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Inter Milan

Football Club Internazionale Milano, commonly referred to as Internazionale or simply Inter, and colloquially known as Inter Milan in English-speaking countries,   is an Italian professional football club based in Milan, Lombardy. Inter is the only Italian side to have always competed in the top flight of Italian football since its debut in 1909.

Founded in 1908 following a schism within the Milan Foot-Ball and Cricket Club (now AC Milan), Inter won its first championship in 1910. Since its formation, the club has won 36 domestic trophies, including 20 league titles, nine Coppa Italia, and eight Supercoppa Italiana. From 2006 to 2010, the club won five successive league titles, equalling the all-time record at that time. They have won the European Cup/Champions League three times: two back-to-back in 1964 and 1965, and then another in 2010. Their latest win completed an unprecedented Italian seasonal treble, with Inter winning the Coppa Italia and the Scudetto the same year. The club has also won three UEFA Cups, two Intercontinental Cups and one FIFA Club World Cup.

Inter's home games are played at the San Siro stadium, which they share with city rivals AC Milan. The stadium is the largest in Italian football with a capacity of 75,817. They have long-standing rivalries with Milan, with whom they contest the Derby della Madonnina, and Juventus, with whom they contest the Derby d'Italia; their rivalry with the former is one of the most followed derbies in football. Inter has the highest home game attendance in Italy and the sixth-highest attendance in Europe. Since May 2024, the club has been owned by American asset management company Oaktree Capital Management. Inter is one of the most valuable clubs in Italian and world football.

Foundation and early years (1908–1960)

The club was founded on 9 March 1908 as Football Club Internazionale, when a group of players left the Milan Cricket and Football Club (now AC Milan) to form a new club because they wanted to accept more foreign players. The name of the club derives from the wish of its founding members to accept foreign players as well as Italians. The club won its first championship in 1910 and its second in 1920. The captain and coach of the first championship winning team was Virgilio Fossati, who was later killed in battle while serving in the Italian army during World War I.

In 1922, Inter was at risk of relegation to the second division, but they remained in the top league after winning two play-offs.

Six years later, during the Fascist era, the club merged with the Unione Sportiva Milanese and, for political reasons, was renamed Società Sportiva Ambrosiana. During the 1928–29 season, the team wore white jerseys with a red cross emblazoned on it; the jersey's design was inspired by the flag and coat of arms of the city of Milan. In 1929, the new club chairman Oreste Simonotti changed the club's name to Associazione Sportiva Ambrosiana and restored the previous black-and-blue jerseys; however, supporters continued to call the team Inter, and in 1931 new chairman Pozzani succumbed to shareholder pressure and changed the name to Associazione Sportiva Ambrosiana-Inter.

Their first Coppa Italia (Italian Cup) was won in 1938–39, led by the Giuseppe Meazza, after whom the San Siro stadium is officially named. A fifth championship followed in 1940. After the end of World War II, the club's name changed back to its original one, Internazionale, winning its sixth championship in 1953 and its seventh in 1954.

Grande Inter (1960–1967)
In 1960, manager Helenio Herrera joined Inter from Barcelona, bringing with him Spanish midfielder Luis Suárez, who won the European Footballer of the Year in the same year for his role in Barcelona's La Liga/Fairs Cup double. He would transform Inter into one of the leading teams in Europe. He modified a 5–3–2 tactic known as the "Verrou" ("door bolt"), which created greater flexibility for counterattacks. The catenaccio system was invented by an Austrian coach, Karl Rappan. Rappan's original system was implemented with four fixed defenders, playing a strict man-to-man marking system, plus a playmaker in the middle of the field, who plays the ball together with two midfield wings. Herrera would modify it by adding a fifth defender, the sweeper or libero, behind the two centre backs. The sweeper or libero, who acted as the free man, would deal with any attackers who went through the two centre backs. Inter finished third in the Serie A in his first season, second the next year and first in his third season. Then followed a back-to-back European Cup victory in 1964 and 1965, earning him the title "il Mago" ("the Wizard"). The core of Herrera's team were the attacking full-backs Tarcisio Burgnich and Giacinto Facchetti, Armando Picchi the sweeper, Suárez the playmaker, Jair the winger, Mario Corso the left midfielder and Sandro Mazzola, who played on the inside-right.

In 1964, Inter reached the European Cup Final by beating Borussia Dortmund in the semi-final and Partizan in the quarter-final. In the final, they met Real Madrid, a team that had reached seven out of the nine finals to date. Mazzola scored two goals in a 3–1 victory, and then the team won the Intercontinental Cup against Independiente.

A year later, Inter repeated the feat by beating two-time winner Benfica in the final held at home, from a Jair goal, and then again beat Independiente in the Intercontinental Cup, becoming the first European team to win two times in a row the competition. Inter came close to winning the Treble for the first time in European football history that year, after having also won the Serie A title, but lost the Coppa Italia final against Juventus.

Inter again reached semifinals of the European cup in 1966, but this time lost against a Real Madrid team that would go on to win the tournament.

In 1967, after Inter eliminated Real Madrid in quarterfinals, with Suárez injured, Inter lost the European Cup Final in Lisbon 2–1 to Celtic. During that year, the club changed its name to Football Club Internazionale Milano.

Subsequent achievements (1967–1991)
Following the golden era of the 1960s, Inter managed to win their eleventh league title in 1971 and their twelfth in 1980. Inter were defeated for the second time in five years in the final of the European Cup, losing 0–2 to Johan Cruyff's Ajax in 1972. During the 1970s and the 1980s, Inter also added two to its Coppa Italia tally, in 1977–78 and 1981–82.

Hansi Müller (1975–1982 VfB Stuttgart, 1982–1984 Inter Milan) and Karl-Heinz Rummenigge (1974–1984 Bayern Munich, 1984–1987 Inter Milan) played for Inter Milan. Led by the German duo of Andreas Brehme and Lothar Matthäus, and Argentine Ramón Díaz, Inter captured the 1989 Serie A championship. Inter were unable to defend their title, despite adding fellow German Jürgen Klinsmann to the squad and winning their first Supercoppa Italiana at the start of the season.

Mixed fortunes (1991–2004)
The 1990s was a lackluster period. While their great rivals Milan and Juventus were achieving success both domestically and in Europe, Inter enjoyed little success in the domestic league standings, their worst coming in 1993–94 when they finished just one point out of the relegation zone. Nevertheless, they achieved some European success, with three UEFA Cup victories, in 1991, 1994 and 1998.

With Massimo Moratti's takeover from Ernesto Pellegrini in 1995, Inter twice broke the world record transfer fee in this period (£19.5 million for Ronaldo from Barcelona in 1997 and £31 million for Christian Vieri from Lazio two years later). However, the 1990s remained the only decade in Inter's history, alongside the 1940s, in which they did not win a single Serie A championship. This persistent lack of success led to poor relations between the fanbase and the chairman, the managers, and even some individual players.

Moratti later became a target of the fans, especially when he sacked the much-loved coach Luigi Simoni after a few games into the 1998–99 season, five days after Inter have defeated Real Madrid 3-1 at San Siro in Champions League group stage with two goals from Roberto Baggio, and having just received the Italian manager of the year award for 1998 the day before being dismissed. That season despite 4 coaches changes Inter reached Champions League quarter Finals when it will be eliminated from Manchester United; Inter failed to qualify for any European competition for the first time in almost ten years, finishing in eighth place.

In the previous season 1997-1998 under Simoni Inter had won his third UEFA Cup defending in Paris final Lazio 3-0, and nearly won Serie A title, with many controversial referee decisions culminated in the decisive match against Juventus in Turin with Inter behind only 1 point with 4 games left, when referee didn't concede a penalty on Ronaldo, that generated a turmoil on the pitch and a big scandal, with president Moratti that left the building shortly afterwards.

The following season 1999-2000, Moratti appointed former Juventus manager Marcello Lippi, and signed players such as Angelo Peruzzi, Laurent Blanc and Clarence Seedorf from Real Madrid, together with other former Juventus players Vieri and Vladimir Jugović and sold important players like Diego Simeone, and Gianluca Pagliuca. The team came close to their first domestic success since 1989 when they reached the Coppa Italia final, only to be defeated by Lazio, in a match remembered for the second severe injury on right knee of Ronaldo that was returning after 5 months of inactivity.

Inter's misfortunes continued the following season, losing the 2000 Supercoppa Italiana match against Lazio 4–3, after initially taking the lead through new signing Robbie Keane. They were also eliminated in the preliminary round of the Champions League by Swedish club Helsingborgs, with Álvaro Recoba missing a crucial late penalty. Lippi was sacked after only a single game of the new season following Inter's first ever Serie A defeat to Reggina. Marco Tardelli, chosen to replace Lippi, failed to improve results, and is remembered by Inter fans as the manager who lost 6–0 in the city derby against Milan.

In 2002 with new coach Hector Cuper, the acquisition of the second most expensive goalkeeper in the world at that time Francesco Toldo and the return after injury of Ronaldo in pair with Vieri, not only did Inter manage to make it to the UEFA Cup semi-finals, but were also only 45 minutes away from capturing the Scudetto when they needed to maintain their one-goal advantage away to Lazio. Inter were 2–1 up after only 24 minutes. Lazio equalised during first half injury time, and then scored two more goals by Simeone and Simone Inzaghi in the second half to secure victory that saw Juventus win the championship, Roma ended second and Inter third. After brillant performances and have won 2002 World Cup with Brazil, Ronaldo demanded and ottened to be sold to Real Madrid, and was replaced by Hernan Crespo from Lazio, Seedorf was sold to AC Milan and Fabio Cannavaro was acquired from Parma. The next season Inter finished as league runners-up and also reached the 2002–03 Champions League semi-finals against AC Milan, losing on the away goals rule with two draw in the same stadium in San Siro. Other members of the Inter "family" during this period who suffered were the likes of Vieri and Fabio Cannavaro, both of whom had their restaurants in Milan vandalised after defeats to the Rossoneri 3-2 on February 2004 in Serie A.

Comeback and unprecedented treble (2004–2011)
On 8 July 2004, Inter appointed former Lazio manager Roberto Mancini as its new head coach, with players that will make the history of Inter like Esteban Cambiasso, Julio Cesar, and in 2005 Walter Samuel and Luis Figo. In his first season, the team collected 72 points from 18 wins, 18 draws and only two losses, as well as winning the Coppa Italia against Roma with two goal from Adriano and later the Supercoppa Italiana in Turin against Juventus. On 11 May 2006, Inter won the Coppa Italia title for the second season in a row after defeating Roma with a 4–1 aggregate victory (a 1–1 scoreline in Rome and a 3–1 win at the San Siro).

Inter were awarded the 2005–06 Serie A championship retrospectively, after title-winning Juventus was relegated and points were stripped from Milan due to the Calciopoli scandal. During the following season, Inter with new players like Maicon, Maxwell, Patrick Vieira, Zlatan Ibrahimovic and the return of Crespo from Chelsea, went on a record-breaking run of 17 consecutive victories in Serie A, starting on 25 September 2006, with a 4–1 home victory over Livorno, and ending on 28 February 2007, after a 1–1 draw at home to Udinese. On 22 April 2007, Inter won their second consecutive Scudetto—and first on the field since 1989—when they defeated Siena 2–1 at Stadio Artemio Franchi, ended the season with an all time Serie A record of 97 points. Italian World Cup-winning defender Marco Materazzi scored both goals.

Inter started the 2007–08 season with the goal of winning both Serie A and Champions League. The team started well in the league, topping the table from the first round of matches, and also managed to qualify for the Champions League knockout stage. However, a late collapse, leading to a 2–0 defeat with ten men away to Liverpool on 19 February in the Champions League, brought manager Roberto Mancini's future at Inter, into question while domestic form took a sharp turn of fortune, with the team failing to win in the three following Serie A games. After being eliminated by Liverpool in the Champions League, Mancini announced his intention to leave his job immediately only to change his mind the following day. On the final day of the 2007–08 Serie A season, Inter played Parma away, that had to win to not be relegated in Serie B after 18 years; Roma scored in Catania and was in the first place until Zlatan Ibrahimović, 10 minutes after have been entered on the pitch in the second half, scored two goals sealed their third consecutive championship. Mancini, however, was sacked soon after, due to his previous announcement to leave the club.

On 2 June 2008, Inter appointed former Porto and Chelsea boss José Mourinho as new head coach. In his first season, the Nerazzurri won a Suppercoppa Italiana and a fourth consecutive title, though falling in the Champions League in the first knockout round for a third-straight year, losing to eventual finalist Manchester United. In winning the league title, Inter became the first club in since 1949 to win the title for four consecutive seasons, and joined Torino and Juventus as the only clubs to accomplish this feat, as well as being the first club based outside Turin.

In the summer of 2009 Inter put foundation to maybe the greatest single season of its history: after have signed Diego Milito and Thiago Motta from Genoa, Lúcio from Bayern Munich, the club agreed to sell Ibrahimovic to Barcelona in change for Samuel Eto'o plus 49 milions euros. The transfer session ended with the sign of Wesley Sneijder from Real Madrid in the last days of August. Inter won the 2009–10 Champions League, defeating in round of 16 Ancelotti's Chelsea, Cska Moscow and reigning champions Barcelona in the semi-final, before beating Bayern Munich 2–0 in the final, with two goals from Diego Milito. Inter also won the 2009–10 Serie A title by two points over Roma, and the 2010 Coppa Italia by defeating the same side 1–0 in the final. This made Inter the first Italian team to win the treble. At the end of the season, Mourinho left the club to manage Real Madrid; he was replaced by Rafael Benítez.

On 21 August 2010, Inter defeated Roma 3–1 and won the 2010 Supercoppa Italiana, their fourth trophy of the year. In December 2010, they claimed the FIFA Club World Cup for the first time after a 3–0 win against Mazembe in the final. However, after this win, on 23 December 2010, due to their declining performance in Serie A, the club fired Benítez. He was replaced by Leonardo the following day.

Leonardo started with 30 points from 12 games, with an average of 2.5 points per game, better than his predecessors Benítez and Mourinho. On 6 March 2011, Leonardo set a new Italian Serie A record by collecting 33 points in 13 games; the previous record was 32 points in 13 games, made by Fabio Capello in the 2004–05 season. Leonardo led the club to the quarter-finals of the Champions League, after have defeated again Bayern Munich in Round of 16, before losing to Schalke 04, and won the Coppa Italia title. At the end of the season, however, he resigned, and was followed by new managers Gian Piero Gasperini, Claudio Ranieri and Andrea Stramaccioni, all hired during the following season.

Changes in ownership (2011–2019)
On 1 August 2012, the club announced that Moratti was to sell a minority stake of the club to a Chinese consortium led by Kenneth Huang. On the same day, Inter announced an agreement was formed with China Railway Construction Corporation Limited for a new stadium project, however, the deal with the Chinese eventually collapsed. The 2012–13 season was the worst in recent club history, with Inter finishing ninth in Serie A and failing to qualify for any European competitions. Walter Mazzarri was appointed to replace Stramaccioni as the manager for 2013–14 season on 24 May 2013, having ended his tenure at Napoli. He guided the club to fifth in Serie A and to 2014–15 UEFA Europa League qualification.

On 15 October 2013, an Indonesian consortium (International Sports Capital HK Ltd.) led by Erick Thohir, Handy Soetedjo and Rosan Roeslani, signed an agreement to acquire 70% of Inter shares from Internazionale Holding S.r.l.  Immediately after the deal, Moratti's Internazionale Holding S.r.l. still retained 29.5% of the shares of FC Internazionale Milano S.p.A. After the deal, the shares of Inter was owned by a chain of holding companies, namely International Sports Capital S.p.A. of Italy (for 70% stake), International Sports Capital HK Limited and Asian Sports Ventures HK Limited of Hong Kong. Asian Sports Ventures HK Limited, itself another intermediate holding company, was owned by Nusantara Sports Ventures HK Limited (60% stake, a company owned by Thohir), Alke Sports Investment HK Limited (20% stake) and Aksis Sports Capital HK Limited (20% stake).

Thohir, who also co-owned Major League Soccer (MLS) club D.C. United and Indonesia Super League (ISL) club Persib Bandung, announced on 2 December 2013 that Inter and D.C. United had formed a strategic partnership. During the Thohir era the club began to modify its financial structure from one reliant on continual owner investment to a more self-sustainable business model, although the club still breached UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations in 2015. The club was fined and received a squad reduction in UEFA competitions, with additional penalties suspended during the probation period. During this time, Roberto Mancini returned as the club manager on 14 November 2014, with Inter finishing eighth. Inter finished 2015–2016 season fourth, failing to return to Champions League.

On 6 June 2016, Suning Holdings Group (via a Luxembourg-based subsidiary Great Horizon S.á r.l.) a company owned by Zhang Jindong, co-founder and chairman of Suning Commerce Group, acquired a majority stake of Inter from Thohir's consortium International Sports Capital S.p.A. and from Moratti family's remaining shares in Internazionale Holding S.r.l. According to various filings, the total investment from Suning was €270 million. The deal was approved by an extraordinary general meeting on 28 June 2016, from which Suning Holdings Group had acquired a 68.55% stake in the club.

The first season of new ownership, however, started with poor performance in pre-season friendlies. On 8 August 2016, Inter parted company with head coach Roberto Mancini by mutual consent over disagreements regarding the club's direction. He was replaced by Frank de Boer, who was sacked on 1 November 2016 after leading Inter to a 4W–2D–5L record in 11 Serie A games as head coach. The successor, Stefano Pioli, could not prevent the team from getting the worst group result in UEFA competitions in the club's history. Despite an eight-game winning streak, he and the club parted away before season's end, when it became clear they would finish outside the league's top three for the sixth consecutive season. On 9 June 2017, former Roma coach Luciano Spalletti was appointed as Inter manager, signing a two-year contract, and eleven months later Inter secured a UEFA Champions League group stage spot after going six years without Champions League participation, thanks to a 3–2 victory against Lazio in the final game of 2017–18 Serie A. Due to this success, in August the club extended the contract with Spalletti to 2021.

On 26 October 2018, Steven Zhang was appointed as new president of the club. On 25 January 2019, the club officially announced that LionRock Capital from Hong Kong had reached an agreement with International Sports Capital HK Limited, in order to acquire its 31.05% shares in Inter and to become the club's new minority shareholder. After the 2018–19 Serie A season, despite Inter finishing fourth, Spalletti was sacked.

Renewed successes (2019–present)
On 31 May 2019, Inter appointed former Juventus and Italian manager Antonio Conte as their new coach, signing a three-year deal. In September 2019, Steven Zhang was elected to the board of the European Club Association. In the 2019–20 Serie A, Inter Milan finished as runner-up, as they won 2–0 against Atalanta on the last matchday. They also reached the 2020 UEFA Europa League final, ultimately losing 3–2 to Sevilla. Following Atalanta's draw against Sassuolo on 2 May 2021, Internazionale were confirmed as champions for the first time in eleven years, ending Juventus's run of nine consecutive titles. However, despite securing Serie A glory, Conte left the club by mutual consent on 26 May 2021. The departure was reportedly due to disagreements between Conte and the board over player transfers. In June 2021, Simone Inzaghi was appointed as Conte's replacement. On 8 August 2021, Romelu Lukaku was sold to Chelsea for €115 million, representing the most expensive association football transfer by an Italian football club ever.

On 12 January 2022, Inter won the Supercoppa Italiana, defeating Juventus 2–1 at San Siro. After conceding a goal to the opponent, Inter equalised with a penalty scored by Lautaro Martínez, and the match finished 1–1 in regulation time. In the last second of the extra-time, Alexis Sánchez scored the winning goal following a defensive error, giving Inter the first trophy of the season, also Simone Inzaghi's first trophy as Inter manager. On 11 May 2022, Inter won the Coppa Italia, defeating Juventus 4–2 at Stadio Olimpico. After normal time had ended 2–2, with Nicolò Barella and Hakan Çalhanoğlu scoring Inter's goals, Ivan Perišić's brace in the extra-time gave Inter the win and a second title of the season. The 2021–22 Serie A campaign saw Inter finish in second place, being the most prolific attacking side with 84 goals. On 18 January 2023, Inter won the Supercoppa Italiana, defeating Milan 3−0 at King Fahd International Stadium, thanks to goals from Federico Dimarco, Edin Džeko, and Lautaro Martinez.

On 16 May 2023, Inter defeated archrivals Milan in the semi-finals of 2022–23 UEFA Champions League and advanced to the Champions League final for the first time since 2010. However, they were defeated at the Atatürk Olympic Stadium 1−0 by Manchester City after a second half goal from midfielder Rodri.

On 22 April 2024, Inter secured their 20th Serie A title by defeating Milan 2–1 at the San Siro.

On 22 May 2024, Oaktree Capital Management assumed ownership of Inter Milan following the default of Suning Holdings Group on a substantial loan given in May 2021 to the club in order to cover losses incurred during the COVID-19 pandemic. The firm took control of the club after Suning Holdings Group failed to repay a debt of €395 million ($428 million). This development was confirmed by Oaktree in an emailed statement. As a consequence, the new ownership chose to appoint CEO Giuseppe Marotta as the club's new chairman.

Colours and badge
One of the founders of Inter, a painter named Giorgio Muggiani, was responsible for the design of the first Inter logo in 1908. The first design incorporated the letters "FCIM" in the centre of a series of circles that formed the badge of the club. The basic elements of the design have remained constant even as finer details have been modified over the years. Starting from the 1999–2000 season, the original club crest was reduced in size, to create space for the addition of the club's name and foundation year at the upper and lower part of the logo respectively.

In 2007, the logo was returned to the pre-1999–2000 era. It was given a more modern look with a smaller Scudetto star and lighter colour scheme. This version was used until July 2014, when the club decided to undertake a rebranding. The most significant difference between the current and the previous logo is the omission of the star from other media except match kits.

Since its founding in 1908, Inter have almost always worn black and blue stripes, earning them the nickname Nerazzurri. According to the tradition, the colours were adopted to represent the nocturnal sky: in fact, the club was established on the night of 9 March, at 23:30; moreover, blue was chosen by Giorgio Muggiani because he considered it to be the opposite colour to red, worn by the Milan Cricket and Football Club rivals.

During the 1928–29 season, however, Inter were forced by Fascist regime to abandon their black and blue uniforms. In 1928, Inter's name and philosophy made the ruling Fascist Party uneasy; as a result, during the same year the 20-year-old club was merged with Unione Sportiva Milanese: the new club was named Società Sportiva Ambrosiana after the patron saint of Milan. The flag of Milan (the red cross on white background) replaced the traditional black and blue. In 1929, the black-and-blue jerseys were restored, and after World War II, when the Fascists had fallen from power, the club reverted to their original name. In 2008, Inter celebrated their centenary with a red cross on their away shirt. The cross is reminiscent of the flag of their city, and they continue to use the pattern on their third kit. In 2014, the club adopted a predominantly black home kit with thin blue pinstripes before returning to a more traditional design the following season.

Animals are often used to represent football clubs in Italy – the grass snake, called Biscione, represents Inter. The snake is a symbol for the city of Milan, appearing often in Milanese heraldry as a coiled viper with a man in its jaws. The symbol is present on the coat of arms of the House of Sforza (which ruled over Italy from Milan during the Renaissance period), the city of Milan, the historical Duchy of Milan (a 400-year state of the Holy Roman Empire) and Insubria (a historical region the city of Milan falls within). For the 2010–11 season, Inter's away kit featured the snake.

Stadium
The team's stadium is the 75,923 seat San Siro, officially known as the Stadio Giuseppe Meazza after the former player who represented for 14 seasons Inter and for two Milan. The more commonly used name, San Siro, is the name of the district where it is located. San Siro has been the home of Milan since 1926, when it was privately built by funding from Milan's chairman at the time, Piero Pirelli. Construction was performed by 120 workers, and took $13 1/2$ months to complete. The stadium was owned by the club until it was sold to the city in 1935, and since 1947 it has been shared with Inter, when they were accepted as joint tenant.

The first game played at the stadium was on 19 September 1926, when Inter beat Milan 6–3 in a friendly match. Milan played its first league game in San Siro on 19 September 1926, losing 1–2 to Sampierdarenese. From an initial capacity of 35,000 spectators, the stadium has undergone several major renovations. A major structural renovation was made for the 2016 UEFA Champions League Final while another one took place in late 2021 to host the UEFA Nations League final. The stadium is going to be refurbished again in time for Milano Cortina 2026.

Based on the English model for stadiums, San Siro is specifically designed for football matches, as opposed to many multi-purpose stadiums used in Serie A. It is therefore renowned in Italy for its atmosphere during matches, owing to the closeness of the stands to the pitch.

New Milano Stadium
Since 2012, various proposals and projects by Massimo Moratti have alternated regarding a possible construction of a new Inter stadium. Between June and July 2019, Inter and Milan announced the agreement for the construction of a new shared stadium in the San Siro area. In the winter of 2021, Giuseppe Sala, the mayor of Milan, gave official permission for the construction of the new stadium next to San Siro, which is expected to be partially demolished and refunctionalised after the 2026 Olympic Games. In early 2022, Inter and Milan revealed a "plan B" to relocate the construction of the new Milano stadium in the Greater Milan, away from the San Siro area.

Supporters and rivalries
Inter is one of the most supported clubs in Italy, according to an August 2007 research by Italian newspaper La Repubblica. In the early years (until the First World War), Inter fans from the city of Milan were typically middle class, while Milan fans were typically working class. During Massimo Moratti's ownership Inter fans were considered to be on the moderate left. At the same time during Silvio Berlusconi reign, Milan fans were viewed as belonging to the centre-right.

The traditional ultras group of Inter is Boys San; which are one of the oldest Italian ultras groups, being founded in 1969. Politically, one group (Irriducibili) of Inter Ultras are right-wing and this group has relations with the Lazio ultras. As well as the main group (apolitical) of Boys San, there are five more significant groups: Viking (apolitical), Irriducibili (right-wing), Ultras (apolitical), Brianza Alcoolica (apolitical) and Imbastisci (left-wing).

Inter's most vocal fans gather in the Curva Nord, or north curve of the San Siro. This longstanding tradition has led to the Curva Nord being synonymous with the club's most die-hard supporters, who unfurl banners and wave flags in support of their team. Throughout 2024, the Curva Nord (labelled as the "Curva Nord Milano") have collaborated with rap duo ¥$ (composed of Kanye West and Ty Dolla Sign) on multiple occasions, appearing as a choir on the chart-topping hit song "Carnival" (alongside rapping on its chorus) featuring Playboi Carti and Rich the Kid and on the ¥$ remix of "Like That" featuring only Future (neither record producer Metro Boomin nor Kendrick Lamar would appear on the remixed version of the song).

Inter have several rivalries, two of which are highly significant in Italian football; firstly, they participate in the intracity Derby della Madonnina with Milan; the rivalry has existed ever since Inter splintered off from Milan in 1908. The name of the derby refers to the Blessed Virgin Mary atop the Milan Cathedral. The match usually creates a lively atmosphere, with numerous (often humorous or offensive) banners unfolded before the match. Flares are commonly present, but they also led to the abandonment of the second leg of the 2004–05 Champions League quarter-final matchup between Milan and Inter on 12 April, after a flare thrown from the crowd by an Inter supporter struck Milan keeper Dida on the shoulder.

The other principal rivalry is with Juventus; matches between the two clubs are known as the Derby d'Italia. Up until the 2006 Italian football scandal, which saw Juventus relegated, the two were the only Italian clubs never to have played below Serie A. In the 2000s, Inter developed a rivalry with Roma, who finished as runners-up to Inter in all but one of Inter's five Scudetto-winning seasons between 2005–06 and 2009–10. The two sides have also contested in five Coppa Italia finals and four Supercoppa Italiana finals since 2006. Other clubs, like Atalanta and Napoli, are also considered among their rivals. Their supporters collectively go by Interisti, or Nerazzurri.

Honours

Inter have won 37 domestic trophies, including the Serie A twenty times, the Coppa Italia nine times and the Supercoppa Italiana eight times. From 2006 to 2010, the club won five successive league titles, equalling the all-time record before 2017, when Juventus won their sixth successive league title. They have won the UEFA Champions League three times: two back-to-back in 1964 and 1965 and then another in 2010; the last completed an unprecedented Italian treble with the Coppa Italia and the Scudetto. The club has also won three UEFA Europa League, two Intercontinental Cup and one FIFA Club World Cup.

Inter has never been relegated from the top flight of Italian football in its entire existence. It is the sole club to have competed in Serie A and its predecessors in every season since its debut in 1909.

Club statistics and records

Javier Zanetti holds the records for both total appearances and Serie A appearances for Inter, with 858 official games played in total and 618 in Serie A.

Giuseppe Meazza is Inter's all-time top goalscorer, with 284 goals in 408 games. Behind him, in second place, is Alessandro Altobelli with 209 goals in 466 games, and Roberto Boninsegna in third place, with 171 goals over 281 games.

Helenio Herrera had the longest reign as Inter coach, with nine years (eight consecutive) in charge, and is the most successful coach in Inter history with three Scudetti, two European Cups, and two Intercontinental Cup wins. José Mourinho, who was appointed on 2 June 2008, completed his first season in Italy by winning the Serie A title and the Supercoppa Italiana; in his second season he won the first "treble" in Italian history: the Serie A, Coppa Italia and the UEFA Champions League.

Youth sector
Inter Primavera players that received a first-team squad call-up.

Retired numbers
3 – 🇮🇹 Giacinto Facchetti, left back, played for Inter 1960–1978 (posthumous honour). The number was retired on 8 September 2006, four days after Facchetti had died from cancer aged 64. The last player to wear the number 3 shirt was Argentinian center back Nicolás Burdisso, who took on the number 16 shirt for the rest of the season.

4 – 🇦🇷 Javier Zanetti, defensive midfielder, played 858 games for Inter between 1995 and his retirement in the summer of 2014. In June 2014, club chairman Erick Thohir confirmed that Zanetti's number 4 was to be retired out of respect.

Chairmen history
Below is a list of Inter chairmen from 1908 until the present day.

Managerial history
Below is a list of Inter coaches from 1909 until the present day.

Corporate
FC Internazionale Milano S.p.A.  was heavily dependent on the financial contribution from the owner Massimo Moratti. In June 2006, the shirt sponsor and the minority shareholder of the club, Pirelli, sold 15.26% shares of the club to Moratti family, for €13.5 million. The tyre manufacturer retained 4.2%. However, due to several capital increases of Inter, such as a reversed merger with an intermediate holding company, Inter Capital S.r.l. in 2006, which held 89% shares of Inter and €70 million capitals at that time, or issues new shares for €70.8 million in June 2007, €99.9 million in December 2007, €86.6 million in 2008, €70 million in 2009, €40 million in 2010 and 2011,    €35 million in 2012 or allowing Thoir subscribed €75 million new shares of Inter in 2013, Pirelli became the third largest shareholders of just 0.5%,. Inter had yet another recapitalization that was reserved for Suning Holdings Group in 2016. In the prospectus of Pirelli's second IPO in 2017, the company also revealed that the value of the remaining shares of Inter that was owned by Pirelli, was write-off to zero in 2016 financial year. Inter also received direct capital contribution from the shareholders to cover loss which was excluded from issuing shares in the past. (versamenti a copertura perdite)

Right before the takeover of Thohir, the consolidated balance sheets of "Internazionale Holding S.r.l." showed the whole companies group had a bank debt of €157 million, including the bank debt of a subsidiary "Inter Brand Srl", as well as the club itself, to Istituto per il Credito Sportivo (ICS), for €15.674 million on the balance sheet at the end of the 2012–13 financial year. In 2006, Inter sold its brand to the new subsidiary, "Inter Brand S.r.l.", a special purpose entity with a shares capital of €40 million, for €158 million (the deal made Internazionale make a net loss of just €31 million in a separate financial statement ). At the same time, the subsidiary secured a €120 million loan from Banca Antonveneta, which would be repaid in installments until 30 June 2016; La Repubblica described the deal as "doping". In September 2011, Inter secured a loan from ICS by factoring the sponsorship of Pirelli of 2012–13 and 2013–14 season, for €24.8 million, in an interest rate of 3 months Euribor + 1.95% spread. In June 2014, new Inter Group secured €230 million loan  from Goldman Sachs and UniCredit at a new interest rate of 3 months Euribor + 5.5% spread, as well as setting up a new subsidiary to be the debt carrier: "Inter Media and Communication S.r.l.". €200 million of which would be utilized in debt refinancing of the group. The €230million loan, €1 million (plus interests) would be due on 30 June 2015, €45 million (plus interests) would be repaid in 15 installments from 30 September 2015 to 31 March 2019, as well as €184 million (plus interests) would be due on 30 June 2019. In ownership side, the Hong Kong-based International Sports Capital HK Limited, had pledged the shares of Italy-based International Sports Capital S.p.A. (the direct holding company of Inter) to CPPIB Credit Investments for €170 million in 2015, at an interest rate of 8% p.a (due March 2018) to 15% p.a. (due March 2020). ISC repaid the notes on 1 July 2016 after they sold part of the shares of Inter to Suning Holdings Group. However, in the late 2016 the shares of ISC S.p.A. was pledged again by ISC HK to private equity funds of OCP Asia for US$80 million. In December 2017, the club also refinanced its debt of €300 million, by issuing corporate bond to the market, via Goldman Sachs as the bookkeeper, for an interest rate of 4.875% p.a.

Considering revenue alone, Inter surpassed city rivals in Deloitte Football Money League for the first time, in the 2008–2009 season, to rank in ninth place, one place behind Juventus in eighth place, with Milan in tenth place. In the 2009–10 season, Inter remained in ninth place, surpassing Juventus (10th) but Milan re-took the leading role as the seventh. Inter became the eighth in 2010–2011, but was still one place behind Milan. Since 2011, Inter fell to 11th in 2011–12, 15th in 2012–13, 17th in 2013–14, 19th in 2014–15 and 2015–16 season. In 2016–17 season, Inter was ranked 15th in the Money League.

In 2010 Football Money League (2008–09 season), the normalized revenue of €196.5 million were divided up between matchday (14%, €28.2 million), broadcasting (59%, €115.7 million, +7%, +€8 million) and commercial (27%, €52.6 million, +43%). Kit sponsors Nike and Pirelli contributed €18.1 million and €9.3 million respectively to commercial revenues, while broadcasting revenues were boosted €1.6 million (6%) by Champions League distribution. Deloitte expressed the idea that issues in Italian football, particularly matchday revenue issues, were holding Inter back compared to other big European clubs, and developing their own stadia would result in Serie A clubs being more competitive on the world stage.

In the 2009–10 season, the revenue of Inter was boosted by the sales of Ibrahimović, the treble and the release clause of coach José Mourinho. According to the normalized figures by Deloitte in their 2011 Football Money League, in the 2009–10 season, the revenue had increased €28.3 million (14%) to €224.8 million. The ratio of matchday, broadcasting and commercial in the adjusted figures was 17%:62%:21%.

For the 2010–11 season, Serie A clubs started negotiating club TV rights collectively rather than individually. This was predicted to result in lower broadcasting revenues for big clubs such as Juventus and Inter, with smaller clubs gaining from the loss. Eventually the result included an extraordinary income of €13 million from RAI. In 2012 Football Money League (2010–11 season), the normalized revenue was €211.4 million. The ratio of matchday, broadcasting and commercial in the adjusted figures was 16%:58%:26%.

However, combining revenue and cost, in the 2006–07 season they had a net loss of €206 million (€112 million extraordinary basis, due to the abolition of non-standard accounting practice of the special amortization fund), followed by a net loss of €148 million in the 2007–08 season, a net loss of €154 million in 2008–09 season,  a net loss of €69 million in the 2009–10 season, a net loss of €87 million in the 2010–11 season,  a net loss of €77 million in the 2011–12 season, a net loss of €80 million in the 2012–13 season and a net profit of €33 million in 2013–14 season, due to special income from the establishment of subsidiary Inter Media and Communication. All aforementioned figures were in separate financial statement. Figures from consolidated financial statement were announced since the 2014–15 season, which were net losses of €140.4 million (2014–15), €59.6 million (2015–16 season, before 2017 restatement) and €24.6 million (2016–17).

In 2015, Inter and Roma were the only two Italian clubs that were sanctioned by the UEFA due to their breaking of UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations, which was followed by AC Milan which was once barred from returning to European competition in 2018. As a probation to avoid further sanction, Inter agreed to have a three-year aggregate break-even from 2015 to 2018, with the 2015–16 season being allowed to have a net loss of a maximum of €30 million, followed by break-even in the 2016–17 season and onwards. Inter was also fined €6 million plus an additional €14 million in probation.

Inter also made a financial trick in the transfer market in mid-2015, in which Stevan Jovetić and Miranda were signed by Inter on temporary deals plus an obligation to sign outright in 2017, making their cost less in the loan period. Moreover, despite heavily investing in new signings, namely Geoffrey Kondogbia and Ivan Perišić, signings which potentially increased the cost in amortization, Inter also sold Mateo Kovačić for €29 million, making a windfall profit. In November 2018, documents from Football Leaks further revealed that the loan signings such as Xherdan Shaqiri in January 2015, was in fact had inevitable conditions to trigger the outright purchase.

On 21 April 2017, Inter announced that their net loss (FFP adjusted) of the 2015–16 season was within the allowable limit of €30 million. However, on the same day, UEFA also announced that the reduction of squad size of Inter in European competitions would not be lifted yet, due to partial fulfilment of the targets in the settlement agreement. The same announcement was made by UEFA in June 2018, based on Inter's 2016–17 season financial result.

In February 2020, Inter Milan sued Major League Soccer (MLS) for trademark infringement, claiming that the term "Inter" is synonymous with its club and no one else.

On May 22, 2024, US-based investment firm Oaktree Capital Management said it “assumed ownership” of the club, after previous owner, Suning, a Chinese holding company, missed the deadline on a €395 million debt payment taken out during the COVID pandemic. Oaktree had previously guaranteed Suning's loan in 2021 with Suning's ownership stake in the club as collateral. As a result, Suning's default on the loan resulted in Oaktree's right to take control of the organization.

title: Inter Milan


text:
Talk:Imbolc

Recent revert of "...large scale deletion"
I recently edited the article to restore some of the refs, structure and focus on the historical and current Gaelic cultural celebrations of Imbolc. Spanglej reverted those changes wholesale. [Here] is the version after my edits. [Here] is the version after Spanglej's revert.

The focus on the Gaelic cultural celebration is in keeping with its origins and current observance in Gaelic lands. The article is not (and should not become) a catch-all for any celebration around this time of year. Wiccan and related Neopagan views on the holiday were dealt with in subsections because they are secondary to the origins. Wiccans/Neopagans might not think so but since some of their practice is an amalgam of influences other than the historical/current Gaelic cultural holiday, it seems best to be very specific. The current version of the article dissolves clear articulation of specifics into a rather muddled blend of all things being equal. This is not the case and it does not improve the article to, for instance, change the section "St. Bridgid's Day" to "Bridgid" when the refs/sources are quite specific to St. Bridgid's Day.

Although the version I ended with had problems (for example, the lede was too long and unfocused), I still think it was an improvement on the intermingling of unreferenced genero-Wiccan additions throughout the text. So I'm reverting back to my last version and will then work on smoothing out the problems I see in the article. Cheers, Pigman ☿/talk 15:35, 25 February 2010 (UTC)

 * While it's fine for people to add reliable, relevant, sourced content about the Gaelic festival, I have to agree that the changes Pigman was correcting had muddied the article. Agree strongly that this is not an article about "Things that happen around Feb. 1". It's about Imbolc, which is a Gaelic festival. The delineated sections near the bottom, which touch on Neopagan obvervances, should be kept brief and clear, rather than be merged into the body. Any further expansion on the Neopagan observances belong in those Neopagan articles, especially when they diverge from the Gaelic festival. Also, "Celtic" is not the same as "Gaelic". Pigman was correcting this misnaming. This was a stable, well-done article before those recent changes. It could and can use improvement, but for the most part, the earlier version (with the delineated sections and the proper naming re - "Gaelic" vs "Celtic") is the one we should work from. Slàn, - Kathryn NicDhàna  ♫ ♦ ♫ 20:55, 25 February 2010 (UTC)

Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau
Looking over the Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau article, and this article, and the fact that we're talking P-Celtic for one and Q-Celtic for the other, I think it's important that we don't just say Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau is the "Welsh Imbolc" and lump it in with the Gaelic. I'm going to adjust some things to clarify that Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau is a related festival. Additionally, if we can't find evidence for pre-Christian Welsh observance, Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau may be primarily related to Christian Candlemas, not Gaelic Imbolc. - Kathryn NicDhàna  ♫ ♦ ♫ 21:49, 25 February 2010 (UTC)

yes, but is it a related festival? Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau is just the Welsh term for Candlemas. The question is therefore, is there a relation (or identity) of Imbolc with Candlemas?

Imbolc is St. Bridid's Day, celebrated on 1 February. Candlemas is on 2 February. The actual Irish name of Candlemas is Lá Fhéile Muire na gCoinneal, not Imbolc.

When I google Imbolc and Candlemas, I get lots of Wiccan literature talking of "Imbolc/Candlemas", "Imbolc or Candlemas", but so far no serious reference that explains that the two are related. This needs better references. --dab (𒁳) 15:45, 9 December 2010 (UTC)

St. Brigid's cross
Not a mention in this article or Wiki. link to Brigid's cross. Some article this is!! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 31.53.121.124 (talk) 20:53, 27 February 2012 (UTC)
 * Brigid's cross seems to be a Christian symbol. Imbolc is primarily a pagan festival. Span (talk) 23:19, 27 February 2012 (UTC)
 * Again quite true however this page is quite obviously hijacked and wikipedia has decided that a national holiday for St. Brigid's Day must be vandalised with a bunch of inane neo pagan nonsense 37.228.227.112 (talk) 00:27, 5 February 2024 (UTC)
 * I think you may be looking for the Brigid of Kildare article? Bastun Ėġáḍβáś₮ŭŃ! 01:38, 5 February 2024 (UTC)

Wiccan section
In the Wiccan section the article states that Imbolc's association with Brigid and hence the Goddess is a reason for rites that are specific to women on this day within Wicca. Although sourced .This is completely erroneous. Perhaps this is true in Diannic Wicca but not Wicca as a whole. If it were true then Wicca would be exclusively for women which it isn't as the Goddess features prominently in much of Wicca. Are we to also believe that full moons because of their association with the Goddess are reserved exclusively for females to the exclusion of males. This is inaccurate. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mathunehor (talk • contribs) 00:20, 29 April 2012 (UTC)

Southern Recognition
These celebrations are not sate based but instead are based on the seasons and moon cycles. As such, the northern hemisphere has an opposite set of dates for the Wheel of the Year, than in the south. I think this should be noted somewhere, but I don't know how to proceed. An assist?124.171.201.37 (talk) 05:43, 3 July 2013 (UTC)

"Christians observe it as the feast day of St Brigid, especially in Ireland"
Well, no, Christians don't observe Imbolc. They observe St Brigid's feast day on the same day. If the article wants to claim that Christians have replaced Imbolc with St Brigid, then find a source and make the claim. Or if the article wants to claim that Christians really do celebrate Imbolc, find a source, because right now that statement is unsupported. And to say "especially in Ireland" is egregious - who outside of Ireland has ever heard of Imbolc? --Richardson mcphillips (talk) 17:51, 29 January 2017 (UTC)
 * Agreed — this passage is mis-worded, though the "linkage" between Imbolc and St Brigid's feast day is complex. See The Goddess Obscured by Pamela Berger, p. 71. (Referenced in the article on Brigid of Kildare. I feel compelled to point out that Imbolc is indeed known outside of Ireland. In fact, I'm attending an Imbolc celebration in New Orleans next week! --Editor B (talk) 18:37, 29 January 2017 (UTC)
 * As a Pagan High Priest, an honorary doctorate of divinity, and as a devout Pagan, I can in fact state clearly, that people outside of Ireland who are Pagan certainly observe Imbolc if it is in their path.
 * What the linkage is best between for christians' is the Feast of St. Brigid / St. Brigid Day to Candlemas. Both of these holidays were created in the defiance and hopeful erasure of Imbolc, and they are both related because they are christian observances.
 * We have to remember in the the academic sense, Paganism is void of Abrahamism, so no honest educated Pagan would observe St. Brigid Day or Candlemas in an academic sense.
 * I agree that Imbolc should be separated because this is an article of near-pure Abrahamic pandering convolution. Odin Wynd (talk) 21:11, 4 February 2023 (UTC)

Biddy's night?
Just wondering if the section on Biddy's night could be cited a bit better, and maybe trimmed down? From what I can see, the festival was only revived this year, but the organizers are insinuating that they are reviving an ancient celtic tradition (as paraphrased by and  for example), but the only historical mention I can find is in reference to a catholic tradition honouring St. Brigid ( and ). Additionally, the text is entirely lifted from the festival website, so I wonder if it should even be in there at all. Any thoughts?  Wasechun tashunka HOWLTRACK 18:14, 29 August 2017 (UTC)

New introduction section
I made a new introduction section which allows readers to first consider the historical evidence for the existence of Imboc. Aerchasúr (talk) 15:35, 24 March 2021 (UTC)

Imbolc historicity
This article is very carelessly written as if we are dealing with a single religious phenomenon. In reality we are dealing with three religious events, the hypothesised pre christian festival of Imbolc which we only know from a single line in Cormac's Glossary, the modern neo-pagan festival of imbolc and the christian festival of Brigid's day. These are three very different events and the article doesn't make that clear. It is littered with conflating the three and using the terms interchangeably. . For example at one point it say ''From the 18th century to the mid 20th century, many accounts of Imbolc or St Brigid's Day were recorded by folklorists and other writers. They tell us how it was celebrated then, and shed light on how it may have been celebrated in the past.[2][18]'' But this isnt true. Imbolc died out 1600 years ago. Not the mid 20th cen. All we know about the original pagan festival of Imbolc that it marked the start of spring. We dont know its date, its associations, its traditions, if it featured rush crosses, if it was public celebration or a low-key private affair. There are various reconstructed aspects that people theorise characterise the event but they all come from the folk christian traditions recorded hundreds of years after paganism ceased extence. In various places in the article Imbolc is carelessly written when we should acknowledge that we are talking about folk christian traditions. Aerchasúr (talk) 19:16, 12 April 2021 (UTC)

Split Imbolc page from St Brigid's day page?
Bastun recently edited out mentions of St Brighid's day on this page. It got me thinking this is a problem as currently there is no page for St Brigid's day. This creates the erroneous impression that that the two religious events are the same thing which has to be countered. So is everyone supportive for a demerging?Aerchasúr (talk) 09:32, 13 April 2021 (UTC)

 * St Brigid's Day and Imbolc are two entirely different things, so no objection here. The procedure you need to follow to establish consensus and carry out the split properly is outlined here: WP:SPLITTING. Bastun Ėġáḍβáś₮ŭŃ! 11:45, 13 April 2021 (UTC)

Imbolc is most certainly intertwined with St. Brigid/St. Brigid's Day, and has been for hundreds of years. Maybe concentrate on the article you're talking about creating, rather than removing material from this article? Bastun Ėġáḍβáś₮ŭŃ! 20:01, 26 May 2021 (UTC)

 * I agree to splitting this subject. St. Brigid's Day and Candlemas have a true linkage. Those observances were created to erase and convert people from Paganism, to erase Imbolc. This article is very convoluted and very pandering to Abrahamic talking points. I think it should be separated for better representation of all faiths involved. Odin Wynd (talk) 21:16, 4 February 2023 (UTC)
 * I think this article gives too much focus to paganism as there's no mentions in early Irish literature of Imbolc being a religious festival and the link between St Brigid's Day and Imbolc is only a theory and is the association between Imbolc and the pagan goddess Brigid. This article should be split though I agree. 92.51.249.119 (talk) 02:22, 8 February 2024 (UTC)

Imbolc And Saint Brigid's Day should have distinct articles. 84.203.148.201 (talk) 21:50, 31 January 2024 (UTC)

Observance Timing Variance: 1974 broke the wheel
I wanted to Discuss timing in concerns to Pagans. While Imbolc is observed by many Pagans, the timing reflected in this article is not consistent with any Pagan observance before 1974. Imbolc is astrologically a cross-quarter observance. The date of Imbolc drifts slightly from year to year because the date is actually based on what is now known as Solar Ecliptic Longitude, it is not a Gregorian Calendar date and instead the position of the sun in the sky relative to positional observance thereof on Earth. This is what the neolithic sites including Loughcrew were measuring.

In the Northern Hemisphere, Imbolc is when the Sun is at 15° Aquarius - 315° Solar Ecliptic Longitude, in the Southern Hemisphere it is when the Sun is at 15° Leo - 135° Solar Ecliptic Longitude.

In the Northern Hemisphere for the year 2023, Imbolc is on Feb 5th by this omitted fact.

I think we need to take into consideration that the 1974 "Wheel of the Year" made popular by Aidan A. Kelly is very convoluted, appropriated christian dates, and was not following traditional Pagan timing in many regards.

While some Pagans observe according to his timing, not all Pagans do. I think this article needs to be more inclusive of the archaic timing as many Pagan religious institutions still go by the timing that was commonplace before 1974. Odin Wynd (talk) 20:57, 4 February 2023 (UTC)

 * 1974?! What?! Pagans Celts didn't follow a Greco-Roman zodiac, so not sure at all what you mean by Aquarius and Leo here. Bastun Ėġáḍβáś₮ŭŃ! 22:41, 4 February 2023 (UTC)
 * You've no0 idea what acient Celts may have observed as a calendar because they did not write it down. 37.228.227.112 (talk) 00:23, 5 February 2024 (UTC)
 * You might find this version of the wheel of the year more accurate with regard to the dates of the Celtic festivals Comparative_seasons_wheel.jpg Ccferrie (talk) 10:43, 1 February 2024 (UTC)

Name of the page
Why is the name of the page Imbolc rather than St. Brigid's Day when most Irish people (and afaik everywhere else) would refer to it as the latter? 0123Qwerty3210 (talk) 21:06, 5 February 2023 (UTC)

 * Uou may be looking for the Brigid of Kildare article, but Imbolc absolutely is celebrated, and not just by pagans. See, for example, here, here, here, here, here and here. Oh, and the government ministerial take, here. Oh, and my search deliberately excluded non-Irish sites; there were plenty of them, too. Bastun Ėġáḍβáś₮ŭŃ! 12:17, 5 February 2024 (UTC)

Date
The article says Imbolc is on 1 Feb, but sources online say it can be on 2 Feb some years, or even later,, or earlier, or that it continues over two days 1-2 Feb. (Whereas St Brigid's Day is always just 1 Feb.) I've not been through the sources carefully, but can we consider revising the article to reflect these complications? Bondegezou (talk) 10:01, 1 February 2024 (UTC)

 * The sources you give are not useable. The traditional date of Imbolc and St Brigid's Day has always been 1 February. The article already notes that some neopagans might celebrate it on another date near to this, and that the public holiday is usually on the first Monday in February. This is like how St Patrick's Day is always 17 March but the public holiday is on the nearest Monday, or how Halloween is always 31 October but people might celebrate on the nearest weekend. – Asarlaí  (talk) 10:23, 1 February 2024 (UTC)

 * As I said, I've not been through the sources carefully, but it seems to me there is more to unpack around the date and the relationship between Imbolc and Brigid than the lead text you prefer captures. Looking in the academic literature, looks useful here, but requires a deep dive! I note  and  both just go for 2 Feb. Bondegezou (talk) 11:30, 1 February 2024 (UTC)
 * There are countless sources giving 1 February as the date of Imbolc and St Brigid's Day. We shouldn't give so much weight to the handful of sources that say other dates, most of which are only about certain neopagan celebrations and astronomical alignments. But your first source does indeed look useful. – Asarlaí  (talk) 12:06, 1 February 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Imbolc


text:
Interferon

Interferons (IFNs,  ) are a group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of several  viruses. In a typical scenario, a virus-infected cell will release interferons causing nearby cells to heighten their anti-viral defenses.

IFNs belong to the large class of proteins known as cytokines, molecules used for communication between cells to trigger the protective defenses of the immune system that help eradicate pathogens. Interferons are named for their ability to "interfere" with viral replication by protecting cells from virus infections. However, virus-encoded genetic elements have the ability to antagonize the IFN response, contributing to viral pathogenesis and viral diseases. IFNs also have various other functions: they activate immune cells, such as natural killer cells and macrophages, and they increase host defenses by up-regulating antigen presentation by virtue of increasing the expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigens. Certain symptoms of infections, such as fever, muscle pain and "flu-like symptoms", are also caused by the production of IFNs and other cytokines.

More than twenty distinct IFN genes and proteins have been identified in animals, including humans. They are typically divided among three classes: Type I IFN, Type II IFN, and Type III IFN. IFNs belonging to all three classes are important for fighting viral infections and for the regulation of the immune system.

Types of interferon
Based on the type of receptor through which they signal, human interferons have been classified into three major types.
 * Interferon type I: All type I IFNs bind to a specific cell surface receptor complex known as the IFN-α/β receptor (IFNAR) that consists of IFNAR1 and IFNAR2 chains. The type I interferons present in humans are IFN-α, IFN-β, IFN-ε, IFN-κ and IFN-ω. Interferon beta (IFN-β) can be produced by all nucleated cells when they recognize that a virus has invaded them. The most prolific producers of IFN-α and IFN-β are plasmacytoid dendritic cells circulating in the blood. Monocytes and macrophages can also produce large amounts of type I interferons when stimulated by viral molecular patterns. The production of type I IFN-α is inhibited by another cytokine known as Interleukin-10. Once released, type I interferons bind to the IFN-α/β receptor on target cells, which leads to expression of proteins that will prevent the virus from producing and replicating its RNA and DNA. Overall, IFN-α can be used to treat hepatitis B and C infections, while IFN-β can be used to treat multiple sclerosis.
 * Interferon type II (IFN-γ in humans): This is also known as immune interferon and is activated by Interleukin-12. Type II interferons are also released by cytotoxic T cells and type-1 T helper cells. However, they block the proliferation of type-2 T helper cells. The previous results in an inhibition of Th2 immune response and a further induction of Th1 immune response. IFN type II binds to IFNGR, which consists of IFNGR1 and IFNGR2 chains.
 * Interferon type III: Signal through a receptor complex consisting of IL10R2 (also called CRF2-4) and IFNLR1 (also called CRF2-12). Although discovered more recently than type I and type II IFNs, recent information demonstrates the importance of Type III IFNs in some types of virus or fungal infections.

In general, type I and II interferons are responsible for regulating and activating the immune response. Expression of type I and III IFNs can be induced in virtually all cell types upon recognition of viral components, especially nucleic acids, by cytoplasmic and endosomal receptors, whereas type II interferon is induced by cytokines such as IL-12, and its expression is restricted to immune cells such as T cells and NK cells.

Function
All interferons share several common effects: they are antiviral agents and they modulate functions of the immune system. Administration of Type I IFN has been shown experimentally to inhibit tumor growth in animals, but the beneficial action in human tumors has not been widely documented. A virus-infected cell releases viral particles that can infect nearby cells. However, the infected cell can protect neighboring cells against a potential infection of the virus by releasing interferons. In response to interferon, cells produce large amounts of an enzyme known as protein kinase R (PKR). This enzyme phosphorylates a protein known as eIF-2 in response to new viral infections; the phosphorylated eIF-2 forms an inactive complex with another protein, called eIF2B, to reduce protein synthesis within the cell. Another cellular enzyme, RNAse L—also induced by interferon action—destroys RNA within the cells to further reduce protein synthesis of both viral and host genes. Inhibited protein synthesis impairs both virus replication and infected host cells. In addition, interferons induce production of hundreds of other proteins—known collectively as interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs)—that have roles in combating viruses and other actions produced by interferon. They also limit viral spread by increasing p53 activity, which kills virus-infected cells by promoting apoptosis. The effect of IFN on p53 is also linked to its protective role against certain cancers.

Another function of interferons is to up-regulate major histocompatibility complex molecules, MHC I and MHC II, and increase immunoproteasome activity. All interferons significantly enhance the presentation of MHC I dependent antigens. Interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) also significantly stimulates the MHC II-dependent presentation of antigens. Higher MHC I expression increases presentation of viral and abnormal peptides from cancer cells to cytotoxic T cells, while the immunoproteasome processes these peptides for loading onto the MHC I molecule, thereby increasing the recognition and killing of infected or malignant cells. Higher MHC II expression increases presentation of these peptides to helper T cells; these cells release cytokines (such as more interferons and interleukins, among others) that signal to and co-ordinate the activity of other immune cells.

Interferons can also suppress angiogenesis by down regulation of angiogenic stimuli deriving from tumor cells. They also suppress the proliferation of endothelial cells. Such suppression causes a decrease in tumor angiogenesis, a decrease in its vascularization and subsequent growth inhibition. Interferons, such as interferon gamma, directly activate other immune cells, such as macrophages and natural killer cells.

Induction of interferons
Production of interferons occurs mainly in response to microbes, such as viruses and bacteria, and their products. Binding of molecules uniquely found in microbes—viral glycoproteins, viral RNA, bacterial endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide), bacterial flagella, CpG motifs—by pattern recognition receptors, such as membrane bound toll like receptors or the cytoplasmic receptors RIG-I or MDA5, can trigger release of IFNs. Toll Like Receptor 3 (TLR3) is important for inducing interferons in response to the presence of double-stranded RNA viruses; the ligand for this receptor is double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). After binding dsRNA, this receptor activates the transcription factors IRF3 and NF-κB, which are important for initiating synthesis of many inflammatory proteins. RNA interference technology tools such as siRNA or vector-based reagents can either silence or stimulate interferon pathways. Release of IFN from cells (specifically IFN-γ in lymphoid cells) is also induced by mitogens. Other cytokines, such as interleukin 1, interleukin 2, interleukin-12, tumor necrosis factor and colony-stimulating factor, can also enhance interferon production.

Downstream signaling
By interacting with their specific receptors, IFNs activate signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) complexes; STATs are a family of transcription factors that regulate the expression of certain immune system genes. Some STATs are activated by both type I and type II IFNs. However each IFN type can also activate unique STATs.

STAT activation initiates the most well-defined cell signaling pathway for all IFNs, the classical Janus kinase-STAT (JAK-STAT) signaling pathway. In this pathway, JAKs associate with IFN receptors and, following receptor engagement with IFN, phosphorylate both STAT1 and STAT2. As a result, an IFN-stimulated gene factor 3 (ISGF3) complex forms—this contains STAT1, STAT2 and a third transcription factor called IRF9—and moves into the cell nucleus. Inside the nucleus, the ISGF3 complex binds to specific nucleotide sequences called IFN-stimulated response elements (ISREs) in the promoters of certain genes, known as IFN stimulated genes ISGs. Binding of ISGF3 and other transcriptional complexes activated by IFN signaling to these specific regulatory elements induces transcription of those genes. A collection of known ISGs is available on Interferome, a curated online database of ISGs (www.interferome.org); Additionally, STAT homodimers or heterodimers form from different combinations of STAT-1, -3, -4, -5, or -6 during IFN signaling; these dimers initiate gene transcription by binding to IFN-activated site (GAS) elements in gene promoters. Type I IFNs can induce expression of genes with either ISRE or GAS elements, but gene induction by type II IFN can occur only in the presence of a GAS element.

In addition to the JAK-STAT pathway, IFNs can activate several other signaling cascades. For instance, both type I and type II IFNs activate a member of the CRK family of adaptor proteins called CRKL, a nuclear adaptor for STAT5 that also regulates signaling through the C3G/Rap1 pathway. Type I IFNs further activate p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP kinase) to induce gene transcription. Antiviral and antiproliferative effects specific to type I IFNs result from p38 MAP kinase signaling. The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling pathway is also regulated by both type I and type II IFNs. PI3K activates P70-S6 Kinase 1, an enzyme that increases protein synthesis and cell proliferation; phosphorylates ribosomal protein s6, which is involved in protein synthesis; and phosphorylates a translational repressor protein called eukaryotic translation-initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1 (EIF4EBP1) in order to deactivate it.

Interferons can disrupt signaling by other stimuli. For example, interferon alpha induces RIG-G, which disrupts the CSN5-containing COP9 signalosome (CSN), a highly conserved multiprotein complex implicated in protein deneddylation, deubiquitination, and phosphorylation. RIG-G has shown the capacity to inhibit NF-κB and STAT3 signaling in lung cancer cells, which demonstrates the potential of type I IFNs.

Viral resistance to interferons
Many viruses have evolved mechanisms to resist interferon activity. They circumvent the IFN response by blocking downstream signaling events that occur after the cytokine binds to its receptor, by preventing further IFN production, and by inhibiting the functions of proteins that are induced by IFN. Viruses that inhibit IFN signaling include Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV), dengue type 2 virus (DEN-2), and viruses of the herpesvirus family, such as human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV or HHV8). Viral proteins proven to affect IFN signaling include EBV nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA1) and EBV nuclear antigen 2 (EBNA-2) from Epstein-Barr virus, the large T antigen of Polyomavirus, the E7 protein of Human papillomavirus (HPV), and the B18R protein of vaccinia virus. Reducing IFN-α activity may prevent signaling via STAT1, STAT2,  or IRF9  (as with JEV infection) or through the JAK-STAT pathway (as with DEN-2 infection). Several poxviruses encode soluble IFN receptor homologs—like the B18R protein of the vaccinia virus—that bind to and prevent IFN interacting with its cellular receptor, impeding communication between this cytokine and its target cells. Some viruses can encode proteins that bind to double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) to prevent the activity of RNA-dependent protein kinases; this is the mechanism reovirus adopts using its sigma 3 (σ3) protein, and vaccinia virus employs using the gene product of its E3L gene, p25. The ability of interferon to induce protein production from interferon stimulated genes (ISGs) can also be affected. Production of protein kinase R, for example, can be disrupted in cells infected with JEV. Some viruses escape the anti-viral activities of interferons by gene (and thus protein) mutation. The H5N1 influenza virus, also known as bird flu, has resistance to interferon and other anti-viral cytokines that is attributed to a single amino acid change in its Non-Structural Protein 1 (NS1), although the precise mechanism of how this confers immunity is unclear. The relative resistance of hepatitis C virus genotype I to interferon-based therapy has been attributed in part to homology between viral envelope protein E2 and host protein kinase R, a mediator of interferon-induced suppression of viral protein translation, although mechanisms of acquired and intrinsic resistance to interferon therapy in HCV are polyfactorial.

Coronavirus response
Coronaviruses evade innate immunity during the first ten days of viral infection. In the early stages of infection, SARS-CoV-2 induces an even lower interferon type I (IFN-I) response than SARS-CoV, which itself is a weak IFN-I inducer in human cells. SARS-CoV-2 limits the IFN-III response as well. Reduced numbers of plasmacytoid dendritic cells with age is associated with increased COVID-19 severity, possibly because these cells are substantial interferon producers.

Ten percent of patients with life-threatening COVID-19 have autoantibodies against type I interferon.

Delayed IFN-I response contributes to the pathogenic inflammation (cytokine storm) seen in later stages of COVID-19 disease. Application of IFN-I prior to (or in the very early stages of) viral infection can be protective, which should be validated in randomized clinical trials.

With pegylated IFN lambda, the relative risk for hospitalization with the Omicron strains is reduced by about 80 %.

Diseases
Interferon beta-1a and interferon beta-1b are used to treat and control multiple sclerosis, an autoimmune disorder. This treatment may help in reducing attacks in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis and slowing disease progression and activity in secondary progressive multiple sclerosis.

Interferon therapy is used (in combination with chemotherapy and radiation) as a treatment for some cancers. This treatment can be used in hematological malignancy, such as in leukemia and lymphomas including hairy cell leukemia, chronic myeloid leukemia, nodular lymphoma, and cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. Patients with recurrent melanomas receive recombinant IFN-α2b.

Both hepatitis B and hepatitis C can be treated with IFN-α, often in combination with other antiviral drugs. Some of those treated with interferon have a sustained virological response and can eliminate hepatitis virus in the case of hepatitis C. The most common strain of hepatitis C virus (HCV) worldwide—genotype I— can be treated with interferon-α, ribavirin and protease inhibitors such as telaprevir, boceprevir or the nucleotide analog polymerase inhibitor sofosbuvir. Biopsies of patients given the treatment show reductions in liver damage and cirrhosis. Control of chronic hepatitis C by IFN is associated with reduced hepatocellular carcinoma. A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the gene encoding the type III interferon IFN-λ3 was found to be protective against chronic infection following proven HCV infection and predicted treatment response to interferon-based regimens. The frequency of the SNP differed significantly by race, partly explaining observed differences in response to interferon therapy between European-Americans and African-Americans.

Unconfirmed results suggested that interferon eye drops may be an effective treatment for people who have herpes simplex virus epithelial keratitis, a type of eye infection. There is no clear evidence to suggest that removing the infected tissue (debridement) followed by interferon drops is an effective treatment approach for these types of eye infections. Unconfirmed results suggested that the combination of interferon and an antiviral agent may speed the healing process compared to antiviral therapy alone.

When used in systemic therapy, IFNs are mostly administered by an intramuscular injection. The injection of IFNs in the muscle or under the skin is generally well tolerated. The most frequent adverse effects are flu-like symptoms: increased body temperature, feeling ill, fatigue, headache, muscle pain, convulsion, dizziness, hair thinning, and depression. Erythema, pain, and hardness at the site of injection are also frequently observed. IFN therapy causes immunosuppression, in particular through neutropenia and can result in some infections manifesting in unusual ways.

Drug formulations
Several different types of interferons are approved for use in humans. One was first approved for medical use in 1986. For example, in January 2001, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of PEGylated interferon-alpha in the USA; in this formulation, PEGylated interferon-alpha-2b (Pegintron), polyethylene glycol is linked to the interferon molecule to make the interferon last longer in the body. Approval for PEGylated interferon-alpha-2a (Pegasys) followed in October 2002. These PEGylated drugs are injected once weekly, rather than administering two or three times per week, as is necessary for conventional interferon-alpha. When used with the antiviral drug ribavirin, PEGylated interferon is effective in treatment of hepatitis C; at least 75% of people with hepatitis C genotypes 2 or 3 benefit from interferon treatment, although this is effective in less than 50% of people infected with genotype 1 (the more common form of hepatitis C virus in both the U.S. and Western Europe). Interferon-containing regimens may also include protease inhibitors such as boceprevir and telaprevir.

There are also interferon-inducing drugs, notably tilorone that is shown to be effective against Ebola virus.

History

Interferons were first described in 1957 by Alick Isaacs and Jean Lindenmann at the National Institute for Medical Research in London;  the discovery was a result of their studies of viral interference. Viral interference refers to the inhibition of virus growth caused by previous exposure of cells to an active or a heat-inactivated virus. Isaacs and Lindenmann were working with a system that involved the inhibition of the growth of live influenza virus in chicken embryo chorioallantoic membranes by heat-inactivated influenza virus. Their experiments revealed that this interference was mediated by a protein released by cells in the heat-inactivated influenza virus-treated membranes. They published their results in 1957 naming the antiviral factor they had discovered interferon. The findings of Isaacs and Lindenmann have been widely confirmed and corroborated in the literature.

Furthermore, others may have made observations on interferons before the 1957 publication of Isaacs and Lindenmann. For example, during research to produce a more efficient vaccine for smallpox, Yasu-ichi Nagano and Yasuhiko Kojima—two Japanese virologists working at the Institute for Infectious Diseases at the University of Tokyo—noticed inhibition of viral growth in an area of rabbit-skin or testis previously inoculated with UV-inactivated virus. They hypothesised that some "viral inhibitory factor" was present in the tissues infected with virus and attempted to isolate and characterize this factor from tissue homogenates. Independently, Monto Ho, in John Enders's lab, observed in 1957 that attenuated poliovirus conferred a species specific anti-viral effect in human amniotic cell cultures. They described these observations in a 1959 publication, naming the responsible factor viral inhibitory factor (VIF). It took another fifteen to twenty years, using somatic cell genetics, to show that the interferon action gene and interferon gene reside in different human chromosomes. The purification of human beta interferon did not occur until 1977. Y.H. Tan and his co-workers purified and produced biologically active, radio-labeled human beta interferon by superinducing the interferon gene in fibroblast cells, and they showed its active site contains tyrosine residues. Tan's laboratory isolated sufficient amounts of human beta interferon to perform the first amino acid, sugar composition and N-terminal analyses. They showed that human beta interferon was an unusually hydrophobic glycoprotein. This explained the large loss of interferon activity when preparations were transferred from test tube to test tube or from vessel to vessel during purification. The analyses showed the reality of interferon activity by chemical verification. The purification of human alpha interferon was not reported until 1978. A series of publications from the laboratories of Sidney Pestka and Alan Waldman between 1978 and 1981, describe the purification of the type I interferons IFN-α and IFN-β. By the early 1980s, genes for these interferons had been cloned, adding further definitive proof that interferons were responsible for interfering with viral replication. Gene cloning also confirmed that IFN-α was encoded by a family of many related genes. The type II IFN (IFN-γ) gene was also isolated around this time.

Interferon was first synthesized manually at Rockefeller University in the lab of Dr. Bruce Merrifield, using solid phase peptide synthesis, one amino acid at a time. He later won the Nobel Prize in chemistry. Interferon was scarce and expensive until 1980, when the interferon gene was inserted into bacteria using recombinant DNA technology, allowing mass cultivation and purification from bacterial cultures or derived from yeasts. Interferon can also be produced by recombinant mammalian cells. Before the early 1970s, large scale production of human interferon had been pioneered by Kari Cantell. He produced large amounts of human alpha interferon from large quantities of human white blood cells collected by the Finnish Blood Bank. Large amounts of human beta interferon were made by superinducing the beta interferon gene in human fibroblast cells.

Cantell's and Tan's methods of making large amounts of natural interferon were critical for chemical characterisation, clinical trials and the preparation of small amounts of interferon messenger RNA to clone the human alpha and beta interferon genes. The superinduced human beta interferon messenger RNA was prepared by Tan's lab for Cetus. to clone the human beta interferon gene in bacteria and the recombinant interferon was developed as 'betaseron' and approved for the treatment of MS. Superinduction of the human beta interferon gene was also used by Israeli scientists to manufacture human beta interferon.

Human interferons
• IFNA1

• IFNA2

• IFNA4

• IFNA5

• IFNA6

• IFNA7

• IFNA8

• IFNA10

• IFNA13

• IFNA14

• IFNA16

• IFNA17

• IFNA21

• IFNB1

• IFNW

• IFNE1

• IFNK

Teleost fish interferons
• IFNa

• IFNb

• IFNc

• IFNd

• IFNe

• IFNf

• IFNg (gamma)

• IFNh

title: Interferon


text:
Talk:Interferon

Problematic sections in Wikipedia's INTERFERON entry
I have copied sections with problems and inserted my comments below.

Interferon therapy Diseases The immunomodulatory effects of interferons have been exploited to treat several diseases. Agents that activate the immune system, such as small imidazoquinoline molecules that activate TLR7, can induce IFN-α. Imidazoquinoline is the main ingredient of Aldara (Imiquimod) cream, a treatment approved in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for actinic keratosis, superficial basal cell carcinoma, papilloma and external genital warts.[21] Synthetic IFNs are also made, and administered as antiviral, antiseptic and anticarcinogenic drugs, and to treat some autoimmune diseases. New research has shown that imiquimod's anti-proliferative effect is totally independent of immune system activation or function. Imiquimod exerts its effect by increasing levels of the opioid growth factor receptor (OGFr). Blocking OGFr function with siRNA technology resulted in loss of any antiproliferative effect of imiquimod.[22]

''Comment: The preceding two paragraphs are essentially advertising of a commercial product. Imiquimod is an insignificant therapeutic drug, which is rarely used. Reference 22 is twenty-six years old, certainly no longer “a current perspective”. I suggest deleting these two paragraphs and accompanying references. They need not be replaced.''

Interferon therapy is used (in combination with chemotherapy and radiation) as a treatment for many cancers.[21] This treatment is most effective for treating hematological malignancy; leukemia and lymphomas including hairy cell leukemia, chronic myeloid leukemia, nodular lymphoma, cutaneous T-cell lymphoma.[21] Patients with recurrent melanomas receive recombinant IFN-α2b.[24] Type I IFNs have a therapeutic potential for the treatment of a wide variety of leukemias and solid tumors due to their antiproliferative and apoptotic effects, their anti-angiogenic effects and their ability to modulate an immune response specifically activating dendritic cells, cytolytic T cells and NK cells. Research in this area is receiving intensive investigation.[25]

''Comment: This paragraph is misleading. Interferon therapy is not widely “used as a treatment for many cancers”. Reference 21 is not to an article about cancer, perhaps it should have been 22, which, as I mentioned in the previous section, is very old and not appropriate. The rest of the text is also outdated, exaggerated and incorrect. Can be deleted.''

Administered intranasally in very low doses, interferon is extensively used in Eastern Europe and Russia as a method to prevent and treat viral respiratory diseases such as cold and flu. However, mechanisms of such action of interferon are not well understood; it is thought that doses must be larger by several orders of magnitude to have any effect on the virus. Although most scientists are skeptical of any claims of good efficacy,[31] recent findings suggest that interferon applied to mucosa may act as an adjuvant against influenza virus, boosting the specific immune system response against the virus.[30] A flu vaccine that uses interferon as adjuvant is currently under clinical trials in the US.[32] Alpha interferon exhibited a significant adjuvant effect in mice, but in a preliminary study it did not exhibit an adjuvant effect for induction of antibody in respiratory secretions of humans to inactivated influenza virus vaccine given intranasally.[33]

A systematic review studied the effect of interferon as a treatment for individuals suffering from herpes simplex virus epithelial keratitis. Topical interferon therapy was shown to be an effective treatment, especially with higher concentrations.[33] Interferon, either used alone or in combination with debridement, appears to be effective as a nucleoside antiviral agent.[33] The combination of interferon and another nucleoside antiviral agent may speed the healing process.[33]

''Comment: Interferon is no longer administered intranasally, not even ”in Eastern Europe”. It is not used for herpes simplex virus epithelial keratitis. References 31-37 should be deleted, they are outdated or inappropriate. Need new critical paragraph on currently approved and used therapeutic applications.''

It took another fifteen to twenty years, using somatic cell genetics, to show that the interferon action gene and interferon gene reside in different human chromosomes.[45][46][47] The purification of human beta interferon did not occur until 1977. Chris Y.H. Tan and his co-workers purified and produced biologically active, radio-labeled human beta interferon by superinducing the interferon gene in fibroblast cells, and they showed its active site contains tyrosine residues.[48][49] Tan's laboratory isolated sufficient enough amounts of human beta interferon to perform its first amino acid, sugar composition and N-terminal analyses.[50] They showed that human beta interferon was an unusually hydrophobic glycoprotein. This explained a large loss of interferon activity when interferon preparations were transferred from test tube to test tube or from vessel to vessel during purification. The analyses ascertained once and for all, the reality of interferon activity by chemical verification.[50][51][52][53] The purification of human alpha interferon was not reported until 1978. A series of publications from the laboratories of Sidney Pestka and Alan Waldman between 1978 and 1981, describe the purification of the type I interferons IFN-α and IFN-β.[54] By the early 1980s, the genes for these interferons were cloned, allowing for further definitive proof that interferons really were responsible for interfering with viral replication.[55][56] Gene cloning also confirmed that IFN-α was encoded by, not one gene, but a family of related genes.[57] The type II IFN (IFN-γ) gene was also isolated around this time.[58] Interferon was scarce and expensive until 1980, when the interferon gene was inserted into bacteria using recombinant DNA technology, allowing mass cultivation and purification from bacterial cultures[59] or derived from yeast (e.g. Reiferon Retard is the first yeast derived interferon-alpha 2a) Interferon can also be derived from recombinant mammalian cells.[60] Before this, in the early 1970s the large scale reproduction of human interferon was pioneered by Kari Cantell. He produced large amounts of human alpha interferon from massive quantities of human white blood cells collected from and by the Finnish Blood Bank.[61]Large amounts of human beta interferon were made by superinducing the beta interferon gene in human fibroblast cells, a procedure Chris Y.H.Tan discovered with Monto Ho.[62][63] Cantell's and Tan's methods of making large amounts of natural interferons were critical to make purified interferons for their chemical characterisation,for their clinical trials and for the preparations of the scarce amount of interferon messenger RNAs to the clone the human alpha and beta interferon genes. The superinduced human beta interferon messenger RNA was prepared by Tan's lab for Cetus corp. to clone the human beta interferon gene into bacteria and the recombinant interferon was developed as 'betaseron' and approved for the treatment of MS. Superinduction of the human beta interferon gene was also used by Israeli scientists to manufacture human beta interferon, used as a topical anti-herpes agent.

''Comment: These paragraphs contain numerous factual errors, and there are too many references to the work of Y.H. Tan at the expense of the work of other scientists working in the field. There is advertising to an insignificant product “Reiferon Retard”. The first paragraph refers to work by Sidney Pestka, which is appropriate, but it also mentions Alan Waldman, who was not involved in this work. Some of the wording is overly simplistic (“Interferon was scarce and expensive until 1980, when the interferon gene was inserted into bacteria using recombinant DNA technology, allowing mass cultivation and purification from bacterial cultures”). A complete rewriting of these paragraphs is in order.''Kalos01 (talk) 02:45, 18 July 2014 (UTC)

How the hell do you not include Maurice Hilleman when talking about Interferon's history? Who wrote this crap? So much propaganda 208.88.12.149 (talk) 17:50, 13 April 2017 (UTC)

New study with Lupus
https://lupusnewstoday.com/2017/07/13/review-board-says-trial-of-neovacs-lupus-interferon-immunotherapy-is-on-track/ Can I summarize the above article and add it to the Interferon article? Soltera (talk) 14:04, 13 July 2017 (UTC)

Alternate labeling schemes
Lots of articles talk about IFN-oc, is this another name for one of the listed IFNs? If so, which one? Also, is there a more common name for IFN-oc?

And what about the names that are given? I've seen them nowhere else. Why not use the traditional greek letters? For example, why not IFN-α1 rather than IFNA1? Page Notes (talk) 21:22, 30 July 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Interferon