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Discrimination

Discrimination is the process of making unfair or prejudicial distinctions between people based on the groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong or are perceived to belong, such as race, gender, age, religion, physical attractiveness or sexual orientation. Discrimination typically leads to groups being unfairly treated on the basis of perceived statuses based on ethnic, racial, gender or religious categories. It involves depriving members of one group of opportunities or privileges that are available to members of another group.

Discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices and laws exist in many countries and institutions in all parts of the world, including some where such discrimination is generally decried. In some places, countervailing measures such as quotas have been used to redress the balance in favor of those who are believed to be current or past victims of discrimination. These attempts have often been met with controversy, and sometimes been called reverse discrimination.

Etymology
The term discriminate appeared in the early 17th century in the English language. It is from the Latin discriminat- 'distinguished between', from the verb discriminare, from discrimen 'distinction', from the verb discernere (corresponding to "to discern"). Since the American Civil War the term "discrimination" generally evolved in American English usage as an understanding of prejudicial treatment of an individual based solely on their race, later generalized as membership in a certain socially undesirable group or social category. Before this sense of the word became almost universal, it was a synonym for discernment, tact and culture as in "taste and discrimination", generally a laudable attribute; to "discriminate against" being commonly disparaged.

Definitions
Moral philosophers have defined discrimination using a moralized definition. Under this approach, discrimination is defined as acts, practices, or policies that wrongfully impose a relative disadvantage or deprivation on persons based on their membership in a salient social group. This is a comparative definition. An individual need not be actually harmed in order to be discriminated against. He or she just needs to be treated worse than others for some arbitrary reason. If someone decides to donate to help orphan children, but decides to donate less, say, to children of a particular race out of a racist attitude, he or she will be acting in a discriminatory way even if he or she actually benefits the people he discriminates against by donating some money to them. Discrimination also develops into a source of oppression, the action of recognizing someone as 'different' so much that they are treated inhumanly and degraded.

This moralized definition of discrimination is distinct from a non-moralized definition - in the former, discrimination is wrong by definition, whereas in the latter, this is not the case.

The United Nations stance on discrimination includes the statement: "Discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection." The United Nations Human Rights Council and other international bodies work towards helping ending discrimination around the world.

Age
Ageism or age discrimination is discrimination and stereotyping based on the grounds of someone's age. It is a set of beliefs, norms, and values which used to justify discrimination or subordination based on a person's age. Ageism is most often directed toward elderly people, or adolescents and children.

Age discrimination in hiring has been shown to exist in the United States. Joanna Lahey, professor at The Bush School of Government and Public Service at Texas A&M, found that firms are more than 40% more likely to interview a young adult job applicant than an older job applicant. In Europe, Stijn Baert, Jennifer Norga, Yannick Thuy and Marieke Van Hecke, researchers at Ghent University, measured comparable ratios in Belgium. They found that age discrimination is heterogeneous by the activity older candidates undertook during their additional post-educational years. In Belgium, they are only discriminated if they have more years of inactivity or irrelevant employment.

In a survey for the University of Kent, England, 29% of respondents stated that they had suffered from age discrimination. This is a higher proportion than for gender or racial discrimination. Dominic Abrams, social psychology professor at the university, concluded that ageism is the most pervasive form of prejudice experienced in the UK population.

Caste
According to UNICEF and Human Rights Watch, caste discrimination affects an estimated 250 million people worldwide and is mainly prevalent in parts of Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Japan) and Africa. , there were 200 million Dalits or Scheduled Castes (formerly known as "untouchables") in India.

Disability
Discrimination against people with disabilities in favor of people who are not is called ableism or disablism. Disability discrimination, which treats non-disabled individuals as the standard of 'normal living', results in public and private places and services, educational settings, and social services that are built to serve 'standard' people, thereby excluding those with various disabilities. Studies have shown that disabled people not only need employment in order to be provided with the opportunity to earn a living but they also need employment in order to sustain their mental health and well-being. Work fulfils a number of basic needs for an individual such as collective purpose, social contact, status, and activity. A person with a disability is often found to be socially isolated and work is one way to reduce his or her isolation.

In the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Act mandates the provision of equality of access to both buildings and services and is paralleled by similar acts in other countries, such as the Equality Act 2010 in the UK.

Name
Discrimination based on a person's name may also occur, with researchers suggesting that this form of discrimination is present based on a name's meaning, its pronunciation, its uniqueness, its gender affiliation, and its racial affiliation. Research has further shown that real world recruiters spend an average of just six seconds reviewing each résumé before making their initial "fit/no fit" screen-out decision and that a person's name is one of the six things they focus on most. France has made it illegal to view a person's name on a résumé when screening for the initial list of most qualified candidates. Great Britain, Germany, Sweden, and the Netherlands have also experimented with name-blind summary processes. Some apparent discrimination may be explained by other factors such as name frequency. The effects of name discrimination based on a name's fluency is subtle, small and subject to significantly changing norms.

Nationality
The Anti-discrimination laws of most countries allow and make exceptions for discrimination based on nationality and immigration status. The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) does not prohibit discrimination by nationality, citizenship or naturalization but forbids discrimination "against any particular nationality".

Discrimination on the basis of nationality is usually included in employment laws (see above section for employment discrimination specifically). It is sometimes referred to as bound together with racial discrimination although it can be separate. It may vary from laws that stop refusals of hiring based on nationality, asking questions regarding origin, to prohibitions of firing, forced retirement, compensation and pay, etc., based on nationality.

Discrimination on the basis of nationality may show as a "level of acceptance" in a sport or work team regarding new team members and employees who differ from the nationality of the majority of team members.

In the GCC states, in the workplace, preferential treatment is given to full citizens, even though many of them lack experience or motivation to do the job. State benefits are also generally available for citizens only. Westerners might also get paid more than other expatriates.

Race or ethnicity

Racial and ethnic discrimination differentiates individuals on the basis of real and perceived racial and ethnic differences and leads to various forms of the ethnic penalty. It can also refer to the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to physical appearance and can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another. It may also mean prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against other people because they are of a different race or ethnicity. Modern variants of racism are often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples. These views can take the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems in which different races are ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. It has been official government policy in several countries, such as South Africa during the apartheid era. Discriminatory policies towards ethnic minorities include the race-based discrimination against ethnic Indians and Chinese in Malaysia After the Vietnam War, many Vietnamese refugees moved to Australia and the United States, where they faced discrimination.

Region
Regional or geographic discrimination is a form of discrimination that is based on the region in which a person lives or the region in which a person was born. It differs from national discrimination because it may not be based on national borders or the country in which the victim lives, instead, it is based on prejudices against a specific region of one or more countries. Examples include discrimination against Chinese people who were born in regions of the countryside that are far away from cities that are located within China, and discrimination against Americans who are from the southern or northern regions of the United States. It is often accompanied by discrimination that is based on accent, dialect, or cultural differences.

Religious beliefs
Religious discrimination is valuing or treating people or groups differently because of what they do or do not believe in or because of their feelings towards a given religion. For instance, the Jewish population of Germany, and indeed a large portion of Europe, was subjected to discrimination under Adolf Hitler and his Nazi party between 1933 and 1945. They were forced to live in ghettos, wear an identifying star of David on their clothes, and sent to concentration and death camps in rural Germany and Poland, where they were to be tortured and killed, all because of their Jewish religion. Many laws (most prominently the Nuremberg Laws of 1935) separated those of Jewish faith as supposedly inferior to the Christian population.

Restrictions on the types of occupations that Jewish people could hold were imposed by Christian authorities. Local rulers and church officials closed many professions to religious Jews, pushing them into marginal roles that were considered socially inferior, such as tax and rent collecting and moneylending, occupations that were only tolerated as a "necessary evil". The number of Jews who were permitted to reside in different places was limited; they were concentrated in ghettos and banned from owning land. In Saudi Arabia, non-Muslims are not allowed to publicly practice their religions and they cannot enter Mecca and Medina. Furthermore, private non-Muslim religious gatherings might be raided by the religious police. In Maldives, non-Muslims living and visiting the country are prohibited from openly expressing their religious beliefs, holding public congregations to conduct religious activities, or involving Maldivians in such activities. Those expressing religious beliefs other than Islam may face imprisonment of up to five years or house arrest, fines ranging from 5,000 to 20,000 rufiyaa ($320 to $1,300), and deportation.

In a 1979 consultation on the issue, the United States commission on civil rights defined religious discrimination in relation to the civil rights which are guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment. Whereas religious civil liberties, such as the right to hold or not to hold a religious belief, are essential for Freedom of Religion (in the United States as secured by the First Amendment), religious discrimination occurs when someone is denied "equal protection under the law, equality of status under the law, equal treatment in the administration of justice, and equality of opportunity and access to employment, education, housing, public services and facilities, and public accommodation because of their exercise of their right to religious freedom".

Sex, sex characteristics, gender, and gender identity
Sexism is a form of discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. It has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another. Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment, rape, and other forms of sexual violence. Gender discrimination may encompass sexism and is discrimination toward people based on their gender identity or their gender or sex differences. Gender discrimination is especially defined in terms of workplace inequality. It may arise from social or cultural customs and norms.

Intersex persons experience discrimination due to innate, atypical sex characteristics. Multiple jurisdictions now protect individuals on grounds of intersex status or sex characteristics. South Africa was the first country to explicitly add intersex to legislation, as part of the attribute of 'sex'. Australia was the first country to add an independent attribute, of 'intersex status'. Malta was the first to adopt a broader framework of 'sex characteristics', through legislation that also ended modifications to the sex characteristics of minors undertaken for social and cultural reasons. Global efforts such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 is also aimed at ending all forms of discrimination on the basis of gender and sex.

Sexual orientation

One's sexual orientation is a "predilection for homosexuality, heterosexuality, or bisexuality". Like most minority groups, homosexuals and bisexuals are vulnerable to prejudice and discrimination from the majority group. They may experience hatred from others because of their sexuality; a term for such hatred based upon one's sexual orientation is often called homophobia. Many continue to hold negative feelings towards those with non-heterosexual orientations and will discriminate against people who have them or are thought to have them. People of other uncommon sexual orientations also experience discrimination. One study found its sample of heterosexuals to be more prejudiced against asexual people than against homosexual or bisexual people.

Employment discrimination based on sexual orientation varies by country. Revealing a lesbian sexual orientation (by means of mentioning an engagement in a rainbow organisation or by mentioning one's partner name) lowers employment opportunities in Cyprus and Greece but overall, it has no negative effect in Sweden and Belgium. In the latter country, even a positive effect of revealing a lesbian sexual orientation is found for women at their fertile ages.

Besides these academic studies, in 2009, ILGA published a report based on research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at Södertörn University College, Stockholm, Sweden. This research found that of the 80 countries around the world that continue to consider homosexuality illegal, five carry the death penalty for homosexual activity, and two do in some regions of the country. In the report, this is described as "State sponsored homophobia". This happens in Islamic states, or in two cases regions under Islamic authority. On February 5, 2005, the IRIN issued a reported titled "Iraq: Male homosexuality still a taboo". The article stated, among other things that honor killings by Iraqis against a gay family member are common and given some legal protection. In August 2009, Human Rights Watch published an extensive report detailing torture of men accused of being gay in Iraq, including the blocking of men's anuses with glue and then giving the men laxatives. Although gay marriage has been legal in South Africa since 2006, same-sex unions are often condemned as "un-African". Research conducted in 2009 shows 86% of black lesbians from the Western Cape live in fear of sexual assault.

A number of countries, especially those in the Western world, have passed measures to alleviate discrimination against sexual minorities, including laws against anti-gay hate crimes and workplace discrimination. Some have also legalized same-sex marriage or civil unions in order to grant same-sex couples the same protections and benefits as opposite-sex couples. In 2011, the United Nations passed its first resolution recognizing LGBT rights.

Reverse discrimination

Reverse discrimination is discrimination against members of a dominant or majority group, in favor of members of a minority or historically disadvantaged group. Groups may be defined in terms of disability, ethnicity, family status, gender identity, nationality, race, religion, sex, and sexual orientation, or other factors.

This discrimination may seek to redress social inequalities under which minority groups have had less access to privileges enjoyed by the majority group. In such cases it is intended to remove discrimination that minority groups may already face. Reverse discrimination can be defined as the unequal treatment of members of the majority groups resulting from preferential policies, as in college admissions or employment, intended to remedy earlier discrimination against minorities.

Conceptualizing affirmative action as reverse discrimination became popular in the early- to mid-1970s, a time period that focused on under-representation and action policies intended to remedy the effects of past discrimination in both government and the business world.

Australia

 * Racial Discrimination Act 1975
 * Sex Discrimination Act 1984
 * Disability Discrimination Act 1992
 * Age Discrimination Act 2004

Canada

 * Ontario Human Rights Code 1962
 * Canadian Human Rights Act 1977

Hong Kong

 * Sex Discrimination Ordinance (1996)

India
Article 15 of the Constitution of India prohibits discrimination against any citizen on grounds of caste, religion, sex, race or place of birth etc. Similarly, the Constitution of India guarantees several rights to all citizens irrespective of gender, such as right to equality under Article 14, right to life and personal liberty under Article 21.

Indian Penal Code, 1860 (Section 153 A) - Criminalises the use of language that promotes discrimination or violence against people on the basis of race, caste, sex, place of birth, religion, gender identity, sexual orientation or any other category.

Israel

 * Prohibition of Discrimination in Products, Services and Entry into Places of Entertainment and Public Places Law, 2000
 * Employment (Equal Opportunities) Law, 1988
 * Law of Equal Rights for Persons with Disabilities, 1998

Netherlands

 * Article 137c, part 1 of Wetboek van Strafrecht prohibits insults towards a group because of its race, religion, sexual orientation (straight or gay), handicap (somatically, mental or psychiatric) in public or by speech, by writing or by a picture. Maximum imprisonment one year of imprisonment or a fine of the third category.
 * Part 2 increases the maximum imprisonment to two years and the maximum fine category to 4, when the crime is committed as a habit or is committed by two or more persons.
 * Article 137d prohibits provoking to discrimination or hate against the group described above. Same penalties apply as in article 137c.
 * Article 137e part 1 prohibits publishing a discriminatory statement, other than in formal message, or hands over an object (that contains discriminatory information) otherwise than on his request. Maximum imprisonment is 6 months or a fine of the third category.
 * Part 2 increases the maximum imprisonment to one year and the maximum fine category to 4, when the crime is committed as a habit or committed by two or more persons.
 * Article 137f prohibits supporting discriminatory activities by giving money or goods. Maximum imprisonment is 3 months or a fine of the second category.

United Kingdom

 * Equal Pay Act 1970 – provides for equal pay for comparable work.
 * Sex Discrimination Act 1975 – makes discrimination against women or men, including discrimination on the grounds of marital status, illegal in the workplace.
 * Human Rights Act 1998 – provides more scope for redressing all forms of discriminatory imbalances.
 * Equality Act 2010 – consolidates, updates and supplements the prior Acts and Regulations that formed the basis of anti-discrimination law.

United States

 * Equal Pay Act of 1963 – (part of the Fair Labor Standards Act) – prohibits wage discrimination by employers and labor organizations based on sex.
 * Civil Rights Act of 1964 – many provisions, including broadly prohibiting discrimination in the workplace including hiring, firing, workforce reduction, benefits, and sexually harassing conduct.
 * Fair Housing Act of 1968 prohibited discrimination in the sale or rental of housing based on race, color, national origin, religion, sex, familial status, or disability. The Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity is charged with administering and enforcing the Act.
 * Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, which amended Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 – covers discrimination based upon pregnancy in the workplace.
 * Violence Against Women Act of 1994
 * Racism still occurs in a widespread manner in real estate.

United Nations documents
Important UN documents addressing discrimination include:
 * The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948. It states that:" Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status."
 * The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD) is a United Nations convention. The Convention commits its members to the elimination of racial discrimination. The convention was adopted and opened for signature by the United Nations General Assembly on December 21, 1965, and entered into force on January 4, 1969.
 * The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) is an international treaty adopted in 1979 by the United Nations General Assembly. Described as an international bill of rights for women, it came into force on September 3, 1981.
 * The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is an international human rights instrument treaty of the United Nations. Parties to the convention are required to promote, protect, and ensure the full enjoyment of human rights by persons with disabilities and ensure that they enjoy full equality under the law. The text was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 13, 2006, and opened for signature on March 30, 2007. Following ratification by the 20th party, it came into force on May 3, 2008.

International cooperation

 * Global Forum against Racism and Discrimination
 * The International Coalition of Inclusive and Sustainable Cities (ICCAR) launched by UNESCO in 2004
 * Routes of Enslaved Peoples project

Theories and philosophy
Social theories such as egalitarianism assert that social equality should prevail. In some societies, including most developed countries, each individual's civil rights include the right to be free from government sponsored social discrimination. Due to a belief in the capacity to perceive pain or suffering shared by all animals, abolitionist or vegan egalitarianism maintains that the interests of every individual (regardless of their species), warrant equal consideration with the interests of humans, and that not doing so is speciesist.

Philosophers have debated as to how inclusive the definition of discrimination should be. Some philosophers have argued that discrimination should only refer to wrongful or disadvantageous treatment in the context of a socially salient group (such as race, gender, sexuality etc.) within a given context. Under this view, failure to limit the concept of discrimination would lead to it being overinclusive; for example, since most murders occur because of some perceived difference between the perpetrator and the victim, many murders would constitute discrimination if the social salience requirement is not included. Thus this view argues that making the definition of discrimination overinclusive renders it meaningless. Conversely, other philosophers argue that discrimination should simply refer to wrongful disadvantageous treatment regardless of the social salience of the group, arguing that limiting the concept only to socially salient groups is arbitrary, as well as raising issues of determining which groups would count as socially salient. The issue of which groups should count has caused many political and social debates.

Based on realistic-conflict theory and social-identity theory, Rubin and Hewstone have highlighted a distinction among three types of discrimination:
 * 1) Realistic competition is driven by self-interest and is aimed at obtaining material resources (e.g., food, territory, customers) for the in-group (e.g., favoring an in-group in order to obtain more resources for its members, including the self).
 * 2) Social competition is driven by the need for self-esteem and is aimed at achieving a positive social status for the in-group relative to comparable out-groups (e.g., favoring an in-group in order to make it better than an out-group).
 * 3) Consensual discrimination is driven by the need for accuracy and reflects stable and legitimate intergroup status hierarchies (e.g., favoring a high-status in-group because it is high status).

Labeling theory
Discrimination, in labeling theory, takes form as mental categorization of minorities and the use of stereotype. This theory describes difference as deviance from the norm, which results in internal devaluation and social stigma that may be seen as discrimination. It is started by describing a "natural" social order. It is distinguished between the fundamental principle of fascism and social democracy. The Nazis in 1930s-era Germany and the pre-1990 Apartheid government of South Africa used racially discriminatory agendas for their political ends. This practice continues with some present day governments.

Game theory
Economist Yanis Varoufakis (2013) argues that "discrimination based on utterly arbitrary characteristics evolves quickly and systematically in the experimental laboratory", and that neither classical game theory nor neoclassical economics can explain this.

In 2002, Varoufakis and Shaun Hargreaves-Heap ran an experiment where volunteers played a computer-mediated, multiround hawk-dove game. At the start of each session, each participant was assigned a color at random, either red or blue. At each round, each player learned the color assigned to his or her opponent, but nothing else about the opponent. Hargreaves-Heap and Varoufakis found that the players' behavior within a session frequently developed a discriminatory convention, giving a Nash equilibrium where players of one color (the "advantaged" color) consistently played the aggressive "hawk" strategy against players of the other, "disadvantaged" color, who played the acquiescent "dove" strategy against the advantaged color. Players of both colors used a mixed strategy when playing against players assigned the same color as their own. The experimenters then added a cooperation option to the game, and found that disadvantaged players usually cooperated with each other, while advantaged players usually did not. They state that while the equilibria reached in the original hawk-dove game are predicted by evolutionary game theory, game theory does not explain the emergence of cooperation in the disadvantaged group. Citing earlier psychological work of Matthew Rabin, they hypothesize that a norm of differing entitlements emerges across the two groups, and that this norm could define a "fairness" equilibrium within the disadvantaged group.

title: Discrimination


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Double-ended queue

In computer science, a double-ended queue (abbreviated to deque,  ) is an abstract data type that generalizes a queue, for which elements can be added to or removed from either the front (head) or back (tail). It is also often called a head-tail linked list, though properly this refers to a specific data structure implementation of a deque (see below).

Naming conventions
Deque is sometimes written dequeue, but this use is generally deprecated in technical literature or technical writing because dequeue is also a verb meaning "to remove from a queue". Nevertheless, several libraries and some writers, such as Aho, Hopcroft, and Ullman in their textbook Data Structures and Algorithms, spell it dequeue. John Mitchell, author of Concepts in Programming Languages, also uses this terminology.

Distinctions and sub-types
This differs from the queue abstract data type or first in first out list (FIFO), where elements can only be added to one end and removed from the other. This general data class has some possible sub-types:

 * An input-restricted deque is one where deletion can be made from both ends, but insertion can be made at one end only.
 * An output-restricted deque is one where insertion can be made at both ends, but deletion can be made from one end only.

Both the basic and most common list types in computing, queues and stacks can be considered specializations of deques, and can be implemented using deques. A deque is a data structure that allows users to perform push and pop operations at both ends, providing flexibility in managing the order of elements.

Operations
The basic operations on a deque are enqueue and dequeue on either end. Also generally implemented are peek operations, which return the value at that end without dequeuing it.

Names vary between languages; major implementations include:

Implementations
There are at least two common ways to efficiently implement a deque: with a modified dynamic array or with a doubly linked list.

The dynamic array approach uses a variant of a dynamic array that can grow from both ends, sometimes called array deques. These array deques have all the properties of a dynamic array, such as constant-time random access, good locality of reference, and inefficient insertion/removal in the middle, with the addition of amortized constant-time insertion/removal at both ends, instead of just one end. Three common implementations include:
 * Storing deque contents in a circular buffer, and only resizing when the buffer becomes full. This decreases the frequency of resizings.
 * Allocating deque contents from the center of the underlying array, and resizing the underlying array when either end is reached. This approach may require more frequent resizings and waste more space, particularly when elements are only inserted at one end.
 * Storing contents in multiple smaller arrays, allocating additional arrays at the beginning or end as needed. Indexing is implemented by keeping a dynamic array containing pointers to each of the smaller arrays.

Purely functional implementation
Double-ended queues can also be implemented as a purely functional data structure. Two versions of the implementation exist. The first one, called 'real-time deque, is presented below. It allows the queue to be persistent with operations in $O(1)$ worst-case time, but requires lazy lists with memoization. The second one, with no lazy lists nor memoization is presented at the end of the sections. Its amortized time is $O(1)$ if the persistency is not used; but the worst-time complexity of an operation is $O(n)$ where $n$ is the number of elements in the double-ended queue.

Let us recall that, for a list,   denotes its length, that   represents an empty list and   represents the list whose head is   and whose tail is. The functions  and   return the list   without its first   elements, and the first   elements of , respectively. Or, if, they return the empty list and   respectively.

Real-time deques via lazy rebuilding and scheduling
A double-ended queue is represented as a sextuple  where   is a linked list which contains the front of the queue of length. Similarly,  is a linked list which represents the reverse of the rear of the queue, of length. Furthermore, it is assured that  and   - intuitively, it means that both the front and the rear contains between a third minus one and two thirds plus one of the elements. Finally,  and   are tails of   and of , they allow scheduling the moment where some lazy operations are forced. Note that, when a double-ended queue contains  elements in the front list and   elements in the rear list, then the inequality invariant remains satisfied after   insertions and   deletions when. That is, at most  operations can happen between each rebalancing.

Let us first give an implementation of the various operations that affect the front of the deque - cons, head and tail. Those implementations do not necessarily respect the invariant. In a second time we'll explain how to modify a deque which does not satisfy the invariant into one which satisfies it. However, they use the invariant, in that if the front is empty then the rear has at most one element. The operations affecting the rear of the list are defined similarly by symmetry.

It remains to explain how to define a method  that rebalance the deque if   or   broke the invariant. The method  and   can be defined by first applying   and   and then applying.

where  return the concatenation of   and of. That is put into   the content of   and the  content of   that is not already in. Since dropping  elements takes $$O(n)$$ time, we use laziness to ensure that elements are dropped two by two, with two drops being done during each   and each   operation.

where  is a function that returns the front, followed by the middle reversed, followed by the rear. This function is also defined using laziness to ensure that it can be computed step by step, with one step executed during each  and   and taking a constant time. This function uses the invariant that  is 2 or 3.

where  is the function concatenating two lists.

Implementation without laziness
Note that, without the lazy part of the implementation, this would be a non-persistent implementation of queue in $O(1)$ amortized time. In this case, the lists  and   could be removed from the representation of the double-ended queue.

Language support
Ada's containers provides the generic packages  and , for the dynamic array and linked list implementations, respectively.

C++'s Standard Template Library provides the class templates  and , for the multiple array and linked list implementations, respectively.

As of Java 6, Java's Collections Framework provides a new interface that provides the functionality of insertion and removal at both ends. It is implemented by classes such as (also new in Java 6) and, providing the dynamic array and linked list implementations, respectively. However, the, contrary to its name, does not support random access.

Javascript's Array prototype & Perl's arrays have native support for both removing (shift and pop) and adding (unshift and push) elements on both ends.

Python 2.4 introduced the  module with support for deque objects. It is implemented using a doubly linked list of fixed-length subarrays.

As of PHP 5.3, PHP's SPL extension contains the 'SplDoublyLinkedList' class that can be used to implement Deque datastructures. Previously to make a Deque structure the array functions array_shift/unshift/pop/push had to be used instead.

GHC's Data.Sequence module implements an efficient, functional deque structure in Haskell. The implementation uses 2–3 finger trees annotated with sizes. There are other (fast) possibilities to implement purely functional (thus also persistent) double queues (most using heavily lazy evaluation). Kaplan and Tarjan were the first to implement optimal confluently persistent catenable deques. Their implementation was strictly purely functional in the sense that it did not use lazy evaluation. Okasaki simplified the data structure by using lazy evaluation with a bootstrapped data structure and degrading the performance bounds from worst-case to amortized. Kaplan, Okasaki, and Tarjan produced a simpler, non-bootstrapped, amortized version that can be implemented either using lazy evaluation or more efficiently using mutation in a broader but still restricted fashion. Mihaescu and Tarjan created a simpler (but still highly complex) strictly purely functional implementation of catenable deques, and also a much simpler implementation of strictly purely functional non-catenable deques, both of which have optimal worst-case bounds.

Rust's  includes VecDeque which implements a double-ended queue using a growable ring buffer.

Complexity

 * In a doubly-linked list implementation and assuming no allocation/deallocation overhead, the time complexity of all deque operations is O(1). Additionally, the time complexity of insertion or deletion in the middle, given an iterator, is O(1); however, the time complexity of random access by index is O(n).
 * In a growing array, the amortized time complexity of all deque operations is O(1). Additionally, the time complexity of random access by index is O(1); but the time complexity of insertion or deletion in the middle is O(n).

Applications
One example where a deque can be used is the work stealing algorithm. This algorithm implements task scheduling for several processors. A separate deque with threads to be executed is maintained for each processor. To execute the next thread, the processor gets the first element from the deque (using the "remove first element" deque operation). If the current thread forks, it is put back to the front of the deque ("insert element at front") and a new thread is executed. When one of the processors finishes execution of its own threads (i.e. its deque is empty), it can "steal" a thread from another processor: it gets the last element from the deque of another processor ("remove last element") and executes it. The work stealing algorithm is used by Intel's Threading Building Blocks (TBB) library for parallel programming.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Double-ended queue


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Diene

In organic chemistry, a diene ; also diolefin, ) or alkadiene) is a covalent compound that contains two double bonds, usually among carbon atoms. They thus contain two alkene units, with the standard prefix di of systematic nomenclature. As a subunit of more complex molecules, dienes occur in naturally occurring and synthetic chemicals and are used in organic synthesis. Conjugated dienes are widely used as monomers in the polymer industry. Polyunsaturated fats are of interest to nutrition.

Classes
Dienes can be divided into three classes, depending on the relative location of the double bonds:
 * 1) Cumulated dienes have the double bonds sharing a common atom. The result is more specifically called an allene.
 * 2) Conjugated dienes have conjugated double bonds separated by one single bond. Conjugated dienes are more stable than other dienes because of resonance.
 * 3) Unconjugated dienes have the double bonds separated by two or more single bonds. They are usually less stable than isomeric conjugated dienes. This can also be known as an isolated diene.

According to the Gold Book definition, a "diene" could include one or more heteroatoms which replace unsaturated carbon atoms, giving structures that could more specifically be called heterodienes.

Compounds that contain more than two double bonds are called polyenes. Polyenes and dienes share many properties.

Synthesis of dienes
On an industrial scale, butadiene is prepared by thermal cracking of butanes. In a similarly non-selective process, dicyclopentadiene is obtained from coal tars.

In the laboratory, more directed and more delicate processes are employed such as dehydrohalogenations and condensations. Myriad methods have been developed, such as the Whiting reaction. Families of nonconjugated dienes are derived from the oligomerization and dimerization of conjugated dienes. For example, 1,5-cyclooctadiene and 4-vinylcyclohexene are produced by dimerization of 1,3-butadiene.

Diene-containing fatty acids are biosynthesized from acetyl CoA.

α,ω-Dienes have the formula (CH2)n(CH=CH2)2. They are prepared industrially by ethenolysis of cyclic dienes. For example, 1,5-hexadiene and 1,9-decadiene, useful crosslinking agents and synthetic intermediates, are produced from 1,5-cyclooctadiene and cyclooctene, respectively. The catalyst is derived from Re2O7 on alumina.

Polymerization
The most heavily practiced reaction of alkenes, dienes included, is polymerization. 1,3-Butadiene is a precursor to rubber used in tires, and isoprene is the precursor to natural rubber. Chloroprene is related but it is a synthetic monomer.

Cycloadditions
An important reaction for conjugated dienes is the Diels–Alder reaction. Many specialized dienes have been developed to exploit this reactivity for the synthesis of natural products (e.g., Danishefsky's diene).

Other addition reactions
Conjugated dienes add reagents such as bromine and hydrogen by both 1,2-addition and 1,4-addition pathways. Addition of polar reagents can generate complex architectures:
 * [[Image:CODSCl2.png|450px|2,6-Dichloro-9-thiabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane, synthesis and reactions]]

Metathesis reactions
Nonconjugated dienes are substrates for ring-closing metathesis reactions. These reactions require a metal catalyst:c
 * RCM cyclophane example.png

Acidity
The position adjacent to a double bond is acidic because the resulting allyl anion is stabilized by resonance. This effect becomes more pronounced as more alkenes are involved to create greater stability. For example, deprotonation at position 3 of a 1,4-diene or position 5 of a 1,3-diene give a pentadienyl anion. An even greater effect is seen if the anion is aromatic, for example, deprotonation of cyclopentadiene to give the cyclopentadienyl anion.

As ligands
Dienes are widely used chelating ligands in organometallic chemistry. In some cases they serve as placeholder ligands, being removed during a catalytic cycle. For example, the cyclooctadiene ("cod") ligands in bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0) are labile. In some cases, dienes are spectator ligands, remaining coordinated throughout a catalytic cycle and influencing the product distributions. Chiral dienes have also been described. Other diene complexes include (butadiene)iron tricarbonyl, cyclobutadieneiron tricarbonyl, and cyclooctadiene rhodium chloride dimer.

title: Diene


text:
Diatessaron

The Diatessaron (c. 160–175 AD) is the most prominent early gospel harmony. It was created in the Syriac language by Tatian, an Assyrian early Christian apologist and ascetic. Tatian sought to combine all the textual material he found in the four gospels - Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John - into a single coherent narrative of Jesus's life and death. However, and in contradistinction to most later gospel harmonists, Tatian appears not to have been motivated by any aspiration to validate the four separate canonical gospel accounts; or to demonstrate that, as they stood, they could each be shown as being without inconsistency or error.

Although widely used by early Syriac Christians, the original text has not survived. It was reconstructed in 1881 by Theodor Zahn from translations and commentaries.

Terminology
The title Diatessaron comes from the Latin diatessarōn, meaning: "made of four [ingredients]"; this is derived in turn from Greek, διὰ τεσσάρων (dia tessarōn), meaning "out of four" (i.e., διά, dia, "at intervals of" and tessarōn [genitive of τέσσαρες, tessares], "four").

The Syriac name for this gospel harmony is 'ܐܘܢܓܠܝܘܢ ܕܡܚܠܛܐ' (Ewangeliyôn Damhalltê) meaning: "Gospel of the Mixed".

Overview
Tatian's harmony follows the gospels closely in terms of text but, in order to fit all the canonical material in, he created his own narrative sequence, which is different from both the synoptic sequence and John's sequence; and occasionally creates intervening time periods that are found in none of the source accounts. This sequence is coherent and consistent within itself, but not necessarily consistent with that in all or any of the separate canonical gospels; and Tatian apparently applies the same principle in respect of the narrative itself. Where the gospels differ from one another in respect of the details of an event or teaching, the Diatessaron resolves such apparent contradictions by selecting one or another alternative wording and adding consistent details from the other gospels; while omitting apparent duplicate matter, especially across the synoptics. Hence, in respect of the healing of the blind at Jericho the Diatessaron reports only one blind man, Bartimeaus, healed by Jesus when leaving the city according to the account in Mark 10:46ff (expanded with phrases from Luke 18:36–37); consequently omitting any separate mention of two unnamed blind men healed by Jesus leaving Jericho (Matthew 20:29ff), and also the healing by Jesus entering Jericho the previous day of a single unnamed blind man (Luke 18:35ff).

Otherwise, Tatian originally omitted altogether both of the different genealogies in Matthew and Luke, as well as Luke's introduction (Luke 1:1–4); and also did not originally include Jesus' encounter with the adulteress (John 7:53–8:11). The pericope is present in western manuscripts believed to be based on the Diatessaron (e.g., Codex Fuldensis) but is generally considered to be a latter interpolation. This whole passage is also generally considered to be a late addition to the Gospel of John, with the Diatessaron itself often cited as an early textual witness in support of its omission.

Most scholars agree that Tatian did, from the beginning, include the longer ending of Mark (Mark 16: 9–20), and correspondingly is amongst the earliest witnesses to this inclusion. Tatian added no significant wording to the textual material he took from the separate gospels. Only 56 verses in the canonical Gospels do not have a counterpart in the Diatessaron, mostly the genealogies and the Pericope Adulterae. The final work is about 72 per cent the length of the four gospels put together; around a quarter of the text of the separate gospels being adjudged by Tatian to be duplicated. (McFall, 1994).

In the early Church, the gospels at first circulated independently, with Matthew the most popular. The Diatessaron is notable evidence for the authority already enjoyed by the gospels by the mid- to late-2nd century. Within twenty years after Tatian's harmony was written, Irenaeus was expressly arguing for the authoritative character of the Four Gospels. It is unclear whether Tatian intended the Diatessaron to supplement or replace the four separate gospels; but both outcomes came to pass in different churches. The Diatessaron became adopted as the standard lectionary text of the gospels in some Syriac-speaking churches from the late 2nd to the 5th century, until it gave way to the four separate Gospels such as the Syriac Sinaitic gospels, or later in the Peshitta version. At the same time, in the churches of the Latin west, the Diatessaron circulated as a supplement to the four gospels, especially in the Latin translation.

Recensions and translations
A number of recensions of the Diatessaron are extant. The earliest, part of the Eastern family of recensions, is preserved in 4th century theologian Ephrem the Syrian's Commentary on Tatian's work, which itself is preserved in two versions: an Armenian translation preserved in two copies, and a copy of Ephrem's original Syriac text dated to the late 5th or early 6th century, which has been edited by Louis Leloir (Paris, 1966).

Many other translations have been made, sometimes including substantial revisions to the text. There are translations into Arabic, Latin, Old Georgian, Old High German, Middle High German, Middle English, Middle Dutch and Old Italian. There is a Persian harmony that seems to have borrowed some readings from the Diatessaron. There are also Parthian texts with borrowings from the Diatessaron. The Arabic translation was made by Ibn al-Tayyib in the early 11th century from the original Syriac.

Tatian's harmony
Tatian was an Assyrian who was a pupil of Justin Martyr in Rome, where, Justin says, the apomnemoneumata (recollections or memoirs) of the Apostles, the gospels, were read every Sunday. When Justin quotes the synoptic Gospels, he tends to do so in a harmonised form, and Helmut Koester and others conclude that Justin must have possessed a Greek harmony text of Matthew, Luke and Mark.

If so, it is unclear how much Tatian may have borrowed from this previous author in determining his own narrative sequence of Gospel elements. It is equally unclear whether Tatian took the Syriac Gospel texts composited into his Diatessaron from a previous translation, or whether the translation was his own. Where the Diatessaron records Gospel quotations from the Jewish Scriptures, the text appears to agree with that found in the Syriac Peshitta Old Testament rather than that found in the Greek Septuagint—as used by the original Gospel authors. The majority consensus is that the Peshitta Old Testament preceded the Diatessaron, and represents an independent translation from the Hebrew Bible. Resolution of these scholarly questions remained very difficult so long as no complete version of the Diatessaron in Syriac or Greek had been recovered; while the medieval translations that had survived—in Arabic and Latin—both relied on texts that had been heavily corrected to conform better with later canonical versions of the separate Gospel texts.

There is scholarly uncertainty about what language Tatian used for its original composition, whether Syriac or Greek.

Diatessaron in Syriac Christianity
The Diatessaron was used as the standard Gospel text in the liturgy of at least some sections of the Syrian Church for possibly up to two centuries and was quoted or alluded to by Syrian writers. Ephrem the Syrian wrote a commentary on it, the Syriac original of which was rediscovered only in 1957, when a manuscript acquired by Sir Chester Beatty in 1957 (now Chester Beatty Syriac MS 709, Dublin) turned out to contain the text of Ephrem's commentary. The manuscript constituted approximately half of the leaves of a volume of Syriac writings that had been catalogued in 1952 in the library of the Coptic monastery of Deir es-Suriani in Wadi Natrun, Egypt. Subsequently, the Chester Beatty library was able to track down and buy a further 42 leaves, so that now approximately eighty per cent of the Syriac commentary is available (McCarthy 1994). Ephrem did not comment on all passages in the Diatessaron, and nor does he always quote commentated passages in full; but for those phrases that he does quote, the commentary provides for the first time a dependable witness to Tatian's original; and also confirms its content and their sequence. .

Theodoret, bishop of Cyrrhus on the Euphrates in upper Syria in 423, suspecting Tatian of having been a heretic, sought out and found more than two hundred copies of the Diatessaron, which he "collected and put away, and introduced instead of them the Gospels of the four evangelists".

Vernacular harmonies derived from the Diatessaron
No Christian tradition, other than some Syriac ones, has ever adopted a harmonized Gospel text for use in its liturgy. However, in many traditions, it was not unusual for subsequent Christian generations to seek to provide paraphrased Gospel versions in language closer to the vernacular of their own day. Frequently such versions have been constructed as Gospel harmonies, sometimes taking Tatian's Diatessaron as an exemplar; other times proceeding independently. Hence from the Syriac Diatessaron text was derived an 11th-century Arabic harmony (the source for the published versions of the Diatessaron in English); and a 13th-century Persian harmony. The Arabic harmony preserves Tatian's sequence exactly, but uses a source text corrected in most places to that of the standard Syriac Peshitta Gospels; the Persian harmony differs greatly in sequence, but translates a Syriac text that is rather closer to that in Ephrem's commentary.

A Vetus Latina version of Tatian's Syriac text appears to have circulated in the West from the late 2nd century; with a sequence adjusted to conform more closely to that of the canonical Gospel of Luke; and also including additional canonical text (such as the Pericope Adulterae), and possibly non-canonical matter from the Gospel of the Hebrews. With the gradual adoption of the Vulgate as the liturgical Gospel text of the Latin Church, the Latin Diatessaron was increasingly modified to conform to Vulgate readings. In 546 Victor of Capua discovered such a mixed manuscript; and, further corrected by Victor so as to provide a very pure Vulgate text within a modified Diatessaron sequence and to restore the two genealogies of Jesus side-by-side, this harmony, the Codex Fuldensis, survives in the monastic library at Fulda, where it served as the source text for vernacular harmonies in Old High German, Eastern Frankish and Old Saxon (the alliterative poem 'Heliand'). The older mixed Vulgate/Diatessaron text type also appears to have continued as a distinct tradition, as such texts appear to underlie surviving 13th–14th century Gospel harmonies in Middle Dutch, Middle High German, Middle French, Middle English, Tuscan and Venetian; although no example of this hypothetical Latin sub-text has ever been identified. The Liège Diatessaron is a particularly poetic example. This Latin Diatessaron textual tradition has also been suggested as underlying the enigmatic 16th century Islam-influenced Gospel of Barnabas (Joosten, 2002).

Use of the word "God"
Robert F. Shedinger writes that in quotations to the Old Testament where the great uncial codices have κύριος and the Hebrew OT manuscripts יהוה (YHWH), Tatian wrote the term "God". Pavlos D. Vasileiadis reports that "Shedinger proposed that the Syriac Diatessaron, composed some time after the middle of the second century CE, may provide additional confirmation of Howard’s hypothesis (Tatian and the Jewish Scriptures, 136–140). Additionally, within the Syriac Peshitta is discernible the distinction between κύριος rendered as ܡܪܝܐ (marya, which means "lord" and refers to the God as signified by the Tetragrammaton; see Lu 1:32) and ܡܪܢ (maran, a more generic term for "lord"; see Joh 21:7)." R. F. Shedinger holds that after יהוה, θεός could be a term before κύριος became the standard term in the New Testament Greek copies.

Shedinger's work has been strongly criticized. Since Tatian's Diatessaron is known only indirectly from references to it in other works, Shedinger's dissertation is based on his collection of 69 possible readings, only two of which, in the judgment of William L. Petersen. reach the level of probability. Peterson complains of Shedinger's "inconsistent methodology" and says that the surviving readings do not support his conclusions. Petersen thinks the dissertation should never have been accepted for a doctoral degree, in view of "the illogical arguments, inconsistent standards, philological errors, and methodological blunders that mar this book. [...] the errors are so frequent and so fundamental that this volume can contribute nothing to scholarship. What it says that is true has already been said elsewhere, with greater clarity and perspective. What it says that is new is almost always wrong, plagued [...] with philological, logical, and methodological errors, and a gross insensitivity to things historical (both within the discipline, as well as the transmission-history of texts). Reading this book fills one with dismay and despair. It is shocking that a work which does not rise to the level of a master's thesis should be approved as a doctoral dissertation; how it found its way into print is unfathomable. One shudders to think of the damage it will do when, in the future, it is cited by the ignorant and the unsuspecting as "demonstrating" what it has not." Jan Joosten's review of Shedinger's work is also condemnatory. In his judgment "Shedinger's study remains unconvincing, not only in the final conclusions but also in the details of the argument."

title: Diatessaron


text:
Talk:Desert

Semi-protected edit request on 8 March 2022
As an Australian, living in the outback, I can safely say I have never heard of the 'Great Australian Desert', nor does the article it links to mention it, nor is it present in the reference given for 'The ten largest deserts table'. Request: Could 'Great Australian Desert' be removed from the table and be replaced with the 'Great Victoria desert' at a position that matches the reference given. Gehyra Australis (talk) 03:33, 8 March 2022 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 24 August 2016
In the article Desert / Biogeography  it is stated that "Cacti are restricted to North America", which is not correct as they are also present in South America  .

I would suggest something like "Cacti are present in both North and South America, with a post-Gondwana origin". I am not a cactus specialist, but the error is evident. 200.199.130.68 (talk) 18:20, 24 August 2016 (UTC)
 * ✅ Updated. -- Dane 2007  talk 21:29, 26 August 2016 (UTC)

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Edit request: Expansion of one sentence for clarity.
Regarding the first clause of the last sentence under Human Relations --> History:

Overgrazing is still considered a cause of desertification. The reference is a TED Talk whose presenter is distinguishing between that and "adequate" grazing. He argues that undergrazing is also a problem (though he doesn't say it in those words) because herds are needed to flatten tall grasses, which encourages "biological decay" (as opposed to oxidative decomposition) and creates a microclimate underneath, regulating temperature and retaining moisture. This results in new grassland growth next season, as opposed to favoring woody plants and leaving soil bare. (This was all in the TED Talk.)

All that to suggest my edit: "Although overgrazing is still considered to be a cause of desertification, there is some evidence that "planned grazing", actively managed with livestock, actually improves vegetation cover and land fertility and production. Livestock reduction or removal may actually encourage erosive processes."

2001:569:7466:DA00:CD28:BED8:7121:5F66 (talk) 03:34, 22 November 2017 (UTC)

 * Many thanks. You'd be right, but we shouldn't really be using TED talks as sources anyway, they're just people's opinions, and this one is certainly controversial and would need far more solid evidence, so I've removed it. Better sources are already used just above that passage giving the main points. Chiswick Chap (talk) 12:39, 9 December 2017 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 6 June 2018
2001:8003:3DD2:BA00:DD6A:19A7:9354:57AA (talk) 04:18, 6 June 2018 (UTC) desert is a hot place
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. LittlePuppers (talk) 04:44, 6 June 2018 (UTC)

Arctic is not a single desert
There's no single Arctic desert. There may be deserts in the Arctic region, but parts of the Arctic has more precipitation than the limit for deserts. This obviously means that the Arctic is not a single desert, never mind different regions are separated by open sea! The northern polar ice may seem like a desert, but it's over water, so it's not a desert by definition and the ice is not static or permanent. Now compare with the Afro-Asian desert belt. If we go by this idea that all of the Arctic landmass is a single desert, then this also must apply to the entire desert region in Africa and Asia, from Mauretania to China. 109.56.153.130 (talk) 13:11, 22 January 2019 (UTC)
 * The actual Artic desert, which is actually several deserts, covers a region of islands and is much smaller than stated here. There is, in fact, a Wikipedia article correctly describing the Arctic desert here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_desert which is strongly at odds with the desert list in this Wikipedia article. 62.44.134.224 (talk) 11:16, 12 February 2022 (UTC)

Dome C
Internal link for Dome C. --77.173.90.33 (talk) 11:55, 28 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Yes check.svg Done NiciVampireHeart 12:04, 28 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Thanks. --77.173.90.33 (talk) 12:36, 28 May 2019 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 7 August 2019
"Mars is the only planet in the Solar System on which deserts have been identified." → "Mars is the only planet in the Solar System besides Earth on which deserts have been identified." The statement is technically inaccurate otherwise. 81.97.179.9 (talk) 16:17, 7 August 2019 (UTC)
 * ✅. El_C 16:20, 7 August 2019 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 4 January 2020
"the only other planet in the Solar System besides earth" → "the only other planet in the Solar System besides Earth", per MOS:CELESTIALBODIES. 148.252.24.230 (talk) 21:30, 4 January 2020 (UTC)
 * ✅ Ghmyrtle (talk) 21:38, 4 January 2020 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 07:08, 30 June 2021 (UTC)
 * Qeshm Museum-Iran 2018.jpg

Ocean Deserts?
If a desert is a place with little precipitation, then large parts of the ocean would qualify (for example, off the coast of Senegal, hardly any rain falls). Is there a name for such places? 68.196.1.236 (talk) 18:43, 14 August 2021 (UTC)captcrisis
 * Deserts are land. How the precipitation is over the oceans is irrelevant. However, this article has many severe errors, the biggest is still the inclusion of a single Arctic desert, which is not something that exists at all. It's an internet myth. 62.44.134.224 (talk) 10:57, 12 February 2022 (UTC)
 * The article itself states that there are various definitions of the term. I personally favor the concept of low average biological production (that is low growth) over an extended compact surface area for at least decades (climate = weather over 20+ yrs). This could very well include ocean dead zones including near-land anoxic zones. Consider whether parts of an ice sheet should be excluded from the less nuanced definition depending on whether it is over (ocean) water. floating? Resting on sea bed? What if it's resting on land below sea level? How about lakes in Antarctica? Standing 1 or 2 miles on ice over a lake surrounded by desert, but its not desert there? The definition as given is inadequate. And let's also consider desert islands. Actually, as long as the obvious *flaws* of the definition are mentioned (they're NOT), I think it's OK to keep it. Surely, this has been discussed among the (teaching) geography community.40.142.183.146 (talk) 08:32, 24 July 2023 (UTC)

Scarify
please change ((scarify)) to ((Scarification (botany)|scarify)) 98.239.227.65 (talk) 01:46, 15 October 2022 (UTC)
 * done.--Vsmith (talk) 02:50, 15 October 2022 (UTC)

Impacts of climate change
Effects of climate change on deserts are not mentioned in this article. Should the article describe any of these effects, such as desertification? Jarble (talk) 23:27, 29 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Desert


text:
Talk:Diatessaron

Genealogies
The original entry read "irreconcilable genealogies" when referring to the different genealogies in Matthew and Luke. This is, however, a biased statement---they are certainly different, but that does not imply that they're "irreconcilable." That would be equivalent to someone from the other side of the discussion stating that they are "complementary genealogies." As such, I've changed the entry to read "different genealogies." I think this is fair to both sides of the discussion. — Preceding unsigned comment added by an unknown editor (talk • contribs)

 * If they are not "irreconcilable", then the article should report how they've been reconciled. Suppressing statements of awkward fact that run counter to one's personal point-of-view is anti-Wikipedian. --Wetman 23:01, 1 September 2005 (UTC)

I have reverted the attached text relating to the genealogies;

 * Tatian's harmony follows the four Gospels closely in terms of text but puts the text in a new, different sequence. Tatian weaved the four Gospels together into one coherent and continuous narrative. It also omits the genealogies in Matthew and Luke [The genealogy in Matthew is Joseph's and the genealogy in Luke is Mary's; Mary is the daughter of Heli, according to the Talmud and according to Jewish tradition women are NOT mentioned in genealogies, hence, why Joseph (son-in-law of Heli) is mentioned in place of Mary.].

There is a substantial scholarly tradition arsing out of proposed reconciliations of the Matthew and Luke genealogy traditions; but since neither genealogy is witnessed in the Diatessaron, the matter is irrelevant to this article, much better in Genealogy of Jesus.TomHennell (talk) 17:13, 20 April 2014 (UTC)
 * Yes, I totally agree. But, an anonymous user User:108.30.250.8 is constantly inserting unreferenced statement in the lead section trying to explain the difference between the two genealogies . This issue is discussed at long at Genealogy of Jesus, so there is completely no need to discuss it in this article. Vanjagenije (talk) 22:29, 21 April 2014 (UTC)

 * Well said Vanjagenije. TomHennell (talk) 09:59, 22 April 2014 (UTC)

Anonymous, the word "different" is perfect. Providing a neutral and factual point-of-view is Pro-Wikipedian.

Wetman, I agree. The article should report how the different genealogies are reconcilable, if they are.

Anonymous, thank you for your reconciling contribution.

LadyMargo (talk) 00:22, 24 April 2014 (UTC)Lady Margo

 * I have had to revert this again. Please don't indulge in edit wars - discuss changes here; and respect any consensus thats is reached.  (It also helps, and is good Wiki-manners, if editors identify themselves). Thank you one and all.  TomHennell (talk) 10:15, 25 April 2014 (UTC)

 * I have slightly re-ordered the lede, and provided an explicit citation of the McFall article (which is far the best recent summary analysis of Tatian's working methods). http://lmf12.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/tatianarticle.pdf McFall discusses the omission of the genealogies at length; and essentially proposes that Tatian saw them as 'duplications' not 'contradictions', and omitted them for that reason. I trust this will clarify the points at issue. TomHennell (talk) 11:17, 25 April 2014 (UTC)

TomHennell: You stated, "I have had to revert this again. Please don't indulge in edit wars - discuss changes here; and respect any consensus thats is reached." You wrongfully reverted it. Just because you do not agree with it, it does not mean that you can revert it. What you wrote is equivalent to 2+2=5 but not to 2+2=4. The two genealogies are not contradictory but different and an accurate explanation has been given, which you removed. I was not indulging in edit wars but providing accurate information. I will not respect your inaccurate information nor anyones inaccurate information. You are not fit to discuss this matter with because you obviously are ignorant of the fact that 2+2=4. As for the healing of the blind men: When sports journalists report about a sports game, they do not report every single thing. If one sports journalist reports that 2 football players got hurt and a second sports journalist reports that a football player got hurt, it does not mean that they reported contradictory information but different information.

You stated, "It also helps, and is good Wiki-manners, if editors identify themselves." That is your opinion and I do not agree with you. I have been writing & editing on Wikipedia for 5 years and never had an account & never identified myself. There is no need for it. Wikipedia is about articles and not about the people who write and edit articles.

You stated, that McFall "essentially proposes that Tatian saw them as 'duplications' not 'contradictions', and omitted them for that reason." So, a 21st Century scholar's ASSUMPTION is your preference over THE FACT that the genealogies were omitted because Tatian believed that the flesh of Jesus was imaginary (Gnostic view) but the genealogies show that Jesus was born of the seed of David after the flesh?! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 108.30.250.8 (talk) 23:00, 25 April 2014 (UTC)

Lady Margo: Thank you for being appreciative of my contribution, which reconciled the different genealogies but it was reverted by a person who is obviously ignorant of the fact that it is relevant information and linked "genealogies" to a Wikipedia article, which has MANY errors. He is also ignorant of the fact that 2+2=4; there are no contradictions among the 4 gospels.

 * Thank you 'unsigned'; it is good that we can discuss matters on here first I am disappointed though that you are unable to identify yourself - whether you feel bound by good Wiki-manners or not.

 * As you have been posting on Wikipedia for five years, I suspect that not much that I say will be new to you; other editors will no doubt have made these points before in respect of other articles. Wikipedia doesn't belong to you and me; its their bat and ball, so they set the rules; and we must abide by them or post somewhere else.

 * Here goes:

 * 1. Wikipedia is not a democracy; everyone can edit, but only published current authoritative scholarly opinions are to be included. That is why all assertions of 'fact' must be tied to a published citation from a named authoritative academic figure; the more recent, the better.  So, if you or I assert that 2+2=4, that counts as 'original research' and has no place in Wikipedia; but if the Regius Professor of Mathematics asserts that 2+2=5, and published this last year in a peer-reviewed journal; then that is an authoritative current scholarly opinion; and that is what Wikipedia exists to record.  McFall is a published scholar; so his opinion is notable and proper for inclusion in Wikipedia; even if it were to be factually incorrect.  Whatever your assumptions to the contrary, I have not given my opinions on the subject; I am not published and am not notable - and so long as you are unnamed, neither are you.  So you are correct; the published ASSERTION of a 21st century scholar should always be preferred in Wikipedia above FACT, if that fact is based only on original research, or on outdated scholarship.

 * 2. The subject of the article is 'Tatian's Diatessaron'; not 'Contradictions in the Gospels'. It may well be that other Wikipedia articles have many errors; indeed if they are good articles that is as it should be; since much current published scholarship is erroneous, and nothing should be in Wikipdiea that is not in current published scholarship - and articles should give space to all current scholarship on a subject, whether it it factual or not. The right response is to find a current published scholar who asserts the opinions that you feel ought to be recorded in Wikipedia, and add them to the article in question.  You will find I will be fully behind you.  The wrong response, I'm afraid,is to put those opinions in a different article.  Tatian omits both the genealogies, and McFall's article discusses why that may have been.  Why the two genealgies are so different is not relevant to the article - and if McFall is right, is not an issue that bothered Tatian.  One thing we can be sure though, is that Tatian did not remove from the Diatessaron other references to Jesus being descended from David according to the flesh; so it is highly unlikely that this view (if it really was his view, and not a later slander)  underlies his omission of the genealogies.  It may well be that Matthew presents Joseph's genealogy, and Luke presents Mary's; it is equally (perhaps more) likely that the gospel lists present Mary and Joseph's genealogies the other way round.  But Raymond Brown's statement is unequivocal (in 'The Birth of the Messiah') that 'most scholars today have rejected the explanation that both the Matthean and Lucan genealogies are family lists' (page 90).  And, according to the rules of Wikipedia, that does rather settle the matter, unless you can find the contrary view more recently than 1979. What most modern sholars have rejected is not proper for inclusion in Wikipedia.  But in any case, the article is not concerned with the genealogies as they stand in the separate gospels, but with how Tatian treated them in his gospel - which in this case was total omission. Their bat and ball, their rules.

 * 3, The healing of the blind man is in Tatian; and so discussion of the matter is quite proper for the article. And you are quite correct, there is no necessary contradiction at all in the three synoptic accounts as they stand.  It is quite possible that Jesus healed two blind men at Jericho (as per Matthew), that one was healed on his way into town (as per Luke), and the other called Bartimeus, as Jesus left town for Jerusalem (as per Mark).  And most later classical harmonists adopt just such a composite harmonising narrative.  But Tatian does not (and not does he do so in a number of other such passages). This is an important point; it may be that 'there are no contradictions among the four gospels'; but that is emphatically not Tatian's view; he is not seeking to show that all four Gospels taken individually are correct and without error; he is seeking to show that the textual material in the four gospels can be abstracted and re-arranged (without major addition) to make a single consistent narrative.  It does not bother Tatian at all, it seems, that by including Luke 2:39 he makes the Magi appear to the Christ child in Nazareth, not Bethlehem;  the important thing is to incorporate all the text from all the four gospels, not to substantiate the accounts found in any one gospel (let alone all of them) as they stood before his scissors-and-paste exercise. TomHennell (talk) 00:56, 26 April 2014 (UTC)

 * Dear anonymous user User:108.30.250.8, please stop inserting your statement into article's lead section. The question is not what's 2+2, but what is relevant and properly sourced information for this article. The difference between two genealogies of Jesus are not relevant for this article since they are not present in the Diatessaron at all. We have articles "Genealogy of Jesus" and "Internal consistency of the Bible", and that is where this problem should be resolved. There are many opinions on why Luke and Matthew give differed genealogies, and scholars do not agree on the reason. You are constantly inserting one of this opinions into the lead section, which is contrary to Wikipedia's WP:NPOV policy. I would also like to point out to you that you should treat other editors with respect, and not call them "ignorant" and not tell them to "mind their business" . We are all Wikipedia editors here, and this is our business. This is not just my opinion, this is official Wikipedia policy (WP:CIVIL). You should also sign your posts, as to help other users follow the discussion. That is not anyone's opinions, that is Wikipedia's policy (WP:SIGNATURE: "Comments posted on user talk pages, article talk pages and other discussion pages should be properly signed."). Vanjagenije (talk) 18:18, 26 April 2014 (UTC)

the Diatessaronic Tradition
I have re-edited the text to be more consistent with the entry on Tatian, and to take into account recent manuscript discoveries TomHennell 11:45, 18 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Would we be right in assuming that you mean this edit?. It is regrettably devoid of sources, and some of it I have just deleted. SamuelTheGhost (talk) 15:46, 13 February 2012 (UTC)

Date of compilation
How is it that a date of c. 175 AD is set for this when Bruce Metzger (reflected over at ntcanon.org) puts a date of 150-160 AD? 15 years makes a difference.

Sntjohnny 16:54, 16 May 2006 (UTC)

 * It is generally agreed that Tatian left Rome for Syria after the death of Justin Martyr in 165. I suppose it depends whether you consider that Tatian compiled the Diatessaron while in Rome, or later. Since the most recent scholarship tends to suggest that the language of composition was Syriac, the later date would appear more likely.  However, a difference or 15 years more or less really is crucial to your evaluation of a NT text, then I suggest you may need to reconsider your theorising. TomHennell 14:26, 17 May 2006 (UTC)

I note that User:Carnegiecarnage has edited the date  to 250 - 300. The corollary of this is that Tatian cannot be the author - and therefore that the current work (or rather the original form if it) cannot be the work identified as Tatian's harmony. Does anything substantiate this late dating? TomHennell (talk) 22:13, 15 August 2008 (UTC)

did Tatian use the Gospel of John?
Apparently not. It is actually possible that the Gospel of John was being written about the time of Tatian's Diatessaron, or was not widely read at that time. According to Helmut Koester, professor of New Testament Studies at Harvard University, in his book "History and Literature of Early Christianity" page 32, The Gospel of John was not included.166.203.44.113 (talk) 22:49, 21 April 2009 (UTC)

 * I have found the page you refer to - isn't Google wonderful - and I fear that you may have misread Koerster's point. He is stating that Justin's harmony most likely only contained only the synoptics, and that Tatian merged his own Syriac translation of John into this to create the Diatessaron. So I take Koerster as supporting the statement as in the article. TomHennell (talk) 08:20, 22 April 2009 (UTC)

I stand corrected- I did re-read Koerster, and concur with your article. Sometimes we see what we want to see. 32.178.22.125 (talk) 14:27, 22 April 2009 (UTC)

Uncategorized remarks from 2009
01/04/09 The title says "Diatessaron" but the actual article refers to the "Diatesseron"

--- —Preceding unsigned comment added by 168.215.79.212 (talk) 05:08, 4 January 2009 (UTC)

 * sorted (I think) TomHennell (talk) 01:05, 5 January 2009 (UTC)

Now why on earth is: [Ammonius Saccas|Ammonius Saccas who taught Origen and Plotinus] really a useful way to do this? The issue of the (possible!) multiple Ammonius Saccases is explored in the Ammonius Saccas entry. --MichaelTinkler

title: Talk:Diatessaron


text:
Dean Koontz

Dean Ray Koontz (born July 9, 1945) is an American author. His novels are billed as suspense thrillers, but frequently incorporate elements of horror, fantasy, science fiction, mystery, and satire. Many of his books have appeared on The New York Times Best Seller list, with fourteen hardcovers and sixteen paperbacks reaching the number-one position. Koontz wrote under a number of pen names earlier in his career, including "David Axton", "Deanna Dwyer", "K.R. Dwyer", "Leigh Nichols" and "Brian Coffey". He has published over 105 novels and a number of novellas and collections of short stories, and has sold over 450 million copies of his work.

Early life
Koontz was born on July 9, 1945, in Everett, Pennsylvania, the son of Florence (née Logue) and Raymond Koontz. He has said that he was regularly beaten and abused by his alcoholic father, which influenced his later writing, as also did the courage of his physically diminutive mother in standing up to her husband. In his senior year at Shippensburg State College, he won a fiction competition sponsored by Atlantic Monthly magazine. After graduation in 1967, he went to work as an English teacher at Mechanicsburg High School in Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania. In the 1960s, Koontz worked for the Appalachian Poverty Program, a federally funded initiative designed to help poor children. In a 1996 interview with Reason magazine, he said that while the program sounded "very noble and wonderful, ... [i]n reality, it was a dumping ground for violent children ... and most of the funding ended up 'disappearing somewhere.'" This experience greatly shaped Koontz's political outlook. In his book, The Dean Koontz Companion, he recalled that he

"'... realized that most of these programs are not meant to help anyone, merely to control people and make them dependent. I was forced to reconsider everything I'd once believed. I developed a profound distrust of government regardless of the philosophy of the people in power. I remained a liberal on civil-rights issues, became a conservative on defense, and a semi-libertarian on all other matters.'"

Career
In his spare time, Koontz wrote his first novel, Star Quest, which was published in 1968. Koontz went on to write over a dozen science fiction novels. Seeing the Catholic faith as a contrast to the chaos in his family, Koontz converted in college because faith provided existential answers for life; he admired Catholicism's "intellectual rigor," saying it permitted a view of life that saw mystery and wonder in all things. He says he sees Catholicism as English writer and Catholic convert G. K. Chesterton did: that it encourages a "joy about the gift of life". Koontz says that spirituality has always been part of his books, as are grace and our struggle as fallen souls, but he "never get[s] on a soapbox".

In the 1970s, Koontz began writing suspense and horror fiction, both under his own name and several pseudonyms, sometimes publishing up to eight books a year. Koontz has stated that he began using pen names after several editors convinced him that authors who switched back and forth between different genres invariably fell victim to "negative crossover" (alienating established fans and simultaneously failing to pick up any new ones). Known pseudonyms used by Koontz during his career include Deanna Dwyer, K. R. Dwyer, Aaron Wolfe, David Axton, Brian Coffey, John Hill, Leigh Nichols, Owen West, Richard Paige, and Anthony North. As Brian Coffey, he wrote the "Mike Tucker" trilogy (Blood Risk, Surrounded, Wall of Masks) in acknowledged tribute to the Parker novels of Richard Stark (Donald E. Westlake). Many of Koontz's pseudonymous novels are now available under his real name. Many others remain suppressed by Koontz, who bought back the rights to ensure they could not be republished; he has, on occasion, said that he might revise some for republication, but only three have appeared — Demon Seed and Invasion were both heavily rewritten before they were republished, and Prison of Ice had certain sections bowdlerised.

After writing full-time for more than 10 years, Koontz had his acknowledged breakthrough novel with Whispers, published in 1980. The two books before that, The Key to Midnight and The Funhouse, also sold over a million copies, but were written under pen names. His first bestseller was Demon Seed, the sales of which picked up after the release of the film of the same name in 1977, and sold over two million copies in one year. His first hardcover bestseller, which finally promised some financial stability and lifted him out of the midlist hit-and-miss range, was his book Strangers. Since then, 12 hardcovers and 14 paperbacks written by Koontz have reached number one on The New York Times Best Seller list.

Bestselling science fiction writer Brian Herbert has stated, "I even went through a phase where I read everything that Dean Koontz wrote, and in the process I learned a lot about characterization and building suspense."

In 1997, psychologist Katherine Ramsland published an extensive biography of Koontz based on interviews with his family and him. This "psychobiography" (as Ramsland called it) often showed the conception of Koontz's characters and plots from events in his own life.

Early author photos on the back of many of his novels show a balding Koontz with a mustache. After Koontz underwent hair transplantation surgery in the late 1990s, his subsequent books have featured a new, clean-shaven appearance with a fuller head of hair. Koontz explained the change by claiming that he was tired of looking like G. Gordon Liddy.

Many of his novels are set in and around Orange County, California. As of 2006, he lives there with his wife, Gerda (Cerra), in Newport Coast, California, behind the gates of Pelican Hills. In 2008, he was the world's sixth-most highly paid author, tied with John Grisham, at $25 million annually.

In 2019, Koontz began publishing with Amazon Publishing. At the time of the announcement, Koontz was one of the company's most notable signings.

Pet dogs
One of Koontz's pen names was inspired by his dog, Trixie Koontz, a Golden Retriever, shown in many of his book-jacket photos. Trixie originally was a service dog with Canine Companions for Independence (CCI), a charitable organization that provides service dogs for people with disabilities. Trixie was a gift from CCI in gratitude of Koontz's substantial donations, totaling $2.5 million between 1991 and 2004. Koontz was taken with the charity while he was researching his novel Midnight, a book which included a CCI-trained dog, a black Labrador Retriever, named Moose.

In 2004, Koontz wrote and edited Life Is Good: Lessons in Joyful Living in her name, and in 2005, Koontz wrote a second book credited to Trixie, Christmas Is Good. Both books are written from a supposed canine perspective on the joys of life. The royalty payments of the books were donated to CCI. In 2007, Trixie contracted terminal cancer that created a tumor in her heart. The Koontzes had her euthanized outside their family home on June 30. After Trixie's death, Koontz has continued writing on his website under the name "TOTOS", standing for "Trixie on the Other Side". Trixie is widely thought to have been his inspiration for his November 2007 book, The Darkest Evening of the Year, about a woman who runs a Golden Retriever rescue home, and who rescues a "special" dog, named Nickie, which eventually saves her life. In August 2009, Koontz published A Big Little Life, a memoir of his life with Trixie.

In October 2008, Koontz revealed that he had adopted a new dog, Anna. Eventually, he learned that Anna was the grandniece of Trixie. Anna died on May 22, 2016. Koontz then adopted a new dog, Elsa, on July 11, 2016.

Disputed authorship
A number of letters, articles, and novels were ostensibly written by Koontz during the 1960s and 1970s, but he has stated he did not write them. These include 30 erotic novels, allegedly written together by Koontz and his wife Gerda, including books such as Thirteen and Ready!, Swappers Convention, and Hung, the last one published under the name "Leonard Chris". They also include contributions to the fanzines Energumen and BeABohema in the late 1960s and early 1970s, including articles that mention the erotic novels, such as a movie column called "Way Station" in BeABohema.

Koontz wrote in How to Write Best Selling Fiction, a much revised and updated version of 'Writing Popular Fiction' (1972), "During my first six years as a full-time novelist ... I wrote a lot of ephemeral stuff; anything that would pay some bills ... I did Gothic romance novels under a pen-name ... Like many writers, I did some pornography too, and a variety of other things, none of which required me to commit my heart or my soul to the task.  (This is not to say I didn't bother to do a good job; on the contrary, I never wrote down to any market, and I always tried to give my editors and readers their money's worth.)"  The Gothic novels are identifiable, but none of Koontz's acknowledged work fits into the latter category.

Koontz has stated on his website that he used only the ten known pen names and "there are no secret pen names used by Dean"; he adds that his own identity was stolen by "a person he had previously worked with professionally", who submitted letters and some articles to fanzines under Koontz's name between 1969 and at least the early 1970s. Koontz has stated that he was only made aware of these bogus letters and articles in 1991 in a written admission from the identity thief. He has stated that he will reveal this person's name in his memoirs.

Screenplays

 * 1979 – CHiPs episode 306: "Counterfeit" (as Brian Coffey)
 * 1990 – "The Face of Fear"
 * 1998 – "Phantoms"
 * 2005 – "Dean Koontz's Frankenstein"

Film adaptations

 * Demon Seed (1977) – MGM – starring Julie Christie, Fritz Weaver, and Robert Vaughn as the voice of Proteus
 * The Passengers (1977) – MGM – starring Jean-Louis Trintignant (French film adaptation of Koontz's novel Shattered)
 * Watchers (1988) – Universal Pictures – starring Corey Haim, Barbara Williams, and Michael Ironside
 * Whispers (1990) – Cinepix – starring Victoria Tennant, Chris Sarandon, and Jean LeClere
 * Watchers II (1990) – Concorde Pictures – starring Marc Singer and Tracy Scoggins
 * The Face of Fear (1990) – CBS – starring Pam Dawber and Lee Horsley, also includes Kevin Conroy and William Sadler
 * Servants of Twilight (1991) – Trimark – starring Bruce Greenwood
 * Watchers 3 (1994) – Concorde Pictures – starring Wings Hauser
 * Hideaway (1995) – Tristar Pictures – starring Jeff Goldblum, Christine Lahti, Jeremy Sisto, and Alicia Silverstone
 * Intensity (1997) – Fox – starring John C. McGinley, Molly Parker, and Piper Laurie
 * Mr. Murder (1998) – ABC – starring Stephen Baldwin, Thomas Haden Church, and James Coburn
 * Phantoms (1998) – Miramax/Dimension Films – starring Peter O'Toole, Ben Affleck, Rose McGowan, and Joanna Going
 * Watchers Reborn (1998) – Concorde Pictures – starring Mark Hamill
 * Sole Survivor (2000) – Fox – starring Billy Zane, John C. McGinley, and Gloria Reuben
 * Black River (2001) – Fox – starring Jay Mohr and Stephen Tobolowsky
 * Frankenstein (2004) – USA Network – starring Adam Goldberg, Parker Posey, Michael Madsen, Vincent Perez, and Thomas Kretschmann (Koontz pulled out of the project midway through production because he did not like the direction the film was headed. He ended up writing his own books with the storyline he had originally created. The project continued without him.)
 * Odd Thomas (2013) – starring Anton Yelchin

title: Dean Koontz