text:
Talk:Finite field

Proposal to add a section for isomorphisms aka composite fields aka sub-field mapping
I feel there should be a section about composite fields. A common example is mapping of GF(2^8) to GF(((2^2)^2)^2) for inversion (1/x) of a GF(2^8) number for AES encryption hardware where there may be 10 or more encoders/decoders on a single card, and the composite field greatly reduces gate count. Prior to carryless multiply instructions, composite fields allowed for faster computations for GF(2^32) and larger fields. However, with the carryless multiply pclmulqdq instruction on a X86 (since 2008), a GF(2^32) or GF(2^64) multiply can be done with 3 pclmulqdq and 1 or 2 xors. Rcgldr (talk) 22:58, 23 May 2020 (UTC)

There is also some little known information that should be archived somewhere, such as if a primitive field is going to be mapped to a primitive composite field, both using the standard primitive element x+0, then the larger field polynomial with coefficients changed to be the smaller fields coefficient size will have factors that correspond to the mappable fields (using alternate primitives allows for more flexible mapping). For example, for GF(2^32) = x^32 + ^x^22 + x^2 + x + 1 mapped to GF((2^16)^2) x^2 + ax + b with GF(2^16) coefficients based on x^16 + x^12 + x^3 + x + 1, if GF(2^32) polynomial reinterpreted as GF((2^16)^32) = x^32 + ^x^22 + x^2 + x + 1, then the 16 factors of GF((2^16)^32) in the form x^2 + ax + b, will be the mappable polynomials (out of a possible 4 billion). Rcgldr (talk) 22:58, 23 May 2020 (UTC)

How the matrices used to map between a primary field and a composite field are generated is difficult to find. Rcgldr (talk) 23:01, 23 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Can you point to any appropriate sources that discuss this? (At the level of mathematics, the objects GF(2^8) and GF(((2^2)^2)^2) are not different, though obviously the second notation emphasizes a particular idea of building it by three quadratic extensions.  It seems plausible that there might be advantages of one representation versus another in CS, but we need reliable sources for that.) —JBL (talk)11:21, 24 May 2020 (UTC)

 * As mentioned above, there's been a lot of effort put into reducing gate count for AES S boxes, via GF(2^8) to GF(((2^2)^2)^2). Example references: GF(((2^2)^2)^2)(AES) S-box, A Very Compact S Box pdf. Other examples are about reducing large fields GF(2^n) for n >= 32: Efficient Software Implementations of Large Finite Fields pdf, which describes mapping GF(2^32) to GF((2^16^2), defines GF((2^16^2) and GF(2^16), but doesn't define GF(2^32) (it's probably jerasure standard x^32 + x^22 + x^2 + x + 1), and doesn't define the mapping matrix or it's inverse. I had to do an optimized brute force search to determine the missing data, to answer a question at a forum GF(2^32) to GF((2^16)^2) mapping. Rcgldr (talk) 12:50, 24 May 2020 (UTC)

 * As for generating mapping matrices, let k = m · n, and GF(2^k) is to be mapped to GF((2^m)^n). Let e = the number of elements to map at a time, formatted as a matrix, elements[k][e]. Define the GF(2) mapping matrix as map[k][k]. Mapping e elements from GF(2^k) to GF((2^m)^n) is done via map[k][k] x elements[k][e]. The inverse of map is used to map back. The column indexes (right to left) of map[][] correspond to bit indexes of elements, map[][{...,4,3,2,1,0}] correspond to element bits {...,4,3,2,1,0}. Let α(x) = a primitive element of GF(2^k), and β(x) = a primitive element of GF((2^m)^n). The column values of map[][{...,4,3,2,1,0}] are pow(β(x),log_α(x)({...,16,8,4,2,1})). I'm looking for a reference for this, but generally the articles I find assume the reader is aware of this and just show an image of the k by k bit matrix. Rcgldr (talk) 12:50, 24 May 2020 (UTC)

 * For a given GF(2^k), GF((2^m)^n) has to be determined to follow two basic rules. Let a and b be elements of GF(2^k), then while operating in GF((2^m)^n) map(a + b) = map(a) + map(b) and map(a · b) = map(a) · map(b). In the case where α(x) = x + 0 and β(x) = x + 0, GF((2^m)^n) can be any of the m factors of GF(2^k) reinterpreted to have coefficients of GF(2^m), essentially GF((2^m)^k). For better optimization, α(x) can be any primitive element of GF(2^k), and an optimized brute force for the "best" combination of α(x) and GF((2^m)^k) is done. This is described in the paper I linked to before: A Very Compact S Box pdf. Rcgldr (talk) 12:50, 24 May 2020 (UTC)
 * As far as I understand your post, you are concerned by computation is finite fields. For this, a representation of the field is needed, either as polynomials over GF(2) modulo an irreducible polynomial, or as a tower such representations. Your problems seems 1/ to determine the representation that leads to the most efficient computation 2/ (possibly) getting efficient algorithms for changing of representation. Both problems could be considered in the article (for the representation by a simple extension, the best choice of the defining polynomial is already sketched (with a reliable source) in section "non-prime field". For describing the known solutions of the other problems, we need sources. Those that you provide are not convenient for Wikipedia, as they are original research and consist mainly in proposed solutions, and they do not provide any synthesis of the knowledge in the subject. We need absolutely such a synthesis because, otherwise the presentation would be biased by giving emphasis to results for which we do not know whether they are generally accepted solutions. This is for this reason that original research and original syntheses are forbidden in Wikipedia (see WP:OR). As this subject seems to evolve rather quickly, this seems to early for presenting it in WP. D.Lazard (talk) 17:55, 24 May 2020 (UTC)
 * "Too early?" - there have been hardware implementations of composite (sub-field) mapping since the 1990's. I have a 1995 report from E J Weldon Jr for implementing hardware inversion (1/x) for GF(2^8) x^8+x^7+x^2+x+1 (hex 187, a primitive polynomial) using composite field (AKA sub-field mapping AKA "residue over a polynomial of degree 2 over GF(2^4)"). Usage of composite fields was fairly well known by the people involved in Reed Solomon codes or AES encryption by that time and probably dates back another 5 to 10 years prior to that report. In his 1995 report, he describes a mapping to GF((2^4)^2) x^2 + 4x + 2. Other implementations further reduced gate count by mapping to GF(((2^2)^2)2) and using a quadratic of the form x^2 + x + c. Some of the references in A Very Compact S Box pdf should qualify as reliable sources. Rcgldr (talk) 09:20, 25 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Again, the references that you provide do not allow writing the section that you are asking for, without doing WP:original synthesis. By "too early", I meant that we must wait a published synthesis on the subject, which is apparently still lacking. D.Lazard (talk) 09:41, 25 May 2020 (UTC)

I still am not getting what you mean by published synthesis. As for the algorithms and math involved, the articles are not lacking. The articles are out there, and I'm currently looking for such articles. I've found a few which I've posted below. Rcgldr (talk) 03:55, 26 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Here is a link to a portion of that report by professor E J Weldon Jr Finite Field Isomorphisms - Inversion pdf. I found more complete examples and explanations of using isomorphism for calculating a multiplicative inverse in GF(2^8). Starting at section E in aes sbox pdf and section 4.2 in Compact Rijndael Hardware Architecture pdf. Perhaps this should be also be added to Finite field arithmetic Rcgldr (talk) 16:56, 25 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Composite or sub-mapped fields are isomorphic in addition and multiplication: map(a + b) = map(a) + map(b) and map(a · b) = map(a) · map(b). This is explained starting at section 7.8.2, page 95 of Standford - Introduction to finite fields pdf. For binary field mapping of the form GF(2^k) to GF((2^m)^n), generally GF(2^k) is fixed, the parameters for GF((2^m)^n) are pre-selected, and a search is done for a primitive element of GF(2^k), which is used to generate the mapping matrix, so that the resulting field GF((2^m)^n) is isomorphic to GF(2^k) in addition and multiplication. In the case of minimizing gate count for a given GF(2^8) such as AES x^8 + x^4 + x^3 + x + 1, nested mapping may be used, such as GF(2^8) to GF(((2^2)^2)^2), and a search for a primitive element of GF(2^k) as well as some of the constants for GF(((2^2)^2)^2) is done to result in a minimal gate count. This is the focus of the "very compact s box" articles. Rcgldr (talk) 03:55, 26 May 2020 (UTC)

I now think this would be more appropriate in Finite field arithmetic, since the purpose is to optimize mathematical operations on finite fields. I'm dropping the proposal for here. Rcgldr (talk) 00:45, 27 May 2020 (UTC)

Notation
I'd like to propose that the article favor the notation $$\mathbf{F}_q$$ over the older and more cumbersome $$\operatorname{GF}(q)$$. Both are used in the literature, so of course both should be mentioned in the article, but the current editions of most books by experts (Artin, Bourbaki, Lang, Serre, etc.) use $$\mathbf{F}_q$$, so it would be good if Wikipedia followed suit by using $$\mathbf{F}_q$$ in most places, while mentioning $$\operatorname{GF}(q)$$ as an alternative notation. Ebony Jackson (talk) 19:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)
 * IMO, notation $$\mathbf{F}_q$$ should be discarded in favour of $$\mathbb{F}_q$$ and $$\operatorname{GF}(q).$$ The reason is that contrary to the two other notations, $$\mathbf{F}_q$$ is ambiguous as it may denote an indexed variable (boldface is often used for variables representing vectors or matrices). When reading an article that does not define its notations, if one encounters $$\mathbb{F}_q$$ or $$\operatorname{GF}(q)$$, one knows immediately that this denotes a finite field. On the contrary, with $$\mathbf{F}_q$$ one needs to look at the context. So, $$\mathbf{F}_q$$ should be mentioned only for completeness.
 * This is true that $$\mathbb{F}_q$$ is more commonly used in pure mathematics and number theory. On the other hand, $$\operatorname{GF}(q)$$ is more commonly used in computer science. This is mainly for historical reasons, but a practical reason exists also: in pure mathematics, $q$ is generally a variable or a small integer, while in computer science, $q$ is often an explicit number involving an exponent or a double exponent, which makes cumbersome to use $q$ as an index: compare $$\mathbb{F}_{2^{64}}$$ and $$\operatorname{GF}(2^{64})$$ (this is the largest field whose elements can be represented by double machine words). I have rewritten this article some time ago, and if I have preferred the notation $$\operatorname{GF}(q),$$ this is mainly because the notation had to be used in section headings. Otherwise, because of my personal history, I would have preferred $$\mathbb{F}_q.$$
 * So, both notations are widely used in recent literature, and Wikipedia policy is that, in such a case, it is not to Wikipedia to establish rules. D.Lazard (talk) 21:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)
 * I am inclined to agree that this is a difference between fields, rather than eras -- in my experience, GF(q) is the most common notation in the coding theory literature, for example, while it seems not to be used at all in algebraic combinatorics. --JBL (talk) 22:08, 13 December 2020 (UTC)
 * I agree with JBL. Having taught a wide spectrum of courses that use finite fields, I have had to use both notations, depending on the subject and text. As a finite projective geometer, I have used the $$\operatorname{GF}(q)$$ notation almost exclusively, as that is the standard in this area. On a totally practical note, I prefer this notation since the exponents (and that is where all the action is ) are typeset in a slightly larger font, making them easier to read.--Bill Cherowitzo (talk) 23:31, 13 December 2020 (UTC)
 * OK, thank you all; you have convinced me to withdraw my proposal. By the way, the "Extensions" section at the end of the article uses the $$\mathbf{F}_q$$ notation; should that be changed for consistency? Ebony Jackson (talk) 06:03, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
 * It seems that the algebraic closure of a finite field is never considered in areas denoting finite fields by $GF(q)$. So it seems better to not use this notation in this section. However I am in favour to change systematically $$\mathbf F_q$$ into $$\mathbb F_q,$$ and to use $$F$$ instead of $$\mathbf F$$ when there is no subscript. D.Lazard (talk) 11:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
 * OK, done. Ebony Jackson (talk) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)
 * I have just read this. I apologize for effectively undoing the $$\mathbf F_q$$ to $$\mathbb F_q$$ notation changes, and will be happy to conform the notation to the suggestion again.  Some questions, though:
 * Isn't it inconsistent if we do not simultaneously use $$\mathbb Z$$, for instance? I assume that would be changed too.
 * I consider the Unicode blackboard bold characters to be problematic on some browsers, so I would stick to inline  as it was and not use Unicode characters. Is the mix of , {{math}} not an issue, i.e. should we change everything to ?
 * —Quondum 23:58, 4 January 2021 (UTC)

 * Either $$\mathbb Z$$ or $$\mathbf Z$$ is OK for me, though I guess you are right that if we are writing $$\mathbb F_q$$ as D.Lazard preferred, then it would make sense to write $$\mathbb Z$$ too, for consistency. For other symbols other than these blackboard bold letters, however, I think it would be OK to leave them inside the math template if they look OK as they stand.  I do think that that template looks a little better, for simple formulas. Ebony Jackson (talk) 01:46, 5 January 2021 (UTC)

 * Sorry about the parsing (now with a quick fix applied) – an early preview actually showed that construction working.
 * Okay, I'll wait for any other comments. They whole font/rendering thing in WP maths has been an issue for ever so long that hoping for some "perfect style" is a bit of a dream.  —Quondum 02:54, 5 January 2021 (UTC)

Concrete simple worked out example
[Normally, the talk pages work FIFO (First In First Out), which means that the latest sections are at the bottom.]

I tried to improve didactic but it was reverted: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Finite_field&type=revision&diff=1044934168&oldid=1044905041 It is a shame that the first Google hit for a mathematics subject is often not the one you can actually learn mathematics subjects from. Cirosantilli2 (talk) 08:33, 18 September 2021 (UTC)

 * To your edit on 17:37, 17 September 2021:
 * Your first sentence
 * $$4 = 2^2$$, so one way to represent the elements of the field will be the to use the 4 polynomials of degree 1 over $GF(2)$:
 * 0X + 0
 * 0X + 1
 * 1X + 0
 * 1X + 1
 * is blatantly wrong. First: I do not understand what "the to use the 4 polynomials of degree 1" means? Can't you be more careful in your wording? Second: if you mean polynomials in X (which is highly probable) then I see 2 of degree 0 and 2 of degree 1. But you improve didactically to 4 of degree 1. Third, the sentences after "Addition is defined element-wise with ...": I can't see a didactical gain in falling back from the variable $α$ (which was already in the text and which is maintained by you) to the indeterminate X (with absolutely the same arithmetic principles, but $α$ much more easily to understand and to calculate with).
 * What you can learn from your contribution is: that (although you thought, I "can actually learn mathematics subjects from") I was totally unable to learn something from it. It is misleading to me and I'm sure to other people, too. Hopefully, you are able to learn from it – in some sense – as well !
 * With my best wishes and regards, –Nomen4Omen (talk) 14:12, 18 September 2021 (UTC)
 * Nevertheless, edit reveals an issue in this section: A good encyclopedic tone would be to present first the structure of the $$\mathbb F_4$$, and then to explain how it can be proved, and this is exactly the contrary that is done. I'll add a sentence at the beginning of the section for fixing this. D.Lazard (talk) 14:42, 18 September 2021 (UTC)
 * First: there are 4 polynomials of degree up to 1 in GF(2). Second: "up to one/less than two" would be more accurate. Third: both are valid ways of looking at it. What is most important is a worked out example of one multiplication, which I provided. We could also provide an example with the alpha representation. I don't know about which one is better for further calculations in general, seeing both is ideal. youtu.be/z9bTzjy4SCg?t=204 is how a person who first approaches this subject is more likely learn in my opinion. The goal is not to teach someone like you who already knows the subject, but to teach someone who does not. Cirosantilli2 (talk) 15:03, 18 September 2021 (UTC)
 * , The definition of polynomials requires the concept of a field. Thus, if the section is to be accessible to someone who first approaches this subject, you must not talk of polynomials in the first paragraph. D.Lazard (talk) 15:52, 18 September 2021 (UTC)

Still, there is something wrong with the F4 example. Construction principles just above explain that elements of the new field are polynomials (modulo the chosen irreducible polynomial).

Then, to build the concrete example of F4, an irreducible polynomial is chosen, and the rest of the example uses F2, completed with its newly created roots ad F4. That does not match at all the building principles : elements of F4 should be polynomials (actually polynomial classes), such as 0, 1, X an X + 1. Not roots of a given polynomial. Tanguy Ortolo (talk) 12:05, 7 February 2023 (UTC)

 * Wrt. polynomial classes you are completely right. The following are the 4 polynomial classes in $$\mathbb{F}_4$$:
 * $$\begin{array} {lllll}
 * $$\begin{array} {lllll}

0 & = & \bar 0 & = 0 & + (X^2+X+1)*\mathbb{F}_2[X] \\ 1 & = & \bar 1 & = 1 & + (X^2+X+1)*\mathbb{F}_2[X] \\ \alpha & = & \overline X & = X & + (X^2+X+1)*\mathbb{F}_2[X] \\ \alpha+1 & = & \overline{X+1} & = X+1 & + (X^2+X+1)*\mathbb{F}_2[X] \end{array}$$
 * –Nomen4Omen (talk) 12:58, 7 February 2023 (UTC)
 * Formally, you are both right, but computing with sets (here equivalence classes) is counter-intuitive and error prone. It is much more easy to give a name,such as $$\alpha,$$ to the class of $X$. So, the other elements of the field become polynomials in $$\alpha,$$ and one has no more to consider the field elements as sets. I have added a paragraph to the article for explaining this. D.Lazard (talk) 13:23, 7 February 2023 (UTC)

GF(16)
In the example of GF(16) it seems instructive to me to mention the element ("symbol") $$\alpha$$ is a primitive root of the irreducible polynomial $$X^4+X+1$$. Madyno (talk) 15:08, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
 * In between the time I reverted your edit to the article and your post here, that information was added explicitly (just in a slightly different way than you had added it). --JBL (talk) 17:26, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
 * The article should just explicitly state $$\alpha(X) = X$$. Stating that $$\alpha^4 = \alpha+1$$, restricts $$\alpha$$ to 4 of the 8 multiplicative generators, since a quartic equation only has 4 roots. It's a poor way to define $$\alpha$$. This is mostly an issue for isomorphic mapping where the mapping can require using any of the 8 multiplicative generators in order to implement the mapping, including any of the 4 multiplicative generators where $$\alpha^4 \neq \alpha+1$$. Similarly in GF(8), $$\alpha^3 = \alpha+1$$, restricts $$\alpha$$ to 3 of the 6 multiplicative generators. Rcgldr (talk) 17:42, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
 * The elements are not necessarily polynomials, common choices are: (a) linear combinations of the powers $$1,\,\alpha,\,\alpha^2,\,\alpha^3$$ of a special element $$\alpha$$, a primitive root of unity. (b) Vectors $$(a,b,c,d)$$ over GF(2) with multiplication rules. Polynomials just form one of the possible representation of GF(16). In the polynomial representation any element may be written in the form $$a+bx+cx^2+dx^3,\ a,b,c,d\in \mathbb{GF}(2)$$. The 16 elements of this form are all different, hence they form the whole field. The multiplication rules have to deal with higher powers of $$x$$. The theory states that a root of an irreducible polynomial over $$\mathbb{GF}(2)$$ acts as a generator. The polynomial $$x^4+x+1$$ is such a polynomial, but note: it's not (yet) an element of GF(16). If the generating root is called $$\alpha$$, it holds: $$\alpha^4=\alpha+1$$, and there is the reducing equation. Because $$\alpha\in \mathbb{GF}(16)$$, it is of the form $$\alpha = a+bx+cx^2+dx^3$$. It follows that $$\alpha$$ is the identity polynomial $$\alpha = x$$, or better(?) $$\alpha(x) = x$$. Madyno (talk) 18:23, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
 * I have no idea what $$\alpha(X) = X$$ is supposed to mean. To concretely define GF(16), you need to make a concrete choice of irreducible polynomial; it doesn't matter which one you choose, but you do have to make a choice.  The different choices of the irreducible polynomial lead to isomorphic structures, but the isomorphism cannot exchange one polynomial for the other. --JBL (talk) 17:47, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
 * This was a change suggested by Madyno for BCH codes. In most textbooks and articles for error correcting codes, isomorphic mapping, ..., the field reducing polynomial is defined, such as $$x^4+x+1$$ and $$\alpha$$ or $$\alpha(x)$$ is defined to be any of the 8 primitive elements | multiplicative generators: $$\{x, x+1, x^2, x^2+1, x^3+1, x^3+x+1, x^3+x^2+1, x^3+x^2+x\}$$. A common example of this is for isomorphic mapping from $$GF(2^8)$$ to $$GF(((2^2)^2)^2)$$ used to reduce the number of gates in hardware for multiplicative inverse for the AES inversion step, where a brute force search is done for any of the 128 primitive elements | multiplicative generators of $$GF(2^8)$$ where the isomorphic mapping works (map(a+b) = map(a)+map(b), map(ab) = map(a)map(b)), and minimizes gate count. The minimal polynomial primitive element $$\alpha = x+1$$ doesn't work and the optimal choice is usually $$\alpha = x^4+x^3+x^2+x+1$$. Rcgldr (talk) 18:07, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Link to an example of a document that includes the isomorphic mapping for the AES inversion step on pages 4 and 5 of aessbox.pdf. Missing is an explanation for how the mapping matrix was generated, so I created a short explanation: mapping example.pdf Rcgldr (talk) 18:13, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
 * I have added a description of the primitive elements of GF(16).
 * It is well known that the terminology of coding theory is not the usual mathematical terminology. I suppose that the term "field reducing polynomial" is an example of such a term that is not used outside coding theory. I guess that "isomorphism mapping" means "field isomorphism". Apparently, the problem that you consider is to present GF(128) as a tower of field extensions of degree 2, in order to optimize the computation of multiplicative inverses. This is too specific for this article. As GF(256} is an important field, it could be worth write an article GF(256). If you do that, please notify me. D.Lazard (talk) 18:40, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Does any of this discussion (after my first comment above) relate to the original post? Do we agree that that point is addressed? --JBL (talk) 19:11, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Instead of using the term reducing polynomial you could use the mathematical syntax: $$GF(2)[x] / \langle x^4 + x + 1 \rangle $$, but the current article does not use that syntax. The point here is that there are 8 multiplicative generators for $$GF(2^8)$$ and stating that $$\alpha^4 = \alpha+1$$, restricts $$\alpha$$ to 4 of the 8 multiplicative generators. To get the other 4 (the inverses of the first 4), you need $$\alpha^4 = \alpha^3+1$$, so the article could be $$\alpha$$ is a symbol such that $$\alpha^4 = \alpha+1$$ or $$\alpha^4 = \alpha^3+1$$, or $$\alpha^8 = \alpha^7 + \alpha^5 + \alpha^4 + \alpha^3 + \alpha + 1$$, which seems confusing, and I'm not sure how it would work for larger fields or when $$p \neq 2$$. Rcgldr (talk) 19:54, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Are you proposing some change to the article? If so, I can't make heads or tails of what it is.  (As I said above: To concretely define GF(16), you need to make a concrete choice of irreducible polynomial; it doesn't matter which one you choose, but you do have to make a choice.  The same is true for any finite field: if you want to explicitly do computations, you choose an arbitrary irreducible polynomial; different choices of polynomials give you different (but isomorphic) arithmetics.) --JBL (talk) 21:18, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
 * My background is coding theory, so I'm used to seeing $$\alpha$$ defined as one element of a list of multiplicative generators as opposed to defining it as the roots (or inverses) of an equation. In most cases (other than isomorphic mapping), the minimal multiplicative element is used, for example for $$GF(2)[x] / \langle x^4 + x + 1 \rangle $$ or $$GF(2)[x] / \langle x^4 + x^3 + 1 \rangle $$, $$\alpha = x$$, and for $$GF(2)[x] / \langle x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x + 1 \rangle $$, $$\alpha = x+1$$. I don't know if there a mathematical theory equivalent to this. I'm also wondering how many people would know that you can get the inverses of the roots of polynomial (in a Galios Field) by reversing the coefficients of the polynomial (reciprocal of the polynomial), and that the inverses of the multiplicative generators are also multiplicative generators. Who is the target audience for this Wikipedia article? Rcgldr (talk) 22:33, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Who is the target audience for this Wikipedia article? Ideally, anyone who might use finite fields; that includes undergraduate students (certainly students taking abstract algebra, but perhaps even students taking linear algebra or number theory) but also more advanced audiences: mathematicians in various areas and people in neighboring fields like cryptography and coding theory. I would expect the fact that you mention (that taking reciprocals of the roots of a polynomial (over any field) reverses the coefficients) to be known to any mathematician who has a reason to think about locations of roots of polynomials, but not necessarily to the entire audience for this article; the fact that the inverse of a multiplicative generator is also a multiplicative generator is a basic fact about either cyclic groups or the integers modulo n, depending on your point of view, and I would consider it more basic than the fact that the nonzero elements of a finite field form a cyclic group, for example.  But also I really have not understood what the purpose of your comments here is: what change are you proposing / what problem are you trying to solve?  Could I convince you to spell it out very explicitly for me? --JBL (talk) 23:13, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

Your edit to include the inverses of generators for $$GF(16)$$ covers what I was getting at. Perhaps the same change could be made for GF(8) and GF(27). For coding theory, generally a single generator is chosen such as $$\alpha = x$$ or $$\alpha(x) = x$$, rather than using two equations to define generators and their inverses which are also generators. As for "isomorphic mapping" versus "field isomorphism", which isn't mentioned in the article, "isomorphic mapping" refers to the algorithm used to map one field to another, usually by matrix multiplication using two matrices to map from one field to another and back. "Field isomorphism" means that all fields of the same size can be mapped to each other, without explaining the algorithms involved. Rcgldr (talk) 23:54, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

Just like the complex numbers may be derived from the reals by extending them with the special element $$i$$ satisfying $$i^2+1=0$$, the finite field $GF(16)$ may be constucted by extending the field $GF(2)$ by a special element $α$, which is a root of an irreducible polynomial of order 4 over $GF(2)$. The polynomial
 * Suggestion
 * $$X^4+X+1$$

is irreducible over $GF(2)$, that is, it is irreducible modulo $2$. Hence the element $α$ satisfies:
 * $$\alpha^4+\alpha+1=0$$,

leading to the reducing equation
 * $$\alpha^4=\alpha+1$$.

Any occurrence of $$\alpha^4$$ in a computation will be replaced by $$\alpha+1$$. As $α$ is a generator of the field it is also a primitive root of unity. In fact $$\alpha^{15}=1$$. It follows that the elements of $GF(16)$ may be represented by expressions
 * $$a+b\alpha+c\alpha^2+d\alpha^3,$$

where $a, b, c, d$ are either $0$ or $1$ (elements of $GF(2)$). As the characteristic of $GF(2)$ is $2$, each element is its additive inverse in $GF(16)$. The addition and multiplication on $GF(16)$ may be defined as follows; in following formulas, the operations between elements of $GF(2)$, represented by Latin letters are the operations in $GF(2)$.

\begin{align} (a+b\alpha+c\alpha^2+d\alpha^3)+(e+f\alpha+g\alpha^2+h\alpha^3)&=(a+e)+(b+f)\alpha+(c+g)\alpha^2+(d+h)\alpha^3\\ (a+b\alpha+c\alpha^2+d\alpha^3)(e+f\alpha+g\alpha^2+h\alpha^3)&=(ae+bh+cg+df) +(af+be+bh+cg+df +ch+dg)\alpha\;+\\ &\quad\;(ag+bf+ce +ch+dg+dh)\alpha^2 +(ah+bg+cf+de +dh)\alpha^3 \end{align} $$

The field $GF(16)$ has eight primitive elements (the elements that have all nonzero elements of $GF(16)$ as integer powers). These elements are the four roots of $$X^4+X+1$$ and their multiplicative inverses. In particular, $α$ is a primitive element, and the primitive elements are $$\alpha^m$$ with $m$ less than and coprime with 15 (that is, 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14).

Another way of introducing the complex numbers is as pairs of real numbers, with a special rule for multiplication. In an analogous way the field $GF(16)$ may be seen as a 4 dimensional linear space over $GF(2)$ with a multiplication according to some special rules. The elements of $GF(16)$ then are of the form $$(d,c,b,a)$$ with $$a,b,c,d\in \mathrm{GF}(2)$$. These rules are:
 * $$(d,c,b,a)*(0,0,0,1)=(d,c,b,a)$$
 * $$(0,c,b,a)*(0,0,1,0)=(c,b,a,0)$$
 * $$(1,0,0,0)*(0,0,1,0)=(0,0,1,1)$$

Notice the analogy between $$(0,0,0,1)$$, $$(0,0,1,0)$$ and 1 and $α$ in the first representation. The last rule is analogous to $$\alpha^3\cdot \alpha=\alpha + 1$$. Madyno (talk) 22:19, 25 October 2021 (UTC) $$\quad a(x) = a_3x^3+a_2x^2+a_1x+a_0$$ For the sake of simplicity $$a$$ itself is written as $$a_3x^3+a_2x^2+a_1x+a_0$$. The element $$x^4+x+1$$ is in the same residue class as zero. Is it now meaningful to say $$x$$ is a zero of $$x^4+x+1$$? Madyno (talk) 11:31, 29 October 2021 (UTC)
 * I oppose to this formulation. The main reason is that it presents as specific to GF(16) general properties that are presented in other sections, mainly, which ends with "In the next sections, we will show how the general construction method outlined above works for small finite fields". The suggested version ignores totally this sentence. D.Lazard (talk) 08:40, 26 October 2021 (UTC)
 * This approach doesn't work well for fields larger than $$GF(2^4)$$. Consider the field $$GF(2)[x] / \langle x^8+x^4+x^3+x^2+1 \rangle$$, (or any $$GF(2^8)$$). There are 128 generators, but $$\alpha^8+\alpha^4+\alpha^3+\alpha^2+1=0$$ only provides a solution for 8 of the generators. There are 16 primitive polynomials in $$GF(2^8)$$, 8 polynomials and their 8 reciprocals (coefficients reversed, resulting in inverses). I didn't test this, but I suspect the roots of the 16 primitive polynomials in any $$GF(2^8)$$ will result in the 128 generators for that $$GF(2^8)$$. This would be inefficient and scales worse for larger still fields, such as $$GF(2^{32})$$. If a list of all the generators is needed, such as trying to optimize multiplicative inverse in hardware by isomorphic mapping with a brute for test of all generators to find an optimal generator, the normal approach is to test all products of all combinations of the prime factors of $$2^8-1=255$$, where the prime factors are $$3, 5, 17$$ and 128 generators will pass 3 checks: $$\alpha^{15} \neq 1$$, $$\alpha^{51} \neq 1$$, $$\alpha^{85} \neq 1$$. Rcgldr (talk) 15:01, 26 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Let me follow the indicated lines. $$GF(16)~GF(2)[x]/(x^4+x+1)$$, i.e. an element is formally a residue class with a representant $$a$$ of the form:
 * The polynomial $$x^4 + x + 1$$ belongs to the ring $$GF(2)[x]$$; the symbol $$x$$ in this ring does not satisfy any polynomial equations. The thing that satisfies the polynomial equation is the image of $$x$$ in the quotient $$GF(2)[x] / \langle x^4 + x + 1 \rangle$$; it is not the same as the formal symbol being used to write down the polynomials in the first place.  Independent of the preceding paragraph: why would you want to write down this extremely confusing way of expressing things? How would it help the reader understand a construction of GF(16), and thereby understand the general phenomenon of finite fields?  I contend that it does not conceivably help. --JBL (talk) 11:54, 29 October 2021 (UTC)
 * - Clarifying my prior comment. This approach doesn't work when the reducing polynomial is irreducible, but not primitive. For example in $$GF(2)[x] / \langle x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x + 1 \rangle $$, $$\alpha^4 + \alpha^3 + \alpha^2 + \alpha + 1 \neq 0$$. However, a primitive polynomial equation of degree $$n$$ in $$\alpha$$ will work in any field, even if it's reducing polynomial is irreducible, but not primitive. For example $$\alpha^4 + \alpha + 1 = 0$$ and its reciprocal $$\alpha^4 + \alpha^3 + 1 = 0$$ are true in $$GF(2)[x] / \langle x^4 + x + 1 \rangle $$ or $$GF(2)[x] / \langle x^4 + x^3 + 1 \rangle $$, or $$GF(2)[x] / \langle x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x + 1 \rangle  $$ Rcgldr (talk) 21:43, 1 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Yes, and in the article the polynomial $$X^4+X+1$$ somehow just pops up out of the blue. One easily could have written $$X^4+X^3+X^2+X+1$$ as an irreducible polynomial. And then the approach would fail. Madyno (talk) 14:55, 2 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Please, read the article before posting here. The polynomial $$X^4+X+1$$ does not pop up out of the blue, as its choice is expained in . D.Lazard (talk) 15:22, 2 November 2021 (UTC)
 * mentions irreducible polynomials, which for $$GF(2^4)$$, would include $$x^4+x+1$$, $$x^4+x^3+1$$, or $$x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x + 1$$. I'm missing where the choice of $$x^4+x+1$$ is explained. The approach used in the article fails for irreducible non-primitive polynomials as noted by Madyno Rcgldr (talk) 16:15, 2 November 2021 (UTC)
 * The approach described in the article works fine with $$x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x + 1$$ in place of $$X^4+X+1$$. --JBL (talk) 17:16, 2 November 2021 (UTC)
 * I've tested this using a finite field calculator, for $$GF(2)[x] / \langle x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x + 1 \rangle $$, one of the 8 primitive elements is $$x+1$$ or in hex $$3$$. In this field, $$3^4 + 3^3 + 3^2 + 3 + 1 = 6$$ . Note that $$x$$ or in hex $$2$$ is not a primitive element of this field. Rcgldr (talk) 18:36, 2 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Yes but the article does not assert that it should be. It is very important to you that the article should not assert, in the section on GF(16), that if you use an arbitrary irreducible polynomial, one of its roots will be a primitive generator for the multiplicative subgroup of the field.  Since no assertion even vaguely like that is in the article, there is literally no problem.  The section about the field with 16 elements is not an appropriate place to clarify general phenomena about the difference between polynomials whose roots generate the field algebraically (all irreducible polynomials) and those whose roots generate the cyclic group under multiplication; those generalities are treated in the following section, along with a concrete example of GF(64). --JBL (talk) 19:52, 2 November 2021 (UTC)
 * True, but some readers might infer that the approach used would work for all polynomials. The article could simply mention that the approach used only works for primitive polynomials. Rcgldr (talk) 22:37, 2 November 2021 (UTC)
 * The article could simply mention that the approach used only works for primitive polynomials. "The approach used" in the section on GF(16) is a completely general approach for constructing finite fields; it works for any irreducible polynomial.  It then happens that the generator used in the concrete construction GF(16) is actually a cyclic generator for the multiplicative subgroup (but this is not part of "the approach used" to construct the field, which is what is illustrated in the section).  The phenomenon of primitivity (and in particular the fact that not all field generators are multiplicative generators) is discussed in general and at length in the following section, Finite field. --JBL (talk) 23:18, 2 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Madyno comments above One easily could have written $X^4+X^3+X^2+X+1$ as an irreducible polynomial. And then the approach would fail. I leave it to you and the others here to decide if any change is needed. Rcgldr (talk) 23:32, 2 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Are you unable to understand "To simplify the Euclidean division, for P one commonly chooses polynomials of the form $$X^{n}+aX+b$$, which make the needed Euclidean divisions very efficient"?. D.Lazard (talk) 17:26, 2 November 2021 (UTC)
 * In your style: Are you unable to understand the meaning of the word 'commonly'? Madyno (talk) 13:05, 5 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Here is this exchange so far: you wrote "it pops out of the blue". D.Lazard's response is that it doesn't pop out of the blue, it is specifically advertised by the sentence he quotes.  Your response is ... totally inscrutable; what's wrong with the word "commonly"?  How does the presence of the word "commonly" invalidate D.Lazard's point?  How does the presence of the word "commonly" make that sentence not a specific advertisement of the particular choice made later?  --JBL (talk) 13:11, 5 November 2021 (UTC)
 * From the article: simplify Euclidean division ... polynomials of the form $X^{n}+aX+b$ commonly used. For $$GF(16)$$, wouldn't lookup tables more commonly used than Euclidean division? My impression is that "pops out of the blue" was specific to $$GF(16)$$. My issue with this section is that readers may think that since for $$X^4+X+1$$ and $$\alpha^4+\alpha + 1 = 0$$, that that the two polynomials are directly related, that the same idea could be used for $$X^4+X^3+X^2+X+1$$, but $$\alpha^4+\alpha^3+\alpha^2+\alpha + 1 \neq 0$$. There should be some mention that the generators of a field are the roots of primitive polynomials, which may or may not be of similar form to the reducing polynomial. Rcgldr (talk) 20:50, 5 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Yes, I understand this. My concern is not the choice of polynomial, but that the approach used in could be mistakenly inferred to apply to any choice of polynomial. Note that AES inversion step uses a non-primitive polynomial (I'm not sure why, but it was a deliberate choice). Rcgldr (talk) 18:41, 2 November 2021 (UTC)

The second sentence of WP:TALK is. So, please stop such posts, which are WP:DISRUPTIVE, not only because they do not respect the guideline WP:TALK, but also because it is a tentative to continue a discussion on which a clear consensus has been reach. This post is also disruptive by using a never defined notation that makes impossible to check whether it is mathematically correct (I suspect that it is not), D.Lazard (talk) 08:44, 2 November 2021 (UTC)
 * I don't understand what you mean by "never defined notation" or what specific statement should be checked to see if it is "mathematically correct". This isn't my personal view; my first recollection of this issue was in a class taught by Professor E J Weldon Jr in the late 1980's. There should be an explanation that works for irreducible non-primitive polynomials (such as the one used for AES inversion step) as well. Rcgldr (talk) 17:11, 2 November 2021 (UTC)
 * By "never defined", I mean that this use of angle brackets is not defined in Wikipedia and the standard texbooks on the subject. The angle brackets are commonly used for the generated ideal, but in this context, that is just after the name of a ring, they require to be preceded by a slash (/) for indicating a quotient ring (see JBL's post). It is possible that this is that you have in mind, but the surrounding is too confusing for deciding this possibility. Also, if there is an error in the article, such that ommitting a needed hypothesis ("primitive reducing polynomial"), you must be accurate and say which sentence is erroneous. Otherwise, your posts are simply WP:disruptive editing. D.Lazard (talk) 17:26, 2 November 2021 (UTC)
 * The missing slash was a typo error on my part (fixed now, I thought I had fixed this before). I see angle brackets or parenthesis used at Stack Exchange for finite fields, and I'm not sure which is preferred. The "error" in the article is what some readers could infer from seeing the GF(16) reducing polynomial defined as $$X^4+X+1$$ followed by: $$\alpha$$ is such a symbol such that $$\alpha^4+\alpha+1=0$$ and that $$\alpha$$ is a primitive element. This approach doesn't work if the reducing polynomial is non-primitive, for example, if the GF(16) irreducible reducing polynomial is $$X^4+X^3+X^2+X+1$$ then $$\alpha^4+\alpha^3+\alpha^2+\alpha+1 \neq 0 $$ assuming $$\alpha$$ is a primitive element. The article should define how multiplication could be implemented for non-primitive as well as primitive polynomials. Rcgldr (talk) 18:09, 2 November 2021 (UTC)
 * No, it shouldn't do that in the section on the field with 16 elements -- that section should be devoted to describing the field with 16 elements, which it currently does (completely correctly). The problem of primitive elements is addressed, in appropriate generality, elsewhere in the article. --JBL (talk) 18:15, 2 November 2021 (UTC)
 * The multiplication is implemented by reducing the multiplication of polynomials by the reducing polynomial (as it is defined for every quotient ring). This works for the irreducible polynomial with five terms as well as for those with three terms. The only difference is that reducing by a 5 terms polynomial is more difficult and more time consuming. The use of primitive elements for multiplication is normally done with Zech's logarithms. This is not useful for small fields such as GF(16} and not practicable for very large fields. It is useful only for medium-sized fields not for GF(16}. D.Lazard (talk) 18:41, 2 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Off topic, since it's not GF(16) specific, but if not using tables, software implementations based on CLMUL_instruction_set such as X86 PCLMULQDQ (for XMM registers) is not sensitive to the number of terms in the polynomial $$P$$. A one time pre-computed value $$2^{64}/P$$ (borrowless divide) is used for this purpose. For PCLMULQDQ, this works directly for fields up to $$GF(2^{32}) $$, and can be extended to work with larger fields. For hardware implementations, gate count can be reduced using isomorphic mapping such as $$GF(2^8)$$ to $$GF(((2^2)^2)^2)$$ (this is used in AES s-box chips). Rcgldr (talk) 19:05, 2 November 2021 (UTC)

Multiplication in GF(16)
The given formula for multiplication does not give much insight. Better would be to give separately the multiplication with the powers of $$\alpha$$:
 * $$(p+q\alpha+r\alpha^2+s\alpha^3)\alpha=p\alpha+q\alpha^2+r\alpha^3+s\alpha^4=$$
 * $$=p\alpha+q\alpha^2+r\alpha^3+s(1+\alpha) = s+(p+1)\alpha+q\alpha^2+r\alpha^3$$

etc.

Madyno (talk) 09:47, 3 November 2021 (UTC)

 * Shouldn't that be:
 * $$=p\alpha+q\alpha^2+r\alpha^3+s(1+\alpha) = s+(p+s)\alpha+q\alpha^2+r\alpha^3$$
 * The current given formula seems correct (I only checked some of terms) for reducing polynomial $$X^4+X+1$$. I didn't investigate multiplication with the non primitive reducing polynomial $$X^4+X^3+X^2+X+1$$, but if the multiplication formula is based on $$\alpha^4 = \alpha + 1$$ or $$\alpha^4 = \alpha^3 + 1$$ it will work for $$X^4+X^3+X^2+X+1$$, with the issue that $$\alpha \neq x$$. If using $$\alpha^4 = \alpha^3 + 1$$, then one of the roots is $$\alpha = x+1$$, still messy. The terms for multiplication modulo $$X^4+X^3+X^2+X+1$$ could be worked out directly in terms of $$x$$ instead of $$\alpha$$. It seems unlikely to implement the given formula in software where a table, carryless multiply, or loop could be used instead. Hardware could use a loop with a LFSR, or if the speed was needed, using the current formula via a bunch of AND and XOR gates, but it would be simpler to specify the logic similar to an unfolded loop, and rely on an optimizer to convert the logic into the equivalent of the current formula. I'm wondering how much of implementation belongs here as opposed to Finite_field_arithmetic. Rcgldr (talk) 18:34, 3 November 2021 (UTC)
 * You're right. My intention is not to indicate an error, but to split up the calculation to make it easier to follow. Madyno (talk) 13:33, 4 November 2021 (UTC)

Readability
For myself this line is highly unreadable
 * such that $$\alpha^2=1+\alpha,$$ $$1\cdot\alpha = \alpha \cdot 1 = \alpha,$$ $$x+x=0,$$ and $$x\cdot 0=0\cdot x=0,$$ for every $$x\in \operatorname{GF}(4),$$

I recommend that do something to make it more readable. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Hooman Mallahzadeh (talk • contribs)
 * It's four short equations separated by commas, what's the problem? --JBL (talk) 12:48, 16 December 2021 (UTC)
 * Comma and dot symbols are very similar. We should do something that the reader identifies the equations with low mental attempt. I recommend use a "color" or as before a "newline" to identify each separate equation more clearly.

Template "Ring theory sidebar"
Hi again

No, links in Template:Ring theory sidebar is not unrelated, both in "Basic concepts" and in "Commutative algebra" there is a link named "finite field", and by using the second link the reader can find that "finite field" is a concept in "Commutative algebra" and "Commutative rings" and I persist to insert this template, but you are right about its huge space consumption. We can use "none" its argument so that the output of becomes. Do you agree? Hooman Mallahzadeh (talk) 17:31, 17 December 2021 (UTC)
 * WP:NAVBOX says Here, almost all of the links of the navbox are unrelated or weakly related with finite fields. The only significant relation is that finite fields are rings. Moreover, the tools of ring theory are generally not used for fields because they become trivial in this case. On the other hand, the algebraic tools that are used for fields, such as automorphism groups, and linear algebra oover a field are not covered by ring theory. So this navbox is not useful for most readers of this article. It may even be confusing, since many readers do not even know of rings that are not fields.

 * So, this template does not belong to this article, even if it contain a link to this article. D.Lazard (talk) 18:16, 17 December 2021 (UTC)
 * It depends on how we define a "relation". I think some relations are "is a" relations i.e.
 * Finite field "is a" field.
 * Finite field "is a" Integral domain.
 * Finite field "is a" Commutative ring.
 * Finite field "is a" Commutative algebra concept.
 * Finite field "is a" ring
 * and etc.
 * Some relations are "is not a" relations i.e.
 * Finite field is not a "Algebraic number theory"
 * Finite field is not a "Noncommutative algebra"
 * and etc.
 * Some relations are "is similar to" relations i.e.
 * Finite field "is similar to" Euclidean domain because they are both Integral domain.
 * and etc.

This way, all of the template links have some relationship to the "Finite filed" concept i.e., a relationship may be an "is a" or an "is not a" or an "is similar to". Hooman Mallahzadeh (talk) 19:58, 17 December 2021 (UTC)

Mention of Parker and Non-Parker finite fields?
I don't know all too much about fields, but upon browsing YouTube, I was reminded of a Numberphile video about finite fields (2021) (extra footage: here) which mentioned a concept of 'Parker' and 'Non-Parker' finite fields. The video cites the paper mentioned: Gaussian Integers, Rings, Finite Fields, and the Magic Square of Squares, and I was just wondering if this was significant enough to be mentioned in this article or not?

The video has almost 300,000 views, so I think it might be worth a mention maybe? However, I do recognise that a 'Parker Square' is a bit more of a meme than a recognised mathematical idea, but since a research paper has been released, maybe the article should mention the concept of 'Parker Finite Fields' and 'Non-Parker Finite Fields'?

Just a suggestion. :) – Pigeon <3 (talk) 13:54, 15 February 2022 (UTC)
 * This is not really about finite fields, it is about Magic squares. So there is no reason for mentioning it here. Also this is published only in Youtube and ArXiV, which are not considered as WP:Reliable sources in Wikipedia. There is no WP:secondary sources for establishing the notability of the concept and related results. So, this is considered here as WP:original research, and Wikipedia policy is to not publishing original research. So, the answer is no for both questions. D.Lazard (talk) 14:49, 15 February 2022 (UTC)
 * I agree with D.Lazard. --JBL (talk) 15:01, 15 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Thought as much, but thanks for letting me know! It was only a thought anyway :) – Pigeon <3 (talk) 19:59, 15 February 2022 (UTC)

great use of plain language
This is a great example of trying to convey a point with a minimum of jargon or presupposed knowledge, and then providing the technical term. This makes it easier for those newer to a topic to grasp the concepts and learn the jargon without having to first look up many unfamiliar terms. Kudos to those who developed this entry! D1717 (talk) 11:15, 22 June 2023 (UTC)

Algebraic closure
Section was illogically presented by starting from the algebraic closure for deducing properties already described in the preceding sections, instead of starting from these properties for deducing the properties of the algebraic closure. I have fixed this.

By the way, I removed the paragraph about the absolute Galois group for the following reasons:
 * It is completely unsourced, even when taken into account all linked articles.
 * It is very confusing, as asserting implicitly that the Frobenius homorphism is an automorphism of the algebraic closure (this is probably true, but nowere explicited in Wikipedia)
 * It is definitively out of scope of this article, since it involves many theories that the readers of this article (interested in fields) are not supposed to know (infinite Galois groups, profinite groups, Krull topology, topological groups, etc.)

The subject absolute Galois group of a finite field is interesting, but it is not adapted to the readers of this article. It must either be the object of a specific article, or be a detailed section in Absolute Galois group. The involved formalism makes it definitively unsuited for this article. D.Lazard (talk) 18:59, 2 December 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Finite field


text:
Food writing

Food writing is a genre of writing that focuses on food and includes works by food critics, food journalists, chefs and food historians.

Definition
Food writers regard food as a substance and a cultural phenomenon. John T. Edge, an American food writer, explains how writers in the genre view its topic: "Food is essential to life. It's arguably our nation's biggest industry. Food, not sex, is our most frequently indulged pleasure. Food—too much, not enough, the wrong kind, the wrong frequency—is one of our society's greatest causes of disease and death."Another American food writer, Mark Kurlansky, links this vision of food directly to food writing, giving the genre's scope and range when he observes: "Food is about agriculture, about ecology, about man's relationship with nature, about the climate, about nation-building, cultural struggles, friends and enemies, alliances, wars, religion. It is about memory and tradition and, at times, even about sex."Because food writing is topic centered, it is not a genre in itself, but a writing that uses a wide range of traditional genres, including recipes, journalism, memoir, and travelogues. Food writing can refer to poetry and fiction, such as Marcel Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time), with its famous passage where the narrator recollects his childhood memories as a result of sipping tea and eating a madeleine; or Robert Burns' poem "Address to a Haggis", 1787. Charles Dickens, a notable novelist wrote memorably about food, e.g., in his A Christmas Carol (1843).

Often, food writing is used to specify writing that takes a more literary approach to food, such as that of the famous American food writer M. F. K. Fisher, who describes her writing about food as follows:

"It seems to me our three basic needs, for food and security and love, are so mixed and mingled and entwined that we cannot straightly think of one without the others. So it happens that when I write of hunger, I am really writing about love and the hunger for it, and warmth and the love of it and the hunger for it ... and then the warmth and richness and fine reality of hunger satisfied ... and it is all one."

In this literary sense, food writing aspires toward more than merely communicating information about food; it also aims to provide readers with an aesthetic experience. Another American food writer, Adam Gopnik, divides food writing into two categories, "the mock epic and the mystical microcosmic," and provides examples of their most noted practitioners:

"The mock epic (A. J. Liebling, Calvin Trillin, the French writer Robert Courtine, and any good restaurant critic) is essentially comic and treats the small ambitions of the greedy eater as though they were big and noble, spoofing the idea of the heroic while raising the minor subject to at least temporary greatness. The mystical microcosmic, of which Elizabeth David and M. F. K. Fisher are the masters, is essentially poetic, and turns every remembered recipe into a meditation on hunger and the transience of its fulfillment. Contemporary food writers working in this mode include Ruth Reichl, Betty MacDonald, and Jim Harrison."

As a term, "food writing" is a relatively new descriptor. It came into wide use in the 1990s and, unlike "sports writing", or "nature writing", it has yet to be included in the Oxford English Dictionary. Consequently, definitions of food writing when applied to historical works are retrospective. Classics of food writing, such as the 18th century French gastronome Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin's La physiologie du goût (The Physiology of Taste), pre-date the term and have helped to shape its meaning.

History
People have been writing about food for centuries. Some of the earliest recipes we have found were carved into stone in Mesopotamia nearly 4,000 years ago. The ancient Romans also wrote about their grand feasts and fancy meals held by emperors of the time. Although the modern cookbook like we see today was not invented until much later and measurements were not standardized until the 20th century.

In academia
Food writer Michael Pollan holds the Knight Professorship of Science and Environmental Journalism at the University of California, Berkeley and since 2013 has directed the 11th Hour Food and Farming Journalism Fellowship Program.

In 2013, the University of South Florida St. Petersburg began a graduate certificate program in Food Writing and Photography, created by longtime Tampa Bay Times food and travel editor Janet K. Keeler.

Authors
This is a list of some prominent writers on food, cooking, dining, and cultural history related to food.

 * Jay Rayner
 * Karen Anand
 * Robert Appelbaum
 * Archestratus
 * Athenaeus
 * James Beard
 * Maggie Beer
 * Mrs Beeton
 * Edward Behr
 * Raymond Blanc
 * Anthony Bourdain
 * Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin
 * Alton Brown
 * Robert Farrar Capon
 * Julia Child
 * Mei Chin
 * Craig Claiborne
 * Brendan Connell
 * Shirley Corriher
 * Fanny Cradock
 * Elizabeth Craig
 * Curnonsky
 * Tarla Dalal
 * Elizabeth David
 * Alan Davidson
 * Emiko Davies
 * Giada De Laurentiis
 * Avis DeVoto
 * Andrew Dornenburg
 * Escoffier
 * Judith Lynn Ferguson
 * Susie Fishbein
 * M. F. K. Fisher
 * Alexandros Giotis
 * Adam Gopnik
 * Gael Greene
 * Jane Grigson
 * Tim Hayward
 * Marcella Hazan
 * Karen Hess
 * Amanda Hesser
 * Kate Heyhoe
 * Alison Holst
 * Judith Jones
 * Diana Kennedy
 * Christopher Kimball
 * Mark Kurlansky
 * Kylie Kwong
 * Nigella Lawson
 * David Leite
 * Paul Levy
 * A. J. Liebling
 * Manju Malhi
 * Ginette Mathiot
 * Harold McGee
 * Zora Mintalová - Zubercová
 * Prosper Montagné
 * Massimo Montanari
 * Joan Nathan
 * Marion Nestle
 * Jamie Oliver
 * Richard Olney
 * Clementine Paddleford
 * Karen A. Page
 * Jean Paré
 * Angelo Pellegrini
 * Elizabeth Robins Pennell
 * Jacques Pépin
 * Michael Pollan
 * Edouard de Pomiane
 * Wolfgang Puck
 * Gordon Ramsay
 * Rachael Ray
 * Ruth Reichl
 * Gary Rhodes
 * Claudia Roden
 * Waverley Root
 * Marcel Rouff
 * Michael Ruhlman
 * Nigel Slater
 * Delia Smith
 * Raymond Sokolov
 * Jeffrey Steingarten
 * Joanne Stepaniak
 * Martha Stewart
 * John Thorne
 * Raquel Torres Cerdán
 * Mapie de Toulouse-Lautrec
 * Anne Willan
 * Martin Yan

Important texts in the genre (not easily attributable to an author)

 * Larousse Gastronomique (1938; 1961; 1988; 2001: four editions, the first of which describes French cuisine; the last of the three English editions also includes coverage of cuisines other than French; the original editor was Prosper Montagné)
 * The Forme of Cury (compiled by the chief master cooks of King Richard II of England)
 * Le Viandier (a French cookery book of the 14th century)

title: Food writing


text:
Four Pillars

Four Pillars or four pillars may refer to:

Politics and government

 * Four pillars policy, to keep Australia's four largest banks separate
 * Four Pillars of Nepal Bhasa, four people who campaign to revive the language and literature
 * Four Pillars of Transnistria, basis of the declaration of independence of a separatist region in Moldova in Eastern Europe
 * Four pillars, Vietnamese term for the four most important people in the government
 * The four pillars of green politics
 * The four pillars of communication rights

Science, technology and mathematics

 * Four Pillars (Geneva Association), an economic policy research programme
 * Four pillars of manufacturing engineering, devised by the American SME
 * Four Pillars of Geometry, a 2005 book by John Stillwell

Religion and astrology

 * Four Pillars of Destiny, a Chinese component used in fortune telling
 * Four Pillars of Dominican Life, principles of the Dominican Order

title: Four Pillars


text:
Futurama (New York World's Fair)

Futurama was an exhibit and ride at the 1939 New York World's Fair designed by Norman Bel Geddes, which presented a possible model of the world 20 years into the future (1959–1960). The installation was sponsored by the General Motors Corporation and was characterized by automated highways and vast suburbs.

Background
Geddes had built a model city for a Shell Oil advertising campaign in 1937 that was described as the Shell Oil City of Tomorrow and was effectively a prototype for the much larger and more ambitious Futurama.

Overview
Geddes' "vision of the future" was rather achievable; the most advanced technology posited was the automated highway system of which General Motors built a working prototype by 1960. Futurama is widely held to have first introduced the general American public to the concept of a network of expressways connecting the nation. It provided a direct connection between the streamlined style which was popular in America at the time, and the concept of steady-flow which appeared in street and highway design in the same period.

Geddes expounds upon his design in his book Magic Motorways: "Futurama is a large-scale model representing almost every type of terrain in America and illustrating how a motorway system may be laid down over the entire country—across mountains, over rivers and lakes, through cities and past towns—never deviating from a direct course and always adhering to the four basic principles of highway design: safety, comfort, speed, and economy."

The modeled highway construction emphasized hope for the future as it served as a proposed solution to traffic congestion of the day, and demonstrated the probable development of traffic in proportion to the automotive growth of the next 20 years. Bel Geddes assumed that the automobile would be the same type of carrier and still the most common means of transportation in 1960, albeit with increased vehicle use and traffic lanes also capable of much higher speeds.

Four general ideas for improvement were incorporated into the exhibition showcase to meet these assumptions. First, each section of road was designed to receive greater capacity of traffic. Second, traffic moving in one direction could be isolated from traffic moving in any other. Third, segregating traffic by subdividing towns and cities into certain units restricted traffic and allowed pedestrians to predominate. And fourth, traffic control included maximum and minimum speeds. Through this, the exhibition was designed to inspire greater public enthusiasm and support for the constructive work and planning of streets and highways.

The popularity of the Futurama exhibit fit closely with the fair's overall theme of "The World of Tomorrow" in its emphasis on the future and its redesign of the American landscape. The highway system was supported within a 1 acre animated model of a projected America containing more than 500,000 individually designed buildings, a million trees of 13 different species, and approximately 50,000 cars, 10,000 of which traveled along a 14-lane multi-speed interstate highway. It prophesied an American utopia regulated by an assortment of cutting-edge technologies: multi-lane highways with remote-controlled semi-automated vehicles (according to Geddes' Magic Motorways, these vehicles are supposed to be equipped with lane centering and lane change/blind spot assist systems), power plants, farms for artificially produced crops, rooftop platforms for individual flying machines, and various gadgets, all intended to make an ideal built environment and ultimately to reform society.

Geddes' "future" was synonymous with technological progress in its simulated low-flying airplane journey through the exhibit. The aerial journey was simulated by an 18-minute ride on a conveyor system, carrying 552 seated spectators at a time, covering a ⅓-mile winding path through the model, along with light, sound, and color effects. The ride moved at a rate of approximately 120 feet per minute or 1.36 mph, allowing spectators to look down through a continuous curved pane of glass towards the model. The virtue of this elevated position allowed spectators to see multiple scales simultaneously, viewing city blocks in proportion to a highway system, as well as artificially controlled trees in glass domes. This scale was modeled off 408 topographical sections based on aerial photographs of different regions of the U.S. provided by Fairchild Aircraft Ltd.

Reception
Before General Motors invited Bel Geddes to submit a proposal for the exhibit, they had planned to put in another production line as was featured at their exhibit in the Century of Progress Exposition of 1933 in Chicago. However, after they heard Bel Geddes outline his project all other plans were scrapped as they favored his design for its appeal to a broader audience. The Futurama exhibition was subsequently presented as one of the 1939 New York World Fair's main attractions, as it was the "number-one hit show". It was considered highly interesting by the public and critics alike, with journalists competing to find adequate words to convey Bel Geddes' "ingenuity", "daring", "showmanship" and "genius". One neutral survey of 1000 departing fairgoers awarded the General Motors exhibit 39.4 points to only 8.5 points for second place Ford as the most interesting exhibit. Business Week described the scene: "More than 30,000 persons daily, the show's capacity, inch along the sizzling pavement in long queues until they reach the chairs which transport them to a tourist's paradise. It unfolds a prophecy of cities, towns, and countrysides served by a comprehensive road system."

His ideas of the future were considered to have a remarkable degree of realism and immediacy, especially for an American audience slowly recovering from the Great Depression and that was longing for prosperity. Futurama's imaginary landscape of 1960 was, at the time, seen not just as a novel physical space, but as a glimpse of the future.

Legacy
The General Motors pavilion at the 1964 New York World's Fair included a ride, Futurama II, that was also known as "The New Futurama".

The 1964 version had a 110 foot tall front facade which was tilted toward the viewer as they approached the front of the building. Inside, moving theater seats took visitors on a multi-media ride into the future around the world, narrated by a description of all the future scenarios. After the 15 minute ride, visitors exited into a showroom of futuristic models and current General Motors products.

The October 1965 attendance statistics beat the old record from 1939 for the two-year period by about five million visitors, the largest ever attendance of any exhibit at any fair in the world.

It is the namesake of the show Futurama.

title: Futurama (New York World's Fair)


text:
Francesco I Sforza

Francesco I Sforza (23 July 1401 – 8 March 1466) was an Italian condottiero who founded the Sforza dynasty in the duchy of Milan, ruling as its (fourth) duke from 1450 until his death.

In the 1420s, he participated in the War of L'Aquila and in the 1430s fought for the Papal States and Milan against Venice. Once the war between Milan and Venice ended in 1441 under mediation by Sforza, he successfully invaded southern Italy alongside René of Anjou, pretender to the throne of Naples, and after that returned to Milan. He was instrumental in the Treaty of Lodi (1454) which ensured peace in the Italian realms for a time by ensuring a strategic balance of power. He died in 1466 and was succeeded as duke by his son, Galeazzo Maria Sforza. While Sforza was recognized as duke of Milan, his son Ludovico would be the first to have formal investiture under the Holy Roman Empire by Maximilian I in 1494.

Early life
Francesco Sforza was born in Cigoli, near San Miniato, Tuscany, one of the seven illegitimate sons of the condottiero Muzio Sforza and Lucia de Martini. He was the brother of Alessandro Sforza. He spent his childhood in Tricarico (in the modern Basilicata), the marquisate of which he was granted in 1412 by King Ladislaus of Naples. In 1418, he married Polissena Ruffo, a Calabrese noblewoman.

From 1419, he fought alongside his father, soon gaining fame for being able to bend metal bars with his bare hands. He later proved himself to be an expert tactician and a very skilled field commander. After the death of his father during the War of L'Aquila, he participated in Braccio da Montone's final defeat in that campaign; he fought subsequently for the Neapolitan army and then for Pope Martin V and the Duke of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti. After some successes, he fell in disgrace and was sent to the castle of Mortara as a prisoner. He regained his status after leading an expedition against Lucca.

In 1431, after fighting again for the Papal States, he led the Milanese army against Venice; the following year the duke's daughter, Bianca Maria, was betrothed to him. Despite these moves, the wary Filippo Maria never ceased to be distrustful of Sforza. The allegiance of mercenary leaders was dependent, of course, on pay; in 1433–1435, Sforza led the Milanese attack on the Papal States, but when he conquered Ancona, in Marche, he changed sides, obtaining the title of vicar of the city directly from Pope Eugene IV. In 1436–39, he served variously both in Florence and Venice.

In 1440, his fiefs in the Kingdom of Naples were occupied by King Alfonso I, and, to recover the situation, Sforza reconciled himself with Filippo Visconti. On 25 October 1441, in Cremona, he could finally marry Bianca Maria as part of the agreements that ended the war between Milan and Venice. The following year, he allied with René of Anjou, pretender to the throne of Naples, and marched against southern Italy. After some initial setbacks, he defeated the Neapolitan commander Niccolò Piccinino, who had invaded his possessions in Romagna and Marche, through the help of Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta (who had married his daughter Polissena) and the Venetians, and could return to Milan.

Sforza later found himself warring against Francesco Piccinino (whom he defeated at the Battle of Montolmo in 1444) and, later, the alliance of Visconti, Eugene IV, and Malatesta, who had allegedly murdered Polissena. With the help of Venice, Sforza was again victorious and, in exchange for abandoning the Venetians, received the title of capitano generale (commander-in-chief) of the Duchy of Milan's armies.

Duke of Milan
After Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan, died without a male heir in 1447, fighting broke out to restore the so-called Ambrosian Republic. The name Ambrosian Republic takes its name from St. Ambrose, the patron saint of Milan. Agnese del Maino, his wife's mother, convinced the condottiero who held Pavia to restore it to him.

He also received the seigniory of other cities of the duchy, including Lodi, and started to carefully plan the conquest of the ephemeral republic, allying with William VIII of Montferrat and (again) Venice. In 1450, after years of famine, riots raged in the streets of Milan and the city's senate decided to entrust him with the duchy. Sforza entered the city as duke on 26 February. It was the first time that such a title was handed over by a lay institution. While the other Italian states gradually recognized Sforza as the legitimate Duke of Milan, he was never able to obtain official investiture from the Holy Roman Emperor. That did not come to the Sforza Dukes until 1494, when Emperor Maximilian formally invested Francesco's son, Ludovico, as duke of Milan.

Under his rule (which was moderate and skilful), Sforza modernised the city and duchy. He created an efficient system of taxation that generated enormous revenues for the government, his court became a centre of Renaissance learning and culture, and the people of Milan grew to love him. In Milan, he founded the Ospedale Maggiore, restored the Palazzo ducale, and had the Naviglio d'Adda, a channel connecting with the River Adda, built.

During Sforza's reign, Florence was under the command of Cosimo de' Medici and the two rulers became close friends. This friendship eventually manifested in first the Peace of Lodi and then the Italian League, a multi-polar defensive alliance of Italian states that succeeded in stabilising almost all of Italy for its duration. After the peace, Sforza renounced part of the conquests in eastern Lombardy obtained by his condottieri Bartolomeo Colleoni, Ludovico Gonzaga, and Roberto Sanseverino d'Aragona after 1451. As King Alfonso I of Naples was among the signatories of the treaty, Sforza also abandoned his long support of the Angevin pretenders to Naples. He also aimed to conquer Genoa, then an Angevin possession; when a revolt broke out there in 1461, he had Spinetta Campofregoso elected as Doge, as his puppet. Sforza occupied Genoa and Savona in 1464.

Sforza was the first European ruler to follow a foreign policy based on the concept of the balance of power, and the first native Italian ruler to conduct extensive diplomacy outside the peninsula to counter the power of threatening states such as France. Sforza's policies succeeded in keeping foreign powers from dominating Italian politics for the rest of the century.

Edward IV of England sought to strengthen friendly relations with Sforza and accordingly offered him membership in the prestigious Order of the Garter. He accepted and became a knight of the Garter in 1463.

Sforza suffered from hydropsy and gout. In 1462, rumours spread that he was dead and a riot exploded in Milan. He however survived for four more years, finally dying in March 1466. He was succeeded as duke by his son, Galeazzo Maria Sforza.

Francesco's successor Ludovico commissioned Leonardo da Vinci to design an equestrian statue as part of a monument to Francesco I Sforza. A clay model of a horse which was to be used as part of the design was completed by Leonardo in 1492—but the statue was never built. In 1999 the horse alone was cast from Leonardo's original designs in bronze and placed in Milan outside the racetrack of Ippodromo del Galoppo.

Issue
Francesco Sforza with his second wife Bianca Maria Visconti had:
 * Galeazzo Maria (24 January 1444 — 26 December 1476), Duke of Milan from 1466 to 1476.
 * Ippolita Maria (18 April 1446 — 20 August 1484), wife of Alfonso II of Naples and mother of Isabella of Aragon, who was to marry Galeazzo's heir.
 * Filippo Maria (12 December 1449 — 1492), Count of Corsica.
 * Sforza Maria (18 August 1451 — 29 July 1479), Duke of Bari from 1464 to 1479.
 * Francesco Galeazzo Maria (5 August 1453/54 — died young).
 * Ludovico Maria (3 August 1452 — 27 May 1508), Duke of Bari from 1479 to 1494 and Duke of Milan from 1494 to 1499.
 * Ascanio Maria (3 March 1455 — 28 May 1505), Abbot of Chiaraville, Bishop of Pavia, Cremona, Pesaro, and Novara and Cardinal.
 * Elisabetta Maria (10 June 1456 — 1473), wife of Guglielmo VIII Paleologo, Margrave of Montferrat.
 * Ottaviano Maria (30 April 1458 — 1477), Count of Lugano, who drowned while escaping arrest.

Francesco Sforza also had an unspecified number (possibly 35) of illegitimate children. Giovanna d'Acquapendente, who was Francesco's official lover between the death of his first wife and his marriage to Bianca Maria Visconti, gave him 7 children including:
 * Sforza Secondo Sforza (1433–1492 or 1493), count of Borgonuovo;
 * Drusiana Sforza (30 September 1437 - 29 June 1474), married Jacopo Piccinino.

title: Francesco I Sforza


text:
Folk dance

A folk dance is a dance that reflects the life of the people of a certain country or region. Not all ethnic dances are folk dances. For example, ritual dances or dances of ritual origin are not considered to be folk dances. Ritual dances are usually called "religious dances" because of their purpose.

The terms "ethnic" and "traditional" are used when it is required to emphasize the cultural roots of the dance. In this sense, nearly all folk dances are ethnic ones. If some dances, such as polka, cross ethnic boundaries and even cross the boundary between "folk" and "ballroom dance", ethnic differences are often considerable enough to mention.

Background
Folk dances share some or all of the following attributes:

More controversially, some people define folk dancing as dancing for which there is no governing body or dancing for which there are no competitive or professional institutions. The term "folk dance" is sometimes applied to dances of historical importance in European culture and history; typically originating before the 20th century. For other cultures the terms "ethnic dance" or "traditional dance" are sometimes used, although the latter terms may encompass ceremonial dances.
 * Dances are usually held at folk dance gatherings or social functions by people with little or no professional training, often to traditional music.
 * Dances not generally designed for public performance or the stage, though they may later be arranged and set for stage performances.
 * Execution dominated by an inherited tradition from various international cultures rather than innovation (though folk traditions change over time).
 * New dancers often learn informally by observing others or receiving help from others.

There are a number of modern dances, such as hip hop dance, that evolve spontaneously, but the term "folk dance" is generally not applied to them, and the terms "street dance" or "vernacular dance" are used instead. The term "folk dance" is reserved for dances which are to a significant degree bound by tradition and originated in the times when the distinction existed between the dances of "common folk" and the dances of the modern ballroom dances originated from folk ones.

Europe
Varieties of European folk dances include:

 * Ball de bastons
 * Ballet
 * Barn dance
 * Bulgarian dances
 * Pravo horo
 * Paidushko horo
 * Gankino horo
 * Daychovo horo
 * Circle dance
 * Clogging
 * Dutch crossing
 * English country dance
 * Fandango
 * Flamenco
 * Freilekhs
 * Georgian dance
 * Greek dances
 * Hora
 * International folk dance
 * Irish dance
 * Ceili dance
 * Italian folk dance
 * Tarantella
 * Calabrian Tarantella
 * Pizzica
 * Monferrina
 * Ballu tundu
 * Jenkka
 * Jota
 * Kolo
 * Maypole dance
 * Morris dance
 * Welsh Morris dance
 * Polka
 * Polish folk dances
 * Polonaise
 * Oberek
 * Krakowiak
 * Mazurka
 * Kujawiak
 * Russian folk dance
 * Turkish dance
 * Ukrainian dance
 * Verbuňk
 * Nordic polska dance
 * Square dance
 * Sword dance
 * Weapon dance

Sword dances include long sword dances and rapper dancing. Some choreographed dances such as contra dance, Scottish highland dance, Scottish country dance, and modern western square dance, are called folk dances, though this is not true in the strictest sense. Country dance overlaps with contemporary folk dance and ballroom dance. Most country dances and ballroom dances originated from folk dances, with gradual refinement over the years.

People familiar with folk dancing can often determine what country a dance is from even if they have not seen that particular dance before. Some countries' dances have features that are unique to that country, although neighboring countries sometimes have similar features. For example, the German and Austrian schuhplattling dance consists of slapping the body and shoes in a fixed pattern, a feature that few other countries' dances have.

Folk dances sometimes evolved long before current political boundaries, so that certain dances are shared by several countries. For example, some Serbian, Bulgarian, and Croatian dances share the same or similar dances, and sometimes even use the same name and music for those dances.

International folk dance groups exist in cities and college campuses in many countries, in which dancers learn folk dances from many cultures for recreation.

Balfolk events are social dance events with live music in Western and Central Europe, originating in the folk revival of the 1970s and becoming more popular since about 2000, where popular European partner dances from the end of the 19th century such as the schottische, polka, mazurka and waltz are danced, with additionally other European folk dances, mainly from France, but also from Sweden, Spain and other countries.

Middle East, Central Asia and South Asia
various dances such as tamang selo and many others
 * Ardah
 * Armenian dance
 * Assyrian folk dance
 * Azerbaijani dances
 * Bihu, an Assamese dance celebrating the arrival of spring, traditionally the beginning of the Assamese New Year
 * Attan - The national dance of Afghanistan. Also a popular folk dance of Pashtuns tribes of Pakistan including the unique styles of Quetta and Waziristan in Pakistan.
 * Belly Dance
 * Bhangra, a Punjabi harvest dance in Pakistan and India, and a music style that has become popular worldwide.
 * Chitrali Dance - Chitral, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan.
 * Circassian dance
 * Circle dance
 * Dabke, a folk dance of the Levant
 * Domkach, folk dance of Bihar and Jharkhand, India
 * Garba Circular Devotional dance from Gujarat danced the world over
 * Israeli folk dance
 * Kalbelia is one of the most sensuous dance forms of Rajasthan, performed by the kalbelia tribe
 * Khattak Dance - Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan.
 * Khigga, a common folk dance among Assyrian people
 * Kurdish dance
 * Luri dances
 * Lewa (folk dance) - Baluch folk dance in Pakistan.
 * Mazanderani dances
 * Middle Eastern Dance
 * Chaap (traditional Baloch folk dance in Pakistan)
 * Thabal chongba
 * Kyushtdepdi - The national dance of Turkmenistan
 * Yowlah

India
• Bhagavata Mel

• Bhangra

• Chholiya

• Chhau dance

• Fugdi

• Garba

• Gaudiya Nritya

• Giddha

• Kalbelia

• Kambara

• Lavani

• Ottan Thullal

• Rajasthani

• Sattriya

• Tippani

• Yakshagana

China

 * Yangge

Cambodia

 * Romvong
 * Rom kbach
 * Robam Neary Chea Chuor
 * Peacock Dance
 * Chhayam
 * Cambodian Coconut Dance
 * Cambodian Fish Dance
 * Trot dance

Japan

 * Bon dance
 * Buyō, typical dance of the Japanese geishas or dance artists
 * Rimse (Ainu people)
 * Kachāshī (Okinawa)

Korea

 * Nongak

Malaysia

 * Zapin

Nepal

 * Tamang Selo dance
 * Chhokara
 * Khyali
 * Maruni
 * Deuda
 * Chaulo
 * Dhan Nach
 * Madikhole
 * Phagu (dance)
 * Sorathi
 * Sakela (Chandi)
 * Singaru
 * Tarbare
 * Bajrayogini dance
 * Charitra
 * Jat-jatin
 * Charya
 * Hanuman dance

Philippines

 * Balse Marikina
 * Benjan
 * Binasuan
 * Cariñosa
 * Habañera Botoleña
 * Itik-itik
 * Kalesa
 * Kuntao Silat Amil Bangsa
 * Kuntaw
 * Kuratsa
 * La Jota Moncadena
 * Lerion
 * Magkasuyo
 * Maglalatik
 * Pagdiwata
 * Pandanggo
 * Pangalay
 * Paraguanen
 * Pista
 * Sagayan
 * Sayaw sa Bangko
 * Singkil
 * Subli
 * Tiklos
 * Tinikling

Taiwan

 * Bamboo dance (Amis people)

Argentina

 * Chacarera
 * Bailecito
 * Zamba
 * Gato
 * Cueca
 * Chamamé
 * Malambo

Brazil

 * Samba

Peru

 * Marinera

Venezuela

 * Gaita Zuliana

Angola

 * Kizomba

Cameroon

 * Ambasse bey

 * Assiko
 * Bikutsi

Ghana

 * Adowa
 * Agbadza
 * Agbekor (Atamga)

 * Kpanlogo
 * Bobobo
 * Alkayida

Niger

 * Bitti Harey

United States

 * Modern Dance

Mexico

 * Baile Folklorico (Mexico and Central America)
 * Contradance
 * Square Dance

Dominican Republic

 * Merengue

Oceania

 * Hula (Hawaii)
 * Haka (New Zealand)

Notable people

 * Olivia Hussey
 * Cheng Xiao
 * The Mayyas
 * Zhang Ziyi

title: Folk dance