text:
Talk:Ale

Original beer article content
This text is from an old encyclopedia whose copyright has expired. Please feel free to update, expand, remove anachronisms, etc. --KQ
 * its not very good - feel free to drastically junk it. Justinc 23:49, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

The word 'ale' comes from the Old English ealu?
Is there any source of this etymology? It seems a bit fanciful and there is a similar German word alt meaning 'old' that refers to a top-fermenting kind of beer.

 * Indeed, there seem to be a number of etymologies suggested. For instance, the book I have here ("Wine and Beermaking: Hints and Recipes" by Ben Turner, 1985) suggests the word entered English from Danish. JulesH 12:09, 27 June 2007 (UTC)

Answer to your question:

My copy of the OED (1971) has the first reference under the defintion for ale, dated 940: ''Sax. Leechd.'' II. 268: "Do healfne bollan ealoď to, and gehǣte Þǣt ealu." I can't translate that, and a couple of the characters of the other words are not quite right, but it clearly contains the word 'ealu.' Berkeleygabi 06:44, 27 July 2007 (UTC)

Ale vs "Lager"
Many contributors to this encyclopaedia are incorrectly using the term "lager" when they mean bottom fermented Ale or Beer. There are two main types of yeast - top fermenting yeast and bottom fermenting yeast. In the UK, Ireland and Belgium, the predominant method of brewing uses top fermenting yeast. In Germany and central Europe (Czech Republic and other places) the predominant method uses bottom fermenting yeast.

The term lager is almost exclusively used in the UK and Ireland (possibly in other English speaking countries). It would never be used by a German Brewer to describe a beer. It is used to describe a brewing process - lagering is storing beer until the fermentation has slowed down to a specific point; this is a process that tends to be used for bottom fermented beers; although top fermented beers do have to go through a period of conditioning.

Bottom fermented beers can be light, dark, strong, weak, wheat beers etc... calling them lager is a misnomer.

The products marketed as lager in the UK was inevitably very light and bore a passing resemblance to Pilsner beers, or Budweiser beers (those from the Czech? towns of Pilsen and Budweis respectively). However this was as often as not Top fermented beer, anyway! So to compare bottom fermented beers with lager is an insult to continental brewers.

 * This is inaccurate. While doing a secondary fermentation at cold temperature is indeed the act of lagering, any beer produced as a result of bottom fermentation is properly called a lager, whether it undergoes the cold storage or not. Whether the root words indicate this or not, every single brewing text I've ever read, (dozens) classifies all top fermenting beers as ales, be it porter, amber or lambic, and all bottom fermenting beer as lagers, be it true Pilsener, or crappy north american lawnmower beer. This is further confirmed by the yeast companies themselves labeling vials and smackpacks of yeast likewise. Even steam beer (or California common if you aren't talking about the venerable Anchor) refers to brewing with lager YEAST at temperatures usually reserved for ales. The word lager doesn't necessarily invoke the character of the beer- the misnomer isn't calling them lager, it's generalizing lagers as having specific characteristics. Same with ales- this article erroneously states in the beginning that ales are sweet and fruity - and while some ale yeast does in fact produce these flavors (Belgium anyone?), brewing techniques, hop additions, and various yeast strains can yield a fiercly bitter beer with no sweetness, or a lager-like crisp brew. You are correct in that this article misses the mark, but ales do in fact include all top fermenting strains, and lagers the reverse. This is not a point of contention among any brewer I've ever met. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.21.103.36 (talk) 08:09, 17 June 2008 (UTC)

The usage above is common in the USA, where brewers have the unfortunate habit of referring to all top-fermenting beers as ales and all bottom-fermented beers as lagers. European brewers are more likely to use top-fermenting and bottom-fermenting, or the equivalent in their local language.

88.104.202.233 (talk) 13:47, 19 August 2010 (UTC)

 * Yes, ale is top-fermented, lager is bottom fermented. Our agressive anti-lager friend here cut and pasted the same unfounded argument on the lager talk page also.--Metalhead94 (talk) 16:51, 13 September 2008 (UTC)

The problem I have with the whole top-fermenting vs bottom-fermenting distinction is that both ale AND lager yeast ferment while IN SUSPENSION in the beer; i.e. neither on top nor on bottom. The yeast cells that drop out of suspension have become dormant, while the foam, or krausen, that develops on top of fermenting beer contains a relatively small percentage of the total yeast in the fermenter. Additionally, beer using lager yeast will form a krausen if fermented too vigorously (usually at higher temperatures). The REAL difference between the two styles of beer is the temperature at which they undergo primary fermentation. While certain strains perform better at different temperatures, and contribute different aromas/flavors, the major taste differences that one associates with lagers or ales (i.e. fruitier esters for ales or clean, sometimes sulphurous aromas for lagers) are a function of the temperature at which the beer was fermented.

While it is true that ale and lager yeasts are different species taxonomically speaking, the small difference between the two species has nothing to do with where in the fermenter they consume sugar. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.220.180.194 (talk) 01:42, 14 July 2009 (UTC)

-71.220.180.194 (talk) 01:43, 14 July 2009 (UTC)

Porter and Stout
I just read in Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged that porter is "a weak stout." So, I'm going to place it below Stout. Let me know if I'm off, though.

Thanks,

Primetime 08:58, 20 November 2005 (UTC)

Citation?
"If a farmer have no mead, he shall pay two casks of spiced ale, or four casks of common ale, for one cask of mead." If kept, this probably needs a citation.

 * Erm, is this correct? "If a farmer have..." nihil 04:58, 18 April 2006 (UTC)
 * That's how they used to speak. Our language have moved on. Dw290 11:32, 21 October 2006 (UTC)
 * This is actually quite correct in modern usage, as well. This is the subjunctive form of the verb "have," which is used in hypotheticals.  It's the equivalent to saying "Were I to have no mead...," which is also quite proper grammatically.  hoptop 12:00, 17 January 2008

"porter" = "weak stout"
I certainly would not take Webster as the authority of all things beer. I would take the definition of such styles as "stout", "porter", or "pilsner" from such authors as Michael Jackson.

The Czech "Budweiser", which is called Budvar and is of the Czech "pilsner" style, is from the southern Czech town of Ceske Budejovice, or the old German name of "Budweis". Pilsner Urquell, or Plzensky Prazdroj, comes from the western Czech town of Plzen, formally called Pilsen.

Americans who are knowledgeable of beer use the term "lager" to refer to any bottom-fermented beer, be it a pilsner, helles, bock, maibock, Hefeweizen, koelsch, amber (Vienna), schwarzbier, etc.; we also use "ale" to refer to any top-fermented beer, be it pale ale, bitter, stout, porter, etc. Unfortunately, due to decades of dominance of bland, tasteless, light "helles"-derived lager beers, the term "lager" still refers to, in popular usage, such beers.

USA Legal Definition Removed
The passage about the USA legal definition was removed by me. The section was pointless, and added very little (if anything) to the article. 84.68.57.146 01:06, 22 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I would put it back, since it has a well defined content and is interesting to understand worldwide usage of the term. LHOON 05:59, 22 July 2006 (UTC)

Merge with Real ale?
I'm not going to propose it right now, but perhaps merging these two articles would be appropriate? At the moment, this article offers no links to either Real ale or Campaign for Real Ale, both of which are very relevant. Yet, personally, I'd like to see the articles remain separate, but I'm not sure in quite what way to distinguish them. DWaterson 18:39, 19 October 2006 (UTC)
 * OK, ignore this, there has been no consensus on Talk:Real ale. DWaterson 21:52, 6 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Real ale is a particularly and peculiarly British political thing, about the socio-economics of beer production, marketing, provision and consumption, and it's very well documented (in the real world; I've not looked over its sourcing here), so it's best as its own article, though mentionable here of course. — SMcCandlish  Talk⇒ ʕ(Õلō)ˀ  Contribs. 09:33, 22 August 2011 (UTC)

the US and Ales
In the US lagers are by far more popular. Bud, Miller, Corona, and Heineken lagers are the most popular and common beers in the US, the only ale thats extremely common in the US is Guinness. Now I mean you can find them, but the dominant style of beer in the US is Lagers.

- Guiness isn't an ale, but I certainly agree that Ale is absolutely positively not anywhere close to being the most popular type of beer in the US, or Germany for that matter. Britain is the only place I can think of where it is decidely dominant. Budweiser, MGD, Coors, and then all the popular imports people enjoy like Carlsberg, Corona, Heineken, Stella, etc. etc. all standard pale lagers. Not sure where one would find any statistical data on this matter, but it's clearly not correct.

 * Guinness, and all other stouts are, in fact, ales. Please see the above discussion on the distinction between lagers and ales. -76.21.103.36 (talk) 03:02, 2 April 2009 (UTC)

 * I found the geographical comments a bit odd also. I could see where the "Eastern Canadian" comment might have come in because of the popularity of Keiths IPA, although I don't know about 'predominance' given the number of other types of popular beer.  I'm also not quite sure how much of an "IPA" Keiths really is - I don't mind the stuff myself but it doesn't seem especially hoppy or ale-y.  But what I thought was really odd was that Canada was geographically delimited, east-west, while the US was just mentioned wholesale; surely if we're going to specify parts of geographically large countries, the same should be done for the US (and possibly Britain and Germany.)

 * I think a regional popularity mention is actually an excellent idea, but it ought to be backed up with some sort of a source - something from an industry survey, magazine, or something. I know the BBC reported on a drop in lager consumption in the UK so it's clear that the minutiae of which beers are popular and where is actually made public sometimes.  142.177.43.73 00:25, 2 September 2007 (UTC)

 * This article is way out of date. Nowadays (2015) in the USA there are large numbers of Craft Breweries, brew pubs and emerging larger regional breweries producing American Ale styles (American Pale Ale, Amber Ale, IPA). The styles were originally based on British ales but feature heavy use of new American hop varieties, particularly from the North West and higher Alcohol levels than typical British ales. Notable brands and breweries include Sierra Nevada, Dogfish Head, Samuel Adams to name but three. Most American cities and larger towns now have numerous brew pubs. According to the US Brewer's Association there were over 3,500 craft, microbreweries and brewpubs in 2014. This is a far cry from the situation in 2007 when the current talk page section was initiated. There is already a Wikipedia page on American Pale Ale.

Would it be possible to have an American Ales paragraph on the main page of this article? --MichaelGG (talk) 03:30, 13 June 2015 (UTC)

WikiProject Food and drink Tagging
This article talk page was automatically added with WikiProject Food and drink banner as it falls under Category:Food or one of its subcategories. If you find this addition an error, Kindly undo the changes and update the inappropriate categories if needed. The bot was instructed to tagg these articles upon consenus from WikiProject Food and drink. You can find the related request for tagging here. Maximum and careful attention was done to avoid any wrongly tagging any categories, but mistakes may happen... If you have concerns, please inform on the project talk page -- TinucherianBot (talk) 04:33, 4 July 2008 (UTC)

Burton Ale
"in modern times Fullers Golden Pride is often considered by some to be a rare remaining example of a classic Burton style " - not only does this lack a source/citation, I suggest it's completely untrue. Golden Pride is a strong bitter or possibly a barley wine. Fullers' 1845 is regarded by the brewery (personal communication) as a Burton Ale-style beer. Zythophile (talk) 15:18, 3 October 2010 (UTC)

Top/bottom fermentation
Uhm, a "top-fermented" link in the beer article redirected here, but, blast it, i can't find a single occurrence of "top" or "bottom" in this article ! Whereas there're loads of those in this discussion page. What gives ? --Jerome Potts (talk) 09:31, 22 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Maybe Alt bier should be added as Ale variety too, since it is top fermenting.Stardude82 (talk) 01:15, 4 March 2011 (UTC)

 * No it shouldn't, as it is a different kind of beer from a different top-fermenting brewing tradition.

92.235.37.187 (talk) 23:35, 6 July 2011 (UTC)
 * That's debatable. Most references on the topic  ales vs. lagers as top vs. bottom fermentation, period.  Regardless, this has to be added and sourced to both articles, as obvious missing key information. If there's a reliable source for alt being considered a "non-ale" top-fermenting brew, then that could be added as an alternative, sourced viewpoint. — SMcCandlish   Talk⇒ ʕ(Õلō)ˀ  Contribs. 09:30, 22 August 2011 (UTC)

 * Most American references define them that way, yes. We can write that Americans tend to refer to all top-fermented malt beverages as ale, but Europeans generally do not.

88.104.205.206 (talk) 16:07, 15 October 2011 (UTC)

Porter Stouts in Casks
In the following passage:
 * It has often now come to mean a bitter-tasting barley beverage fermented at room temperature. In some British usage, however, in homage to the original distinction, it is not now used except in compounds (such as "pale ale" (see below)) or as "real ale", a term adopted in opposition to the pressurised beers developed by industrial brewers in the 1960s, and used of a warm-fermented unpasteurised beer served from the cask (though not stout or  porter).

What does the final phrase mean? Its reads as if porter and stout not served from the cask. Though I am not authoirty on shtout, Porter can most certainly be served in this way and plenty is. Dainamo (talk) 13:56, 13 November 2012 (UTC)

 * It means porter and stout aren't classified as ales. Haldraper (talk) 10:54, 25 June 2013 (UTC)

Defintions of ale
Is any beer fermented with bottom cropping yeast considered not to be an ale. Conversely if a beer is brewed with a top cropping yeast, but then lagered for a period, is it an ale. These distinctions seem to get blurred in the articles and books I read. Is there a clear cut line, or a group of hybrid brews that sit in the middle.

BTW i'm looking for contributors to BeerXML to broaden it and stave off a delete marker at Articles_for_deletion/BeerXML I have friends who insist that only that ale which is cask or bottle conditioned is truly ale. That would seem to exlude a lot of styles like Altbier which is generally filtered and kegged, but considered an ale in Germany — Preceding unsigned comment added by PrivateWiddle (talk • contribs) 22:14, 16 February 2014 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 07:08, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

Ale versus Beer
Could the article make the difference more clear, in the modern day? After reading the article, I still have no idea what the REAL difference is between ale and beer. I know both taste differently, but I have no idea about the DEFINED differences as-is. 2A02:8388:1604:CA80:3AD5:47FF:FE18:CC7F (talk) 18:59, 17 July 2018 (UTC)

Ale
Ale 2600:1005:B001:42A3:3427:7862:C087:1253 (talk) 17:04, 27 November 2021 (UTC)

 * Yes, agreed.  Packerfan386 beer here 17:12, 27 November 2021 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: ENG 21011 Research Writing
— Assignment last updated by Wordnerd104 (talk) 15:07, 12 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ale


text:
Amateur

An amateur is generally considered a person who pursues an avocation independent from their source of income. Amateurs and their pursuits are also described as popular, informal, self-taught, user-generated, DIY, and hobbyist.

History
Historically, the amateur was considered to be the ideal balance between pure intent, open mind, and the interest or passion for a subject. That ideology spanned many different fields of interest. It may have its roots in the ancient Greek philosophy of amateur athletes competing in the Olympics. The ancient Greek citizens spent most of their time in other pursuits, but competed according to their natural talents and abilities.

The "gentleman amateur" was a phenomenon among the gentry of Great Britain from the 17th century until the 20th century. With the start of the Age of Reason, with people thinking more about how the world works around them, (see science in the Age of Enlightenment), things like the cabinets of curiosities, and the writing of the book The Christian Virtuoso, started to shape the idea of the gentleman amateur. He was vastly interested in a particular topic, and studied, observed, and collected things and information on his topic of choice. The Royal Society in Great Britain was generally composed of these "gentleman amateurs", and is one of the reasons science today exists the way it does. A few examples of these gentleman amateurs are Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, and Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington.

Amateurism can be seen in both a negative and positive light. Since amateurs often lack formal training and are self-taught, some amateur work may be considered sub-par. For example, amateur athletes in sports such as basketball, baseball, or football are regarded as possessing a lower level of ability than professional athletes. On the other hand, an amateur may be in a position to approach a subject with an open mind (as a result of the lack of formal training) and in a financially disinterested manner. An amateur who dabbles in a field out of interest rather than as a profession, or possesses a general but superficial interest in any art or a branch of knowledge, is often referred to as a dilettante.

Olympics
Through most of the 20th century the Olympics allowed only amateur athletes to participate and this amateur code was strictly enforced, Jim Thorpe was stripped of track and field medals for having taken expense money for playing baseball in 1912.

Later on, the nations of the Communist Bloc entered teams of Olympians who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis.

Near the end of the 1960s, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive against the Soviet team's full-time athletes and the other constantly improving European teams. They pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues but met opposition from the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) and the International Olympic Committee (IOC). At the IIHF Congress in 1969, the IIHF decided to allow Canada to use nine non-NHL professional hockey players at the 1970 World Championships in Montreal and Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The decision was reversed in January 1970 after IOC President Avery Brundage said that ice hockey's status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made. In response, Canada withdrew from all international ice hockey competitions and officials stated that they would not return until "open competition" was instituted. Günther Sabetzki became president of the IIHF in 1975 and helped to resolve the dispute with the CAHA. In 1976, the IIHF agreed to allow "open competition" between all players in the World Championships. However, NHL players were still not allowed to play in the Olympics, because of the unwillingness of the NHL to take a break mid-season and the IOC's amateur-only policy.

Before the 1984 Winter Olympics, a dispute formed over what made a player a professional. The IOC had adopted a rule that made any player who had signed an NHL contract but played less than ten games in the league eligible. However, the United States Olympic Committee maintained that any player contracted with an NHL team was a professional and therefore not eligible to play. The IOC held an emergency meeting that ruled NHL-contracted players were eligible, as long as they had not played in any NHL games. This made five players on Olympic rosters—one Austrian, two Italians and two Canadians—ineligible. Players who had played in other professional leagues—such as the World Hockey Association—were allowed to play. Canadian hockey official Alan Eagleson stated that the rule was only applied to the NHL and that professionally contracted players in European leagues were still considered amateurs. Murray Costello of the CAHA suggested that a Canadian withdrawal was possible. In 1986, the IOC voted to allow all athletes to compete in Olympic Games starting in 1988, but let the individual sport federations decide if they wanted to allow professionals.

After the 1972 retirement of IOC President Brundage, the Olympic amateurism rules were steadily relaxed, amounting only to technicalities and lip service, until being completely abandoned in the 1990s (in the United States, the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 prohibits national governing bodies from having more stringent standards of amateur status than required by international governing bodies of respective sports. The act caused the breakup of the Amateur Athletic Union as a wholesale sports governing body at the Olympic level).

Olympic regulations regarding amateur status of athletes were eventually abandoned in the 1990s with the exception of wrestling, where the amateur fight rules are used due to the fact that professional wrestling is largely staged with predetermined outcomes. Starting from the 2016 Summer Olympics, professionals were allowed to compete in boxing, though amateur fight rules are still used for the tournament.

Contribution of amateurs
Many amateurs make valuable contributions in the field of computer programming through the open source movement. Amateur dramatics is the performance of plays or musical theater, often to high standards, but lacking the budgets of professional West End or Broadway performances. Astronomy, chemistry, history, linguistics, and the natural sciences are among the fields that have benefited from the activities of amateurs. Gregor Mendel was an amateur scientist who never held a position in his field of study. Radio astronomy was founded by Grote Reber, an amateur radio operator. Radio itself was greatly advanced by Guglielmo Marconi, a young Italian man who started out by tinkering with a coherer and a spark coil as an amateur electrician. Pierre de Fermat was a highly influential mathematician whose primary vocation was law.

In the 2000s and 2010s, the distinction between amateur and professional has become increasingly blurred, especially in areas such as computer programming, music and astronomy. The term amateur professionalism, or pro-am, is used to describe these activities.

List of amateur pursuits

 * Amateur astronomy, including a list of notable amateur astronomers
 * Amateur chemistry, including a list of notable amateur chemists
 * Amateur film
 * Amateur geology or rockhounding, including a list of notable amateur geologists
 * Amateur journalism
 * Amateur radio
 * Amateur sports
 * Amateur theatre
 * Amateur pornography
 * Arts and crafts or handicraft, including a list of handicrafts carried out by amateurs
 * Fan fiction
 * Fan art
 * Independent scholar
 * Independent scientist or gentleman scientist, including a list of notable amateur scientists

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Amateur


text:
Alexis Carrel

Alexis Carrel (28 June 1873 – 5 November 1944) was a French surgeon and biologist who spent most of his scientific career in the United States. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1912 for pioneering vascular suturing techniques. He invented the first perfusion pump with Charles Lindbergh opening the way to organ transplantation. Carrel was also a pioneer in tissue culture, transplantology and thoracic surgery. He is known for his leading role in implementing eugenic policies in Vichy France.

Biography
Born in Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, Rhône, Carrel was raised in a devout Catholic family and was educated by Jesuits, though he had become an agnostic by the time he became a university student. He studied medicine at the University of Lyon.

Working as an intern at a Lyon hospital, he developed a technique for suturing small blood vessels using extremely fine needles. He published his first scientific article about this method in 1902.

In 1902, Carrel underwent a transformative experience that led him from being a skeptic of the reported visions and miracles at Lourdes to a believer in spiritual cures. This conversion came about after he witnessed the inexplicable healing of Marie Bailly, who then identified Carrel as the principal witness of her cure. Despite facing opposition from his peers in the medical community, Carrel refused to dismiss a supernatural explanation for the event. His beliefs proved to be a hindrance to his career and reputation in academic medicine in France, and as a result he left France for Canada. Carrel would write a book about the case The Voyage to Lourdes, which was released four years after his death.

Shortly after arriving in Canada, he accepted a position at the University of Chicago. While there he collaborated with American physician Charles Claude Guthrie in work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs as well as the head. Carrel would be awarded the 1912 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for these efforts.

In 1906, he joined the newly formed Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research in New York where he spent the rest of his career. There he did significant work on tissue cultures with pathologist Montrose Thomas Burrows.

In World War I, Carrel served as a major in the French Army medical Corps. During this time he developed the popular Carrel-Dakin method for treating wounds.

In the 1930s, Carrel and Charles Lindbergh became close friends not only because of the years they worked together but also because they shared personal, political, and social views. Lindbergh initially sought out Carrel to see if his sister-in-law's heart, damaged by rheumatic fever, could be repaired. When Lindbergh saw the crudeness of Carrel's machinery, he offered to build new equipment for the scientist. Eventually they built the first perfusion pump, an invention instrumental to the development of organ transplantation and open heart surgery. Lindbergh considered Carrel his closest friend, and said he would preserve and promote Carrel's ideals after his death.

In 1939, Carrel returned to France and took a position with the French Ministry of Health. Due to his close proximity with Jacques Doriot's fascist Parti Populaire Français (PPF) during the 1930s and his role in implementing eugenics policies during Vichy France, he was accused after the Liberation of collaboration, but died before the trial.

In his later life he returned to his Catholic roots. In 1939, he met with Trappist monk Alexis Presse on a recommendation. Although Carrel was skeptical about meeting with a priest, Presse ended up having a profound influence on the rest of Carrel's life. In 1942, he said "I believe in the existence of God, in the immortality of the soul, in Revelation and in all the Catholic Church teaches." He summoned Presse to administer the Catholic Sacraments on his death bed in November 1944.

For much of his life, Carrel and his wife spent their summers on the Île Saint-Gildas, which they owned. After he and Lindbergh became close friends, Carrel persuaded him to also buy a neighboring island, the Ile Illiec, where the Lindberghs often resided in the late 1930s.

Vascular suture
Carrel was a young surgeon who was deeply affected by the 1894 assassination of the French president, Sadi Carnot, who died from a severed portal vein that surgeons believed was irreparable. This tragedy inspired Carrel to develop new techniques for suturing blood vessels, such as the "triangulation" technique using three stay-sutures to minimize damage to the vascular wall during suturing. Carrel learned this technique from an embroideress, and later incorporated it into his work. According to Julius Comroe, Carrel performed every feat and developed every technique in vascular surgery using experimental animals between 1901 and 1910, leading to his great success in reconnecting arteries and veins and performing surgical grafts. These achievements earned him the Nobel Prize in 1912.

Wound antisepsis
During World War I (1914–1918), Carrel and the English chemist Henry Drysdale Dakin developed the Carrel–Dakin method of treating wounds with an antiseptic solution based on chlorine, known as Dakin's solution. This method, which involved wound debridement and irrigation with a high volume of antiseptic fluid, was a significant medical advancement in the absence of antibiotics. For his contributions, Carrel was awarded the Légion d'honneur. The Carrel–Dakin method became widely used in hospitals. The mechanical irrigation technique developed by Carrel is still used today.

Organ transplants
Carrel co-authored a book with pilot Charles Lindbergh, The Culture of Organs. Together, they developed the perfusion pump in the mid-1930s, which made it possible for organs to remain viable outside of the body during surgical procedures. This innovation is considered to be a significant advancement in the fields of open-heart surgery and organ transplantation, and it paved the way for the development of the artificial heart, which became a reality many years later. Although some critics accused Carrel of exaggerating Lindbergh's contributions to gain publicity, other sources indicate that Lindbergh played a significant role in the device's development. In recognition of their groundbreaking work, both Carrel and Lindbergh appeared on the cover of Time magazine on June 13, 1938.

Tissue culture and cellular senescence
Carrel developed methods to keep animal tissues alive in culture. He was interested in the phenomenon of senescence or aging. He believed that all cells continued to grow indefinitely, which became a widely accepted view in the early 20th century. In 1912, Carrel began an experiment at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, where he cultured tissue from an embryonic chicken heart in a stoppered Pyrex flask of his own design. He supplied the culture with nutrients regularly and maintained it for over 20 years, longer than a chicken's normal lifespan. This experiment received significant popular and scientific attention, but it was never successfully replicated.

In the 1960s, Leonard Hayflick and Paul Moorhead proposed the concept of the Hayflick limit, which states that differentiated cells undergo only a limited number of divisions before dying. Hayflick suggested that Carrel's daily feeding of nutrients continually introduced new living cells to the culture, resulting in anomalous results. J. A. Witkowski argued that the deliberate introduction of new cells into the culture, possibly without Carrel's knowledge, could also explain the results.

Despite the doubts surrounding Carrel's experiment, it remains an important part of scientific history, and his work on tissue culture had a significant impact on the development of modern medicine.

Honors
Carrel was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1909 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1914. Carrel was a member of learned societies in the U.S., Spain, Russia, Sweden, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Vatican City, Germany, Italy, and Greece, and was elected twice, in 1924 and 1927, as an honorary member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. He also received honorary doctorates from Queen's University of Belfast, Princeton University, Brown University, and Columbia University.

In 1972, the Swedish Post Office honored Carrel with a stamp that was part of its Nobel stamp series. Seven years later, in 1979, the lunar crater Carrel was named after him as a tribute to his breakthroughs. In February 2002, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of Charles Lindbergh's birth, the Lindbergh-Carrel Prize was established by the Medical University of South Carolina at Charleston. Michael DeBakey and nine other scientists were the first recipients of the prise, a bronze statuette, named "Elisabeth" after Elisabeth Morrow, the sister of Lindbergh's wife Anne Morrow who died from heart disease. Lindbergh's frustration with the limitations of medical technology, specifically the lack of an artificial heart pump for heart surgery, led him to reach out to Carrel.

Man, the Unknown (1935, 1939)

In 1935, Carrel's book, L'Homme, cet inconnu (Man, the Unknown), became a best-seller. The book attempted to comprehensively outline what is known, and unknown, of the human body and human life "in light of discoveries in biology, physics, and medicine", to shed light on the problems of the modern world, and to provide possible routes to a better life for human beings.

In the book, Carrel argued that humans of "poor quality" were outbreeding those of good quality and causing the "enfeeblement of the white races." He advocated for an elite group of intellectuals to guide mankind and to incorporate eugenics into the social framework. He argued for an aristocracy that would come from individuals of potential and advocated for euthanasia for criminals and the criminally insane. Notably, Carrel's endorsement of euthanasia for criminals and the criminally insane was published in the mid-1930s, prior to the implementation of death camps and gas chambers in Nazi Germany.

In the 1936 German introduction of his book, Carrel added praise for the Nazi regime at the publisher's request, which did not appear in other language editions. After the second world war the book and his role with the Vichy regime would stain his reputation such that his name was removed from streets in more than 20 French cities and the Alexis Carrel Medical Faculty in Lyon was renamed in 1996.

French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems
In 1937, Carrel joined the Centre d'Etudes des Problèmes Humains, which was led by Jean Coutrot. Coutrot's goal was to develop what he called an "economic humanism" through "collective thinking." However, in 1941, Carrel went on to advocate for the creation of the French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems (Fondation Française pour l'Etude des Problèmes Humains). This foundation was created by decree of the Vichy regime in 1941, and Carrel served as a "regent." Carrel's connections to the cabinet of Vichy France president Philippe Pétain, specifically French industrial physicians André Gros and Jacques Ménétrier, helped pave the way for the creation of the foundation.

The foundation played a significant role in the establishment of the field of occupational medicine, which was institutionalized by the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF) through the 11 October 1946 law. The foundation's efforts were not limited to occupational medicine and extended to other areas such as demographics, economics, nutrition, habitation, and opinion polls. Notable figures associated with the foundation's work include Robert Gessain, Paul Vincent, Jean Bourgeois-Pichat, François Perroux, Jean Sutter, and Jean Stoetzel. The foundation achieved several notable accomplishments throughout its history. It played a crucial role in the promotion of the 16 December 1942 Act, which mandated the use of a prenuptial certificate before marriage. This certificate aimed to ensure the good health of spouses, particularly regarding sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and "life hygiene." Additionally, the institute created the livret scolaire, a document that recorded the grades of French secondary school students, allowing for the classification and selection of students based on academic performance.

Gwen Terrenoire's book, "Eugenics in France (1913–1941): a review of research findings," describes the Foundation for the Study of Human Problems as a pluridisciplinary center that employed approximately 300 researchers, primarily statisticians, psychologists, and physicians, from the summer of 1942 until the end of autumn 1944. Following the liberation of Paris, Alexis Carrel, the founder, was suspended by the Minister of Health, and he died in November 1944. The Foundation underwent a purge and emerged shortly afterward as the Institut national d'études démographiques (INED), which is still active today. Although Carrel had died, most of his team transferred to INED, which was headed by demographer Alfred Sauvy, who coined the term "Third World." Other team members joined the Institut national d'hygiène (National Hygiene Institute), later known as INSERM.

title: Alexis Carrel


text:
Talk:All Saints' Day

Typical caveat
the text about the Catholic holiday comes from An Old Unnameable Source whose copyright has now expired. I've attempted to verify the information in it and determine if it's still relevant, but may have missed something important. So please feel free to update, clarify, expand, refactor, etc. --KQ

- Among Christianized feasts, I've cut " Lupercalia Christianized as Candlemas" because the entry Candlemas clearly explains how Candlemas follows Christmas by 40 days, thus falling or not falling near Lupercalia by accident, depending on when Christmas is observed. These Christianized feasts are bones of contention with various Christianists, so Wikipedia needs to be fastidiously careful here. Wetman 15:59, 23 May 2004 (UTC)
 * I agree, Wetman. I think "Christianize" may be the wrong term, as festivals like Easter and Christmas have Christian origin, and only the dates and some symbols of the pagan holiday have been co-opted.  I think it is somewhat inappropriate to say that these festivals have pagan origin.  I do not, however, feel the same about holidays that clearly do have a pagan origin, but were later blessed by the church.  Any comment on my change to the link to Easter is welcome.  I found it semantically incorrect to claim that Christians all over the world celebrate Pascha and not Easter, since this is not an English word (at least not a common one), and Easter and Pascha are basically the same holiday.  I consider this somewhat similar to saying "In Mexico, they do not drive cars -- they drive coches" ThePedanticPrick 01:34, 2 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * We agree, I think, that when fundamental aspects of Saturnalia are applied to Christmas, and when Christmas supplants Saturnalia in the calendar, to say that Saturnalia has been "Christianized" is a perfectly frank way of expressing what has been co-opted. In a similar fashion, the former Christian feast of All Saints covered needs formerly catered to by the Lemuria and the "modern" one moved to November 1 occupies Samhain. To suppress any reference to Samhain and treat the November 1 date as merely coincidental, is to follow a Roman catholic hard line. We don't have to do that at Wikipedia. "Christianize" may be the "wrong" term, but it is an accurate and honest one.  (Those opinionated remarks about Easter that you removed were certainly not mine! Good riddance to distracting blather, says me.)

From “Lives of saints, from the Book of Lismore” [an early 15th Gaelic century manuscript]: “fo.67 a, i. A piece entitled Scél na samhna (the story of All Saints Day).

Begins: [skipping Irish text] A certain emperor, named Phocas, assumed the Roman’s realm. Every year at samáin (All Saints day) a great assembly was held by him in Rome. This was right, for the samain was the chief solemnity of the heathen at that time, for all the gods of the world, from east to west (lit. from sunrise to sunset), were worhsipped on that day.

It then related how the Pantheon (‘dommus omnium deorum, .i.i tegduis na n-uili dhee’) was given to Boniface, and dedicated by him to all the saints. Compare the piece entitled Fagail na Samna in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Celt. Et B.1 fo. 15 b, 2.” Bernard.

Link suggestions
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Article Title
Should this article not be retitled "All Saints Day" to avoid confusion? The article about the similar All Souls Day does include the "day" in the article title. One of these should be renamed.

 * "All Saints" is broader than "All Saints Day." Is the new opening better? --Wetman 22:48, 9 May 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree with the OP - it should be filed under All Saints' Day for consistency 93.97.113.174 (talk) 07:21, 8 January 2012 (UTC)

Definitions
If I'm not mistaken, "hollow" refers to a spirit, in the will-o'-wisp sense, and "mas" has several different meanings depending on where it comes from. I'm not confident enough in my knowledge to make the changes needlessly, though.

'Hallows'
Re: "'hallow' meaning 'holy,' and 'mas' meaning 'Mass'"

I am no linguist, but Prof. Gardner's introduction to the Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins describes how the poet "revived with profit a few obsolete native forms such as hallows (saints)". I think 'Hallows' for 'Saints' makes slightly more sense than 'Hallows' for 'Holy' as above (and far more so than 'Hollows' for 'Spirits' as suggested on the talk page) given that the feast in question was once known as 'All Hallows' but now as 'All Saints'.Dogbox 22:44, 30 October 2006 (UTC)
 * I would agree, I would go even further. All Hallows usually means All Saints, which can be seen in Halloween, a contraction of All Hallows Evening, the eve of All Hallows. I think the problem lies in semantics. All Hallows factually means all that is Holy. In Western Christianity this means all the Saints and Angels, which are are referred to as All Hallows. The feast of All Hallows and All Souls is referred to as Hallowmas, just as the feast around the birth of Christ is referred to as Christmas.JHvW 13:36, 30 December 2013 (UTC)

'Celebrations in Central Europe'
The article says that in Poland, Germany, and Lithuania, All Saint's Day is when people visit cemeteries. However, the All Soul's Day article suggests that it is All Soul's Day (there is even a link to an article with the Polish name of the holiday). I believe that All Soul's Day (Nov. 2) is correct in this case.

209.6.23.78 01:40, 1 November 2006 (UTC)BK

Actually, people visit cemeteries and light candles on both days, some even before or after November 1 and November 2. All Saints' Day is more significant, however, since it is an official holiday.

As a name
Would someone add to this article an explanation about how 'Todos los Santos' (All Saints) is used by the King of Spain's grandchildren? I would appreciate it. This is something I have long wondered about. I think an explanation about the reason for the use, the tradition behind it, and what members of the royal family have it, would be a good place to start. --Ashley Rovira 18:16, 14 March 2007 (UTC)

Official Name
I know that this occasion is known as the Solemnity of All Saints in the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church. I am uncomfortable changing this because the religious holiday is observed in other religious communities I know less about. However, it is definitely not a Feast, but a Solemnity, in the Catholic Church. MrArticleOne 17:32, 5 November 2007 (UTC)

Narrowing of those who celebrate
The Following Sentence: "In terms of Western Christian theology, the day commemorates all those who have attained the beatific vision in heaven." Would better read: "In terms of Western Roman Catholic theology, the day commemorates all those who have attained the beatific vision in heaven." It is not celebrated in Protestantism, and to the best of my knowledge is not celebrated in other branches of Christendom. There may be some very minor exceptions, but at this point, it is less accurate than it would be with my suggested revision.
 * Actually, All Saints is celebrated on the liturgical calenders of the Anglican and Lutheran churches, and many parishes of the United Methodist Church also have a special service for the day. --Willthacheerleader18 (talk) 02:51, 22 October 2010 (UTC)

Ancient Pagan Observation?
This article states with certainty that "the chosen day, May 13, was a pagan observation of great antiquity, the culmination of three days of the Feast of the Lemures, in which the malevolent and restless spirits of the dead were propitiated." However, other secular sources, such as the Encyclopedia Britannica, contest this claim by stating that "The origin of All Saints' Day cannot be traced with certainty, and it has been observed on various days in different places." To me, it seems like a secular attack on Catholicism to claim that the celebration of All Saints' Day definitively originated from a pagan festival. -- Ambrosiaster (talk) 20:12, 31 October 2010 (UTC)

"also called All Hallows"
I understand that this title was used in the past, but I don't think it is every called this any more in a living usage. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Richardson mcphillips (talk • contribs) 18:43, 1 November 2010 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the proposal was Moved article to more specific name, disambiguation-page to simple-name. No evidence that the more general term is the commonname for the topic; evidence that there are many meanings (even if some more popular than others, too diverse and no evidence to support what primarytopic would be), so a more specific or proper name is the natural DAB approach. DMacks (talk) 08:35, 13 August 2012 (UTC)

– This article is about All Saints' Day, and so that is the title which most of the English-speaking world (and possibly some other parts) will expect to find. I have always heard it referred to by this name. Additionally, All Saints are a girlband who were successful all over the world for many years and are known worldwide as well. As the last two months' wikitraffic shows, they are a much more common target than that of the feast day and the Australian TV drama. Add on All Saints (band) and you get an extra 3,261.
 * All Saints → All Saints' Day
 * All Saints (group) → All Saints

Unreal7 (talk) 20:55, 3 August 2012 (UTC)

 * Support/Oppose Support moving the day to "All Saints' Day". Oppose moving the pop-group. The disambiguation page All Saints (disambiguation) should be moved to the short name instead. "All Saints" weren't all that successful, unlike PCD or Spice Girls, unless you lived in Britain. -- 76.65.131.160 (talk) 05:17, 4 August 2012 (UTC)
 * Yeah, over 10 million record sales isn't very successful... A lot of those sales weren't in Britain. Unreal7 (talk) 14:59, 4 August 2012 (UTC)

 * Oppose per WP:COMMONNAME and WP:PRIMARYTOPIC--Education does not equal common sense. 我不在乎  20:52, 4 August 2012 (UTC)
 * Support/Oppose With as many pages are on the disambig page, it makes sense to me to have the disambiguation page be the primary page. The holy day should be at All Saints Day (Would the disambig page need to be added to the list of move pages?) --VikÞor |  Talk 01:17, 6 August 2012 (UTC)
 * Back earlier support/oppose proposals. PatGallacher (talk) 22:51, 6 August 2012 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

"All saints day" is a stolen pagan tradition
"All saints day" is a stolen pagan tradition. People in Russia were even bringing their food to the graves of their relatives. The calendar cycles in Slavic are called Godi; at the times before Saints there were Godi (="Years") of Bogi (Gods). So literally "Gods" (cycles).

Date
In the article the date of All Hallows Day or All Saints Day is described as:

 * All Saints' Day (also known as All Hallows, Solemnity of All Saints or The Feast of All Saints) is a solemnity celebrated on 2 November by the Catholic Church, and on the first Sunday after Pentecost in Eastern Catholicism, in honour of all the saints, known and unknown. All Saints' Day is the second day of Hallowmas, and begins at sunrise on the first day of November and finishes at sundown. It is the day before All Souls' Day.

Surely this means that All Saints Day is celebrated on November 1st in the Catholic Church and not November 2nd as suggested. I was brought up that November 1st was All Saints Day and November 2nd was All Souls Day (the second and third day of Hallowmas). November 1st is also consistent with the text under the heading "In the West":
 * The Catholic holiday of All Saints' Day falls on 1 November, followed by All Souls' Day on 2 November, and is a Holy Day of Obligation in the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church.

There is another small point. The text under the picture in the customs section. The caption reads "All Saints' Day at a cemetery in Sanok - flowers and light candles to honour the memory of deceased relatives. Poland, 1 November 2011". I think what is meant is All Souls day because of the reference to "deceased relatives" (unless they were Saints of course). It has been remarked before that for those who are not brought up in this tradition, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between All Hallows and All Souls. Even the customs seem te differ locally. Because I am not an expert I will not change the article but I think it should be looked at because IMHO this is not factually correct.

JHvW 10:19, 17 November 2013 (UTC)

All Saints Day didn't fall on Samain
In regard to "This fell on the Celtic holiday of Samhain, which had a theme similar to the Roman festival of Lemuria, but which was also a harvest festival. The Irish, having celebrated Samhain in the past, did not celebrate All Hallows Day on this 1 November date, as extant historical documents attest that the celebration in Ireland took place in the spring: "...the Felire of Oengus and the Martyrology of Tallaght prove that the early medieval churches [in Ireland] celebrated the feast of All Saints on April 20."[12]"

I have looked up Hutton's references and find nothing to support his suggestion. John Dowden's "The Church Year and Kalendar", 1910, makes no mention of the Irish Martyrologies. Thurston's and Attwater's edition of "Butler's Live of the Saints:, 1956, just mention that "... on April 20 a feast " of all the Saints of the whole of Europe ". As the Tallaght text phrases it, this day is the ' communis sollemnitas omnium sanctorum et virginum Hiberniae et Britanniae et totius Europae '".

No argument is presented for conclusion that "Felire of Oengus and the Martyrology of Tallaght prove that the early medieval churches [in Ireland] celebrated the feast of All Saints on April 20." spanish is a cool language.

So it is wrong to associate the new 'All Saints of all parts of the world' on November 1st with the Irish 'All Saints of Whole Europe' on April 20th.

For in the later ‘Martyrology of Oengus’,'All Saints of Whole Europe'remains, while 'All Saints of Africa' has been removed and 'Samain' used by the Irish as the name of the feast of All Saints of the whole of Europe' has been added. April 20th: Noeb n-Eorpa uile ("Saints of the whole of Europe") November 1st: Samain, which outside of Irish Literature for Samain is always. Within the literature it is the start of winter (identified by early non-Celtic Christians as November 1st) or once 'caisc na ngente'. The 12th century Drummond Kalendar still has the celebration of 'All Saints of Europe' with the celebration of 'All Saints Days of all part of the world': April 20th: Romar, sollempnitas Omnium Sanctorum totius Europae. November 1st: Festivitas Omnium Sanctorum "This fell on the Celtic holiday of Samhain, which had a theme similar to the Roman festival of Lemuria, but which was also a harvest festival. The Irish, having celebrated Samhain in the past, did not celebrate All Hallows Day on this 1 November date, as extant historical documents attest that the celebration in Ireland took place in the spring: "...the Felire of Oengus and the Martyrology of Tallaght prove that the early medieval churches [in Ireland] celebrated the feast of All Saints on April 20."[12]"

The statement then is false for justifying with the wrong All Saints day was on April 20th and so the entry in Felire Oengus of Samain is not a reference to ‘All Saints Day [of all parts of the world]’. Hutton is still correct that Fraser is wrong for the notion that the 'November' date was chosen because of 'Celtic' influences. He just needed a better argument. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.196.44.23 (talk) 19:42, 1 December 2013 (UTC)

Missing picture?
Christ is enthroned in heaven surrounded by the ranks of angels and saints. At the bottom is Paradise with the bosom of Abraham (left), and the Good Thief (right).

Text box was f-up, seems like a picture is missing though? Maybe this text segment should go. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 130.243.171.115 (talk) 15:55, 15 December 2013 (UTC)

50 days?
In this "In the late spring, the Sunday following Pentecost Saturday (50 days after Easter)" the 50 days is confusing. Pentecost Sunday is 50 days after Easter, so Pentecost Saturday is 56 days after, and the Sunday following Pentecost Saturday is 57 days. What is meant? --Richardson mcphillips (talk) 02:48, 30 October 2016 (UTC)

Confusion over date and alternative names
Currently the article begins "All Saints Day, celebrated the day before and not to be confused with All Hallows' Day, Hallowmas, Feast of All Saints, or Solemnity of All Saints ...". Surely this is wrong. All Saints is the same as All Hallows. It is celebrated on 1 November, the day after All Hallows Eve (Halloween) and the day before All Souls day. See the Wikipedia disambiguation page for "All Hallows", which says that it is another name for All Saints Day, and the second paragraph of the article in which clearly treats All Saints and All Hallows as the same thing.

Maybe it should say ""All Saints Day, also known as All Hallows' Day, Hallowmas, Feast of All Saints, or Solemnity of All Saints, and celebrated the day before and not to be confused with All Souls Day, ...". 51.52.8.222 (talk) 11:50, 31 October 2018 (UTC)

Confusing description
The second sentence of the article "Its intent is to celebrate all the saints, including those who are no longer celebrated, or are not celebrated individually, either..." is logically impossible, either a saint is or is not celebrated. Suggestion: "including those who are no longer celebrated individually, either...". Jumtist (talk) 19:10, 9 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Thanks for hinting to that point. I tried to fix that to the "usual" definition and added a source.--Medusahead (talk) 10:51, 13 October 2021 (UTC)

Meaning of the term Saint
As the comment on this sailed away too early:  The explanation „whether they are known or unknown“ just correspondingly says that it could refer to any Christian who has been holy in his lifetime and is in the eternal joy with God, but we (here on earth) didn't know he or she was holy, but God knows. A saint is a saint whether canonised or not, and he or she can be anyone. In fact, anyone could desire to become a saint. --Medusahead (talk) 08:45, 1 November 2021 (UTC)

Featured picture scheduled for POTD
Hello! This is to let editors know that File:Celebración de Todos los Santos, cementerio de la Santa Cruz, Gniezno, Polonia, 2017-11-01, DD 07-09 HDR.jpg, a featured picture used in this article, has been selected as the English Wikipedia's picture of the day (POTD) for November 1, 2023. A preview of the POTD is displayed below and can be edited at Template:POTD/2023-11-01. For the greater benefit of readers, any potential improvements or maintenance that could benefit the quality of this article should be done before its scheduled appearance on the Main Page. If you have any concerns, please place a message at Wikipedia talk:Picture of the day. Thank you! --Ahecht (TALK PAGE ) 02:06, 13 June 2022 (UTC)

In relation to Halloween celebrations
"During the 20th century the observance largely became a secular one, although some traditional Christian groups have continued to embrace the Christian origins of Halloween whereas others have rejected such celebrations".

Give the limited information concerning the "Christian" origins of Halloween, it possible to expand the Halloween celebrations section? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2.29.103.52 (talk) 11:30, 1 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:All Saints' Day


text:
All Souls' Day

All Souls' Day, also called The Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed, is a day of prayer and remembrance for the faithful departed, observed by Christians on 2 November. Through prayer, intercessions, alms and visits to cemeteries, people commemorate the poor souls in purgatory and gain them indulgences.

In Western Christianity, including Roman Catholicism and certain parts of Lutheranism and Anglicanism, All Souls' Day is the third day of Allhallowtide, after All Saints' Day (1 November) and All Hallows' Eve (31 October). Before the standardization of Western Christian observance on 2 November by St. Odilo of Cluny in the 10th century, many Catholic congregations celebrated All Souls' Day on various dates during the Easter season as it is still observed in some Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Catholic and Eastern Lutheran churches. Churches of the East Syriac Rite (Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Chaldean Catholic Church, Assyrian Church of the East, Ancient Church of the East) commemorate all the faithful departed on the Friday before Lent.

In other languages
Known in Latin as Commemoratio Omnium Fidelium Defunctorum, All Souls' Day is known

 * in other Germanic languages as Allerseelen (German), Allerzielen (Dutch), Alla själars dag (Swedish), and Alle Sjæles Dag (Danish);
 * in the Romance languages as Dia de Finados or Dia dos Fiéis Defuntos (Portuguese), Commémoration de tous les fidèles Défunts (French), Día de los Fieles Difuntos (Spanish), Commemorazione di tutti i fedeli defunti (Italian), and Ziua morților or Luminația (Romanian);
 * in the Slavic languages as Wspomnienie Wszystkich Wiernych Zmarłych or Zaduszki (Polish), Vzpomínka na všechny věrné zesnulé, Památka zesnulých or Dušičky (Czech), Pamiatka zosnulých or Dušičky (Slovak), Spomen svih vjernih mrtvih (Croatian), and День всех усопших верных or День поминовения всех усопших (Den' vsekh usopshikh vernykh; Den' pominoveniya vsekh usopshih) (Russian)
 * in the or Visų Šventųjų Diena
 * and in Dygwyl y Meirw.

Background
In the Catholic Church, "the faithful" refers essentially to baptized Catholics; "all souls" commemorates the church penitent of souls in purgatory, whereas "all saints" commemorates the church triumphant of saints in heaven. In the liturgical books of the Latin Church it is called the Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed (Commemoratio omnium fidelium defunctorum).

The Catholic Church teaches that the purification of the souls in purgatory can be assisted by the actions of the faithful on earth. Its teaching is based also on the practice of prayer for the dead mentioned as far back as 2 Maccabees 12:42–46. The theological basis for the feast is the doctrine that the souls which, on departing from the body, are not perfectly cleansed from venial sins, or have not fully atoned for past transgressions, are debarred from the Beatific vision, and that the faithful on earth can help them by prayers, alms, deeds, and especially by the sacrifice of the Holy Mass.

Byzantine (Greek) Catholic and Eastern Orthodox
Saturday of Souls (or Soul Saturday) is a day set aside for the commemoration of the dead within the liturgical year of the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches. Saturday is a traditional day of prayer for the dead, because Christ lay dead in the Tomb on Saturday.

These days are devoted to prayer for departed relatives and others among the faithful who would not be commemorated specifically as saints. The Divine Services on these days have special hymns added to them to commemorate the departed. There is often a Panikhida (Memorial Service) either after the Divine Liturgy on Saturday morning or after Vespers on Friday evening, for which Koliva (a dish made of boiled wheatberries or rice and honey) is prepared and placed on the Panikhida table. After the Service, the priest blesses the Koliva. It is then eaten as a memorial by all present.

Radonitsa
Another Memorial Day in the East, Radonitsa, does not fall on a Saturday, but on either Monday or Tuesday of the second week after Pascha (Easter). Radonitsa does not have special hymns for the dead at the Divine Services. Instead a Panikhida will follow the Divine Liturgy, and then all will bring paschal foods to the cemeteries to greet the departed with the joy of the Resurrection.

East Syriac tradition
East Syriac churches including the Syro Malabar Church and Chaldean Catholic Church commemorates the feast of departed faithful on the last Friday of Epiphany season (which means Friday just before start of Great Lent). The season of Epiphany remembers the revelation of Christ to the world. Each Friday of Epiphany season, the church remembers important evangelistic figures.

In the Syro Malabar Church, the Friday before the parish festival is also celebrated as feast of departed faithful when the parish remembers the activities of forebears who worked for the parish and faithful. They also request the intercession of all departed souls for the faithful celebration of parish festival. In East Syriac liturgy, the church remembers departed souls including saints on every Friday throughout the year since the Christ was crucified and died on Friday.

History
In Western Christianity, there is ample evidence of the custom of praying for the dead in the inscriptions of the catacombs, with their constant prayers for the peace of the souls of the departed and in the early liturgies, which commonly contain commemorations of the dead. Tertullian, Cyprian and other early Western Fathers witness to the regular practice of praying for the dead among the early Christians.

In the sixth century, it was customary in Benedictine monasteries to hold a commemoration of the deceased members at Whitsuntide. In the time of St. Isidore of Seville (d. 636) who lived in what is today Spain, the Monday after Pentecost was designated to remember the deceased. At the beginning of the ninth century, Abbot Eigil of Fulda set 17 December as commemoration of all deceased in part of what is today Germany.

According to Widukind of Corvey (c. 975), there also existed a ceremony praying for the dead on 1 October in Saxony. But it was the day after All Saints' Day that Saint Odilo of Cluny chose when in the 11th century he instituted for all the monasteries dependent on the Abbey of Cluny an annual commemoration of all the faithful departed, to be observed with alms, prayers, and sacrifices for the relief of the suffering souls in purgatory. Odilo decreed that those requesting a Mass be offered for the departed should make an offering for the poor, thus linking almsgiving with fasting and prayer for the dead.

The 2 November date and customs spread from the Cluniac monasteries to other Benedictine monasteries and thence to the Western Church in general. The Diocese of Liège was the first diocese to adopt the practice under Bishop Notger (d. 1008). 2 November was adopted in Italy and Rome in the thirteenth century.

In the 15th century the Dominicans instituted a custom of each priest offering three Masses on the Feast of All Souls. During World War I, given the great number of war dead and the many destroyed churches where Mass could no longer be said, Pope Benedict XV, granted all priests the privilege of offering three Masses on All Souls' Day.

Liturgical practice

If 2 November falls on a Sunday, All Souls' Day is observed on that day. In the Liturgy of the hours of All Souls' day the sequence Dies irae can be used ad libitum. Every priest is allowed to celebrate three holy Masses on All Souls' Day.

In Divine Worship: The Missal the minor propers (Introit, Gradual, Tract, Sequence, Offertory, and Communion) are those used for Renaissance and Classical musical requiem settings, including the Dies Irae. This permits the performance of traditional requiem settings in the context of the Divine Worship Form of the Roman Rite on All Souls' Day as well as at funerals, votive celebrations of all faithful departed, and anniversaries of deaths.

In the ordinary form of the Roman Rite, as well as in the Personal Ordinariates established by Benedict XVI for former Anglicans, it remains on 2 November if this date falls on a Sunday; in the 1962–1969 form of the Roman Rite, use of which is still authorized, it is transferred to Monday, 3 November.

According to the sacred tradition of the Catholic Church, from Nov. 1 to Nov. 8, it is possible to gain plenary indulgence for the benefit of the souls of the departed who are in Purgatory.

All Souls' indulgence
According to the Enchiridion of Indulgences, an indulgence applicable only to the souls in purgatory (commonly called the poor souls) is granted to the faithful who devoutly visit on All Souls' Day a church or chapel and pray the Our Father and the Credo or the Lauds or Vespers of the Office of the Dead and the eternal rest prayer for the dead. The indulgence can be gained from noon of All Saints' Day on as well as a plenary indulgence is each day from the first to the eighth of November; a partial indulgence is granted on other days of the year.

Lutheran churches
Among continental lutherans its tradition has been more tenaciously maintained. During Luther's lifetime, All Souls' Day was widely observed in Saxony although the Roman Catholic meaning of the day was discarded; ecclesiastically in the Lutheran Church, the day was merged with, and is often seen as an extension of All Saints' Day, with many Lutherans still visiting and decorating graves on all the days of Allhallowtide, including All Souls' Day. Just as it is the custom of French people, of all ranks and creeds, to decorate the graves of their dead on the jour des morts, Germans stream to the graveyards once a year with offerings of flowers and special grave lights. In 1816, Prussia introduced a new date for the remembrance of the Dead among its Lutheran citizens: Totensonntag, the last Sunday before Advent.

Anglican Communion

In the Church of England it is called The Commemoration of the Faithful Departed and is an optional celebration; Anglicans view All Souls' Day as an extension of the observance of All Saints' Day and it serves to "remember those who have died", in connection with the theological doctrines of the resurrection of the body and the Communion of Saints.

In the Anglican Communion, All Souls' Day is known liturgically as the Commemoration of All Faithful Departed, and is an optional observance seen as "an extension of All Saints' Day", the latter of which marks the second day of Allhallowtide. Historically and at present, several Anglican churches are dedicated to All Souls. During the English Reformation, the observance of All Souls' Day lapsed, although a new Anglican theological understanding of the day has "led to a widespread acceptance of this commemoration among Anglicans". Patricia Bays, with regard to the Anglican view of All Souls' Day, wrote that:

"All Souls Day … is a time when we particularly remember those who have died. The prayers appointed for that day remind us that we are joined with the Communion of Saints, that great group of Christians who have finished their earthly life and with who we share the hope of resurrection from the dead." As such, Anglican parishes "now commemorate all the faithful departed in the context of the All Saints' Day celebration", in keeping with this fresh perspective. Contributing to the revival was the need "to help Anglicans mourn the deaths of millions of soldiers in World War I". Members of the Guild of All Souls, an Anglican devotional society founded in 1873, "are encouraged to pray for the dying and the dead, to participate in a requiem of All Souls' Day and say a Litany of the Faithful Departed at least once a month".

At the Reformation the celebration of All Souls' Day was fused with All Saints' Day in the Church of England or, in the judgement of some, it was "deservedly abrogated". It was reinstated in certain parishes in connection with the Oxford Movement of the 19th century and is acknowledged in United States Anglicanism in the Holy Women, Holy Men calendar and in the Church of England with the 1980 Alternative Service Book. It features in Common Worship as a Lesser Festival called "Commemoration of the Faithful Departed (All Souls' Day)".

Methodist churches
In the Methodist Church, saints refer to all Christians and therefore, on All Saints' Day, the Church Universal, as well as the deceased members of a local congregation are honoured and remembered. In Methodist congregations that celebrate the liturgy on All Souls' Day, the observance, as with Anglicanism and Lutheranism, is viewed as an extension of All Saints' Day and as such, Methodists "remember our loved ones who had died" in their observance of this feast.

Popular customs
Many All Souls' Day traditions are associated with popular notions about purgatory. Bell tolling is meant to comfort those being cleansed. Lighting candles serves to kindle a light for the poor souls languishing in the darkness. Soul cakes are given to children coming to sing or pray for the dead (cf. trick-or-treating), giving rise to the traditions of "going souling" and the baking of special types of bread or cakes (cf. Pão-por-Deus).

Europe
All Souls' Day is celebrated in many European countries with vigils, candles, the decoration of graves, and special prayers as well as many regional customs. Examples of regional customs include leaving cakes for departed loved ones on the table and keeping the room warm for their comfort in Tirol and the custom in Brittany, where people flock to the cemeteries at nightfall to kneel, bareheaded, at the graves of their loved ones and anoint the hollow of the tombstone with holy water or to pour libations of milk on it. At bedtime, supper is left on the table for the souls. All Souls' Day is known in Maltese as Jum il-Mejtin, and is accompanied a traditional supper including roasted pig, based on a custom of letting a pig loose on the streets with a bell around its neck, to be fed by the entire neighborhood and cooked on that day to feed the poor. In Linz, funereal musical pieces known as aequales were played from tower tops on All Souls' Day and the evening before. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia All Souls' Day is called Dušičky, or "little souls". Traditionally, candles are left on graves on Dušičky. In Sicily and other regions of southern Italy, All Souls' Day is celebrated as the Festa dei Morti or U juornu rii morti, the "Commemoration of the Dead" or the "Day of the Dead", which according to Joshua Nicolosi of the Sicilian Post could be seen "halfway between Christian and pagan traditions". Families visit and clean grave sites, home altars are decorated with family photos and votive candles, and children are gifted a special basket or cannistru of chocolates, pomegranate, and other gifts from their ancestors. Because of the gifting of sugary sweets and the emphasis on sugar puppet decorations, the Commemoration Day has spurred local Sicilian events such as the Notte di Zucchero ("Night of Sugar") in which communities celebrate the dead. Piada dei morti (lit. 'piada of the dead'), a sweet focaccia topped with raisins, almonds, walnuts, and pine nuts, is traditionally eaten in November for All Souls' Day in the environs of Rimini, in Emilia-Romagna.

Philippines
In the Philippines, Hallow mas is variously called "Undás", "Todos los Santos" (Spanish, "All Saints"), and sometimes "Araw ng mga Patay / Yumao" (Tagalog, "Day of the dead / those who have passed away"), which incorporates All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day. Filipinos traditionally observe this day by visiting the family dead to clean and repair their tombs. Offerings of prayers, flowers, candles, and food. Chinese Filipinos additionally burn incense and kim. Many also spend the day and ensuing night holding reunions at the cemetery with feasts and merriment.

title: All Souls' Day


text:
Anatole France

Anatole France (born François-Anatole Thibault, ; 16 April 1844 – 12 October 1924) was a French poet, journalist, and novelist with several best-sellers. Ironic and skeptical, he was considered in his day the ideal French man of letters. He was a member of the Académie Française, and won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Literature "in recognition of his brilliant literary achievements, characterized as they are by a nobility of style, a profound human sympathy, grace, and a true Gallic temperament".

France is also widely believed to be the model for narrator Marcel's literary idol Bergotte in Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time.

Early years
The son of a bookseller, France, a bibliophile, spent most of his life around books. His father's bookstore specialized in books and papers on the French Revolution and was frequented by many writers and scholars. France studied at the Collège Stanislas, a private Catholic school, and after graduation he helped his father by working in his bookstore. After several years, he secured the position of cataloguer at Bacheline-Deflorenne and at Lemerre. In 1876, he was appointed librarian for the French Senate.

Literary career
France began his literary career as a poet and a journalist. In 1869, Le Parnasse contemporain published one of his poems, "La Part de Madeleine". In 1875, he sat on the committee in charge of the third Parnasse contemporain compilation. As a journalist, from 1867, he wrote many articles and notices. He became known with the novel Le Crime de Sylvestre Bonnard (1881). Its protagonist, skeptical old scholar Sylvester Bonnard, embodied France's own personality. The novel was praised for its elegant prose and won him a prize from the Académie Française.

In La Rotisserie de la Reine Pedauque (1893) France ridiculed belief in the occult, and in Les Opinions de Jérôme Coignard (1893), France captured the atmosphere of the fin de siècle. He was elected to the Académie Française in 1896.

France took a part in the Dreyfus affair. He signed Émile Zola's manifesto supporting Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer who had been falsely convicted of espionage. France wrote about the affair in his 1901 novel Monsieur Bergeret.

France's later works include Penguin Island (L'Île des Pingouins, 1908) which satirizes human nature by depicting the transformation of penguins into humans – after the birds have been baptized by mistake by the almost-blind Abbot Mael. It is a satirical history of France, starting in Medieval times, going on to the author's own time with special attention to the Dreyfus affair and concluding with a dystopian future. The Gods Are Athirst (Les dieux ont soif, 1912) is a novel, set in Paris during the French Revolution, about a true-believing follower of Maximilien Robespierre and his contribution to the bloody events of the Reign of Terror of 1793–94. It is a wake-up call against political and ideological fanaticism and explores various other philosophical approaches to the events of the time. The Revolt of the Angels (La Revolte des Anges, 1914) is often considered France's most profound and ironic novel. Loosely based on the Christian understanding of the War in Heaven, it tells the story of Arcade, the guardian angel of Maurice d'Esparvieu. Bored because Bishop d'Esparvieu is sinless, Arcade begins reading the bishop's books on theology and becomes an atheist. He moves to Paris, meets a woman, falls in love, and loses his virginity causing his wings to fall off, joins the revolutionary movement of fallen angels, and meets the Devil, who realizes that if he overthrew God, he would become just like God. Arcade realizes that replacing God with another is meaningless unless "in ourselves and in ourselves alone we attack and destroy Ialdabaoth." "Ialdabaoth", according to France, is God's secret name and means "the child who wanders".

He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921. He died on 13 October 1924 and is buried in the Neuilly-sur-Seine Old Communal Cemetery near Paris.

On 31 May 1922, France's entire works were put on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("List of Prohibited Books") of the Catholic Church. He regarded this as a "distinction". This Index was abolished in 1966.

Personal life
In 1877, France married Valérie Guérin de Sauville, a granddaughter of Jean-Urbain Guérin, a miniaturist who painted Louis XVI. Their daughter Suzanne was born in 1881 (and died in 1918).

France's relations with women were always turbulent, and in 1888 he began a relationship with Madame Arman de Caillavet, who conducted a celebrated literary salon of the Third Republic. The affair lasted until shortly before her death in 1910.

After his divorce, in 1893, France had many liaisons, notably with a Madame Gagey, who committed suicide in 1911.

In 1920, France married for the second time, to Emma Laprévotte.

France had socialist sympathies and was an outspoken supporter of the 1917 Russian Revolution. However he also vocally defended the institution of monarchy as more inclined to peace than bourgeois democracy, saying in relation to efforts to end the First World War that "a king of France, yes a king, would have had pity on our poor, exhausted, bloodied nation. However democracy is without a heart and without entrails. When serving the powers of money, it is pitiless and inhuman." In 1920, he gave his support to the newly founded French Communist Party. In his book The Red Lily, France famously wrote, "The law, in its majestic equality, forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal loaves of bread."

Reputation
The English writer George Orwell defended France and declared that his work remained very readable, and that "it is unquestionable that he was attacked partly from political motives".

Poetry

 * Les Légions de Varus, poem published in 1867 in the Gazette rimée.
 * Poèmes dorés (1873)
 * Les Noces corinthiennes (The Bride of Corinth) (1876)

Prose fiction

 * Jocaste et le chat maigre (Jocasta and the Famished Cat) (1879)
 * Le Crime de Sylvestre Bonnard (The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard) (1881)
 * Les Désirs de Jean Servien (The Aspirations of Jean Servien) (1882)
 * Abeille (Honey-Bee) (1883)
 * Balthasar (1889)
 * Thaïs (1890)
 * L'Étui de nacre (Mother of Pearl) (1892)
 * La Rôtisserie de la reine Pédauque (At the Sign of the Reine Pédauque) (1892)
 * Nos Enfants (Our Children: Scenes from the Country and the Town) (1886) illustrated by Louis-Maurice Boutet de Monvel
 * Les Opinions de Jérôme Coignard (The Opinions of Jerome Coignard) (1893)
 * Le Lys rouge (The Red Lily) (1894)
 * Le Puits de Sainte Claire (The Well of Saint Clare) (1895)
 * L'Histoire contemporaine (A Chronicle of Our Own Times)
 * 1: L'Orme du mail (The Elm-Tree on the Mall) (1897)
 * 2: Le Mannequin d'osier (The Wicker-Work Woman) (1897)
 * 3: L'Anneau d'améthyste (The Amethyst Ring) (1899)
 * 4: Monsieur Bergeret à Paris (Monsieur Bergeret in Paris) (1901)
 * Clio (1900)
 * Histoire comique (A Mummer's Tale) (1903)
 * Sur la pierre blanche (The White Stone) (1905)
 * L'Affaire Crainquebille (1901)
 * L'Île des Pingouins (Penguin Island) (1908)
 * Les Contes de Jacques Tournebroche (The Merrie Tales of Jacques Tournebroche) (1908)
 * Les Sept Femmes de Barbe bleue et autres contes merveilleux (The Seven Wives of Bluebeard and Other Marvelous Tales) (1909)
 * Bee The Princess of the Dwarfs (1912)
 * Les dieux ont soif (The Gods Are Athirst) (1912)
 * La Révolte des anges (The Revolt of the Angels) (1914)
 * Marguerite (1920) illustrated by Fernand Siméon

Memoirs

 * Le Livre de mon ami (My Friend's Book) (1885)
 * Pierre Nozière (1899)
 * Le Petit Pierre (Little Pierre) (1918)
 * La Vie en fleur (The Bloom of Life) (1922)

Plays

 * Au petit bonheur (1898)
 * Crainquebille (1903)
 * La Comédie de celui qui épousa une femme muette (The Man Who Married A Dumb Wife) (1908)
 * Le Mannequin d'osier (The Wicker Woman) (1928)

Historical biography

 * Vie de Jeanne d'Arc (The Life of Joan of Arc) (1908)

Literary criticism

 * Alfred de Vigny (1869)
 * Le Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte (1888)
 * Le Génie Latin (The Latin Genius) (1909)

Social criticism

 * Le Jardin d'Épicure (The Garden of Epicurus) (1895)
 * Opinions sociales (1902)
 * Le Parti noir (1904)
 * Vers les temps meilleurs (1906)
 * Sur la voie glorieuse (1915)
 * Trente ans de vie sociale, in four volumes, (1949, 1953, 1964, 1973)

title: Anatole France