exception fat binary fat client fat electrons fault fault-based testing fault tolerance fault tolerant fault tree analysis fax Fax over IP FC FC-AL FCB F-code FCP FC-PGA FCS FDC FDDI DONE FDISK fd leak fdlibm FDMA FDSE FDSP FDT fdx FEA fear and loathing feasible feature feature creature feature creep featurectomy feature key feature shock FEC Federal Geographic Data Committee Federal Information Exchange Federal Information Processing Standards Federal Networking Council Federation Against Software Theft feedback feedback control feed-forward Feel feep feeper feeping creature feeping creaturism FEL femto- fence fencepost error fepped out FEPROM Fermat prime Ferranti F100-L ferrite core memory Ferroelectric RAM Ferroelectric Random Access Memory Fetch fetch-execute cycle FF ffccc FFP FFT FGDC FGHC FGL FGL+LV FGRAAL fgrep FHS fi Fiber Distributed Data Interface Fiber Optic InterRepeater Link fiber optics Fibonacci series Fibre Channel Fibre Channel-Arbitrated Loop fibre optics FIDIL FIDO FidoNet field field circus field effect transistor field mouse field-programmable gate array field servoid FIFO Fifth Fifth Dimension Technologies fifth generation language fifth normal form Fight-o-net file File Allocation Table File Attach File Composition file compression file control block file descriptor file descriptor leak file extension FileMaker FileMaker, Inc. filename extension FileNet File Request File Separator file server File Service Protocol file signature file system Filesystem Hierarchy Standard file transfer File Transfer Protocol file type filing system filk fill-out form film at 11 FILO Filtabyte filter filter promotion FIMS Finagle's Law Financial Information eXchange fine adjuster fine grain finger finger-pointing syndrome finite Finite Automata Finite Automaton finite differencing Finite Impulse Response Finite State Automata Finite State Automaton Finite State Machine finn FIPS FIR firebottle firefighting firehose syndrome firewall firewall code firewall machine Firewire -- DONE fireworks mode Firmware firmy first class module First Fit first generation computer first generation language first-in first-out first normal form first-order first-order logic First Party DMA fish FISH queue FITNR FITS FIX fix fixed disk fixed point fixed-point fixed point combinator fixed-width FIXME fixpoint fj Fjolnir fk FL F+L flag flag day FLAIR flaky flamage flame flame bait flame off flame on flamer flame war flaming FLAP flap flapping router flarp Flash Flash EPROM Flash Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory flash memory Flash ROM flat flat address space flat ASCII flat file flatten flat thunk flavor flavorful Flavors flavour Fleng FLEX Flex Flex++ Flex 2 flib FLIC FLIP Flip Chip Pin Grid Array flip-flop flippy FLIP-SPUR floating-point floating-point accelerator Floating-Point SPECbaserate Floating-Point SPECbaseratio Floating-Point SPECrate Floating-Point SPECratio floating point underflow Floating-Point Unit floating underflow F-Logic flood FLOP Floppy floppy floppy disk floppy disk drive floppy drive FLOPS Flops floptical Flow flow chart flow control flower key FLOW-MATIC or FLOWMATIC flow of control FLPL FLUB Fluegelman, Andrew flush Flynn's taxonomy fly page Flyspeck 3 flytrap FM fm FMPL FMQ FMS FMV FNAL FNC fnord FN tunnelling fo FOAD FOAF FOCAL FOCL FOCUS focus group FOD FOIL FoIP FOIRL fold case folder FOLDOC followup font fontology foo foobar foogol FOOL fool file Fools' Lisp Foonly FOOP footprint for fora FORC Force ForceOne ForceTwo foreground foreign key Foresight for free fork fork bomb forked for loop FORM FORMAC FORMAL Formal Description Technique formal methods DONE Formal Object Role Modeling Language formal review FORMAT-Fortran Formatting Output Specification Instance Formes form factor form feed form function FORML forms formula Formula ALGOL Forsythe FORTH for The Rest Of Them for The Rest Of Us Forth Modification Lab Fortran Fortran 66 Fortran 77 Fortran 90 Fortran Automatic Symbol Translator Fortran D Fortran I Fortran II Fortran III Fortran IV Fortran-Linda Fortran M Fortran Matrix Abstraction Technique Fortran Fortran-Plus FORTRANSIT Fortran V Fortran VI Fortrash FORTRUNCIBLE fortune cookie forum for values of forward forward analysis forward chaining forward compatibility forward compatible forward delta forward engineering Forward Error Correction forwards compatibility forwards compatible FORWISS For Your Information FOSI FOSIL fossil foundation FOundation for Research and Technology - Hellas four-colour glossies four colour map theorem four colour theorem Fourier transform fourth generation computer fourth generation language -- DONE fourth normal form Fowler-Nordheim tunnelling FoxBASE+ FoxPRO Fox Software FP FP2 FPA fpc FPGA FPLMTS FPM FP/M FPM DRAM fprintf fps FPU FQDN FQL fr fractal fractal compression fractal dimension FRAD fragile fragment fragmentation FRAM frame frame buffer Frame Check Sequence frame grabber FrameKit FrameMaker frame pointer frame rate Frame Relay Frame Relay Access Device frames per second Frame Technology Corporation framework Framework 4 framing specification FRANK Franz Lisp FRED fred Fredette's Operating System Interface Language frednet free FreeBSD FreeHEP Freenet FreePPP freerexx free software Free Software Foundation free variable freeware freeze Frege, Gottlob frequency division multiple access frequency division multiplexing Frequency Modulation Frequency Shift Keying frequently asked question Fresco Fresh friction feed fried Friend FRINGE frink friode fritterware FRL FRMT-FTRN frob frobnicate frobnitz Frobozz Magic Programming Language frogging Frolic front end front-end processor front side bus frotz done frotzed frowney fry FS FSB fsck FSF FSK FSL FSM FSP fsplit FT FTAM FTP FTP archive FTP by mail FTP server FTP Software, Inc. FTTP FTX FUBAR FUD fudge fudge factor Fudgets FUDGIT FUD wars Fuel-can Fugue Fujitsu full-custom full-duplex full-duplex Switched Ethernet full laziness full-motion video full outer join fully associative cache Fully Automated Compiling Technique fully lazy lambda lifting fully qualified domain name fum function functional functional database functional dependency functionality functional language functional program functional programming functional programming language functional requirements functional specification functional testing functional unit function application function complete Function Graph Language function key Function Point Analysis functor funky FUNLOG FunnelWeb funny money furigana furrfu FUSE FUSION fusion FutureBasic future date testing futz fuzzball fuzzy computing fuzzy logic fuzzy subset fweep FWIW fx FX-87 FX-90 FYA FYI FYI4 G &lt g&gt G2 G3 G4 GA ga Gabriel gabriel Gabriel, Richard GADS Gaelic gag GAIA GAL Galaxy Galileo Gambit games game tree GAMMA gamma correction GAMS gamut GAN GANDALF gang bang GAP GAPLog garbageabetical order garbage collect garbage collection Gargoyle Garnet GARP garply Gartner Group gas GASP gas plasma display GAT GATE gate gated Gates gateway Gateway 2000 Gauss Gaussian distribution gawk GB Gb gb g-bell GBIP GBML gbps GC GCC GCL G-Code GCOS GCR GCT gd GDB GDBPSK Gödel, Kurt GDI GDMO GDPL GE ge GEA GEANT GECOM GECOS Gedanken gedanken geef geek geek out GEI GE Information Services GEM DONE gen gender mender Gene Amdahl General Electric Comprehensive Operating System General Magic General Packet Radio Service General Protection Failure General Protection Fault General Public Licence General Public License General Public Virus General Purpose Graphic Language General Purpose Interface Bus General Purpose Language General Purpose Macro-generator General Recursion Theorem generate generation Generic Array Logic Generic Expert System Tool generic identifier genericity generic markup generic programming Generic Routing Encapsulation Generic Security Service Application Programming Interface generic thunk generic type variable Genesia genetic algorithm genetic algorithms genetic programming GEnie Services Genken Programming Language GENOVA gensym Gensym Corporation Gensym Standard Interface Gentleman's Portable Coroutine System GEN-X Geographical Information System Geographic Information System GEORGE George Boole GEOS GEPURS Gerald Gerald Sussman German GEST Get a life! Get a real computer! get.com getty gf g file GFLOPS GFR gh GHC ghost ghostscript ghostview GHz GI gi Gibson, William gid GIF GIF89 GIF89a GIFF gig giga- gigabit gigabits per second gigabyte gigaflop gigaflops GigaHertz GIGO gilley gillion Gilmore, John GIM-1 GIN GINA Ginger GIP GIPS GIRL GIS GKS GKS-3D GL gl Glammar glark Glasgow Haskell Compiler GLASS glass glass box testing glassfet glass tty GLB glibc Glish Glisp glitch glob global index globalisation Global Network Navigator Global Positioning System Global System for Mobile Communications glork GLOS GLOW GLS GLU glue glue language glyph Glypnir gm GMAP GMD GMD Toolbox for Compiler Construction GMT gn gnarly Gnat GNN GNOME Gnome Computers GNU GNU archive site GNU assembler GNU awk GNU BC GNU C GNU C Library GNU DC GNU E GNU Emacs GNU General Public License GNUMACS GNU mirror site GNU Network Object Model Environment Gnuplot GNU public licence GNUS GNU sed GNU Smalltalk GNUStep GNU superoptimiser Go goal Go Back N gobble Godzillagram Goedel go-faster stripes Gofer Goffin go flatline GO-GO GOL golden golf ball printer GOM gonk gonkulator GOOD Good Thing Google googol googolplex gopher Gopher client Gopher object type gorets gorilla arm go root gorp GOSIP Gosling, James GOSMACS Gosperism GOSPL gotcha goto Gottlob Frege gov Government OSI Profile go voice GP gp GPF GPIB GPL GPM GPRS GPS GPSS GPV GPX gq gr GRAAL Grace Hopper GRAF Graffiti GRAIL GRAIN grain GRAM grammar grammar analysis grammatical inference granularity Grapes Grapevine graph Graph Algorithm and Software Package graph coloring graph colouring Graphic ALGOL Graphical Kernel System Graphical User Interface Graphic Display Interface Graphic Language graphics accelerator graphics adapter graphics adaptor graphics card Graphics Interchange Format Graphics Interface Format Graphics Language Object System graphic workstation Graph-Oriented Object Database graph plotter graph reduction graph rewriting system GRAPPLE GRAS GRASP/Ada GRASPIN grault Gray graybar land gray code gray-scale &lt gr&amp d&gt GRE greater than greatest common divisor greatest lower bound Great Renaming Great Runes Great Worm greek greeking Green Green Book Green Book CD-ROM green bytes green card green lightning green machine green monitor Green's Theorem Greenwich Mean Time Greg Olson grep grey-scale Greystone Technologies GRG GRIB grick grilf Grim File Reaper GRIND grind grind crank GRIP gripenet gritch grix groff grok gronk gronked group Group 3 Group 4 Group Code Recording group identifier Group Separator Group-Sweeping Scheduling Groupware Groupwise DONE grovel grunge gry GS gs GSBL GSI GSL GSM GSPL GSS GSS-API gt gtg GTL GT/SQL gu guaranteed scheduling guard NO IMPORT (already exists) Guarded Horn Clauses gubbish GUI GUIDE Guide Guide to Available Mathematical Software guiltware gun gunch Gunning Transceiver Logic gunzip Gupta Corporation gurfle guru guru meditation Guy Lewis Steele, Jr. Guy Steele GVL gw GW-Ada GW-BASIC gweep GWHIS GWM gy Gypsy gz gzip h H.261 H.323 Habitat hack hack attack hacked off hacked up hacker hacker ethic hacker humour hacking run Hacking X for Y Hackintosh hackish hackishness hackitude hack mode hack on hack together hack up hack value ha ha only serious hair hairy hairy ball HAKMEM hakspek HAL half-duplex halftone HALGOL HALMAT HAL/S Halt and Catch Fire halting problem Hamilton Hamiltonian cycle Hamiltonian path Hamiltonian problem Hamiltonian tour Hamilton's problem hammer Hamming code Hamming distance hamster Han character HAND hand cruft Handel hand-hacking Hand-held Personal Computer handle hand-roll handshake handshaking handwave hang hanja Hanoi Han Unification hanzi happily Happy haque hard boot hard-coded hardcopy hard disk hard disk drive hard drive hard link hard sector hardware Hardware Abstraction Layer hardware circular buffer Hardware Description Language hardware handshaking hardwarily hard-wired Harris Semiconductor Ltd. Harvard Graphics Harvest Harvest C hash hash bucket hash coding hash collision hash function hashing hash table Haskell Haskell B Haskell Curry Haskell User's Gofer System HASL HASP has the X nature hat Hayes Hayes-compatible HBOOK hc HCF HCI HCLP HCPRVR HCS HD HD6309 HDA HDC HDD HDF HDFL HDL HDLC HDM HDSL HDTV hdx Head Disk Assembly header head normal form head normalisation theorem heads down head-strict heap heartbeat heatseeker heat sink heat slug heavy metal heavyweight heavy wizardry Hebbian heisenbug Helen Keller mode Helix hello packet hello, sailor! hello, world HELP henry HENSA HEP HEPDB HEPiX HEPnet HEPVM HEQS HERA HERAKLIT here document Herman Hollerith Hermes Hesiod heterogeneous heterogeneous network heterogenous heuristic heuristics testing Hewlett-Packard Hewlett-Packard Graphics Language Hewlett-Packard Interface Bus Hewlett Packard Multi Processing Executive Hewlett Packard Precision Architecture Hewlett-Packard Visual Engineering Environment hex hexadecimal hexidecimal hexit HFC HHCP HHOJ HHOK HHOS HIBOL HID hidden flag hierarchical database Hierarchical Data Format DONE hierarchical file system Hierarchical Music Specification Language hierarchical routing hierarchy high bit High bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line high colour high density Higher Education National Software Archive higher-order function higher-order macro High-level Data Link Control high-level language high memory area high moby High Performance Computing and Communications High Performance File System High Performance Fortran High Performance Parallel Interface High Performance Routing High Performance Serial Bus High Speed Circuit Switched Data High Speed Connect high speed serial interface High Voltage Differential HIGZ hill climbing DONE HiLog HIMEM hing HINT HiPAC HIPPI hiragana hirsute HISTORIAN history hit Hitachi 6309 Hitachi HD64180 HITL hit rate hk HL7 HLISP HLL HLLAPI hlp hm HMA HMAC HMP HMSL HMTL hn Hoare powerdomain Hobbit hobbit hog HOL HOL-88 HOL-90 hole hole model Hollerithabetical order Hollerith, Herman Hollywired HOL-UNITY holy wars home box home machine home page Home Phoneline Networking Alliance HomePNA homogeneous homogenous homomorphism Honeywell-800 Business Compiler HOOD HOOK hook hop (telecommunications) Hope Hope+ Hope+C Hopfield model Hopfield network horizontal application horizontal encoding horizontal loop combination horizontal microcode horizontal scan rate horizontal tabulation Horn clause hose hosed HOS-STPL host host adaptor Host Command Facility host-host layer hostname host number Hot Fix HotJava Hotline Hotline Communications Ltd. Hotline Connect hotlink hotlist hot spot Hot Swapable Routing Protocol hot swapping HOTT house wizard Houston Automatic Spooling Program HP hp2ps H/PC HPCC HPcode HPCode-Plus HPF HPFS HP-GL DONE renamed as HPGL HP-GL/2 DONE same as above HP-IB HPL HPLOT HP-MPE HP-PA DONE, renamed as PA-RISC HPPI HPR HP-SUX HP-UX HP VEE hqx hr hs HSB HSC HSCSD HSL-FX HSRP HSSI HSV HT ht HTH HTLM HTML HTML+ HTTL HTTP HTTP/1.0 HTTP cookie HTTPd HTTPS HTTP server hu hub Hubnet hubs hue hue, saturation, brightness hue, saturation, value huff Huffman coding HUGO HUGS Human-Computer Interaction Human-Computer Interface Human Interface Device Human Interface Technology Laboratory humma humor humour hung Hungarian Notation Hungry Programmers hungry puppy Hungry ViewKit hungus Hunt the Wumpus - Computer game originally on Dartmouth On Line System in the 1970's Hurd HVD Hybrid Hybrid Fiber Coax hybrid multiprocessing hybrid testing hydrofluorocarbon HyperBase Hyper-C HyperCard hypercube Hyperion hyperlink Hyper-Man hypermedia HyperNeWS Hyperscript hyperspace HyperSPARC Hyperstrict HyperTalk hypertext Hypertext Markup Language Hypertext Transfer Protocol HyperText Transmission Protocol, Secure hyperware hysterical reasons Hytelnet HyTime

 * See also : Free On-line Dictionary of Computing


text:
Talk:Frédéric Bastiat

Link for 'The Law'
Here is a web link for ``The Law`` as published on mises.org. I noticed footnote 12 merely cites the source but doesn't provide a link. I would add it myself, but I'm not much of a wikipedian and would be afraid of doing it wrong. So I just thought I'd suggest it here.

http://mises.org/daily/2060

71.65.237.218 (talk) 01:08, 1 July 2012 (UTC)

Good opinion to include
Bryan Caplan->here — Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.64.219.79 (talk) 21:45, 26 August 2012 (UTC)

October 2012
Where is the link to 19th century American economists influenced by Bastiat?

There used to be a link in this article to 19th century American economists influenced by Bastiat (including the main American economics textbook of the mid 19th century), what happened to the link?2.221.143.240 (talk) 21:09, 19 October 2012 (UTC) There should be a link to Arthur Latham Perry here2.221.143.240 (talk) 22:09, 19 October 2012 (UTC)

WP:BLAR of The Law
The Law (1850 book) has <30 page watchers while this one has 89. So, rather than post formal "merge to" templates, I will simply ask: what do watchers think of a WP:BLAR of The Law to this article? – S. Rich (talk) 02:59, 5 March 2013 (UTC)

Update: with the exception of the list of people mentioned by Bastiat in that article, the material is C&P'd into this article. IOW, The Law is ready for a BLAR. – S. Rich (talk) 19:23, 5 March 2013 (UTC)

 * Please see next topic on this Talk page; copying the article from The Law onto this page has repeated exactly the same concepts (but using different words) of approx 1/2 of another section ("Views") that is already in this article.

 * As a 2nd and separate problem: Some info in the article "The Law (1850 book)" would be lost, and I don't think there's any way to fit that sort of minutia into THIS (a more generalized) article, and yet I found some of that info that you're proposing to delete to be valuable (e.g. the list of contemporaries Bastiat's The Law talks about is very useful--as somebody who never before has read that "The Law (1850 book)" article, and less valuable than that list of people is the fact that Candlemakers' Petition etc are found within The Law).

 * So, for both reasons, can we keep linking from this article to "The Law (1850 book)"?

72.48.252.105 (talk) 09:14, 2 June 2013 (UTC)

Merge "The Law (1850)" into "Views"?
Related to the last comment by S.Rich, I'd like to propose another type of "merge":

Note that the newly written (or re-written?) section called "The Law (1850)" mostly covers topics that were already covered in the section "Views".

"The Law (1850) DOES add a LITTLE unique content (some relevant & poignant quotes of Bastiat) that I'd like to see added to "Views" -- but only if no one has any objections within 30 to 60 days from today? (I might merge-then-delete info from "The Law (1850)" if no one else does, if also nobody objects to this in a timely manner.) 72.48.252.105 (talk) 08:59, 2 June 2013 (UTC)

Oeuvres complètes
Perhaps we should mention that his work was published in seven volumes (six in the first edition) as Oeuvres complètes de Frédéric Bastiat (Paris: Guillaumin, 2nd Ed. 1862-4). I think it's safe to say that this was and is the most comprehensive and accessible format of his work. It is available through Liberty Fund, Google Books , partially from Project Gutenberg , and Archive.org .Rextacy3 (talk) 19:09, 28 June 2014 (UTC)

Audio
Audio gives the wrong https address. 2602:306:C591:1AF0:B11D:5595:5CE:AC57 (talk) 13:02, 12 December 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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Birthdate
Most other wikipedias that I've checked (French, German, Spanish, Italian, even Chinese), list the birthdate as 30 June 1801. It was changed in here to 29 June because someone noticed that Britannica used that date. There are other external sources that confirm the later date, e.g., http://oll.libertyfund.org/pages/fb-chronology, https://web.archive.org/web/20080405140357/http://bastiat.net:80/fr/biographie/chronologie.html (based on the work of a French historian), etc. According to http://bastiat.org/fr/sur_bastiat.html note 1, his birth certificate (acte de naissance) indicates "le 11 messidor an 9" which converts to 30 June 1801 in the Gregorian calendar. Unless somebody objects, the date should revert to 30 June here too. JmA (talk) 03:11, 30 June 2018 (UTC)

How did this article get to be such a mess?
How did this article get to be such a mess? This article needs to be Wikified... Stevenmitchell (talk) 02:58, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Statist is not a period concept
I removed the reference to Bastiat railing against statist policies. That is not a period term. It sounds like a contemporary reference from an editor with a political axe to grind. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jdfulmer (talk • contribs) 15:05, 26 November 2020 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Frédéric Bastiat


text:
First-order predicate

In mathematical logic, a first-order predicate is a predicate that takes only individual(s) constants or variables as argument(s). Compare second-order predicate and higher-order predicate.

This is not to be confused with a one-place predicate or monad, which is a predicate that takes only one argument. For example, the expression "is a planet" is a one-place predicate, while the expression "is father of" is a two-place predicate.

title: First-order predicate


text:
Snap (gridiron football)

A snap (colloquially called a "hike", "snapback", or "pass from center") is the backward passing of the ball in gridiron football at the start of play from scrimmage.

Action
The ball begins on the ground with its long axis parallel to the sidelines of the field, its ends marking each team's line of scrimmage in American football; in Canadian football, the line of scrimmage of the team without the ball is 1 yard past their side of the ball. The player snapping the ball (known officially as the "snapper" in rule books) delivers the ball to another player, and that action is the snap. The snapper may hand, throw, or even roll the ball to the other player. The snap must be a quick and continuous movement of the ball by one or both hands of the snapper, and the ball must leave the snapper's hands. The various rules codes have additional requirements, all of which have the effect of requiring the ball to go backward. The snapper almost always passes the ball between his legs, but only in Canadian football is that required.

In the standard gridiron football formation, the center/centre is the snapper and is situated in the middle of the line of scrimmage. Only in arena football is the center required by rule to be the snapper. In other codes, a guard, tackle, running back, tight end or split end can legally deliver the snap; such scenarios, known as an unbalanced line, are seldom used outside of trick plays and novelties.

For a handed snap, the snapper will usually have his head up, facing opponents. For a thrown snap, especially in formations wherein the ball may be snapped to players in different positions, the snapper will commonly bend over looking between his legs. Because of the vulnerability of a player in such a position, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the National Federation of State High School Associations ("Fed") have adopted rules providing that if a player is positioned at least seven yards behind the neutral zone to receive a snap, opponents are not to deliberately contact the snapper until one second after the snap (NCAA), or until the snapper has a chance to react (Fed). However, in professional football it is common for a center to be able to practice a single "shotgun" formation thrown snap enough to keep his head up and toss it blindly.

A snap is considered a backward pass, therefore if the ball is snapped and it hits the ground without any player gaining control of the ball the play is ruled as a fumble.

Snap count
The team entitled to snap the ball will usually know in advance the moment when the snap is to occur as one of their players calls out signals, which usually include a loud sound such as "hut" voiced one or more times, the number of which they know; they are thus said to know the "snap count". Therefore, they have a considerable advantage over their opponents. The Center is not, however, allowed to make motions simulating part of the snap-action; therefore their opponents can be confident the first motion of the ball or the Center's hands is the beginning of the snap.

The snap count is decided on in the huddle, usually expressed as "...on ." being the final words spoken by the quarterback after calling the play but before the huddle breaks and the players go to the line of scrimmage. The snap count allows offensive players to have a small head start. The defensive players want to predict the snap, and build up speed such that they cross the line of scrimmage exactly as the play begins, to increase their chances of getting a tackle for a loss or a sack. By varying the snap count, a quarterback forces the defensive players to react to the movement of the offensive players, or risk being called for an offsides or encroachment penalty. Unfortunately for the offense, this advantage can sometimes become a disadvantage. When faced with an exceptionally loud stadium, players may be unable to hear the snap count and are forced to concentrate more on visual cues (silent snap count or a hard count), or risk false start penalties.

The offense must also be mindful of the play clock. If they fail to snap the ball in time they incur a delay of game penalty. Also, with a dwindling play clock, the defense has better chances of guessing when the ball will be snapped. It is easier to predict when the ball will be snapped with 2 seconds left on the play clock, rather than 5 seconds.

The defensive team is not allowed to simulate, by calling out numbers, the offense's snap count. Successfully simulating the count would cause members of the offensive team to act too early ruining co-ordination of the play and inviting penalties. Current rules, unlike earlier rules, position officials so far from the line of scrimmage for 50 minutes of the 60-minute game that it is extremely difficult to hear if the defense is simulating the count.

History and rationale
The snap, the set scrum and ruck in today's rugby union, and the play-the-ball in rugby league have common origins in rugby football. As the rules of rugby's scrimmage were written when the game came to North America, they had a significant flaw which was corrected by custom elsewhere, but by the invention of the snap in American football.

The rule adopted by a committee for American football in 1880 first provided for the uncontested right of one side to play the ball by foot (in any direction) for a scrimmage. A certain use of the foot on the ball which had the same effect as heeling it back was known as a "snap". Later in the 19th century, the option of snapping the ball back by hand was added. The option to play the ball with the foot was preserved, however, for several decades, although by early in the 20th century it was restricted to kicking the ball forward. The kick forward in scrimmage was a surprise play that did not work against a prepared defense. Also for several decades alternatives to the scrimmage for playing the ball from across the sideline after it had gone out of bounds—a throw-in or "fair", and "bounding in"—existed. Until well into the 20th century, rather than an official readying the ball for scrimmage, the side entitled to the snap had complete custody of the ball and could snap it from the required spot at any time; for instance, a tackled ball carrier might feign injury, then suddenly snap the ball while recumbent, there being no stance requirement yet. The neutral zone and the right of the center not to be contacted by an opponent before the snap also was not an original feature. As the 20th century drew to a close, the NCAA and National Federation of State High School Associations extended that protection to some time the snap, in cases where a player is positioned at least 7 yards deep to receive a thrown snap.

Canadian football used the rugby scrimmage unaltered until near the end of the 19th century, when, regionally at first, under the influence of the American scrimmage, the number of players in the scrimmage was limited to three—a "centre scrimmager" bound on either side by props called "side scrimmagers". The centre scrimmager was later renamed the "snap", and in intercollegiate play one side was given the right to put foot to ball first. Beginning regionally again and universally by 1923, the Burnside rules led to the three-man scrimmage being reduced to the centre alone, the number of players on the field being reduced commensurately from 14 to 12, and a snap rule and neutral zone similar to that of American football was adopted. In addition to the between-the-legs requirement noted above, for several years after the adoption of the hand snap, a hand-to-hand snap was illegal, the ball required to be thrown instead, in Canadian football. (Though it was technically legal, the hand-to-hand snap was not used on the American side of the border until the 1930s.) Apparently, a complete break was desired from system of backheeling, and the T formation having gone into eclipse in American football at the time, the Canadian snap was modeled on the formations then in common use in the US, such as the single-wing formation.

The game design rationale for requiring the snap to be a quick and continuous motion to the backfield is to eliminate the need for rules provisions for a live ball in scrimmage. In rugby union the ball may be retained by the forwards and played for a time via the foot in a scrummage (which rugby league has as well) or ruck, or by the hands in a maul, necessitating additional restrictions on play and player positioning during those intervals. In American and Canadian football, the ball as it is put in play is only held in the line (by the Center) for a fraction of a second. The uncontested possession also, as Walter Camp pointed out, allows for better offensive and defensive planning by the side entitled to snap the ball and their opposition, respectively. A muffed snap can be recovered by either team.

title: Snap (gridiron football)


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Firewire (disambiguation)

FireWire is Apple's trademark for the IEEE 1394 interface.

Firewire or Fire wire may also refer to:

 * Firewire (Lateef the Truthspeaker album), 2011
 * Fire Wire (Larry Carlton album), 2006
 * "Fire Wire" (song), a 2001 single by Cosmic Gate
 * Graviner Firewire, a linear fire detection element used in aircraft engine bays; see Graviner § Fire detection

title: Firewire (disambiguation)


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FIFO (computing and electronics)

In computing and in systems theory, first in, first out (the first in is the first out), acronymized as FIFO, is a method for organizing the manipulation of a data structure (often, specifically a data buffer) where the oldest (first) entry, or "head" of the queue, is processed first.

Such processing is analogous to servicing people in a queue area on a first-come, first-served (FCFS) basis, i.e. in the same sequence in which they arrive at the queue's tail.

FCFS is also the jargon term for the FIFO operating system scheduling algorithm, which gives every process central processing unit (CPU) time in the order in which it is demanded. FIFO's opposite is LIFO, last-in-first-out, where the youngest entry or "top of the stack" is processed first. A priority queue is neither FIFO or LIFO but may adopt similar behaviour temporarily or by default. Queueing theory encompasses these methods for processing data structures, as well as interactions between strict-FIFO queues.

Computer science

Depending on the application, a FIFO could be implemented as a hardware shift register, or using different memory structures, typically a circular buffer or a kind of list. For information on the abstract data structure, see Queue (data structure). Most software implementations of a FIFO queue are not thread safe and require a locking mechanism to verify the data structure chain is being manipulated by only one thread at a time.

The following code shows a linked list FIFO C++ language implementation. In practice, a number of list implementations exist, including popular Unix systems C sys/queue.h macros or the C++ standard library std::list template, avoiding the need for implementing the data structure from scratch.

In computing environments that support the pipes-and-filters model for interprocess communication, a FIFO is another name for a named pipe.

Disk controllers can use the FIFO as a disk scheduling algorithm to determine the order in which to service disk I/O requests, where it is also known by the same FCFS initialism as for CPU scheduling mentioned before.

Communication network bridges, switches and routers used in computer networks use FIFOs to hold data packets in route to their next destination. Typically at least one FIFO structure is used per network connection. Some devices feature multiple FIFOs for simultaneously and independently queuing different types of information.

Electronics

FIFOs are commonly used in electronic circuits for buffering and flow control between hardware and software. In its hardware form, a FIFO primarily consists of a set of read and write pointers, storage and control logic. Storage may be static random access memory (SRAM), flip-flops, latches or any other suitable form of storage. For FIFOs of non-trivial size, a dual-port SRAM is usually used, where one port is dedicated to writing and the other to reading.

The first known FIFO implemented in electronics was by Peter Alfke in 1969 at Fairchild Semiconductor. Alfke was later a director at Xilinx.

Synchronicity
A synchronous FIFO is a FIFO where the same clock is used for both reading and writing. An asynchronous FIFO uses different clocks for reading and writing and they can introduce metastability issues. A common implementation of an asynchronous FIFO uses a Gray code (or any unit distance code) for the read and write pointers to ensure reliable flag generation. One further note concerning flag generation is that one must necessarily use pointer arithmetic to generate flags for asynchronous FIFO implementations. Conversely, one may use either a leaky bucket approach or pointer arithmetic to generate flags in synchronous FIFO implementations.

A hardware FIFO is used for synchronization purposes. It is often implemented as a circular queue, and thus has two pointers:
 * Read pointer / read address register
 * Write pointer / write address register

Status flags
Examples of FIFO status flags include: full, empty, almost full, and almost empty. A FIFO is empty when the read address register reaches the write address register. A FIFO is full when the write address register reaches the read address register. Read and write addresses are initially both at the first memory location and the FIFO queue is empty.

In both cases, the read and write addresses end up being equal. To distinguish between the two situations, a simple and robust solution is to add one extra bit for each read and write address which is inverted each time the address wraps. With this set up, the disambiguation conditions are:
 * When the read address register equals the write address register, the FIFO is empty.
 * When the read and write address registers differ only in the extra most significant bit and the rest are equal, the FIFO is full.

title: FIFO (computing and electronics)


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Firewall (construction)

A firewall is a fire-resistant barrier used to prevent the spread of fire. Firewalls are built between or through buildings, structures, or electrical substation transformers, or within an aircraft or vehicle.

Applications
Firewalls can be used to subdivide a building into separate fire areas and are constructed in accordance with the locally applicable building codes. Firewalls are a portion of a building's passive fire protection systems.

Firewalls can be used to separate-high value transformers at an electrical substation in the event of a mineral oil tank rupture and ignition. The firewall serves as a fire containment wall between one oil-filled transformer and other neighboring transformers, building structures, and site equipment.

Types
There are three main classifications of fire rated walls: fire walls, fire barriers, and fire partitions.
 * A firewall is an assembly of materials used to delay the spread of fire a wall assembly with a prescribed fire resistance duration and independent structural stability. This allows a building to be subdivided into smaller sections. If a section becomes structurally unstable due to fire or other causes, that section can break or fall away from the other sections in the building.
 * A fire barrier wall, or a fire partition, is a fire-rated wall assembly that are not structurally self-sufficient.

Fire barrier walls are typically continuous from an exterior wall to an exterior wall, or from a floor below to a floor or roof above, or from one fire barrier wall to another fire barrier wall, having a fire resistance rating equal to or greater than the required rating for the application. Fire barriers are continuous through concealed spaces (e.g., above a ceiling) to the floor deck or roof deck above the barrier. Fire partitions are not required to extend through concealed spaces if the construction assembly forming the bottom of the concealed space, such as the ceiling, has a fire resistance rating at least equal to or greater than the fire partition.
 * A high challenge fire wall is a wall used to subdivide a building with high fire challenge occupancies, having enhanced fire resistance ratings and enhanced appurtenance protection to prevent the spread of fire, and having structural stability.

Portions of structures that are subdivided by fire walls are permitted to be considered separate buildings, in that fire walls have sufficient structural stability to maintain the integrity of the wall in the event of the collapse of the building construction on either side of the wall.

Characteristics

 * Fire rating - Fire walls are constructed in such a way as to achieve a code-determined fire-resistance rating, thus forming part of a fire compartment's passive fire protection. Germany includes repeated impact force testing upon new fire wall systems. Other codes require impact resistance on a performance basis
 * Design loads – Fire wall must withstand a minimum 5 lb/sqft, and additional seismic loads.
 * Substation transformer firewalls are typically free-standing modular walls custom designed and engineered to meet application needs.
 * Building fire walls typically extend through the roof and terminate at a code-determined height above it. They are usually finished off on the top with flashing (sheet metal cap) for protection against the elements.

Materials

 * Building and structural fire walls in North America are usually made of concrete, concrete blocks, or reinforced concrete. Older fire walls, built prior to World War II, used brick materials.
 * Fire barrier walls are typically constructed of drywall or gypsum board partitions with wood or metal framed studs.
 * Penetrations – Penetrations through fire walls, such as for pipes and cables, must be protected with a listed firestop assembly designed to prevent the spread of fire through wall penetrations. Penetrations (holes) must not defeat the structural integrity of the wall, such that the wall cannot withstand the prescribed fire duration without threat of collapse.
 * Openings – Other openings in fire walls, such as doors and windows, must also be fire-rated fire door assemblies and fire window assemblies.

Performance based design
Firewalls are used in varied applications that require specific design and performance specifications. Knowing the potential conditions that may exist during a fire are critical to selecting and installing an effective firewall. For example, a firewall designed to meet National Fire Protection Agency, (NFPA), 221-09 section A.5.7 which indicates an average temperature of 800 F, is not designed to withstand higher temperatures such as would be present in higher challenge fires, and as a result would fail to function for the expected duration of the listed wall rating.

Performance based design takes into account the potential conditions during a fire. Understanding thermal limitations of materials is essential to using the correct material for the application. Laboratory testing is used to simulate fire scenarios and wall loading conditions. The testing results in an assigned listing number for the fire-rated assembly that defines the expected fire resistance duration and wall structural integrity under the tested conditions. Designers may elect to specify a listed fire wall assembly or design a wall system that would require performance testing to certify the expected protections before use of the designed fire-rated wall system.

High-voltage transformer fire barriers
Fire barriers are used around large electrical transformers as firewalls. These barriers are used to isolate one transformer in case of fire or explosions, preventing fire propagation to neighboring transformers.

title: Firewall (construction)


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Fenrir (disambiguation)

Fenrir, Fenrisulfr, or Fenris is a Norse mythological wolf. It may also refer to:

 * Fenrir (moon), a moon of Saturn named after Fenrisulfr
 * Fenris, designation of a battlemech in the science-fiction series BattleTech
 * Fenrir, a monster card in the Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game
 * Fenris, homeworld of the Space Wolves Space Marine chapter in the Warhammer 40,000 universe
 * Fenrir Inc, Japanese developer of the Sleipnir web browser
 * Fenris Glacier, a glacier in eastern Greenland

Printed media

 * Fenris Ulf, or Maugrim, a character in C.S. Lewis's The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe
 * Fenrir Greyback, a lycanthrope in the Harry Potter series
 * The Lord of Terror (Oh My Goddess!), from the anime series Oh My Goddess!
 * Fenris, character in the comic series Lucifer
 * Fenris Wolf (Marvel Comics), a comic character based on the Norse wolf
 * Fenris (comics), a terrorist organization led by Andrea von Strucker and Andreas von Strucker, the twin children of the Marvel Comics villain Baron von Strucker
 * The Fenris Device, a novel/weapon in the Hooded Swan
 * Fenris, the varg's God in the book The Sight

Video games

 * Get of Fenris, a werewolf tribe in the roleplaying game Dark Ages: Werewolf
 * Fenris, a character in the Quest for Glory series
 * The Fenris Brood, a Zerg faction in StarCraft
 * GTC Fenris-class cruiser in the FreeSpace, series
 * In Xenogears, Fenrir is the name of Citan's Omnigear
 * In Eve Online, Fenrir is the name of the Minmatar freighter
 * In Dragon Age II, Fenris is an elven warrior companion
 * In the Ace Combat series, Fenrir has been used as a squadron name on multiple occasions
 * In Final Fantasy VII: Dirge of Cerberus, Fenrir is what Cloud calls his motorcycle
 * In Etrian Odyssey Untold: The Millennium Girl, Fenrir is the name of the first stratum's final boss
 * In Danganronpa, Fenrir is the name of Mukuro's Military Corporation
 * In Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege, Fenrir is the name of a Defending operator

title: Fenrir (disambiguation)


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Frigg

Frigg (Old Norse: ) is a goddess, one of the Æsir, in Germanic mythology. In Norse mythology, the source of most surviving information about her, she is associated with marriage, prophecy, clairvoyance and motherhood, and dwells in the wetland halls of Fensalir. In wider Germanic mythology, she is known in Old High German as Frīja, in Langobardic as Frēa, in Old English as Frīg, in Old Frisian as Frīa, and in Old Saxon as Frī, all ultimately stemming from the Proto-Germanic theonym *Frijjō. Nearly all sources portray her as the wife of the god Odin.

In Old High German and Old Norse sources, she is specifically connected with Fulla, but she is also associated with the goddesses Lofn, Hlín, Gná, and ambiguously with the Earth, otherwise personified as an apparently separate entity Jörð (Old Norse: 'Earth'). The children of Frigg and Odin include the gleaming god Baldr.

The English weekday name Friday (ultimately meaning 'Frigg's Day') bears her name. After Christianization, the mention of Frigg continued to occur in Scandinavian folklore. During modern times, Frigg has appeared in popular culture, has been the subject of art and receives veneration in Germanic Neopaganism.

Etymology
The theonyms Frigg (Old Norse), Frīja (Old High German), Frīg (Old English), Frīa (Old Frisian), and Frī (Old Saxon) are cognates (linguistic siblings from the same origin). They stem from the Proto-Germanic feminine noun *Frijjō, which emerged as a substantivized form of the adjective *frijaz ('free') via Holtzmann's law. In a clan-based societal system, the meaning 'free' arose from the meaning 'related'. The name is indeed etymologically close to the Sanskrit priyā and the Avestan fryā ('own, dear, beloved'), all ultimately descending from the Proto-Indo-European stem *priH-o-, denoting 'one's own, beloved'. The Proto-Germanic verb *frijōnan ('to love'), as well as the nouns *frijōndz ('friend') and *frijađwō ('friendship, peace'), are also related.

An -a suffix has been sometimes applied by modern editors to denote femininity, resulting in the form Frigga. This spelling also serves the purpose of distancing the goddess from the English word frig. Several place names refer to Frigg in what are now Norway and Sweden, although her name is altogether absent in recorded place names in Denmark.

Origin of Frigg
The connection with and possible earlier identification of the goddess Freyja with Frigg in the Proto-Germanic period is a matter of scholarly debate (see Frigg and Freyja common origin hypothesis). Like the name of the group of gods to which Freyja belongs, the Vanir, the name Freyja is not attested outside of Scandinavia. This is in contrast to the name of the goddess Frigg, who is also attested as a goddess among West Germanic peoples. Evidence is lacking for the existence of a common Germanic goddess from which Old Norse Freyja descends, but scholars have commented that this may simply be due to the scarcity of surviving sources.

Regarding the Freyja–Frigg common origin hypothesis, scholar Stephan Grundy writes that "the problem of whether Frigg or Freyja may have been a single goddess originally is a difficult one, made more so by the scantiness of pre-Viking Age references to Germanic goddesses, and the diverse quality of the sources. The best that can be done is to survey the arguments for and against their identity, and to see how well each can be supported."

Origin of Friday
The English weekday name Friday comes from Old English Frīġedæġ, meaning 'day of Frig'. It is cognate with Old Frisian Frīadei (≈ Fri(g)endei), Middle Dutch Vridach (≈ Vriendach), Middle Low German Vrīdach (≈ Vrīgedach), and Old High German Frîatac. The Old Norse Frjádagr was borrowed from a West Germanic language. All of these terms derive from Late Proto-Germanic *Frijjōdag ('Day of Frijjō'), a calque of Latin Veneris dies ('Day of Venus'; cf. modern Italian venerdì, French vendredi, Spanish viernes).

The Germanic goddess' name has substituted for the Roman name of a comparable deity, a practice known as interpretatio germanica. Although the Old English theonym Frīg is only found in the name of the weekday, it is also attested as a common noun in frīg ('love, affections [plural], embraces [in poetry]'). The Old Norse weekday Freyjudagr, a rare synonym of Frjádagr, saw the replacement of the first element with the genitive of Freyja.

Origo Gentis Langobardorum and Historia Langobardorum
The 7th-century Origo Gentis Langobardorum, and Paul the Deacon's 8th-century Historia Langobardorum derived from it, recount a founding myth of the Langobards, a Germanic people who ruled a region of what is now Italy (see Lombardy). According to this legend, a "small people" known as the Winnili were ruled by a woman named Gambara who had two sons, Ybor and Agio. The Vandals, ruled by Ambri and Assi, came to the Winnili with their army and demanded that they pay them tribute or prepare for war. Ybor, Agio, and their mother Gambara rejected their demands for tribute. Ambra and Assi then asked the god Godan for victory over the Winnili, to which Godan responded (in the longer version in the Origo): "Whom I shall first see when at sunrise, to them will I give the victory."

Meanwhile, Ybor and Agio called upon Frea, Godan's wife. Frea counseled them that "at sunrise the Winnil[i] should come, and that their women, with their hair let down around the face in the likeness of a beard should also come with their husbands". At sunrise, Frea turned Godan's bed around to face east and woke him. Godan saw the Winnili, including their whiskered women, and asked "who are those Long-beards?" Frea responded to Godan, "As you have given them a name, give them also the victory". Godan did so, "so that they should defend themselves according to his counsel and obtain the victory". Thenceforth the Winnili were known as the Langobards (Langobardic "long-beards").

Second Merseburg Incantation
A 10th-century manuscript found in what is now Merseburg, Germany, features an invocation known as the Second Merseburg Incantation. The incantation calls upon various continental Germanic gods, including Old High German Frija and a goddess associated with her—Volla, to assist in healing a horse:

Poetic Edda
In the Poetic Edda, compiled during the 13th century from earlier traditional material, Frigg is mentioned in the poems Völuspá, Vafþrúðnismál, the prose of Grímnismál, Lokasenna, and Oddrúnargrátr.

Frigg receives three mentions in the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá. In the first mention the poem recounts that Frigg wept for the death of her son Baldr in Fensalir. Later in the poem, when the future death of Odin is foretold, Odin is referred to as the "beloved of Frigg" and his future death is referred to as the "second grief of Frigg". Like the reference to Frigg weeping in Fensalir earlier in the poem, the implied "first grief" is a reference to the grief she felt upon the death of her son, Baldr.

Frigg plays a prominent role in the prose introduction to the poem, Grímnismál. The introduction recounts that two sons of king Hrauðungr, Agnar (age 10) and Geirröðr (age 8), once sailed out with a trailing line to catch small fish, but wind drove them out into the ocean and, during the darkness of night, their boat wrecked. The brothers went ashore, where they met a crofter. They stayed on the croft for one winter, during which the couple separately fostered the two children: the old woman fostered Agnar and the old man fostered Geirröðr. Upon the arrival of spring, the old man brought them a ship. The old couple took the boys to the shore, and the old man took Geirröðr aside and spoke to him. The boys entered the boat and a breeze came.

The boat returned to the harbor of their father. Geirröðr, forward in the ship, jumped to shore and pushed the boat, containing his brother, out and said "go where an evil spirit may get thee." Away went the ship and Geirröðr walked to a house, where he was greeted with joy; while the boys were gone, their father had died, and now Geirröðr was king. He "became a splendid man." The scene switches to Odin and Frigg sitting in Hliðskjálf, "look[ing] into all the worlds." Odin says: "'Seest thou Agnar, thy foster-son, where he is getting children a giantess [Old Norse gȳgi] in a cave? while Geirröd, my foster son, is a king residing in his country.' Frigg answered, 'He is so inhospitable that he tortures his guests, if he thinks that too many come.'"

Odin replied that this was a great untruth and so the two made a wager. Frigg sent her "waiting-maid" Fulla to warn Geirröðr to be wary, lest a wizard who seeks him should harm him, and that he would know this wizard by the refusal of dogs, no matter how ferocious, to attack the stranger. While it was not true that Geirröðr was inhospitable with his guests, Geirröðr did as instructed and had the wizard arrested. Upon being questioned, the wizard, wearing a blue cloak, said no more than that his name is Grímnir. Geirröðr has Grímnir tortured and sits him between two fires for 8 nights. Upon the 9th night, Grímnir is brought a full drinking horn by Geirröðr's son, Agnar (so named after Geirröðr's brother), and the poem continues without further mention or involvement of Frigg.

In the poem Lokasenna, where Loki accuses nearly every female in attendance of promiscuity and/or unfaithfulness, an aggressive exchange occurs between the god Loki and the goddess Frigg (and thereafter between Loki and the goddess Freyja about Frigg). A prose introduction to the poem describes that numerous gods and goddesses attended a banquet held by Ægir. These gods and goddesses include Odin and, "his wife", Frigg.

Prose Edda
Frigg is mentioned throughout the Prose Edda, compiled in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. Frigg is first mentioned in the Prose Edda Prologue, wherein a euhemerized account of the Norse gods is provided. The author describes Frigg as the wife of Odin, and, in a case of folk etymology, the author attempts to associate the name Frigg with the Latin-influenced form Frigida. The Prologue adds that both Frigg and Odin "had the gift of prophecy."

In the next section of the Prose Edda, Gylfaginning, High tells Gangleri (the king Gylfi in disguise) that Frigg, daughter of Fjörgynn (Old Norse Fjörgynsdóttir) is married to Odin and that the Æsir are descended from the couple, and adds that "the earth [Jörðin] was [Odin's] daughter and his wife." According to High, the two had many sons, the first of which was the mighty god Thor.

Later in Gylfaginning, Gangleri asks about the ásynjur, a term for Norse goddesses. High says that "highest" among them is Frigg and that only Freyja "is highest in rank next to her." Frigg dwells in Fensalir "and it is very splendid." In this section of Gylfaginning, Frigg is also mentioned in connection to other ásynjur: Fulla carries Frigg's ashen box, "looks after her footwear and shares her secrets;" Lofn is given special permission by Frigg and Odin to "arrange unions" among men and women; Hlín is charged by Frigg to protect those that Frigg deem worthy of keeping from danger; and Gná is sent by Frigg "into various worlds to carry out her business."

In section 49 of Gylfaginning, a narrative about the fate of Frigg's son Baldr is told. According to High, Baldr once started to have dreams indicating that his life was in danger. When Baldr told his fellow Æsir about his dreams, the gods met together for a thing and decided that they should "request immunity for Baldr from all kinds of danger." Frigg subsequently receives promises from the elements, the environment, diseases, animals, and stones, amongst other things. The request successful, the Æsir make sport of Baldr's newfound invincibility; shot or struck, Baldr remained unharmed. However, Loki discovers this and is not pleased by this turn of events, so, in the form of a woman, he goes to Frigg in Fensalir.

There, Frigg asks this female visitor what the Æsir are up to assembled at the thing. The woman says that all of the Æsir are shooting at Baldr and yet he remains unharmed. Frigg explains that "Weapons and wood will not hurt Baldr. I have received oaths from them all." The woman asks Frigg if all things have sworn not to hurt Baldr, to which Frigg notes one exception; "there grows a shoot of a tree to the west of Val-hall. It is called mistletoe. It seemed young to me to demand the oath from." Loki immediately disappears.

Now armed with mistletoe, Loki arrives at the thing where the Æsir are assembled and tricks the blind Höðr, Baldr's brother, into shooting Baldr with a mistletoe projectile. To the horror of the assembled gods, the mistletoe goes directly through Baldr, killing him. Standing in horror and shock, the gods are initially only able to weep due to their grief. Frigg speaks up and asks "who there was among the Æsir who wished to earn all her love and favour and was willing to ride the road to Hel and try if he could find Baldr, and offer Hel a ransom if she would let Baldr go back to Asgard."

Hermóðr, Baldr's brother, accepts Frigg's request and rides to Hel. Meanwhile, Baldr is given a grand funeral attended by many beings—foremost mentioned of which are his mother and father, Frigg and Odin. During the funeral, Nanna dies of grief and is placed in the funeral pyre with Baldr, her dead husband. Hermóðr locates Baldr and Nanna in Hel. Hermodr secures an agreement for the return of Baldr and with Hermóðr Nanna sends gifts to Frigg (a linen robe) and Fulla (a finger-ring). Hermóðr rides back to the Æsir and tells them what has happened. However, the agreement fails due to the sabotage of a jötunn in a cave named Þökk (Old Norse 'thanks'), described as perhaps Loki in disguise.

Frigg is mentioned several times in the Prose Edda section Skáldskaparmál. The first mention occurs at the beginning of the section, where the Æsir and Ásynjur are said to have once held a banquet in a hall in a land of gods, Asgard. Frigg is one of the twelve ásynjur in attendance.

Heimskringla and sagas
In Ynglinga saga, the first book of Heimskringla, a Euhemerized account of the origin of the gods is provided. Frigg is mentioned once. According to the saga, while Odin was away, Odin's brothers Vili and Vé oversaw Odin's holdings. Once, while Odin was gone for an extended period, the Æsir concluded that he was not coming back. His brothers started to divvy up Odin's inheritance, "but his wife Frigg they shared between them. However, a short while afterwards, [Odin] returned and took possession of his wife again.

In Völsunga saga, the great king Rerir and his wife (unnamed) are unable to conceive a child; "that lack displeased them both, and they fervently implored the gods that they might have a child. It is said that Frigg heard their prayers and told Odin what they asked."

Archaeological record
A 12th century depiction of a cloaked but otherwise nude woman riding a large cat appears on a wall in the Schleswig Cathedral in Schleswig-Holstein, Northern Germany. Beside her is similarly a cloaked yet otherwise nude woman riding a distaff. Due to iconographic similarities to the literary record, these figures have been theorized as depictions of Freyja and Frigg respectively.

Scholarly reception and interpretation
Due to numerous similarities, some scholars have proposed that the Old Norse goddesses Frigg and Freyja descend from a common entity from the Proto-Germanic period. Regarding a Freyja-Frigg common origin hypothesis, scholar Stephan Grundy comments that "the problem of whether Frigg or Freyja may have been a single goddess originally is a difficult one, made more so by the scantiness of pre-Viking Age references to Germanic goddesses, and the diverse quality of the sources. The best that can be done is to survey the arguments for and against their identity, and to see how well each can be supported."

Unlike Frigg but like the name of the group of gods to which Freyja belongs, the Vanir, the name Freyja is not attested outside of Scandinavia, as opposed to the name of the goddess Frigg, who is attested as a goddess common among the Germanic peoples, and whose name is reconstructed as Proto-Germanic *Frijjō. Similar proof for the existence of a common Germanic goddess from which Freyja descends does not exist, but scholars have commented that this may simply be due to the scarcity of evidence outside of the North Germanic record.

Modern influence
Frigg is referenced in art and literature into the modern period. In the 18th century, Gustav III of Sweden, king of Sweden, composed Friggja, a play, so named after the goddess, and H. F. Block and Hans Friedrich Blunck's Frau Frigg und Doktor Faust in 1937. Other examples include fine art works by K. Ehrenberg (Frigg, Freyja, drawing, 1883), John Charles Dollman (Frigga Spinning the Clouds, painting, c. 1900), Emil Doepler (Wodan und Frea am Himmelsfenster, painting, 1901), and H. Thoma (Fricka, drawing, date not provided).

title: Frigg


text:
Freehold

Freehold may refer to:

In real estate

 * Freehold (law), the tenure of property in fee simple
 * Customary freehold, a form of feudal tenure of land in England
 * Parson's freehold, where a Church of England rector or vicar of holds title to benefice property

Places

 * Freehold, Greater Manchester, an area of Oldham, in North West England
 * Freehold Metrolink station, a light rail stop in Greater Manchester, England
 * Freehold, a Victorian terraced area in the north east of Lancaster, Lancashire, England
 * Freehold, New Jersey (disambiguation)
 * Freehold Borough, New Jersey, United States
 * Freehold Township, New Jersey, United States
 * Freehold, New York, United States
 * Freehold Township, Warren County, Pennsylvania, United States

In fiction

 * Farnham's Freehold, 1965 science fiction novel by Robert A. Heinlein
 * Freehold (novel), 2004 science fiction novel by Michael Z. Williamson

Other

 * USS Freehold (SP-347), a United States Navy minesweeper and tug in commission from 1917 to 1919
 * Freehold Stakes, an American Thoroughbred horse race
 * Freehold, Iowa, fictional town

title: Freehold


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Felix Wankel

Felix Heinrich Wankel (13 August 1902 – 9 October 1988) was a German mechanical engineer and inventor after whom the Wankel engine was named.

Early life
Wankel was born in 1902 in Lahr in what was then the Grand Duchy of Baden in the Upper Rhine Plain of present-day southwestern Germany. He was the only son of Gerty Wankel (née Heidlauff) and Rudolf Wankel, a forest assessor. His father died in World War I. Thereafter, the family moved to Heidelberg. He went to high schools in Donaueschingen, Heidelberg, and Weinheim, and left school without Abitur in 1921. He learned the trade of purchaser at the Carl Winter Press in Heidelberg and worked for the publishing house until June 1926. He and some friends had already run an unofficial afterwork machine shop in a backyard shed in Heidelberg since 1924. Wankel was now determined to receive unemployment benefits and to focus on the machine shop. One of his friends, who had graduated from university, gave his name and transformed the shop into an official garage for DKW and Cleveland motor bikes in 1927, where Wankel worked from time to time until his arrest in 1933.

Wankel was gifted since childhood with an ingenious spatial imagination and became interested in the world of machines, especially combustion engines. After his mother was widowed, Wankel could not afford university education or even an apprenticeship. He was, however, able to teach himself technical subjects. At age 17 he told friends that he had dreamt of constructing a car with "a new type of engine, half turbine, half reciprocating. It is my invention!". True to this prediction, he conceived the Wankel engine in 1924 and won his first patent in 1929.

Wankel and the Nazi Party
During the early 1920s Wankel was a member of various radical anti-Semitic organizations. In 1921 he joined the Heidelberg branch of the Deutschvölkischer Schutz- und Trutzbund and in 1922 he became a member of the NSDAP, the National Socialist German Workers Party (or "Nazi Party"), which was banned soon afterwards. Wankel founded and led youth groups associated with a cover-up organization of the NSDAP. With them he conducted paramilitary training, scouting games and night walks. When his high esteem for technical innovations was not widely shared among the German Youth Movement, he was offered instead the opportunity to talk about the issue of technology and education to Adolf Hitler and other leading National Socialists in 1928.

In the meantime Wankel's mother, Gerty had helped founding the local chapter of the NSDAP in his hometown of Lahr. Here Wankel not only rejoined the party in 1926, but also met the local Gauleiter, i.e. regional head of the NSDAP party, Robert Heinrich Wagner. In 1931 Wagner entrusted Wankel with the leadership of the Hitler Youth in Baden. But they soon fell out with each other, because Wankel tried to put a stronger emphasis on military training, whereas Wagner wished for the Hitler Youth to be a primarily political organization. In a particularly bitter and ugly controversy Wankel publicly accused Wagner of corruption. Wagner retaliated by stripping Wankel of his office by early 1932 and managed to have him expelled from the party in October 1932.

Wankel, who sympathized with the social-revolutionary wing of the NSDAP with Gregor Strasser, then founded his own National Socialist splinter group in Lahr and continued his attacks on Wagner. Since the Nazis' seizure of power on 30 January 1933 had strengthened his position, Wagner had Wankel arrested and imprisoned in the Lahr jail in March 1933. Only by intervention of Hitler's economic adviser Wilhelm Keppler and Hitler himself, was Wankel set free in September 1933. A fellow native of Baden and member of Reichstag from 1933 to 1945, Keppler had been a friend of Wankel and an ardent supporter of his technological endeavors since 1927. He now helped Wankel to get state contracts and his own Wankels Versuchs Werkstätten experimental workshop in Lindau.

Wankel tried to rejoin the NSDAP in 1937, but was turned down. With the help of Keppler, however, he was admitted to the SS in 1940 in the rank of Obersturmbannführer. Two years later his membership was revoked for unknown reasons.

Career

During World War II, Wankel developed seals and rotary valves for German air force aircraft and navy torpedoes, as well as for companies such as BMW and Daimler-Benz. After the war, the region was occupied by France. Wankel was imprisoned by French authorities for several months in 1945 and his laboratory was closed by French occupation troops. Wankel's work was confiscated and he was prohibited from doing any more work. However, by 1951, he got funding from the Goetze AG company to furnish the new Technical Development Center in his privately owned house in Lindau on Lake Constance. He began development of the engine at NSU Motorenwerke AG, leading to the first running prototype on 1 February 1957. Unlike modern Wankel engines, this 21 horsepower version had both the rotor and housing rotating. His engine design was first licensed by Curtiss-Wright in New Jersey, United States.

On 19 January 1960 the rotary engine was presented for the first time to specialists and the press in a meeting of the German Engineers' Union at the Deutsches Museum in Munich. In the same year, with the KKM 250, the first practically applied rotary engine was presented in a converted NSU Prinz automobile. At around this time the term "Wankel engine" became synonymous with the rotary type of engine, whereas previously it was referred to as the "Motor nach System NSU/Wankel". At the 1963 IAA motor show in Frankfurt, the NSU company presented the NSU Wankel-Spider, the first consumer vehicle with a rotary engine, which went into production in 1964. Great attention was received by the NSU in August 1967 for the very modern NSU Ro 80 sedan, which had a 115-horsepower engine with two rotors. It was the first German car named "Car of the Year" in 1968.

In Japan, the manufacturer Mazda licensed the engine and successfully solved various problems relating to chatter marks. The engine was used successfully by Mazda in several generations of their RX-series of coupés and sedans, including the Mazda Cosmo (1967), R100 (1968), the RX-7 (1978–2002), and the RX-8 (2003–2012). Mazda has planned to reintroduce the engine, albeit as a range extender, in their MX-30 R-EV in 2023. Mercedes-Benz fitted one of its C111 experimental models in 1969 with a three-rotor Wankel engine. In 1970, the next model had a four-rotor Wankel engine and could reach top speed 290 km/h but never reached production.

Wankel became a success in business by securing license agreements for the engine to manufacturers around the world. By 1958 Wankel and partners had founded the Wankel GmbH company, providing Wankel with a share of the profits for marketing the engine. Among the licensees were Daimler-Benz since 1961, General Motors since 1970, Toyota since 1971. Among those who paid higher fees for Wankel RCE rights was a state-owned engineering firm of the DDR. Royalties received by Wankel's own company from licensing were 40% at first, which later dropped to 36%. In 1971 Wankel sold his share in licensing royalties for 50 million Deutschmarks (adjusted for inflation, approximately €87m in 2021) to the English conglomerate Lonrho. A year later he got his Technical Development Center back from the Fraunhofer Society research organization. From 1986 the Felix Wankel Institute entered cooperation agreement with Daimler Benz, which covered the institute's operating costs in return for research rights. Wankel later sold the institute to Daimler Benz for 100 million Deutschmarks.

In the context of the developed Wankel engine, "rotary" is something of a misnomer. The Wankel principle applied only to a "rotary piston" and not to the engine as a whole which was a stationary assembly, unlike rotary engines  employed in WW1 aircraft in which the entire engine rotated about a fixed crankshaft.

Personal life
Wankel married Emma "Mi" Kirn in 1936. Though married for life, they had no children. She died in 1975.

He never had a driving license, because he was extremely near-sighted. He was, however, the owner of an NSU Ro 80 with a Wankel engine, which was chauffeur driven for him.

In 1969, Wankel was granted an honorary Doctorate of Engineering from Technical University Munich. He was known for his championing of animal rights and opposition to the use of animals in testing.

Wankel died in Heidelberg in October 1988, aged 86. His grave is in the Bergfriedhof of Heidelberg. After his death, the Felix Wankel Foundation sold its real estate property to Volkswagen AG. The Heidelberg Fire Department showcases his last workshop. Wankel's papers are archived in the Technoseum in Mannheim. Furthermore, there is an exhibition "AUTOVISION · Tradition & Forum" in Altlußheim, a permanent showing of over 80 rotary engines and many cars equipped with Wankel motors.

Honors and awards

 * Honorary doctorate degree from Technische Universität München, 5 December 1969.
 * The Federation of German Engineers (VDI) Gold Medal, 1969.
 * The Grand Federal Service Cross, Germany's highest civilian honor, 1970
 * John Price Wetherill Medal, Philadelphia, 1971.
 * The Bavarian Service Medal, 1973.
 * The "Honour Citizen" of Lahr, 1981, and the title of Professor in 1987.
 * The Soichiro Honda Medal, 1987.
 * Honorary citizenship of Lindau (declined)

title: Felix Wankel