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Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, 1st Lord Verulam, PC (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher and statesman who served as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England under King James I. Bacon argued the importance of natural philosophy, guided by scientific method, and his works remained influential throughout the Scientific Revolution.

Bacon has been called the father of empiricism. He argued for the possibility of scientific knowledge based only upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of events in nature. He believed that science could be achieved by the use of a sceptical and methodical approach whereby scientists aim to avoid misleading themselves. Although his most specific proposals about such a method, the Baconian method, did not have long-lasting influence, the general idea of the importance and possibility of a sceptical methodology makes Bacon one of the later founders of the scientific method. His portion of the method based in scepticism was a new rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, whose practical details are still central to debates on science and methodology. He is famous for his role in the scientific revolution, promoting scientific experimentation as a way of glorifying God and fulfilling scripture.

Bacon was a patron of libraries and developed a system for cataloguing books under three categories – history, poetry, and philosophy – which could further be divided into specific subjects and subheadings. About books he wrote: "Some books are to be tasted; others swallowed; and some few to be chewed and digested." The Shakespearean authorship thesis, a fringe theory which was first proposed in the mid-19th century, contends that Bacon wrote at least some and possibly all of the plays conventionally attributed to William Shakespeare.

Bacon was educated at Trinity College at the University of Cambridge, where he rigorously followed the medieval curriculum, which was presented largely in Latin. He was the first recipient of the Queen's counsel designation, conferred in 1597 when Elizabeth I reserved him as her legal advisor. After the accession of James I in 1603, Bacon was knighted, then created Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St Alban in 1621. He had no heirs, and so both titles became extinct on his death of pneumonia in 1626 at the age of 65. He is buried at St Michael's Church, St Albans, Hertfordshire.

Early life and education
Francis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 at York House near Strand in London, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon (Lord Keeper of the Great Seal) by his second wife, Anne (Cooke) Bacon, the daughter of the noted Renaissance humanist Anthony Cooke. His mother's sister was married to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, making Burghley Bacon's uncle.

Biographers believe that Bacon was educated at home in his early years owing to poor health, which would plague him throughout his life. He received tuition from John Walsall, a graduate of Oxford with a strong leaning toward Puritanism. He attended Trinity College at the University of Cambridge on 5 April 1573 at the age of 12, living there for three years along with his older brother Anthony Bacon under the personal tutelage of John Whitgift, future Archbishop of Canterbury. Bacon's education was conducted largely in Latin and followed the medieval curriculum. It was at Cambridge that Bacon first met Queen Elizabeth, who was impressed by his precocious intellect, and was accustomed to calling him "The young lord keeper".

His studies brought him to the belief that the methods and results of science as then practised were erroneous. His reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his rejection of Aristotelian philosophy, which seemed to him barren, argumentative and wrong in its objectives.

On 27 June 1576, he and Anthony entered de societate magistrorum at Gray's Inn. A few months later, Francis went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the English ambassador at Paris, while Anthony continued his studies at home. The state of government and society in France under Henry III afforded him valuable political instruction. For the next three years he visited Blois, Poitiers, Tours, Italy, and Spain. There is no evidence that he studied at the University of Poitiers. During his travels, Bacon studied language, statecraft, and civil law while performing routine diplomatic tasks. On at least one occasion he delivered diplomatic letters to England for Walsingham, Burghley, Leicester, and for the queen.

The sudden death of his father in February 1579 prompted Bacon to return to England. Sir Nicholas had laid up a considerable sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so, and Francis was left with only a fifth of that money. Having borrowed money, Bacon got into debt. To support himself, he took up his residence in law at Gray's Inn in 1579, his income being supplemented by a grant from his mother Lady Anne of the manor of Marks near Romford in Essex, which generated a rent of £46.

Parliamentarian
Bacon stated that he had three goals: to uncover truth, to serve his country, and to serve his church. He sought to achieve these goals by seeking a prestigious post. In 1580, through his uncle, Lord Burghley, he applied for a post at court that might enable him to pursue a life of learning, but his application failed. For two years he worked quietly at Gray's Inn, until he was admitted as an outer barrister in 1582.

His parliamentary career began when he was elected MP for Bossiney, Cornwall, in a by-election in 1581. In 1584 he took his seat in Parliament for Melcombe in Dorset, and in 1586 for Taunton. At this time, he began to write on the condition of parties in the church, as well as on the topic of philosophical reform in the lost tract Temporis Partus Maximus. Yet he failed to gain a position that he thought would lead him to success. He showed signs of sympathy to Puritanism, attending the sermons of the Puritan chaplain of Gray's Inn and accompanying his mother to the Temple Church to hear Walter Travers. This led to the publication of his earliest surviving tract, which criticized the English church's suppression of the Puritan clergy. In the Parliament of 1586, he openly urged execution for the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots.

About this time, he again approached his powerful uncle for help; this move was followed by his rapid progress at the bar. He became a bencher in 1586 and was elected a Reader in 1587, delivering his first set of lectures in Lent the following year. In 1589, he received the valuable appointment of reversion to the Clerkship of the Star Chamber, although he did not formally take office until 1608; the post was worth £1,600 a year.

In 1588 he became MP for Liverpool and then for Middlesex in 1593. He later sat three times for Ipswich (1597, 1601, 1604) and once for Cambridge University (1614).

He became known as a liberal-minded reformer, eager to amend and simplify the law. Though a friend of the crown, he opposed feudal privileges and dictatorial powers. He spoke against religious persecution. He struck at the House of Lords in its usurpation of the Money Bills. He advocated for the union of England and Scotland, which made him a significant influence toward the consolidation of the United Kingdom; and he later would advocate for the integration of Ireland into the Union. Closer constitutional ties, he believed, would bring greater peace and strength to these countries.

Final years of Elizabeth's reign
Bacon soon became acquainted with Robert Devereux, the 2nd Earl of Essex, Queen Elizabeth's favourite. By 1591 he acted as the earl's confidential adviser. In 1592, he was commissioned to write a tract in response to the Jesuit Robert Parson's anti-government polemic, which he titled Certain Observations Made upon a Libel, identifying England with the ideals of democratic Athens against the belligerence of Spain. Bacon took his third parliamentary seat for Middlesex when in February 1593 Elizabeth summoned Parliament to investigate a Roman Catholic plot against her. Bacon's opposition to a bill that would levy triple subsidies in half the usual time offended the Queen: opponents accused him of seeking popularity, and for a time the Court excluded him from favour.

When the office of Attorney General fell vacant in 1594, Lord Essex's influence was not enough to secure the position for Bacon and it was given to Sir Edward Coke. Likewise, Bacon failed to secure the lesser office of Solicitor General in 1595, the Queen pointedly snubbing him by appointing Sir Thomas Fleming instead. To console him for these disappointments, Essex presented him with a property at Twickenham, which Bacon subsequently sold for £1,800.

In 1597 Bacon became the first Queen's Counsel designate, when Queen Elizabeth reserved him as her legal counsel. In 1597, he was also given a patent, giving him precedence at the Bar. Despite his designations, he was unable to gain the status and notoriety of others. In a plan to revive his position he unsuccessfully courted the wealthy young widow Lady Elizabeth Hatton. His courtship failed after she broke off their relationship upon accepting marriage to Sir Edward Coke, a further spark of enmity between the men. In 1598 Bacon was arrested for debt. Afterward, however, his standing in the Queen's eyes improved. Gradually, Bacon earned the standing of one of the learned counsels. His relationship with the Queen further improved when he severed ties with Essex—a shrewd move, as Essex would be executed for treason in 1601.

With others, Bacon was appointed to investigate the charges against Essex. A number of Essex's followers confessed that Essex had planned a rebellion against the Queen. Bacon was subsequently a part of the legal team headed by the Attorney General Sir Edward Coke at Essex's treason trial. After the execution, the Queen ordered Bacon to write the official government account of the trial, which was later published as A DECLARATION of the Practices and Treasons attempted and committed by Robert late Earle of Essex and his Complices, against her Majestie and her Kingdoms ... after Bacon's first draft was heavily edited by the Queen and her ministers.

According to his personal secretary and chaplain, William Rawley, as a judge Bacon was always tender-hearted, "looking upon the examples with the eye of severity, but upon the person with the eye of pity and compassion". And also that "he was free from malice", "no revenger of injuries", and "no defamer of any man".

James I comes to the throne
The succession of James I brought Bacon into greater favour. He was knighted in 1603. In another shrewd move, Bacon wrote his Apologies in defence of his proceedings in the case of Essex, as Essex had favoured James to succeed to the throne. The following year, during the course of the uneventful first parliamentary session, Bacon married Alice Barnham. In June 1607, he was at last rewarded with the office of Solicitor General and in 1608 he began working as the Clerkship of the Star Chamber. Despite a generous income, old debts still could not be paid. He sought further promotion and wealth by supporting King James and his arbitrary policies. In 1610 the fourth session of James's first Parliament met. Despite Bacon's advice to him, James and the Commons found themselves at odds over royal prerogatives and the King's embarrassing extravagance. The House was finally dissolved in February 1611. Throughout this period Bacon managed to stay in favour with the King while retaining the confidence of the Commons.

In 1613 Bacon was finally appointed Attorney General, after advising the King to shuffle judicial appointments. As Attorney General, Bacon, by his zealous efforts—which included torture—to obtain the conviction of Edmund Peacham for treason, raised legal controversies of high constitutional importance. Bacon and Gray's Inn produced The Masque of Flowers to celebrate the wedding of Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset and his wife, Frances Howard, Countess of Somerset, and he successfully prosecuted them for murder in 1616.

The so-called Prince's Parliament of April 1614 objected to Bacon's presence in the seat for Cambridge and to the various royal plans that Bacon had supported. Although he was allowed to stay, Parliament passed a law that forbade the Attorney General to sit in Parliament. His influence over the King had evidently inspired resentment or apprehension in many of his peers. Bacon, however, continued to receive the King's favour, which led to his appointment in March 1617 as temporary Regent of England (for a period of a month), and in 1618 as Lord Chancellor. On 12 July 1618 the King created Bacon Baron Verulam of Verulam in the Peerage of England; he then became known as Francis, Lord Verulam.

Bacon continued to use his influence with the King to mediate between the throne and Parliament, and in this capacity he was further elevated in the same peerage as Viscount St Alban on 27 January 1621.

Lord Chancellor and public disgrace
Bacon's public career ended in disgrace in 1621. After he fell into debt, a parliamentary committee on the administration of the law charged him with 23 separate counts of corruption. His lifelong enemy, Sir Edward Coke, who had instigated these accusations, was one of those appointed to prepare the charges against the chancellor. To the lords, who sent a committee to enquire whether a confession was really his, he replied, "My lords, it is my act, my hand, and my heart; I beseech your lordships to be merciful to a broken reed." He was sentenced to a fine of £40,000 and committed to the Tower of London at the king's pleasure; the imprisonment lasted only a few days and the fine was remitted by the king. More seriously, parliament declared Bacon incapable of holding future office or sitting in parliament. He narrowly escaped undergoing degradation, which would have stripped him of his titles of nobility. Subsequently, the disgraced viscount devoted himself to study and writing.

There seems little doubt that Bacon had accepted gifts from litigants, but this was an accepted custom of the time and not necessarily evidence of deeply corrupt behaviour. While acknowledging that his conduct had been lax, he countered that he had never allowed gifts to influence his judgement and, indeed, he had on occasion given a verdict against those who had paid him. He even had an interview with King James in which he assured: "The law of nature teaches me to speak in my own defence: With respect to this charge of bribery I am as innocent as any man born on St. Innocents Day. I never had a bribe or reward in my eye or thought when pronouncing judgment or order... I am ready to make an oblation of myself to the King"

He also wrote the following to George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham: "My mind is calm, for my fortune is not my felicity. I know I have clean hands and a clean heart, and I hope a clean house for friends or servants; but Job himself, or whoever was the justest judge, by such hunting for matters against him as hath been used against me, may for a time seem foul, especially in a time when greatness is the mark and accusation is the game."

As the conduct of accepting gifts was ubiquitous and common practice, and the Commons was zealously inquiring into judicial corruption and malfeasance, it has been suggested that Bacon served as a scapegoat to divert attention from Buckingham's own ill practice and alleged corruption.

The true reason for his acknowledgement of guilt is the subject of debate, but some authors speculate that it may have been prompted by his sickness, or by a view that through his fame and the greatness of his office he would be spared harsh punishment. He may even have been blackmailed, with a threat to charge him with sodomy, into confession.

The British jurist Basil Montagu wrote in Bacon's defense, concerning the episode of his public disgrace: "Bacon has been accused of servility, of dissimulation, of various base motives, and their filthy brood of base actions, all unworthy of his high birth, and incompatible with his great wisdom, and the estimation in which he was held by the noblest spirits of the age. It is true that there were men in his own time, and will be men in all times, who are better pleased to count spots in the sun than to rejoice in its glorious brightness. Such men have openly libelled him, like Dewes and Weldon, whose falsehoods were detected as soon as uttered, or have fastened upon certain ceremonious compliments and dedications, the fashion of his day, as a sample of his servility, passing over his noble letters to the Queen, his lofty contempt for the Lord Keeper Puckering, his open dealing with Sir Robert Cecil, and with others, who, powerful when he was nothing, might have blighted his opening fortunes for ever, forgetting his advocacy of the rights of the people in the face of the court, and the true and honest counsels, always given by him, in times of great difficulty, both to Elizabeth and her successor. When was a 'base sycophant' loved and honoured by piety such as that of Herbert, Tennison, and Rawley, by noble spirits like Hobbes, Ben Jonson, and Selden, or followed to the grave, and beyond it, with devoted affection such as that of Sir Thomas Meautys."

Religious beliefs
Bacon was a devout Anglican. He believed that philosophy and the natural world must be studied inductively, but argued that we can only study arguments for the existence of God. Information about God's attributes (such as nature, action, and purposes) can only come from special revelation. Bacon also held that knowledge was cumulative, that study encompassed more than a simple preservation of the past. "Knowledge is the rich storehouse for the glory of the Creator and the relief of man's estate," he wrote. In his Essays, he affirms that "a little philosophy inclineth man's mind to atheism, but depth in philosophy bringeth men's minds about to religion."

Bacon's idea of idols of the mind may have self-consciously represented an attempt to Christianize science at the same time as developing a new, reliable scientific method; Bacon gave worship of Neptune as an example of the idola tribus fallacy, hinting at the religious dimensions of his critique of the idols.

Bacon was against the splintering within Christianity, believing that it would ultimately lead to the creation of atheism as a dominant worldview, as indicated with his quote that "The causes of atheism are: divisions in religion, if they be many; for any one main division, addeth zeal to both sides; but many divisions introduce atheism. Another is, scandal of priests; when it is come to that which St. Bernard saith "One cannot now say the priest is as the people, for the truth is that the people are not so bad as the priest". A third is, custom of profane scoffing in holy matters; which doth by little and little deface the reverence of religion. And lastly, learned times, specially with peace and prosperity; for troubles and adversities do more bow men's minds to religion."

Architectural projects
Bacon built Verulam House in St Albans to his own designs. It has been suggested that this building was derivative of Sir Rowland Hill's building at Soulton Hall.

Marriage to Alice Barnham
When he was 36, Bacon courted Elizabeth Hatton, a young widow of 20. Reportedly, she broke off their relationship upon accepting marriage to a wealthier man, Bacon's rival, Sir Edward Coke. Years later, Bacon still wrote of his regret that the marriage to Hatton had not taken place.

At the age of 45, Bacon married Alice Barnham, the 13-year-old daughter of a well-connected London alderman and MP. Bacon wrote two sonnets proclaiming his love for Alice. The first was written during his courtship and the second on his wedding day, 10 May 1606. When Bacon was appointed lord chancellor, "by special Warrant of the King", Lady Bacon was given precedence over all other Court ladies. Bacon's personal secretary and chaplain, William Rawley, wrote in his biography of Bacon that his marriage was one of "much conjugal love and respect", mentioning a robe of honour that he gave to Alice and which "she wore unto her dying day, being twenty years and more after his death".

However, an increasing number of reports circulated about friction in the marriage, with speculation that this may have been due to Alice's making do with less money than she had once been accustomed to. It was said that she was strongly interested in fame and fortune, and when household finances dwindled, she complained bitterly. Bunten wrote in her Life of Alice Barnham that, upon their descent into debt, she went on trips to ask for financial favours and assistance from their circle of friends. Bacon disinherited her upon discovering her secret romantic relationship with Sir John Underhill, rewriting his will (which had generously planned to leave her lands, goods, and income) and revoking her entirely as a beneficiary.

Sexuality
Several authors believe that, despite his marriage, Bacon was primarily attracted to men. Forker, for example, has explored the "historically documentable sexual preferences" of both Francis Bacon and King James I and concluded they were both oriented to "masculine love", a contemporary term that "seems to have been used exclusively to refer to the sexual preference of men for members of their own gender."

The well-connected antiquary John Aubrey noted in his Brief Lives concerning Bacon, "He was a Pederast. His Ganimeds and Favourites tooke Bribes". ("ganimed" derives from the mythical prince abducted by Zeus to be his cup-bearer and bed warmer.)

The Jacobean antiquarian Sir Simonds D'Ewes (Bacon's fellow Member of Parliament) implied there had been a question of bringing him to trial for buggery, which his brother Anthony Bacon had also been charged with.

In his Autobiography and Correspondence, in the diary entry for 3 May 1621, the date of Bacon's censure by Parliament, D'Ewes describes Bacon's love for his Welsh serving-men, in particular Godrick, a "very effeminate-faced youth" whom he calls "his catamite and bedfellow".

This conclusion has been disputed by others, who point to lack of consistent evidence, and consider the sources to be more open to interpretation. Publicly, at least, Bacon distanced himself from the idea of homosexuality. In his New Atlantis, he described his utopian island as being "the chastest nation under heaven", and "as for masculine love, they have no touch of it".

Death
On 9 April 1626, Bacon died of pneumonia at Highgate outside London, specifically at Arundel House, a country residence of his friend the Earl of Arundel, though Arundel was then imprisoned in the Tower of London. An influential account of the circumstances of his death was given by John Aubrey's Brief Lives. Aubrey's vivid account, which portrays Bacon as a martyr to experimental scientific method, has him journeying to High-gate through the snow with the King's physician when he is suddenly inspired by the possibility of using the snow to preserve meat:"They were resolved they would try the experiment presently. They alighted out of the coach and went into a poor woman's house at the bottom of Highgate hill, and bought a fowl, and made the woman exenterate it."

After stuffing the fowl with snow, Bacon contracted a fatal case of pneumonia. Some people, including Aubrey, consider these two contiguous, possibly coincidental events as related and causative of his death:"The Snow so chilled him that he immediately fell so extremely ill, that he could not return to his Lodging ... but went to the Earle of Arundel's house at Highgate, where they put him into ... a damp bed that had not been layn-in ... which gave him such a cold that in 2 or 3 days as I remember Mr Hobbes told me, he died of Suffocation."Aubrey has been criticized for his evident credulousness in this and other works; on the other hand, he knew Thomas Hobbes, Bacon's fellow-philosopher and friend.

Being unwittingly on his deathbed, the philosopher dictated his last letter to the Earl:"My very good Lord,—I was likely to have had the fortune of Caius Plinius the elder, who lost his life by trying an experiment about the burning of Mount Vesuvius; for I was also desirous to try an experiment or two touching the conservation and in-duration of bodies. As for the experiment itself, it succeeded excellently well; but in the journey between London and High-gate, I was taken with such a fit of casting as I know not whether it were the Stone, or some surfeit or cold, or indeed a touch of them all three. But when I came to your Lordship's House, I was not able to go back, and therefore was forced to take up my lodging here, where your housekeeper is very careful and diligent about me, which I assure myself your Lordship will not only pardon towards him, but think the better of him for it. For indeed your Lordship's House was happy to me, and I kiss your noble hands for the welcome which I am sure you give me to it. I know how unfit it is for me to write with any other hand than mine own, but by my troth my fingers are so disjointed with sickness that I cannot steadily hold a pen."

Another account appears in a biography by William Rawley, Bacon's personal secretary and chaplain:"He died on the ninth day of April in the year 1626, in the early morning of the day then celebrated for our Savior's resurrection, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, at the Earl of Arundel's house in Highgate, near London, to which place he casually repaired about a week before; God so ordaining that he should die there of a gentle fever, accidentally accompanied with a great cold, whereby the defluxion of rheum fell so plentifully upon his breast, that he died by suffocation."

He was buried in St Michael's Church in St Albans. At the news of his death, over 30 great minds collected together their eulogies of him, which were then later published in Latin. He left personal assets of about £7,000 and lands that realised £6,000 when sold. His debts amounted to more than £23,000, equivalent to more than £4m at current value.

Philosophy and works
Francis Bacon's philosophy is displayed in the vast and varied writings he left, which might be divided into three great branches:
 * Scientific works in which his ideas for a universal reform of knowledge into scientific methodology and the improvement of mankind's state using the Scientific method are presented.
 * Religious and literary works in which he presents his moral philosophy and theological meditations.
 * Juridical works in which his reforms in English law are proposed.

Science
Bacon's seminal work Novum Organum was influential in the 1630s and 1650s among scholars, in particular Sir Thomas Browne, who in his encyclopedia Pseudodoxia Epidemica (1646–72) frequently adheres to a Baconian approach to his scientific enquiries. This book entails the basis of the scientific method as a means of observation and induction.

According to Bacon, learning and knowledge all derive from the basis of inductive reasoning. Through his belief in experimental encounters, he theorised that all the knowledge that was necessary to fully understand a concept could be attained using induction. In order to get to the point of an inductive conclusion, one must consider the importance of observing the particulars (specific parts of nature). "Once these particulars have been gathered together, the interpretation of Nature proceeds by sorting them into a formal arrangement so that they may be presented to the understanding." Experimentation is essential to discovering the truths of Nature. When an experiment happens, parts of the tested hypothesis are started to be pieced together, forming a result and conclusion. Through this conclusion of particulars, an understanding of Nature can be formed. Now that an understanding of Nature has been arrived at, an inductive conclusion can be drawn. "For no one successfully investigates the nature of a thing in the thing itself; the inquiry must be enlarged to things that have more in common with it."

Bacon explains how we come to this understanding and knowledge because of this process in comprehending the complexities of nature. "Bacon sees nature as an extremely subtle complexity, which affords all the energy of the natural philosopher to disclose her secrets." Bacon described the evidence and proof revealed through taking a specific example from nature and expanding that example into a general, substantial claim of nature. Once we understand the particulars in nature, we can learn more about it and become surer of things occurring in nature, gaining knowledge and obtaining new information all the while. "It is nothing less than a revival of Bacon's supremely confident belief that inductive methods can provide us with ultimate and infallible answers concerning the laws and nature of the universe." Bacon states that when we come to understand parts of nature, we can eventually understand nature better as a whole because of induction. Because of this, Bacon concludes that all learning and knowledge must be drawn from inductive reasoning.

During the Restoration, Bacon was commonly invoked as a guiding spirit of the Royal Society founded under Charles II in 1660. During the 18th-century French Enlightenment, Bacon's non-metaphysical approach to science became more influential than the dualism of his French contemporary Descartes, and was associated with criticism of the Ancien Régime. In 1733 Voltaire introduced him to a French audience as the "father" of the scientific method, an understanding which had become widespread by the 1750s. In the 19th century his emphasis on induction was revived and developed by William Whewell, among others. He has been reputed as the "Father of Experimental Philosophy".

He also wrote a long treatise on Medicine, History of Life and Death, with natural and experimental observations for the prolongation of life.

One of his biographers, the historian William Hepworth Dixon, states: "Bacon's influence in the modern world is so great that every man who rides in a train, sends a telegram, follows a steam plough, sits in an easy chair, crosses the channel or the Atlantic, eats a good dinner, enjoys a beautiful garden, or undergoes a painless surgical operation, owes him something."

In 1902 Hugo von Hofmannsthal published a fictional letter, known as The Lord Chandos Letter, addressed to Bacon and dated 1603, about a writer who is experiencing a crisis of language.

North America
Bacon played a leading role in establishing the British colonies in North America, especially in Virginia, the Carolinas and Newfoundland in northeastern Canada. His government report on "The Virginia Colony" was submitted in 1609. In 1610 Bacon and his associates received a charter from the king to form the Tresurer and the Companye of Adventurers and planter of the Cittye of London and Bristoll for the Collonye or plantacon in Newfoundland, and sent John Guy to found a colony there. Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States, wrote: "Bacon, Locke and Newton. I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences".

In 1910, Newfoundland issued a postage stamp to commemorate Bacon's role in establishing the colony. The stamp describes Bacon as "the guiding spirit in Colonization Schemes in 1610". Moreover, some scholars believe he was largely responsible for the drafting, in 1609 and 1612, of two charters of government for the Virginia Colony. William Hepworth Dixon considered that Bacon's name could be included in the list of Founders of the United States.

Law
Although few of his proposals for law reform were adopted during his lifetime, Bacon's legal legacy was considered by the magazine New Scientist in 1961 as having influenced the drafting of the Napoleonic Code as well as the law reforms introduced by 19th-century British Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel. The historian William Hepworth Dixon referred to the Napoleonic Code as "the sole embodiment of Bacon's thought", saying that Bacon's legal work "has had more success abroad than it has found at home", and that in France "it has blossomed and come into fruit".

Harvey Wheeler attributed to Bacon, in Francis Bacon's Verulamium—the Common Law Template of The Modern in English Science and Culture, the creation of these distinguishing features of the modern common law system:
 * using cases as repositories of evidence about the "unwritten law";
 * determining the relevance of precedents by exclusionary principles of evidence and logic;
 * treating opposing legal briefs as adversarial hypotheses about the application of the "unwritten law" to a new set of facts.

As late as the 18th century, some juries still declared the law rather than the facts, but already before the end of the 17th century Sir Matthew Hale explained modern common law adjudication procedure and acknowledged Bacon as the inventor of the process of discovering unwritten laws from the evidences of their applications. The method combined empiricism and inductivism in a new way that was to imprint its signature on many of the distinctive features of modern English society. Paul H. Kocher writes that Bacon is considered by some jurists to be the father of modern Jurisprudence.

Bacon is commemorated with a statue in Gray's Inn, South Square in London where he received his legal training, and where he was elected Treasurer of the Inn in 1608.

More recent scholarship on Bacon's jurisprudence has focused on his advocating torture as a legal recourse for the crown. Bacon himself was not a stranger to the torture chamber; in his various legal capacities in both Elizabeth I's and James I's reigns, Bacon was listed as a commissioner on five torture warrants. In 1613(?), in a letter addressed to King James I on the question of torture's place within English law, Bacon identifies the scope of torture as a means to further the investigation of threats to the state: "In the cases of treasons, torture is used for discovery, and not for evidence." For Bacon, torture was not a punitive measure, an intended form of state repression, but instead offered a modus operandi for the government agent tasked with uncovering acts of treason.

Organization of knowledge
Francis Bacon developed the idea that a classification of knowledge must be universal while handling all possible resources. In his progressive view, humanity would be better if access to educational resources were provided to the public, hence the need to organise it. His approach to learning reshaped the Western view of knowledge theory from an individual to a social interest.

The original classification proposed by Bacon organised all types of knowledge into three general groups: history, poetry, and philosophy. He did that based on his understanding of how information is processed: memory, imagination, and reason, respectively. His methodical approach to the categorization of knowledge goes hand-in-hand with his principles of scientific methods. Bacon's writings were the starting point for William Torrey Harris's classification system for libraries in the United States by the second half of the 1800s.

The phrase "scientia potentia est" (or "scientia est potentia"), meaning "knowledge is power", is commonly attributed to Bacon: the expression "ipsa scientia potestas est" ("knowledge itself is power") occurs in his Meditationes Sacrae (1597).

Bacon and Shakespeare
The Baconian hypothesis of Shakespearean authorship, first proposed in the mid-19th century, contends that Francis Bacon wrote some or even all of the plays conventionally attributed to William Shakespeare.

Occult theories
Francis Bacon often gathered with the men at Gray's Inn to discuss politics and philosophy, and to try out various theatrical scenes that he admitted writing. Bacon's alleged connection to the Rosicrucians and the Freemasons has been widely discussed by authors and scholars in many books. However, others, including Daphne du Maurier in her biography of Bacon, have argued that there is no substantive evidence to support claims of involvement with the Rosicrucians. Frances Yates does not make the claim that Bacon was a Rosicrucian, but presents evidence that he was nevertheless involved in some of the more closed intellectual movements of his day. She argues that Bacon's movement for the advancement of learning was closely connected with the German Rosicrucian movement, while Bacon's New Atlantis portrays a land ruled by Rosicrucians. He apparently saw his own movement for the advancement of learning to be in conformity with Rosicrucian ideals.

The link between Bacon's work and the Rosicrucians' ideals which Yates allegedly found was the conformity of the purposes expressed by the Rosicrucian Manifestos and Bacon's plan of a "Great Instauration", for the two were calling for a reformation of both "divine and human understanding", as well as both, had in view the purpose of mankind's return to the "state before the Fall".

Another major link is said to be the resemblance between Bacon's New Atlantis and the German Rosicrucian Johann Valentin Andreae's Description of the Republic of Christianopolis (1619). Andreae describes a utopic island in which Christian theosophy and applied science ruled, and in which the spiritual fulfilment and intellectual activity constituted the primary goals of each individual, the scientific pursuits being the highest intellectual calling—linked to the achievement of spiritual perfection. Andreae's island also depicts a great advancement in technology, with many industries separated in different zones which supplied the population's needs—which shows great resemblance to Bacon's scientific methods and purposes.

While rejecting occult conspiracy theories surrounding Bacon and the claim Bacon personally identified as a Rosicrucian, intellectual historian Paolo Rossi has argued for an occult influence on Bacon's scientific and religious writing. He argues that Bacon was familiar with early modern alchemical texts and that Bacon's ideas about the application of science had roots in Renaissance magical ideas about science and magic facilitating humanity's domination of nature. Rossi further interprets Bacon's search for hidden meanings in myth and fables in such texts as The Wisdom of the Ancients as succeeding earlier occultist and Neoplatonic attempts to locate hidden wisdom in pre-Christian myths. As indicated by the title of his study, however, Rossi claims Bacon ultimately rejected the philosophical foundations of occultism as he came to develop a form of modern science.

Rossi's analysis and claims have been extended by Jason Josephson-Storm in his study, The Myth of Disenchantment. Josephson-Storm also rejects conspiracy theories surrounding Bacon and does not make the claim that Bacon was an active Rosicrucian. However, he argues that Bacon's "rejection" of magic actually constituted an attempt to purify magic of Catholic, demonic, and esoteric influences and to establish magic as a field of study and application paralleling Bacon's vision of science. Furthermore, Josephson-Storm argues that Bacon drew on magical ideas when developing his experimental method. Josephson-Storm finds evidence that Bacon considered nature a living entity, populated by spirits, and argues Bacon's views on the human domination and application of nature actually depend on his spiritualism and personification of nature.

The Rosicrucian organization AMORC claims that Bacon was the "Imperator" (leader) of the Rosicrucian Order in both England and the European continent, and would have directed it during his lifetime.

Bacon's influence can also be seen on a variety of religious and spiritual authors, and on groups that have utilized his writings in their own belief systems.

title: Francis Bacon


text:
Talk:Fritz Lang

Lang's famous (possibly fictional) meeting with Goebbels
The whole business with anti-Nazi elements in M and Das Testament and the meeting with Goebbels is hotly disputed and yet here is presented as accepted fact. Some people believe that Lang completely concocted the Goebbels story in order to impress people – this is the view expressed on the mini-documentary presented with the Eureka DVD of Das Testament – there is apparently no evidence of any such meeting in the extensive appointment diaries of Goebbels. If this information is possibly spurious, then it should be stated as such (it is still of interest however, even if it was concocted by Lang). unsigned, by User:212.219.202.3

 * Yes, that's information where I've been trying to get the sources to attribute it to so the information can go into the article. I must correct one minor point:  the fact that he did have a meeting with Goebbels is in fact historically verified.  However, Lang's version of the meeting states that Goebbels first told him that Das Testament was to be banned, and then offered him the prestigious position of head of German film; no verified evidence has turned up that the meeting was about anything except the banning of Testament.  Moreover, what Lang describes as the consequences of the meeting are contradicted by the evidence; he claims that the meeting ran so late that he was in Goebbels' office until well after his bank had closed, and thus when he fled Germany that night, not to return until well after the war, he had to do so without any of his money.  However, it is documented that in fact Lang returned to Germany several times after that meeting, and in fact got most of his money out of the country before leaving Germany for the remaining duration of the war.

The commentary track on the Criterion release of Das Testament discusses the evidence that's turned up contrary to the widespread Lang version of events, and I've been trying to get hold of that DVD again to get the specifics.

(The idea that Das Testament was an anti-Nazi tract is quite a bit more difficult. While one can't watch Baum's fervent gesturing praise of Mabuse in the morgue and not see some subtext, it has to be balanced against the fact that Rudolf Klein-Rogge (Mabuse) was a fairly fervent Nazi himself and Otto Wernicke (Inspector Lohmann) wasn't exactly hostile to Hitler either.)  – Antaeus Feldspar 19:14, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

For more on this issue, see Gösta Werner, 'Fritz Lang & Goebbels: Myth & Facts', Film Quarterly, Spring 1990.

 * Here is a link where Lang expresses in his own words the meeting with Goebbels (from a BBC interview: http://zakka.dk/euroscreenwriters/interviews/fritz_lang_521.htm

 * The portion where he talks about meeting Goebbles is in the long paragraph toward the middle.
 * Hope this clarifies things. Dreammaker182 08:40, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

Remakes of M
What was the 1956 remake of M (1931 film)? Can't find it on the IMDB. Was is in a different language or something? Ellsworth 23:00, 18 May 2004 (UTC)

American versions
I've changed a number of English titles on the filmography because these are, at least in some cases, the American adaptations of Lang's movies, rather than actual faithful renditions. For instance, "The Crimes of Dr. Mabuse" moves the time of the movie forward from 1933 (when Germany was under the Weimar Republic) to 1938.

If someone can find an appropriate way to indicate "this is the real, actual Fritz Lang movie, from which the Americans made this version in 1935 and this one in 1956", that'd be appreciated. In the meantime, I'm changing the titles of the English adaptations to the actual English meanings of the real movie titles.

As far as I'm aware, there was no 1956 remake of M, so I've removed that reference in addition to generally rejigging and augmenting a lot of the article. Much of it still isn't particularly well-structured, but I think it's a little better. --Chips Critic 21:49, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Thanks! Ellsworth 16:26, 17 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Lang's Jewish Ancestry
There are conflicting accounts of whether Lang was part Jewish. Here are the versions I've read: Need to find which one is correct and put that in the article.
 * 1) Lang's mother was Jewish but converted to Catholicism when Lang was a child
 * 2) Lang's mother's parents were Jewish but she was raised Catholic
 * 3) Neither Lang's mother nor her parents were Jewish, but Lang told Goebbels that they were so as to avoid being co-opted by the Nazi propaganda ministry.

Nothings been proven, if he was infact any part Jewish it was something miniscule 1/8th or 1/16th.

 * I think we need to add another in light of Lang's habit of telling biographical untruths:

 * 1) Lang had no Jewish ancestry but once in Hollywood, claimed he did as part of a larger untruth about fleeing Germany as an impoverished refugee.

– Antaeus Feldspar 11:36, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * That's simply incorrect. That Lang's mother was born Jewish is common knowledge. The first version you mention is correct: Lang's mother was Jewish, but converted to Catholicism, as was the norm for upwardly mobile middle-class Jews in Austria in the late 1800s. What source are you getting the other accounts from? And more to the point, why would you think Lang's Jewish heritage was "miniscule"? If his mother was Jewish (and she was) then whether she was raised as a Catholic or not is irrelevant: Jewishness is a matter of ethnicity, not religion. --Chips Critic 22:21, 10 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I feel I need to clarify that my response above ("I think we need to add another") was offering that as one possibility of what the truth of Lang's ancestry could be.  Lang was known to fictionalize his past for the sake of drama and had already fictionalized the circumstances under which he "fled" Germany; what is implausible about his upping the stakes by adding to the scenario hidden Jewish ancestry?  And if he had done so, there's little doubt that it would have become "common knowledge" – just as the myth of him being offered the position of the head of German film is common knowledge and accepted uncritically even by some of Lang's biographers. – Antaeus Feldspar 18:05, 11 September 2005 (UTC)

 * There is a difference between these two instances of possible fictionalisation: we have reason to believe, based upon the evidence of Goebbels' diary and the timeline of Lang's departure from Germany, that the meeting with Goebbels probably never took place. We have no reason to believe that Lang's mother was not Jewish. "It's the kind of thing I think he would have done" isn't a good enough reason. Wikipedia is not a forum for original research, so unless you can cite a source for this speculation (ideally one which brings some actual evidence to the table) it will have to be removed from the article. --Chips Critic 01:00, 13 September 2005 (UTC)

"Lang's fears would be realized following his departure from Austria, as under Nazi eugenics laws he would be identified as a Jew even though his mother was a converted Roman Catholic, and he was raised as such." Isn't this ambiguous? He was raised as which, Jew or Catholic? Rolypole (talk) 16:52, 1 August 2010 (UTC)

Lang was Catholic. He wasn't Jewish at all. (92.11.198.107 (talk) 18:47, 19 November 2013 (UTC))

Expressionism
The article claims that Fritz Lang fused the power of the popular thriller with German Expressionism. This is at the very best, misleading; Lang hated Expressionism (he didn't even like camera shots that were coming from a place that no viewer could possibly be) and in fact falsely claimed to have invented the "told-by-a-madman" frame device of The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari to explain why the story was being told in such an outrė fashion. – Antaeus Feldspar 00:28, 3 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * But surely Expressionism has little to do with camera placement? Expressionism is primarily an approach towards lighting and set design. It was the French Impressionist movement who put a greater emphasis on camera placement and movement. If you look again at The Cabinet Of Dr. Caligari, you'll find that the strangness is in the sets: the camerawork is relatively traditional. A dislike of certain camera angles doesn't preclude an Expressionist style. --Chips Critic 22:21, 10 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Even if you make the case that you can see Expressionism in Lang's work, to do so without noting that he hated Expressionism and went to lengths to distance himself from it is misleading. – Antaeus Feldspar 18:05, 11 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Could you provide a source for the claim that he hated Expressionism, please? I don't recall ever having read of him saying that. --Chips Critic 01:00, 13 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Doctor Mabuse scholar David Kalat, on the commentary track for the Criterion release of The Testament of Doctor Mabuse and in more detail on the commentary track for "Doctor Mabuse, The Gambler". The latter has the full anecdote, where two film people (whose names I unfortunately do not recall but can check when the person borrowing the DVD set returns it) were claiming to have been the ones to come up with the idea for the scenery to express the inner turmoil – and meanwhile Lang, wishing to separate himself from Expressionism, is claiming to be the one who came up with the "it's a tale told by a madman" frame story.  Later, evidence surfaces showing that all three are untruthful; the elements they are claiming credit for were already in place before they were involved with the project. – Antaeus Feldspar 21:46, 13 September 2005 (UTC)

 * So the idea that Lang hated Expressionism is simply a construction which has been put upon the decision he later claimed to have made? I don't think that's a solid enough basis for the inclusion of the claim that Lang hated Expressionism. It's a very important statement about his artistic orientation if true, so ideally, we need actual quotations of Lang stating an antipathy to Expressionism. --Chips Critic 11:48, 14 September 2005 (UTC)

 * No, the idea that Lang hated Expressionism is the result of the research of David Kalat, which you are rejecting based on a second-hand description of one illustrative anecdote from that research. Meanwhile, the article contains in the introductory paragraph the entirely unreferenced statement that Lang was from the school of Expressionism, and you have not said one word about that. – Antaeus Feldspar 14:30, 14 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I rejected it because of the way you worded it, which made it seem that David Kalat says Lang hated Expressionism as a parenthetical interpretative comment, without providing an actual quotation of Lang saying he hated Expressionism. If he provides such a quotation, we can by all means include it. If he doesn't provide such a quotation, then we cannot include that claim, as it would fall into the category of interpretation.
 * The reason the introductory paragraph contains that statement is that it's one which has never been disputed, except apparently by David Kalat. Indeed, Lang's reputation as a crucial figure in the development of film noir (which is mentioned later in the article) largely stems from his earlier Expressionist work. It would absurd to deny that film noir stems from Expressionism, so it does seem rather odd to deny that Lang, a key film noir filmmaker, somehow managed to virtually invent a style so influenced by Expressionism without being Expressionist himself. However, film history changes all the time, as new information comes to light, and as this article should be as up-to-date as possible, it would be great if you could supply a documented instance of Lang expressing scorn for Expressionism. If you cannot do so, the statement, no matter how inaccurate you may believe it to be, will stand. --Chips Critic 15:42, 16 September 2005 (UTC)

 * So basically, whatever you believe, you will put in the article; whatever you choose not to believe, you will foil with endless pettifogging demands that it hasn't been proven to your satisfaction, since your satisfaction is the only one that matters. Got it. – Antaeus Feldspar 18:20, 16 September 2005 (UTC)

 * What I "believe" is irrelevant. Encylopedias aren't about personal beliefs. Why do you feel the need to make this a personal issue? I'm simply asking you for a documented instance of Lang actually saying that he hated Expressionism. If you can provide such an instance, I would have absolutely no problem with the inclusion of that statement. It's not a matter of proving anything to my satisfaction, but simply of proving it period. Can't you see that you haven't done that? You've provided one paraphrased account of a paraphrased account in which Lang is parenthetically interpreted as having wanting to "distance himself from Expressionism". When I ask for an actual quotation from Lang indicating an active disapproval or dislike of Expressionism, you become inexplicably emotive. Provide a basis for the inclusion of the claim or don't, but don't blame me if you can't.
 * It is a fact that evey notable study of Lang's work acknowledges him as having been, during the early part of his career, part of the German school of Expressionist filmmaking. If you want to dispute their interpretation, provide information which gives us a solid basis for doing so. One parenthetical interpretative comment (which, in the form you've provided it, is itself open to interpretation) is not solid enough to overturn over eighty years of film criticism and scholarship, no matter how strongly you, I, or anyone may "believe" in its accuracy. --Chips Critic 21:19, 17 September 2005 (UTC)
 * If it's a fact, you should have no problem providing a quote directly from Fritz Lang where he calls himself an Expressionist. That's what you have stated is the standard that must be met but strangely you don't object to the claims you believe staying in the article despite their not meeting that standard. – Antaeus Feldspar 23:36, 17 September 2005 (UTC)
 * The burden of proof doesn't lie with me. Every serious work of film reference and every in-depth study of Lang's work acknowledges his initial involvement with Expressionism. You appear to wish to make an equivalence between the authority of the history of Lang scholarship and that of a single paraphrase (by yourself) of a source which was itself paraphrasing from a remembered exchange the details of which you can't recall. Don't you realise how ill-advised that would be? Especially when we bear in mind that David Kalat's speciality (as I'm sure you're aware) is the study of film as genre fiction rather than as artform or expressive system.
 * I must ask again: can you provide a quotation from Lang which indicates an active disapproval or dislike of Expressionism? If the answer is no, I really don't see any point in continuing this exchange, particularly as you now seem to view this matter from an increasingly emotive perspective, characterising this as a matter of belief rather than of research. --Chips Critic 00:40, 18 September 2005 (UTC)
 * I must ask again why you can't provide evidence that meets the same standard you're demanding. – Antaeus Feldspar 16:51, 18 September 2005 (UTC)
 * So the answer is no, then? I've already explained that the burden of proof doesn't lie with me because there is no equivalence between your paraphrase of the parenthetical interpretative remark of a genre (rather than style) specialist and the history of Lang scholarship, which, if you were to take the time to read some of it, would provide you with all the evidence you want that Lang began his career as an Expressionist filmmaker. I would be willing to provide a short list of titles if I thought you would be sufficiently interested to read them, but it doesn't seem to me that you're really interested in the facts of Lang's work. You seem at this point to be primarily interested in implying that listening to DVD commentary tracks makes you a superior Lang scholar to the many knowledgable and cine-literate editors who've devoted a great deal of time and effort to making this article useful to people who want to know something about Fritz Lang, all of whom have acknowledged that he was an Expressionist filmmaker. I find it a pity that you've chosen to view my request for an actual Lang quotation as an issue of personal belief. I think part of the problem may be your unfamiliarity with what Expressionism actually is, a problem not helped by Kalat's own apparent confusion on this issue.
 * If I'm wrong and you genuinely are interested, go to Amazon, search for "Fritz Lang" and buy the books The Films of Fritz Lang: Allegories of Vision and Modernity by Tom Gunning and Fritz Lang: The Nature Of The Beast by Patrick McGilligan (disregard the sensational-sounding subtitle, it's really an incredibly well-researched work: it was McGilligan who uncovered the falsity of Lang's account of the Goebbels meeting, and the real timeline of Lang's last days in Germany and escape to France). Those will start you off on the right track. While you're at it, you might want to read some books on the Expressionist movement in art as a whole. This will give you a better eye for the aesthetics of the style (incidentally, it might interest you to know that Lang was a keen collector of Expressionist art, and you can find details of his large collections of Expressionist and African art in the McGilligan book).
 * After getting a better grounding in the whole field, you may see Lang's early work with a different eye (and certainly a more informed one than David Kalat, who, judging from your account, seems to believe Expressionism in film has something to do with camera angles). Good luck with that. If, during your research, you find a quotation I've missed which indicates that Lang in fact really did disapprove-of or dislike Expressionism, then by all means note it here and edit the article accordingly. --Chips Critic 17:51, 19 September 2005 (UTC)
 * No, I've decided to leave this article all together. It'll just have to join the sad population of Wikipedia articles that fell under the control of POV-pushers who can't even conceive of having to back up their own claims but demand that any claims which conflict with theirs be put through a grueling gauntlet.  It's too bad, this could have been a good article, but instead it'll just be your playground. – Antaeus Feldspar 21:19, 1 October 2005 (UTC)
 * I don't think any Wikipedia article can become anyone's "playground", and I think it's a great pity that you've decided to take that view of this article, which has been edited by a greater number of people than most of those I've worked on. Your view that I am being unreasonable in asking for a quotation to support the claim that Lang "hated" Expressionism shouldn't distract you from the quality of the work contributed by dozens of editors over the last few years.
 * I hope you have taken a look at those books I suggested (the McGilligan biog really is superb), and that, if you haven't, you'll at least keep an open mind about doing so at some point in the future. I've already noted that the view of Lang's early work which the article currently takes is the one put forward by every major study of Lang's work (two of which I did actually name to you – although the McGilligan book is a biography it contains a detailed examination of each of Lang's films), and that there is no equivalence between the history of Lang scholarship and one paraphrased memory of one commentary track by a non-specialist. If you have no interest in reading the works on Lang to which I've referred, there's really nothing else I can say to you on this subject. --Chips Critic 01:33, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

Latter career
I updated this section. I intend to run throught the others later on to fill in some of the gaps left in his German filmography. --Qwayfe 23:59, 7 August 2005 (UTC)

What happened here?
I've removed the horrifyingly unscholarly NPOV references to the the "creatively stunted" Hollywood studio system and the "stifling American filmmaking climate", phrases that make a joke not only of Wikipedia's rule of NPOV, but also of any hope we might have of being taken seriously by anyone who knows anything about film. Reading such stuff, you'd think film criticism died in 1945: no film scholar has seriously said such things since the birth of auteurism.

I note that my comment that his American films "have since been reevaluated as the equal of, if not superior to, his German films" has been removed and replaced with a reference to his importance as an originator of film noir. This is quite true, and the article benefits from that addition, but why remove the (quite accurate) point I made? An important rule to bear in mind when working on Wikipedia is that accurate information should never be removed. Re-worded perhaps, but not removed. As it is, this article – just as it did before I ever contributed – views American Lang from a "genre" perspective. If this article is to be of any use to someone who wants to learn more about Lang, this has to change. Another interesting feature of the latest version of this article was the replacement of my statement that "These works received mixed reviews, some condemning them as stylised and detached, while others praised them for the same qualities" with (in reference to the last Mabuse film) "It went largely ignored by critics worldwide." The latter statement is simply incorrect, and so I have removed it.

Lang's last films were ignored nowhere, except possibly the mainstream press of America. Why is this now a far less scholarly article than it has been in the past?

The last absurdity is that that old nonsense of saying someone isn't Jewish anymore if they convert to Catholicism has been included in this article. This muddled idea has been circulating since the 1800s, and no-one has taken it seriously at least since the Holocaust, when Jews were murdered regardless of religion. I've left that reference in because I can't find a way to restructure the sentences in question, but something must be done. --Chips Critic 22:21, 10 September 2005 (UTC)

 * It is completely irrelevant what Lang's mother was. We don't categorize people based on what their parents were but rather what they themselves are. For that reason, we would not categorize actor Bruce Willis as a Category:German actors simply because his mother was German. Nor would we categorize Marconi as an Category:Irish inventors simply because his mother was Irish. Thusly, we would not categorize Lang in Category:Jewish film directors because his mother was Jewish (ethnically). Furthermore, concerning Lang himself, it says rather explicitly here: . 72.144.68.99 19:54, 29 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Lang's Jewish identity is not irrelevant, as your desperation to erase it makes quite clear. Ethnicity is not the same thing as nationality, as you well know. The link you provide says nothing about this issue, and contains inaccurate information about other issues. --Chips Critic 01:44, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

 * I removed any reference to Lang being Jewish. The consensus among scholars is now that the speculation as to Lang's proposed Jewish heritage emerged only upon his arrival in the United States and is another mere facet of the director's own fictionalisation of his past. Is was likely contrived as a component of the Goebbels myth so readily perpetuated by Lang along with his own desires to further himself within his new studio setting. There is absolutely no recorded basis to make such assertions. The article cited as a reference attempting to prove such notions was, put bluntly, a disgrace of misinformation, revisionism and plain nonsense. I removed this as well. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 83.70.180.202 (talk • contribs) 22:55, 25 October 2006.

 * There is no such consensus among scholars. There is ample recorded basis for Lang's Jewishness. Your need to lie about this would be comical if it wasn't the clear expression of a pathological anti-semitism. Your bigotry will be repelled here just as it was on the Stanley Kubrick article. --Chips Critic 05:35, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

 * You are confusing various things here: that Fritz Lang was born of a Jewish mother is not disputed, hence he is a Jew under the rules of Halakha. For the same reason, he would also have been deemed a Jew by the Nazi regime.
 * But whether he thought himself as a Jew is quite a different matter, as his mother converted to Catholicism and raised him a Catholic. Sure his mother didn't cease to be ethnically Jewish upon her conversion and neither did Lang himself. But still, this Jewish heritage is not enough to place him in categories such as "Jewish film directors".
 * Str1977 (talk) 10:25, 15 March 2010 (UTC)

Picture, please
I think that the article would benefit greatly from at least one image of the man himself. TheMadBaron 04:30, 12 November 2006 (UTC)

Hitler
I've heard that Lang was Hitler's favorite director, and was deeply ashamed for many years that the Führer enjoyed his movies so much. I think that's worth mentioning, if a source can be obtained. --MosheA 01:22, 26 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Hitler was an admirer of Metropolis and tried to get Lang to join his propaganda wing but Lang was so disturbed by this proposition he abruptly left Germany. -Schnurrbart (talk) 21:21, 14 October 2010 (UTC)

The story ("M") takes place in Dusseldorf rather than in Berlin, so it was not the "Berlin criminal underground" that brings vigilante justice to the "monster". 69.171.160.234 (talk) 01:06, 13 December 2011 (UTC) Brian (brianallancobb@hotmail.com).

Family
This article references Lang's brother, but it does not state a name. I know schools in which teachers send their students to this site to learn about such basic information, this might be a good addition. Does anybody know his name?69.230.102.114 (talk) 03:10, 14 September 2012 (UTC)reffotniop

 * Adolf Lang (1844-1961) --Popmuseum (talk) 07:42, 12 March 2022 (UTC)

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Notable works
I tried adding a list of Notable work in the Infobox, listing Metropolis, M, Scarlet Street and The Big Heat. This was removed. It seems the point of a "Notable work" field is to include Notable work, no? Kevin Charles Schoonover (talk) 03:04, 1 February 2023 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Fritz Lang


text:
Talk:First aid

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 8 July 2019 and 3 August 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): 2019MMM, Myoglobin. Peer reviewers: Slxiao1317, Cryptogirl757.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 21:27, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Key Skills
I cited a few references to the material written in the "Key Skills" section. I would like to remove the Template now but I would prefer consensus first. The two sources I found are:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0300957299000349#! (which is from a scholastic journal search)

and

https://web.archive.org/web/20050718074705/http://www.resus.org.uk/pages/alsABCDE.htm (which is from a different Wikipedia article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC_(medicine) )

title: Talk:First aid