text:
Outline of chemistry

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to chemistry:

Chemistry is the science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate to the chemical reactions. Chemistry is centrally concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds.

Summary
Chemistry can be described as all of the following:
 * An academic discipline – one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals.
 * A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published. There are several chemistry-related scientific journals.
 * A natural science – one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific method.
 * A physical science – one that studies non-living systems.
 * A biological science – one that studies the role of chemicals and chemical processes in living organisms. See Outline of biochemistry.

Branches

 * Physical chemistry – study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, spectroscopy, and more recently, astrochemistry. Physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of infinitesimal calculus in deriving equations. It is usually associated with quantum chemistry and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is very strong overlap.
 * Chemical kinetics – study of rates of chemical processes.
 * Chemical physics – investigates physicochemical phenomena using techniques from atomic and molecular physics and condensed matter physics; it is the branch of physics that studies chemical processes.
 * Electrochemistry – branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (the electrode: a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution.
 * Femtochemistry – area of physical chemistry that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond).
 * Geochemistry – chemical study of the mechanisms behind major systems studied in geology.
 * Photochemistry – study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules.
 * Quantum chemistry – branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems.
 * Solid-state chemistry – study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids.
 * Spectroscopy – study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy.
 * Stereochemistry – study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules
 * Surface science – study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid-gas interfaces.
 * Thermochemistry –The branch of chemistry that studies the relation between chemical action and the amount of heat absorbed or generated.
 * Calorimetry – The study of heat changes in physical and chemical processes.
 * Organic chemistry (outline) – study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and reactions of organic compounds. An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton.
 * Biochemistry – study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, as in medicinal chemistry or neurochemistry. Biochemistry is also associated with molecular biology and genetics.
 * Neurochemistry – study of neurochemicals; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system.
 * Molecular biochemistry and genetic engineering –an area of biochemistry and molecular biology that studies the genes, their heritage and their expression.
 * Bioorganic chemistry – combines organic chemistry and biochemistry toward biology.
 * Biophysical chemistry – is a physical science that uses the concepts of physics and physical chemistry for the study of biological systems.
 * Medicinal chemistry – discipline which applies chemistry for medical or drug related purposes.
 * Organometallic chemistry – is the study of organometallic compounds, chemical compounds containing at least one chemical bond between a carbon atom of an organic molecule and a metal, including alkaline, alkaline earth, and transition metals, and sometimes broadened to include metalloids like boron, silicon, and tin.
 * Physical organic chemistry – study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules.
 * Inorganic chemistry – study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry.
 * Bioinorganic chemistry – is a field that examines the role of metals in biology.
 * Cluster chemistry – focuses crystalline materials most often existing on the 0-2 nanometer scale and characterizing their crystal structures and understanding their role in the nucleation and growth mechanisms of larger materials
 * Materials chemistry – preparation, characterization, and understanding of substances with a useful function. The field is a new breadth of study in graduate programs, and it integrates elements from all classical areas of chemistry with a focus on fundamental issues that are unique to materials. Primary systems of study include the chemistry of condensed phases (solids, liquids, polymers) and interfaces between different phases.
 * Nuclear chemistry – study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern Transmutation is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the table of nuclides is an important result and tool for this field.
 * Analytical chemistry – analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.
 * Other
 * Astrochemistry – study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation.
 * Cosmochemistry – study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions.
 * Computational chemistry – is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulations for solving chemical problems.
 * Environmental chemistry – study of chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur diverse aspects of the environment such the air, soil, and water. It also studies the effects of human activity on the environment.
 * Green chemistry is a philosophy of chemical research and engineering that encourages the design of products and processes that minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances.
 * Supramolecular chemistry – refers to the domain of chemistry beyond that of molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components.
 * Theoretical chemistry – study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental) condensed matter physics and molecular physics.
 * Polymer chemistry – multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules.
 * Wet chemistry – is a form of analytical chemistry that uses classical methods such as observation to analyze materials usually in liquid phase.
 * Agrochemistry – study and application of both chemistry and biochemistry for agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and environmental monitoring and remediation.
 * Atmospheric chemistry – branch of atmospheric science which studies the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets.
 * Chemical engineering – branch of engineering that applies the physical sciences (e.g., chemistry and physics) and/or life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) together with mathematics and economics to processes that convert raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms.
 * Chemical biology – scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology and involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to analyze and manipulation of biological systems.
 * Chemo-informatics – use of computer and informational techniques applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry.
 * Flow chemistry – study of chemical reactions in continuous flow, not as stationary batches, in industry and macro processing equipment.
 * Immunohistochemistry – involves the process of detecting antigens (e.g., proteins) in cells of a tissue section by exploiting the principle of antibodies binding specifically to antigens in biological tissues.
 * Immunochemistry – is a branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components on the immune system.
 * Chemical oceanography – study of ocean chemistry: the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth's oceans
 * Materials science – is an interdisciplinary field investigating the relationship between the structure of materials at atomic or molecular scales and their macroscopic properties.
 * Mathematical chemistry – area of study engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry. It concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena.
 * Mechanochemistry – coupling of mechanical and chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and can be seen as a coupling of chemistry and mechanical engineering.
 * Molecular biology – study of interactions between the various systems of a cell. It overlaps with biochemistry.
 * Molecular mechanics – applies classical mechanics to model molecular systems.
 * Nanotechnology – study and application of matter that is at an atomic and molecular scale. This broad field interacts with chemistry at such scales.
 * Petrochemistry – study of the transformation of petroleum and natural gas into useful products or raw materials.
 * Pharmacology – branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action along with the chemical effects.
 * Phytochemistry – study of phytochemicals which come from plants.
 * Radiochemistry – chemistry of radioactive materials.
 * Sonochemistry – study of effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems.
 * Synthetic chemistry – study of chemical synthesis.
 * Toxicology – study of the adverse effects of chemical substances on living organism and the practice of diagnosing and treating exposures to toxins and toxicants.

History
History of chemistry
 * Precursors to chemistry
 * Alchemy (outline)
 * History of alchemy
 * History of the branches of chemistry
 * History of analytical chemistry – history of the study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials.
 * History of astrochemistry – history of the study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation.
 * History of cosmochemistry – history of the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions
 * History of atmospheric chemistry – history of the branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines
 * History of biochemistry – history of the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes.
 * History of agrochemistry – history of the study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and remediation.
 * History of bioinorganic chemistry – history of the examines the role of metals in biology.
 * History of bioorganic chemistry – history of the rapidly growing scientific discipline that combines organic chemistry and biochemistry.
 * History of biophysical chemistry – history of the new branch of chemistry that covers a broad spectrum of research activities involving biological systems.
 * History of environmental chemistry – history of the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places.
 * History of immunochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components on the immune system.
 * History of medicinal chemistry – history of the discipline at the intersection of chemistry, especially synthetic organic chemistry, and pharmacology and various other biological specialties, where they are involved with design, chemical synthesis and development for market of pharmaceutical agents (drugs).
 * History of pharmacology – history of the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action.
 * History of natural product chemistry – history of the chemical compound or substance produced by a living organism – history of the found in nature that usually has a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design.
 * History of neurochemistry – history of the specific study of neurochemicals, which include neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence neuron function.
 * History of computational chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that uses principles of computer science to assist in solving chemical problems.
 * History of chemo-informatics – history of the use of computer and informational techniques, applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry.
 * History of molecular mechanics – history of the uses Newtonian mechanics to model molecular systems.
 * History of Flavor chemistry – history of the someone who uses chemistry to engineer artificial and natural flavors.
 * History of Flow chemistry – history of the chemical reaction is run in a continuously flowing stream rather than in batch production.
 * History of geochemistry – history of the study of the mechanisms behind major geological systems using chemistry
 * History of aqueous geochemistry – history of the study of the role of various elements in watersheds, including copper, sulfur, mercury, and how elemental fluxes are exchanged through atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic interactions
 * History of isotope geochemistry – history of the study of the relative and absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes using chemistry and geology
 * History of ocean chemistry – history of the studies the chemistry of marine environments including the influences of different variables.
 * History of organic geochemistry – history of the study of the impacts and processes that organisms have had on Earth
 * History of regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry – history of the study of the spatial variation in the chemical composition of materials at the surface of the Earth
 * History of inorganic chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds.
 * History of nuclear chemistry – history of the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties.
 * History of radiochemistry – history of the chemistry of radioactive materials, where radioactive isotopes of elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being inactive as the isotopes are stable).
 * History of organic chemistry – history of the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives.
 * History of petrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products or raw materials.
 * History of organometallic chemistry – history of the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal.
 * History of photochemistry – history of the study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules..
 * History of physical chemistry – history of the study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts.
 * History of chemical kinetics – history of the study of rates of chemical processes.
 * History of chemical thermodynamics – history of the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics.
 * History of electrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution.
 * History of Femtochemistry – history of the Femtochemistry is the science that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond, hence the name).
 * History of mathematical chemistry – history of the area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena.
 * History of mechanochemistry – history of the coupling of the mechanical and the chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and includes mechanical breakage, chemical behaviour of mechanically stressed solids (e.g., stress-corrosion cracking), tribology, polymer degradation under shear, cavitation-related phenomena (e.g., sonochemistry and sonoluminescence), shock wave chemistry and physics, and even the burgeoning field of molecular machines.
 * History of physical organic chemistry – history of the study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules.
 * History of quantum chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems.
 * History of sonochemistry – history of the study of the effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems.
 * History of stereochemistry – history of the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms within molecules.
 * History of supramolecular chemistry – history of the area of chemistry beyond the molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components.
 * History of thermochemistry – history of the study of the energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations.
 * History of phytochemistry – history of the strict sense of the word the study of phytochemicals.
 * History of polymer chemistry – history of the multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules.
 * History of solid-state chemistry – history of the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids
 * History of multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry:
 * History of chemical biology – history of the scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology that involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems.
 * History of chemical engineering – history of the branch of engineering that deals with physical science (e.g., chemistry and physics), and life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) with mathematics and economics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms.
 * History of chemical oceanography – history of the study of the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth's oceans.
 * History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics.
 * History of materials science – history of the interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering.
 * History of nanotechnology – history of the study of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale
 * History of oenology – history of the science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture.
 * History of spectroscopy – history of the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy
 * History of surface science – history of the Surface science is the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces.
 * History of chemicals
 * History of chemical elements
 * History of carbon
 * History of hydrogen
 * Timeline of hydrogen technologies
 * History of oxygen
 * History of chemical products
 * History of aspirin
 * History of cosmetics
 * History of gunpowder
 * History of pharmaceutical drugs
 * History of vitamins
 * History of chemical processes
 * History of manufactured gas
 * History of the Haber process
 * History of the chemical industry
 * History of the petroleum industry
 * History of the pharmaceutical industry
 * History of the periodic table

Chemicals

 * Dictionary of chemical formulas
 * List of biomolecules
 * List of inorganic compounds
 * Periodic table

Atomic Theory
Atomic theory
 * Atomic models
 * Atomism – Natural philosophy that theorizes that the world is composed of indivisible pieces.
 * Plum pudding model
 * Rutherford model
 * Bohr model

Thermochemistry
Thermochemistry

Terminology

 * Thermochemistry –
 * Chemical kinetics – the study of the rates of chemical reactions and investigates how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition states, as well as the construction of mathematical models that can describe the characteristics of a chemical reaction.
 * Exothermic –a process or reaction in which the system release energy to its surroundings in the form of heat. They are denoted by negative heat flow.
 * Endothermic –a process or reaction in which the system absorbs energy from its surroundings in the form of heat. They are denoted by positive heat flow.
 * Thermochemical equation –
 * Enthalpy change – internal energy of a system plus the product of pressure and volume. Its change in a system is equal to the heat brought to the system at constant pressure.
 * Enthalpy of reaction –
 * Temperature – an objective comparative measure of heat.
 * Calorimeter – an object used for calorimetry, or the process of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes as well as heat capacity.
 * Heat – A form of energy associated with the kinetic energy of atoms or molecules and capable of being transmitted through solid and fluid media by conduction, through fluid media by convection, and through empty space by radiation.
 * Joule – a unit of energy.
 * Calorie –
 * Specific heat –
 * Specific heat capacity –
 * Latent heat –
 * Heat of fusion –
 * Heat of vaporization –
 * Collision theory –
 * Activation energy –
 * Activated complex –
 * Reaction rate –
 * Catalyst –

Thermochemical Equations

 * Chemical equations that include the heat involved in a reaction, either on the reactant side or the product side.
 * Examples:
 * H2O(l) + 240kJ → H2O(g)
 * N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 + 92kJ
 * Joule (J) –

Chemists

 * For more chemists, see: Nobel Prize in Chemistry and List of chemists

 * Amedeo Avogadro
 * Elias James Corey
 * Marie Curie
 * John Dalton
 * Humphry Davy
 * George Eastman
 * Michael Faraday
 * Rosalind Franklin
 * Eleuthère Irénée du Pont
 * Dmitriy Mendeleyev
 * Alfred Nobel
 * Wilhelm Ostwald
 * Louis Pasteur
 * Linus Pauling
 * Joseph Priestley
 * Robert Burns Woodward
 * Karl Ziegler
 * Ahmed Zewail

Chemistry literature

 * Scientific literature –
 * Scientific journal –
 * Academic journal –
 * List of important publications in chemistry
 * List of scientific journals in chemistry

 * List of science magazines
 * Scientific American

Lists

 * Chemical elements data references
 * List of chemical elements — atomic mass, atomic number, symbol, name
 * List of minerals - Minerals
 * Electron configurations of the elements (data page) — electron configuration, electrons per shell
 * Densities of the elements (data page) — density (solid, liquid, gas)
 * Electron affinity (data page) — electron affinity
 * Melting points of the elements (data page) — melting point
 * Boiling points of the elements (data page) — boiling point
 * Critical points of the elements (data page) — critical point
 * Heats of fusion of the elements (data page) — heat of fusion
 * Heats of vaporization of the elements (data page) — heat of vaporization
 * Heat capacities of the elements (data page) — heat capacity
 * Vapor pressures of the elements (data page) — vapor pressure
 * Electronegativities of the elements (data page) — electronegativity (Pauling scale)
 * Ionization energies of the elements (data page) — ionization energies (in eV) and molar ionization energies (in kJ/mol)
 * Atomic radii of the elements (data page) — atomic radius (empirical), atomic radius (calculated), van der Waals radius, covalent radius
 * Electrical resistivities of the elements (data page) — electrical resistivity
 * Thermal conductivities of the elements (data page) — thermal conductivity
 * Thermal expansion coefficients of the elements (data page) — thermal expansion
 * Speeds of sound of the elements (data page) — speed of sound
 * Elastic properties of the elements (data page) — Young's modulus, Poisson ratio, bulk modulus, shear modulus
 * Hardnesses of the elements (data page) — Mohs hardness, Vickers hardness, Brinell hardness
 * Abundances of the elements (data page) — Earth's crust, sea water, Sun and solar system
 * List of oxidation states of the elements — oxidation states

 * List of compounds
 * List of CAS numbers by chemical compound
 * List of Extremely Hazardous Substances
 * List of inorganic compounds
 * List of organic compounds
 * List of alkanes
 * List of alloys

 * Other
 * List of thermal conductivities
 * List of purification methods in chemistry
 * List of unsolved problems in chemistry

title: Outline of chemistry


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Outline of critical theory

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to critical theory:

Critical theory – the examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across the social sciences and humanities. The term has two different meanings with different origins and histories: one originating in sociology and the other in literary criticism. This has led to the very literal use of 'critical theory' as an umbrella term to describe any theory founded upon critique. The term "Critical Theory" was first coined by Max Horkheimer in his 1937 essay "Traditional and Critical Theory".

Essence of critical theory

 * Cultural studies –
 * Critical theorists –
 * Works in critical theory –
 * Truth theory –

Concepts

 * Aesthetics
 * Agency (sociology)
 * Authorship
 * History
 * Human rights
 * Ideology
 * Law
 * Money
 * Objectivity and subjectivity
 * Sex–gender distinction

Branches of critical theory

 * Social theory –
 * Literary theory –
 * Thing theory –
 * Critical theory of technology –
 * Critical legal studies –
 * Hermeneutics –

Commonly used terms

 * Articulation (sociology)
 * Assemblage (philosophy)
 * Blackboxing

African-American studies

 * Henry Louis Gates Jr. –
 * Frantz Fanon –

Gender studies

 * Lauren Berlant –
 * Judith Butler –
 * Raewyn Connell –
 * Susan McClary –
 * Laura Mulvey –

Marxist theory
• Frankfurt School –

• * Theodor Adorno –

• * Herbert Marcuse –

• * Walter Benjamin –

• * Jürgen Habermas –

• * Max Horkheimer –

• * Friedrich Pollock –

• Louis Althusser –

• Mikhail Bakhtin –

• Étienne Balibar –

• Ernst Bloch –

• Antonio Gramsci –

• Michael Hardt –

• Fredric Jameson –

• Ernesto Laclau –

• Georg Lukács –

• Chantal Mouffe –

• Antonio Negri –

• Valentin Voloshinov –

• Slavoj Žižek –

• Hegemony –

• Posthegemony –

Commonly used terms
• Marx's theory of alienation

• Capital (Marxism)

• Commodity fetishism

• Division of labour

• Exchange value

• Feudalism

• Historical materialism

• Labour power

• Mode of production

• Neo-Marxism

• Praxis (process)

• Proletariat

• Relations of production

• Surplus value

• Symbolic capital

• Use value

• Usury

Postcolonialism

 * Chinua Achebe –
 * "An Image of Africa" –
 * Frantz Fanon –
 * "The Wretched of the Earth" –
 * Homi Bhabha –
 * Double consciousness –

Structuralism

 * Roland Barthes –
 * Ferdinand de Saussure –
 * Claude Lévi-Strauss –
 * Louis Althusser –

Post-structuralism

 * Roland Barthes –
 * Michel Foucault –
 * Julia Kristeva –
 * Bruno Latour –

Commonly used terms

 * Critical apparatus
 * Event (philosophy)
 * Genealogy (philosophy)
 * Heterotopia (space)

Deconstruction
• Geoffrey Bennington –

• Hélène Cixous –

• Jonathan Culler –

• Jacques Derrida –

• Werner Hamacher –

• Geoffrey Hartman –

• Martin Heidegger –

• Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe –

• Jean-François Lyotard –

• Paul de Man –

• J. Hillis Miller –

• Jean-Luc Nancy –

• Christopher Norris –

• Avital Ronell –

• Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak –

Commonly used terms

 * Bricolage

Postmodern philosophy

 * Jean-François Lyotard –
 * Gilles Deleuze –
 * Félix Guattari –
 * Ernesto Laclau –
 * Claude Lefort –
 * A Cyborg Manifesto –

Reconstructivism

 * Paulo Freire –
 * John Dewey –

Psychoanalytic theory
• Luce Irigaray –

• Teresa de Lauretis –

• Jacques Lacan –

• Julia Kristeva –

• Slavoj Žižek –

• Sigmund Freud –

• * The Interpretation of Dreams –

• * On Narcissism –

• * Totem and Taboo –

• * Beyond the Pleasure Principle –

• * The Ego and the Id –

• * The Future of an Illusion –

• * Civilization and Its Discontents –

• * Moses and Monotheism –

Commonly used terms
• Abjection

• Cathexis

• Chora

• Condensation (psychology)

• Content (Freudian dream analysis)

• Death Drive

• Desire

• Displacement (psychology)

• Ego ideal

• Fetishism

• Fixation (psychology)

• Id, ego and super-ego

• Gaze

• Hysteria

• Identification (psychology)

• Instinct

• Introjection

• Jouissance

• Lack (psychoanalysis)

• Libido

• Mirror stage

• Name of the Father

• Narcissism

• Neurosis

• Objet petit a

• Oedipus complex

• Other (philosophy)

• Perversion

• Pleasure principle (psychology)

• Psychological projection

• Psychosexual development

• Psychological projection

• Reality principle

• Regression (psychology)

• Repression (psychoanalysis)

• Signs and symptoms

• Suture/Quilting Point

• Sublime (philosophy)

• The Imaginary (psychoanalysis)

• The Real

• The Symbolic

• Transference

• Uncanny

• Unconscious mind

Schizoanalytic theory

 * Félix Guattari –
 * Gilles Deleuze –
 * Deleuze and Guattari –

Commonly used terms

 * Assemblage (philosophy)
 * Body without organs
 * Rhizome (philosophy)

Queer theory

 * Judith Butler –
 * Heteronormativity –
 * Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick –
 * Gloria E. Anzaldúa –
 * New Queer Cinema –
 * Queer pedagogy –

Semiotics

 * Roland Barthes –
 * Julia Kristeva –
 * Charles Sanders Peirce –
 * Ferdinand de Saussure –

Commonly used terms

 * Semiotic square

Literary theory

 * Mikhail Bakhtin
 * Mary Louise Pratt –
 * René Girard –

Commonly used terms

 * Carnivalesque
 * Chronotope
 * Dialogic
 * Narratology
 * Heteroglossia

Theories of identity

 * Private sphere – certain sector of societal life in which an individual enjoys a degree of authority, unhampered by interventions from governmental or other institutions. Examples of the private sphere are family and home. The complement or opposite of public sphere.
 * Public sphere – area in social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action. It is "a discursive space in which individuals and groups congregate to discuss matters of mutual interest and, where possible, to reach a common judgment."
 * Creolization

Major works

 * Bloch, Ernst (1938–47). The Principle of Hope
 * Fromm, Erich (1941). The Fear of Freedom (UK)/Escape from Freedom (US)
 * Horkheimer, Max; Adorno, Theodor W. (1944–47). Dialectic of Enlightenment
 * Barthes, Roland (1957). Mythologies
 * Habermas, Jürgen (1962). The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere
 * Marcuse, Herbert (1964). One-Dimensional Man
 * Adorno, Theodor W. (1966). Negative Dialectics
 * Derrida, Jacques (1967). Of Grammatology
 * Derrida, Jacques (1967). Writing and Difference
 * Habermas, Jürgen (1981). The Theory of Communicative Action

Major theorists
• Theodor Adorno –

• Max Horkheimer –

• Louis Althusser –

• Roland Barthes –

• Jean Baudrillard –

• Jacques Lacan –

• Jacques Derrida –

• Erich Fromm –

• Jürgen Habermas –

• Herbert Marcuse –

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Outline of critical theory


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Cotswolds

The Cotswolds is a region of central South West England, along a range of rolling hills that rise from the meadows of the upper River Thames to an escarpment above the Severn Valley and the Vale of Evesham. The area is defined by the bedrock of Jurassic limestone that creates a type of grassland habitat that is quarried for the golden-coloured Cotswold stone. It lies across the boundaries of several English counties; mainly Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire, and parts of Wiltshire, Somerset, Worcestershire, and Warwickshire. The highest point is Cleeve Hill at 1083 ft, just east of Cheltenham. The predominantly rural landscape contains stone-built villages, towns, stately homes and gardens featuring the local stone.

A large area within the Cotswolds has been designated as a National Landscape (formerly known as Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, or AONB) since 1966. The designation covers 2038 sqkm, with boundaries roughly 25 mi across and 90 mi long, stretching south-west from just south of Stratford-upon-Avon to just south of Bath, making it the largest National Landscape area and England's third-largest protected landscape.

The Cotswold local government district is within Gloucestershire. Its main town is Cirencester. In 2021, the population of the 450 sqmi district was 91,000. The much larger area referred to as the Cotswolds encompasses nearly 800 sqmi. The population of the National Landscape area was 139,000 in 2016.

History
The largest excavation of Jurassic period echinoderm fossils, including of rare and previously unknown species, occurred at a quarry in the Cotswolds in 2021. There is evidence of Neolithic settlement from burial chambers on Cotswold Edge, and there are remains of Bronze and Iron Age forts. Later the Romans built villas, such as at Chedworth, settlements such as Gloucester, and paved the Celtic path later known as Fosse Way.

During the Middle Ages, thanks to the breed of sheep known as the Cotswold Lion, the Cotswolds became prosperous from the wool trade with the continent, with much of the money made from wool directed towards the building of churches. The most successful era for the wool trade was 1250–1350; much of the wool at that time was sold to Italian merchants. The area still preserves numerous large, handsome Cotswold Stone "wool churches". The affluent area in the 21st century has attracted wealthy Londoners and others who own second homes there or have chosen to retire to the Cotswolds.

Etymology
The name Cotswold is popularly believed to mean the "sheep enclosure in rolling hillsides", incorporating the term wold, meaning hills. Compare also the Weald, from the Old English term meaning 'forest'. But for many years the English Place-Name Society has accepted that the term Cotswold is derived from Codesuualt of the 12th century or other variations on this form, the etymology of which is "Cod's-wold", meaning "Cod's high open land". Cod was interpreted as an Old English personal name, which may be recognised in further names: Cutsdean, Codeswellan, and Codesbyrig, some of which date to the 8th century. It has subsequently been noticed that Cod could derive philologically from a Brittonic female cognate Cuda, a hypothetical mother goddess in Celtic mythology postulated to have been worshipped in the Cotswold region.

Geography

The Cotswolds' spine runs southwest to northeast through six counties, particularly Gloucestershire, west Oxfordshire, and southwestern Warwickshire. The Cotswolds' northern and western edges are marked by steep escarpments down to the Severn valley and the Warwickshire Avon. This feature, known as the Cotswold escarpment or the Cotswold Edge, is a result of the uplifting (tilting) of the limestone layer, exposing its broken edge. This is a cuesta, in geological terms. The dip slope is to the southeast.

On the eastern boundary lies the city of Oxford and on the west is Stroud. To the southeast, the upper reaches of the Thames Valley and towns such as Lechlade, Tetbury, and Fairford are often considered to mark the limit of the region. To the south the Cotswolds, with the characteristic uplift of the Cotswold Edge, reach beyond Bath, and towns such as Chipping Sodbury and Marshfield share elements of Cotswold character.

The area is characterised by attractive small towns and villages built of the underlying Cotswold stone (a yellow oolitic limestone). This limestone is rich in fossils, particularly of fossilised sea urchins. Cotswold towns include Bourton-on-the-Water, Broadway, Chalford, Charlbury, Chipping Campden, Chipping Norton, Cricklade, Dursley, Malmesbury, Minchinhampton, Moreton-in-Marsh, Nailsworth, Northleach, Painswick, Stow-on-the-Wold, Stroud, Tetbury, Witney, Winchcombe and Wotton-under-Edge. In addition, much of Box lies in the Cotswolds. Bath, Cheltenham, Cirencester, Gloucester, Stroud, and Swindon are larger urban centres that border on, or are virtually surrounded by, the Cotswold AONB.

Chipping Campden is notable as the home of the Arts and Crafts movement, founded by William Morris at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Morris lived occasionally in Broadway Tower, a folly, now part of a country park. Chipping Campden is also known for the annual Cotswold Olimpick Games, a celebration of sports and games dating to the early 17th century. Of the Cotswolds' nearly 800 sqmi, roughly 80 per cent is farmland. There are over 3,000 mi of footpaths and bridleways, and 4,000 mi of historic stone walls.

Economy
A 2017 report on employment within the Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty stated that the main sources of income were real estate, renting and business activities, manufacturing, and wholesale & retail trade repairs. Some 44% of residents were employed in these sectors. Agriculture is also important; 86% of the land in the AONB is used for this purpose. The primary crops include barley, beans, rape seed oil and wheat, while the raising of sheep is also important; cows and pigs are also reared. The livestock sector has been declining since 2002.

According to 2011 census data for the Cotswolds, the wholesale and retail trade was the largest employer (15.8% of the workforce), followed by education (9.7%) and health and social work (9.3%). The report also indicates that a relatively higher proportion of residents worked in agriculture, forestry and fishing, accommodation and food services, as well as in professional, scientific, and technical activities. Unemployment in the Cotswold District was among the lowest in the country. An August 2017 report showed only 315 unemployed persons, a decrease of five from a year earlier.

Tourism
Tourism is a significant part of the economy. The Cotswold District area gained over £373 million from visitor spending on accommodation, £157 million on local attractions and entertainments, and about £100m on travel in 2016. In the larger Cotswolds Tourism area, including Stroud, Cheltenham, Gloucester and Tewkesbury, tourism generated about £1 billion in 2016, providing 200,000 jobs. Some 38 million day visits were made to the Cotswold Tourism area that year.

Many travel guides direct tourists to Chipping Campden, Stow-on-the-Wold, Bourton-on-the-Water, Broadway, Bibury, and Stanton. Some of these locations can be very crowded at times. Roughly 300,000 people visit Bourton per year, for example, with about half staying for a day or less. The area also has numerous public walking trails and footpaths that attract visitors, including the 93 mi Cotswold Way (part of the National Trails system) from Bath to Chipping Campden.

Housing development
In August 2018, the final decision was made for a Local Plan that would lead to the building of nearly 7,000 additional homes by 2031, in addition to over 3,000 already built. Areas for development include Cirencester, Bourton-on-the-Water, Down Ampney, Fairford, Kemble, Lechlade, Northleach, South Cerney, Stow-on-the-Wold, Tetbury and Moreton-in-Marsh. Some of the money received from developers will be earmarked for new infrastructure to support the increasing population.

Cotswold stone

Cotswold stone is a yellow oolitic Jurassic limestone. This limestone is rich in fossils, particularly of fossilised sea urchins. When weathered, the colour of buildings made or faced with this stone is often described as honey or golden. The stone varies in colour from north to south, being honey-coloured in the north and northeast, as in villages such as Stanton and Broadway; golden-coloured in the central and southern areas, as in Dursley and Cirencester; and pearly white in Bath.

The rock outcrops at places on the Cotswold Edge; small quarries are common. The exposures are rarely sufficiently compact to be good for rock-climbing, but an exception is Castle Rock, on Cleeve Hill, near Cheltenham. In his 1934 book English Journey, J. B. Priestley wrote of Cotswold buildings made of the local stone. He said: "The truth is that it has no colour that can be described. Even when the sun is obscured and the light is cold, these walls are still faintly warm and luminous, as if they knew the trick of keeping the lost sunlight of centuries glimmering about them."

Cotswolds National Landscape
The term "Cotswolds National Landscape" was adopted in September 2020, using a proposed name replacement for Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). All AONBs in England and Wales were re-branded as "National Landscapes" in November 2023, although (as of 2024) the legal name and designation remains "Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty" under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000, amending the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. The term AONB is still used in this section.

The Cotswolds National Landscape area (formerly the Cotwolds AONB) was originally designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) in 1966, with an expansion on 21 December 1990 to 1990 km2. In 1991, all AONBs were measured again using modern methods, and the official area of the Cotswolds AONB was increased to 2038 km2. In 2000, the government confirmed that AONBs have the same landscape quality and status as National Parks. It is England's third-largest protected landscape, after the Lake District and Yorkshire Dales national parks.

The Cotswolds National Landscape, which is the largest in England and Wales, stretches from the border regions of South Warwickshire and Worcestershire, through West Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire, and takes in parts of Wiltshire and of Bath and North East Somerset in the south. Gloucestershire County Council is responsible for sixty-three per cent of the AONB. The Cotswolds Conservation Board has the task of conserving and enhancing the AONB. Established under statute in 2004 as an independent public body, the Board carries out a range of work from securing funding for 'on the ground' conservation projects, to providing a strategic overview of the area for key decision makers, such as planning officials. The Board is funded by Natural England and the seventeen local authorities that are covered by the AONB. The Cotswolds AONB Management Plan 2018–2023 was adopted by the Board in September 2018.

The landscape of the AONB is varied, including escarpment outliers, escarpments, rolling hills and valleys, enclosed limestone valleys, settled valleys, ironstone hills and valleys, high wolds and high wold valleys, high wold dip-slopes, dip-slope lowland and valleys, a Low limestone plateau, cornbrash lowlands, farmed slopes, a broad floodplain valley, a large pastoral lowland vale, a settled unwooded vale, and an unwooded vale. While the beauty of the Cotswolds AONB is intertwined with that of the villages that seem almost to grow out of the landscape, the Cotswolds were primarily designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty for the rare limestone grassland habitats as well as the old growth beech woodlands that typify the area. These habitat areas are also the last refuge for many other flora and fauna, with some so endangered that they are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. Cleeve Hill, and its associated commons, is a fine example of a limestone grassland and it is one of the few locations where the Duke of Burgundy butterfly may still be found in abundance.

A June 2018 report stated that the AONB receives "23 million visitors a year, the third largest of any protected landscape". Earlier that year, Environment secretary Michael Gove announced that a panel would be formed to consider making some of the AONBs into National Parks. The review will file its report in 2019. In April 2018, the Cotswolds Conservation Board had written to Natural England "requesting that consideration be given to making the Cotswolds a National Park", according to Liz Eyre, Chairman. This has led to some concern; one member of the Cotswold District Council said, "National Park designation is a significant step further and raises the prospect of key decision making powers being taken away from democratically elected councillors". In other words, Cotswold District Council would no longer have the authority to grant and refuse housing applications.

Indicative of the Cotswolds' uniqueness and value is that five European Special Areas of Conservation, three national nature reserves and more than 80 Sites of Special Scientific Interest are within the Cotswolds AONB. The Cotswold Voluntary Wardens Service was established in 1968 to help conserve and enhance the area, and now has more than 300 wardens. The Cotswold Way is a long-distance footpath, just over 100 mi long, running the length of the AONB, mainly on the edge of the Cotswold escarpment with views over the Severn Valley and the Vale of Evesham.

Places of interest
Pictured is the Garden of Sudeley Castle at Winchcombe. The present structure was built in the 15th century and may be on the site of a 12th-century castle. It is north of the spa town of Cheltenham, which has much Georgian architecture. Further south, towards Tetbury, is the fortress known as Beverston Castle, founded in 1229 by Maurice de Gaunt. In the same area is Calcot Manor, a manor house with origins in about 1300 as a tithe barn.

Tetbury Market House was built in 1655. During the Middle Ages, Tetbury became an important market for Cotswold wool and yarn. Chavenage House is an Elizabethan-era manor house 1.5 mi northwest of Tetbury. Chedworth Roman Villa, where several mosaic floors are on display, is near the Roman road known as the Fosse Way, 8 mi north of the town of Corinium Dobunnorum (Cirencester). Cirencester Abbey was founded as an Augustinian monastery in 1117, and Malmesbury Abbey was one of the few English houses with a continual history from the 7th century through to the Dissolution of the Monasteries.

An unusual house in this area is Quarwood, a Victorian Gothic house in Stow-on-the-Wold. The grounds, covering 42 acre, include parkland, fish ponds, paddocks, garages, woodlands and seven cottages. Another is Woodchester Mansion, an unfinished, Gothic revival mansion house in Woodchester Park near Nympsfield. Newark Park is a Grade I listed country house of Tudor origins near the village of Ozleworth, Wotton-under-Edge. The house sits in an estate of 300 ha at the Cotswold escarpment's southern end.

Another of the many manor houses in the area, Owlpen Manor in the village of Owlpen in the Stroud district, is also Tudor and Grade I listed. Further north, Broadway Tower is a folly on Broadway Hill, near the village of Broadway, Worcestershire. To the south of the Cotswolds is Corsham Court, a country house in a park designed by Capability Brown in the town of Corsham, 3 mi west of Chippenham, Wiltshire.

Top attractions
According to users of the worldwide TripAdvisor travel site, in 2018 the following were among the best attractions in the Cotswolds:

 * Walks With Hawks, Cheltenham
 * Cotswolds Distillery, Stourton
 * Cotswold Falconry Centre, Moreton-in-Marsh
 * Chavenage House, Tetbury
 * Tewkesbury Abbey, Tewkesbury
 * Gloucestershire Warwickshire Steam Railway, Cheltenham
 * Gloucester Cathedral, Gloucester
 * The Royal Gardens at Highgrove, Tetbury
 * Jet Age Museum, Gloucester
 * Cotswold Wildlife Park, Burford
 * Hook Norton Brewery, Hook Norton

Transport

The Cotswolds lie between the M5, M40 and M4 motorways. The main A-roads through the area are: These all roughly follow the routes of ancient roads, some laid down by the Romans, such as Ermin Way and the Fosse Way.
 * the A46: Bath – Stroud – Cheltenham – Evesham;
 * the A419: Swindon – Cirencester – Stroud;
 * the A417: Lechlade – Cirencester – Gloucester;
 * the A429: Malmesbury – Cirencester – Stow-on-the-Wold – Moreton-in-Marsh;
 * the A44: Chipping Norton – Moreton-in-Marsh – Evesham;
 * the A40: Oxford – Burford – Cheltenham – Gloucester.

There are local bus services across the area, but some are infrequent.

The River Thames flows from the Cotswolds and is navigable from Inglesham and Lechlade-on-Thames downstream to Oxford. West of Inglesham. the Thames and Severn Canal and the Stroudwater Navigation connected the Thames to the River Severn; this route is mostly disused nowadays but several parts are in the process of being restored.

Railways
The area is bounded by two major rail routes: in the south by the main Bristol–Bath–London line (including the South Wales main line) and in the west by the Bristol–Birmingham main line. In addition, the Cotswold line runs through the Cotswolds from Oxford to Worcester, and the Golden Valley line runs across the hills from Swindon via Stroud to Gloucester, carrying fast and local services.

Mainline rail services to the big cities run from railway stations such as Bath, Swindon, Oxford, Cheltenham, and Worcester. Mainline trains run by Great Western Railway to London Paddington also are available from Kemble station near Cirencester, Kingham station near Stow-on-the-Wold, Charlbury station, and Moreton-in-Marsh station. Additionally, there is the Gloucestershire Warwickshire Railway, a steam heritage railway over part of the closed Stratford–Cheltenham line, running from Cheltenham Racecourse through Gotherington, Winchcombe, and Hayles Abbey Halt to Toddington and Laverton. The preserved line has been extended to Broadway.

Demographics
The population of the Cotswold local authority area in the 2021 census was 90,800, an increase of 9.6% from 82,900 in 2011. The percentage of usual residents in relationships, aged 16 and above, were: In 2021, 96.3% of people in Cotswold identified their ethnic group with the "White" category, a slight decrease from 97.8% in 2011. Over 1.3% identified as "Asian" or British Asian, 1.5% chose "Mixed or Multiple" category, 0.4% were "Black, Black British, Caribbean or African" and 0.4% chose "Other".
 * Married or in a registered civil partnership: 53.2%
 * Never married and never registered a civil partnership: 27.9%
 * Divorced or civil partnership dissolved: 9.8%
 * Widowed or surviving civil partnership partner: 7.1%
 * Separated, but still legally married or still legally in a civil partnership: 2.0%

In culture
The Cotswold region has inspired several notable English composers. In the early 1900s, Herbert Howells and Ivor Gurney took long walks together over the hills, and Gurney urged Howells to make the landscape, including the nearby Malvern Hills, the inspiration for future work. In 1916, Howells wrote his first major piece, the Piano Quartet in A minor, inspired by the magnificent view of the Malverns; he dedicated it to "the hill at Chosen (Churchdown) and Ivor Gurney who knows it". Another contemporary of theirs, Gerald Finzi, lived in nearby Painswick.

Gustav Holst, who was born in Cheltenham, spent much of his early years playing the organ in Cotswold village churches, including at Cranham, after which he titled his tune for In the Bleak Midwinter. He also called his Symphony in F major, Op. 8, H47, The Cotswolds. Holst's friend Ralph Vaughan Williams was born at Down Ampney in the Cotswolds and, though he moved to Surrey as a boy, gave the name of his native village to the tune for Come Down, O Love Divine. His opera Hugh the Drover depicts life in a Cotswold village and incorporates local folk melodies. In 1988, the 6th symphony (Op. 109) of composer Derek Bourgeois was titled A Cotswold Symphony. The Cotswolds are a popular location for scenes in movies and television programmes. The 2008 film Better Things, directed by Duane Hopkins, is set in a small Cotswold village. The fictional detective Agatha Raisin lives in the fictional Cotswold village of Carsely.

Other movies filmed in the Cotswolds or nearby, at least in part, include some of the Harry Potter series (Gloucester Cathedral), Bridget Jones's Diary (Snowshill), Pride and Prejudice (Cheltenham Town Hall), and Braveheart (Cotswold Farm Park). In 2014, some scenes of the 2016 movie Alice Through the Looking Glass were filmed at the Gloucester Docks just outside the Cotswold District; some scenes in the 2006 movie Amazing Grace were also filmed at the Docks. The television series Father Brown is set and primarily filmed in the Cotswolds. Scenes and buildings in Sudeley Castle was often featured in the series. The vicarage in Blockley was used for the main character's residence and the Anglican St Peter and St Paul church was the Roman Catholic St Mary's in the series. Other filming locations included Guiting Power, the former hospital in Moreton-in-Marsh, the Winchcombe railway station, Lower Slaughter, and St Peter's Church in Upper Slaughter.

In the 2010s BBC TV series Poldark, the location for Ross Poldark's family home, Trenwith, is Chavenage House, Tetbury, which is open to the public. Many exterior shots of village life in the Downton Abbey TV series were filmed in Bampton, Oxfordshire. Other filming locations in that county included Swinbrook, Cogges, and Shilton. The city of Bath hosted crews that filmed parts of the movies Vanity Fair, Persuasion, Dracula, and The Duchess. Gloucester and other places in Gloucestershire, some within the Area of Natural Beauty, have been a popular location for filming period films and television programmes over the years. Gloucester Cathedral has been particularly popular. The sighting of peregrine falcons in the landscape of the Cotswolds is mentioned in The Peregrine by John Alec Baker. The television documentary agriculture-themed series Clarkson's Farm was filmed at various locations around Chipping Norton.

title: Cotswolds


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AC ChievoVerona

Associazione Calcio ChievoVerona, commonly referred to as ChievoVerona or simply Chievo, is an Italian football club named after and representing Chievo, a suburb of 4,500 inhabitants in Verona, Veneto, and owned by Paluani, a bakery product company and the inspiration for their original name, Paluani Chievo. During its years as a professional club, Chievo shared the 38,402 seater Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi stadium with its cross-town rivals Hellas Verona.

In 2021, the club was excluded from professional football because of financial problems. It restarted its activities in 2024, after FC Clivense's owner and former Chievo star Sergio Pellissier acquired the original ChievoVerona rights and renamed his club accordingly.

Early years
The team was founded in 1929 by a small number of football fans from Chievo, a Verona frazione. Initially, the club was not officially affiliated to the Italian Football Federation (FIGC), but nonetheless played several amateur tournaments and friendly matches under the denomination O.N.D. Chievo, a title imposed by the fascist regime. The club's formal debut in an official league was on 8 November 1931. The team colours at the time were blue and white. Chievo disbanded in 1936, however, due to economic woes but returned to play in 1948 after World War II, being registered in the regional league of Seconda Divisione (Second Division). In 1957, the team moved to the field "Carlantonio Bottagisio", where they played until 1986. In 1959, after the restructuring of the football leagues, Chievo was admitted to play the Seconda Categoria (Second Category), a regional league placed next-to-last in the Italian football pyramid. That year, Chievo changed its name to Cardi Chievo after a new sponsor and was quickly promoted to the Prima Categoria, from which it experienced its first-ever relegation in 1962.

Series of promotions
In 1964, Luigi Campedelli, a businessman and owner of the Paluani company, was named the new Chievo chairman. Under Campedelli's presidency, Chievo climbed through the Italian football pyramid, reaching the Serie D after the 1974–75 season. Under the name "Paluani Chievo," the team was promoted to Serie C2 in 1986. Due to promotion, Chievo was forced to move to the Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi, the main venue in Verona; another promotion to Serie C1 followed in 1989. In 1990, the team changed its name to its current one, "A.C. ChievoVerona."

In 1992, President Luigi Campedelli, who had returned at the helm of the club two years before, died of a heart attack, and his son Luca Campedelli, aged just 23, became the new and youngest chairman of an Italian professional football club. Campedelli promoted Giovanni Sartori to director of football and named Alberto Malesani as the new head coach. Under Malesani, the team astonishingly won the Serie C1 and was promoted to Serie B, where city rival Hellas Verona was playing at the time. In 1997, after Malesani signed for Fiorentina, Silvio Baldini was appointed the new head coach. The following season, with Domenico Caso as the coach, saw the first dismissal of a coach during the presidency of Luca Campedelli, with Caso being fired and replaced with Lorenzo Balestro. It was during these years that the nickname "mussi volanti" ("flying donkeys") was born. It originated from supporters of their crosstown rivals Hellas, who would mock long-suffering Chievo supporters that Chievo will only be promoted if "donkeys could fly" (the equivalent of the English language falsism "if pigs could fly," denoting an impossible dream).

In 2000–01, Luigi Delneri was signed as coach and led Chievo, by virtue of its third-place finish in Serie B, to promotion to Serie A, the first time in team history that it had reached the top tier of Italian football.

Mussi Volanti (2001–2007)
In 2001–02, Chievo's Serie A debut season, the team was most critics' choice for an instant return to Serie B. However, they became the surprise team in the league, often playing spectacular and entertaining football and even leading the league for six consecutive weeks. The club finally ended the season with a highly respectable fifth-place finish, qualifying the team to play in the UEFA Cup. Chievo's impressive performance inspired a 2002 book about soccer economics titled "Fenomeno Chievo. Economia, costume, società" by Marco Vitale.

In 2002–03, Chievo debuted at the European level but were eliminated in the first round by Red Star Belgrade. The team finished the Serie A season in seventh place, again proving itself one of the better Serie A teams. The 2003–04 season, the last with Delneri at the helm, saw Chievo finish ninth.

The 2004–05 season is remembered as one of the toughest ever in Chievo's history. Mario Beretta, a Serie A novice from Ternana, was named coach, but after a strong start that brought Chievo to third behind Juventus and Milan, the team slowly lost position in the league table. With three matches remaining in the season, Chievo was third-from-last, a position which would see it relegated to Serie B. As a last resort, Beretta was fired, and Maurizio D'Angelo, a former Chievo player, was appointed temporarily to replace him as coach. Morale improved, and two wins and a draw from the final three matches proved enough to keep Chievo in Serie A.

In 2005–06, Giuseppe Pillon of Treviso FBC was appointed as new coach. The team experienced a return to the successful Delneri era, both in style of play and results, which resulted in Chievo ending the season in seventh and gaining a berth in the UEFA Cup. However, because of the football scandal involving several top-class teams, all of which finished higher than Chievo in the 2005–06 season, the Flying Donkeys were awarded a place in the next Champions League preliminary phase. On 14 July 2006, the verdict in the scandal was made public. Juventus, Milan and Fiorentina, who had all initially qualified for the 2006–07 Champions League, and Lazio, who had initially qualified for the 2006–07 UEFA Cup, were all banned from UEFA competition for the 2006–07 season. However, Milan were allowed to enter the Champions League after their appeal to the FIGC. Chievo took up a place in the third qualifying stage of the competition along with Milan and faced Bulgarian side Levski Sofia. Chievo lost the first leg 2–0 in Sofia and managed a 2–2 home draw on the second leg and were eliminated by a 4–2 aggregate score, with Levski advancing to the Champions League group stage. As a Champions League third round qualifying loser, Chievo was given a place in the UEFA Cup final qualifying round. On 25 August 2006, they were drawn to face Portuguese side Braga. The first leg, played on 14 September in Braga, ended in a 2–0 win for the Portuguese. The return match, played on 28 September in Verona, although won by Chievo 2–1, resulted in a 3–2 aggregate loss and the club's elimination from the competition.

On 16 October 2006, following a 1–0 defeat against Torino, head coach Giuseppe Pillon was fired and replaced by Luigi Delneri, one of the original symbols of the miracle Chievo, who had led the club to the Serie A in 2002.

On 27 May 2007, the last match day of the 2006–07 Serie A season, Chievo was one of five teams in danger of falling into the last undecided relegation spot. Needing only a draw against Catania, a direct competitor in the relegation battle, Chievo lost 2–0 playing on a neutral field in Bologna. Wins by Parma, Siena and Reggina condemned Chievo to Serie B for the 2007–08 season after six seasons in the top flight.

A year with the Cadetti (2007–08)
Chievo bounced back quickly from the disappointment of their relegation on the last matchday of 2006–07, searching for an immediate promotion back to the top flight. After the expected departure of several top-quality players, including Franco Semioli, Salvatore Lanna, Matteo Brighi, Paolo Sammarco and Erjon Bogdani, the manager Delneri also parted ways with the club. Giuseppe Iachini replaced him and the captain, Lorenzo D'Anna, gave way to Sergio Pellissier at the end of the transfer window. A new squad was constructed, most notably including the arrivals of midfielders Maurizio Ciaramitaro and Simone Bentivoglio, defender César and forward Antimo Iunco. This new incarnation of the gialloblu were crowned winter champions (along with Bologna), en route to a 41st matchday promotion after a 1–1 draw at Grosseto left them four points clear of third-place Lecce with one match remaining. In addition to winning promotion, they were conferred with the Ali della Vittoria trophy on the final matchday of the season, their first league title of any kind in 14 years.

Back in Serie A (2008–2019)
In their first season back to the top flight, Chievo immediately struggled in the league, resulting in the dismissal of Iachini in November and his replacement with former Parma boss Domenico Di Carlo. After Di Carlo's appointment, Chievo managed a remarkable resurgence that led the gialloblu out of the relegation zone after having collected just nine points from their first 17 matches. Highlight matches included a 3–0 defeat of Lazio (who then won the 2008–09 Coppa Italia title) at the Stadio Olimpico, and a thrilling 3–3 draw away to Juventus in which captain and longtime Chievo striker Sergio Pellissier scored a late equalizer to complete his first career hat-trick. A series of hard-fought draws against top clubs Roma, Internazionale and Genoa in the final stretch of the season solidified Ceo 's position outside the drop zone and Serie A status was finally confirmed on matchday 37 with a home draw against Bologna. An essentially unchanged line-up earned safety the following season with four matchdays to spare.

Lorenzo D'Anna remained as coach of the club for the 2018–19 season after replacing Rolando Maran during the 2017–18 season. On 13 September, Chievo were deducted 3 points after being found guilty of false accounting on exchanging players with Cesena. President Luca Campedelli was banned for three months as a result of the scheme. Chievo were officially relegated on 14 April 2019 after a 3–1 home loss to Napoli.

Serie B years and league exclusion (2019–2021)
In July 2021, Chievo was expelled from Serie B for the 2021–22 season for being unable to prove its financial viability due to outstanding tax payments. The club argued that there was an agreement in place during the COVID-19 pandemic that allowed them to spread the payments out over a longer period. However, after three unsuccessful appeals, the decision to bar Chievo Verona from registering to Serie B was upheld, with Cosenza taking their place in Serie B.

Clivense and Serie D restart (2021–current)
Over the next months following the club's exclusion, former captain Sergio Pellissier led the search for a new ownership group to allow a phoenix club to compete in Serie D under the Chievo name. However, on 21 August, Pellissier announced in an Instagram post that no owners were found in time for the Serie D registration deadline. The original Chievo club has in the meantime appealed to the Council of State against its exclusion and is currently registered in no division, albeit still with the right to apply for a spot in an amateur league of Veneto in the following weeks. Campedelli eventually opted to keep the club alive as a youth team for the 2021–22 season, while Pellissier decided instead to found a new club himself, which was admitted to Terza Categoria at the very bottom of the Italian football league system; the club, originally named FC Chievo 2021, was then renamed to FC Clivense following a legal warning from AC ChievoVerona.

On 10 May 2024, Sergio Pellissier and the owners of Clivense, by then in the Serie D league, successfully acquired the logo and naming rights of the original ChievoVerona club in an auction. Later on 29 May, Clivense formally changed its denomination to AC ChievoVerona, thus becoming the legal heir to the original club, albeit maintaining white and blue as its colours.

Retired numbers

 * 30 Jason Mayélé, left/right winger, 2001–2002 (posthumous)
 * 31 🇮🇹 Sergio Pellissier, left/right winger, 2000–2019 (retired in recognition of his career )

Notable players
Note: this list includes players that have reached international status.

 * 🇮🇹 Francesco Acerbi
 * 🇮🇹 Amauri
 * 🇸🇪 Daniel Andersson
 * 🇮🇹 Simone Barone
 * 🇮🇹 Massimo Marazzina
 * 🇮🇹 Andrea Barzagli
 * 🇦🇱 Erjon Bogdani
 * 🇩🇪 Oliver Bierhoff
 * 🇸🇮 Valter Birsa
 * 🇦🇷 Albano Bizzarri
 * 🇺🇸 Michael Bradley
 * 🇮🇹 Matteo Brighi
 * 🇸🇮 Boštjan Cesar
 * 🇮🇹 Bernardo Corradi
 * 🇵🇪 Rinaldo Cruzado
 * 🇮🇹 Dario Dainelli
 * 🇸🇳 Boukary Dramé
 * 🇮🇹 Mauro Esposito
 * 🇵🇾 Marcelo Estigarribia
 * 🇲🇪 Ivan Fatić
 * 🇨🇭 Gelson Fernandes
 * 🇬🇷 Giannis Fetfatzidis
 * 🇮🇹 Stefano Fiore
 * 🇮🇹 Alessandro Gamberini
 * 🇮🇹 Massimo Gobbi
 * 🇳🇱 Jonathan de Guzmán
 * 🇫🇮 Përparim Hetemaj
 * 🇸🇮 Bojan Jokić
 * 🇧🇬 Radoslav Kirilov
 * 🇵🇱 Kamil Kosowski
 * 🇮🇹 Nicola Legrottaglie
 * Christian Manfredini
 * Jason Mayélé
 * 🇳🇬 Stephen Makinwa
 * 🇬🇭 John Mensah
 * 🇳🇬 Victor Obinna
 * 🇮🇹 Sergio Pellissier
 * 🇮🇹 Simone Pepe
 * 🇮🇹 Simone Perrotta
 * 🇨🇱 Mauricio Pinilla
 * 🇮🇹 Giampiero Pinzi
 * 🇷🇸 Ivan Radovanović
 * 🇮🇹 Flavio Roma
 * 🇮🇹 Eugenio Corini
 * 🇸🇪 Fredrik Risp
 * 🇲🇱 Mamadou Samassa
 * 🇬🇷 Nikos Spyropoulos
 * 🇦🇱 Samir Ujkani
 * 🇫🇮 Sauli Väisänen
 * 🇸🇰 Martin Valjent
 * 🇨🇴 Mario Yepes

Coaches
• Nicola Ciccolo (1974–78)

• Carlo De Angelis (1978–80), (1985–87)

• Gianni Bui (1988–91)

• Carlo De Angelis (1991–93)

• Alberto Malesani (1 Jun 1993–97)

• Silvio Baldini (Jul 1997–98)

• Domenico Caso (1 Jul 1998 – 14 Dec 1998)

• Luigi Delneri (1 Jul 2000 – 30 Jun 2004)

• Mario Beretta (15 Jun 2004 – 30 Jun 2005)

• Maurizio D'Angelo (2005)

• Giuseppe Pillon (1 Jul 2005 – 16 Oct 2006)

• Luigi Delneri (2006–07)

• Giuseppe Iachini (1 Jul 2007 – 3 Nov 2008)

• Domenico Di Carlo (4 Nov 2008 – 26 May 2010)

• Stefano Pioli (10 Jun 2010 – 2 Jun 2011)

• Domenico Di Carlo (9 Jun 2011 – 2 Oct 2012)

• Eugenio Corini (3 Oct 2012 – 30 Jun 2013)

• Giuseppe Sannino (1 Jul 2013 – 11 Nov 2013)

• Eugenio Corini (12 Nov 2013 – 19 Oct 2014)

• Rolando Maran (19 Oct 2014 – 29 Apr 2018)

• Lorenzo D'Anna (29 Apr 2018 – 9 Oct 2018)

• Gian Piero Ventura (10 Oct 2018 – 13 Nov 2018)

• Domenico Di Carlo (13 Nov 2018 – 1 Jun 2019)

• Michele Marcolini (4 Jul 2019 – 1 Dec 2020)

• Alfredo Aglietti (2 Dec 2020 – 1 Jul 2021)

• Marco Zaffaroni (2 Jul 2021 – 4 Aug 2021)

Colours and badge
The club's original colours were blue and white and not the current blue and yellow. The club's historic nickname is Gialloblu (from the club colours of yellow and blue), sharing it with the more famous local rivals Hellas Verona. Local supporters often call the club Ceo, which is Venetian for Chievo. The club is also sometimes referred to as the I Mussi Volanti ("The Flying Donkeys" in the Verona dialect of Venetian). "The Flying Donkeys" nickname was originally used by fans from crosstown rivals Hellas to mock Chievo. The two clubs first met in Serie B in the mid-1990s, with Hellas chanting Quando i mussi volara, il Ceo in Serie A – "Donkeys will fly before Chievo are in Serie A." However, once Chievo earned promotion to Serie A at the end of the 2000–01 Serie B season, Chievo fans started to call themselves "The Flying Donkeys."

The current club crest represents Cangrande I della Scala, a medieval lord of Verona.

Fans

The Clivense fan base has a few groups within it, but the best known are the Northside 94, a group of fans born in 1994, with the exclusion of ChievoVerona in 2021 the Northside have given full support and support to Sergio Pellissier's Clivense.

Stadium
ChievoVerona, for years, shared the Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi stadium with rival team Hellas Verona. With the exclusion of Chievo Verona and the birth of Clivense, then returned to its original name in 2024, the team moved to the Stadio Comunale (Phoenix Arena for sponsorship reasons), located in San Martino Buon Albergo.

Honours

 * Serie B
 * Winners: 2007–08
 * Serie C1
 * Winners: 1993–94 (group A)
 * Serie C2
 * Winners: 1988–89 (group B)
 * Serie D
 * Winners: 1985–86 (group C)

title: AC ChievoVerona


text:
Context switch

In computing, a context switch is the process of storing the state of a process or thread, so that it can be restored and resume execution at a later point, and then restoring a different, previously saved, state. This allows multiple processes to share a single central processing unit (CPU), and is an essential feature of a multiprogramming or multitasking operating system. In a traditional CPU, each process - a program in execution - utilizes the various CPU registers to store data and hold the current state of the running process. However, in a multitasking operating system, the operating system switches between processes or threads to allow the execution of multiple processes simultaneously. For every switch, the operating system must save the state of the currently running process, followed by loading the next process state, which will run on the CPU. This sequence of operations that stores the state of the running process and the loading of the following running process is called a context switch.

The precise meaning of the phrase "context switch" varies. In a multitasking context, it refers to the process of storing the system state for one task, so that task can be paused and another task resumed. A context switch can also occur as the result of an interrupt, such as when a task needs to access disk storage, freeing up CPU time for other tasks. Some operating systems also require a context switch to move between user mode and kernel mode tasks. The process of context switching can have a negative impact on system performance.

Cost
Context switches are usually computationally intensive, and much of the design of operating systems is to optimize the use of context switches. Switching from one process to another requires a certain amount of time for doing the administration – saving and loading registers and memory maps, updating various tables and lists, etc. What is actually involved in a context switch depends on the architectures, operating systems, and the number of resources shared (threads that belong to the same process share many resources compared to unrelated non-cooperating processes).

For example, in the Linux kernel, context switching involves loading the corresponding process control block (PCB) stored in the PCB table in the kernel stack to retrieve information about the state of the new process. CPU state information including the registers, stack pointer, and program counter as well as memory management information like segmentation tables and page tables (unless the old process shares the memory with the new) are loaded from the PCB for the new process. To avoid incorrect address translation in the case of the previous and current processes using different memory, the translation lookaside buffer (TLB) must be flushed. This negatively affects performance because every memory reference to the TLB will be a miss because it is empty after most context switches.

Furthermore, analogous context switching happens between user threads, notably green threads, and is often very lightweight, saving and restoring minimal context. In extreme cases, such as switching between goroutines in Go, a context switch is equivalent to a coroutine yield, which is only marginally more expensive than a subroutine call.

Switching cases
There are three potential triggers for a context switch:

Multitasking
Most commonly, within some scheduling scheme, one process must be switched out of the CPU so another process can run. This context switch can be triggered by the process making itself unrunnable, such as by waiting for an I/O or synchronization operation to complete. On a pre-emptive multitasking system, the scheduler may also switch out processes that are still runnable. To prevent other processes from being starved of CPU time, pre-emptive schedulers often configure a timer interrupt to fire when a process exceeds its time slice. This interrupt ensures that the scheduler will gain control to perform a context switch.

Interrupt handling
Modern architectures are interrupt driven. This means that if the CPU requests data from a disk, for example, it does not need to busy-wait until the read is over; it can issue the request (to the I/O device) and continue with some other task. When the read is over, the CPU can be interrupted (by a hardware in this case, which sends interrupt request to PIC) and presented with the read. For interrupts, a program called an interrupt handler is installed, and it is the interrupt handler that handles the interrupt from the disk.

When an interrupt occurs, the hardware automatically switches a part of the context (at least enough to allow the handler to return to the interrupted code). The handler may save additional context, depending on details of the particular hardware and software designs. Often only a minimal part of the context is changed in order to minimize the amount of time spent handling the interrupt. The kernel does not spawn or schedule a special process to handle interrupts, but instead the handler executes in the (often partial) context established at the beginning of interrupt handling. Once interrupt servicing is complete, the context in effect before the interrupt occurred is restored so that the interrupted process can resume execution in its proper state.

User and kernel mode switching
When the system transitions between user mode and kernel mode, a context switch is not necessary; a mode transition is not by itself a context switch. However, depending on the operating system, a context switch may also take place at this time.

Steps
The state of the currently executing process must be saved so it can be restored when rescheduled for execution.

The process state includes all the registers that the process may be using, especially the program counter, plus any other operating system specific data that may be necessary. This is usually stored in a data structure called a process control block (PCB) or switchframe.

The PCB might be stored on a per-process stack in kernel memory (as opposed to the user-mode call stack), or there may be some specific operating system-defined data structure for this information. A handle to the PCB is added to a queue of processes that are ready to run, often called the ready queue.

Since the operating system has effectively suspended the execution of one process, it can then switch context by choosing a process from the ready queue and restoring its PCB. In doing so, the program counter from the PCB is loaded, and thus execution can continue in the chosen process. Process and thread priority can influence which process is chosen from the ready queue (i.e., it may be a priority queue).

Example
Considering a general arithmetic addition operation A = B+1. The instruction is stored in the instruction register and the program counter is incremented. A and B are read from memory and are stored in registers R1, R2 respectively. In this case, B+1 is calculated and written in R1 as the final answer. This operation as there are sequential reads and writes and there's no waits for function calls used, hence no context switch/wait takes place in this case.

However, certain special instructions require system calls that require context switch to wait/sleep processes. A system call handler is used for context switch to kernel mode. A display(data x) function may require data x from the Disk and a device driver in kernel mode, hence the display function goes to sleep and waits on the READ operation to get the value of x from the disk, causing the program to wait and a wait for function call to the released setting the current statement to go to sleep and wait for the syscall to wake it up. To maintain concurrency however the program needs to re-execute the new value and the sleeping process together again.

Performance
Context switching itself has a cost in performance, due to running the task scheduler, TLB flushes, and indirectly due to sharing the CPU cache between multiple tasks. Switching between threads of a single process can be faster than between two separate processes, because threads share the same virtual memory maps, so a TLB flush is not necessary.

The time to switch between two separate processes is called the process switching latency. The time to switch between two threads of the same process is called the thread switching latency. The time from when a hardware interrupt is generated to when the interrupt is serviced is called the interrupt latency.

Switching between two processes in a single address space operating system can be faster than switching between two processes in an operating system with private per-process address spaces.

Hardware vs. software
Context switching can be performed primarily by software or hardware. Some processors, like the Intel 80386 and its successors, have hardware support for context switches, by making use of a special data segment designated the task state segment (TSS). A task switch can be explicitly triggered with a CALL or JMP instruction targeted at a TSS descriptor in the global descriptor table. It can occur implicitly when an interrupt or exception is triggered if there's a task gate in the interrupt descriptor table (IDT). When a task switch occurs the CPU can automatically load the new state from the TSS.

As with other tasks performed in hardware, one would expect this to be rather fast; however, mainstream operating systems, including Windows and Linux, do not use this feature. This is mainly due to two reasons:

 * Hardware context switching does not save all the registers (only general-purpose registers, not floating point registers — although the  bit is automatically turned on in the   control register, resulting in a fault when executing floating-point instructions and giving the OS the opportunity to save and restore the floating-point state as needed).
 * Associated performance issues, e.g., software context switching can be selective and store only those registers that need storing, whereas hardware context switching stores nearly all registers whether they are required or not.

title: Context switch


text:
Carnatic

Carnatic most often refers to:
 * Carnatic region, Southern India
 * Carnatic music, the classical music of Southern India

Carnatic may also refer to:
 * Carnatic Wars, a series of military conflicts in India during the 18th century
 * HMIS Carnatic, a Bangor-class minesweeper of the Royal Indian Navy, that served in World War II
 * HMS Carnatic, a 74-gun third rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy, launched at Deptford in 1783
 * HMS Carnatic, a 74-gun third rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy, launched at Portsmouth Dockyard in 1823
 * Carnatic, one of several vessels of that name
 * Carnatic Hall, now closed university residence

title: Carnatic