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Wikipedia:Editing policy

Wikipedia is the product of millions of editors' contributions, each one bringing something different to the table, whether it be: researching skills, technical expertise, writing prowess or tidbits of information, but most importantly, a willingness to help. Even the best articles should not be considered complete, as each new editor can offer new insights on how to enhance and improve the content in it at any time.

Adding information to Wikipedia
Wikipedia summarizes accepted knowledge. As a rule, the more accepted knowledge it contains, the better. Please be bold and add content summarizing accepted knowledge, but be particularly cautious about removing sourced content. Information in Wikipedia must be verifiable and cannot be original research. Show that content is verifiable by citing reliable sources. Because a lack of content is better than misleading or false content, unsourced content may be challenged and removed. To avoid such challenges, the best practice is to provide an inline citation when adding content (see: WP:Citing sources for instructions on how to do this, or ask for help at the Help desk).

Wikipedia respects others' copyright. Although content must be backed by reliable sources, avoid copying or closely paraphrasing a copyrighted source. You should read the source, understand it, and then express what it says in your own words. An exception exists for the often necessary use of short quotations; they must be enclosed in quotations marks, accompanied by an inline reference to the source, and usually attributed to the author. (See the fair use doctrine which allows limited quoting without permission.)

Another way you can improve an article is by finding a source for existing unsourced content. This is especially true if you come across statements that are potentially controversial. You do not need to be the person who added the content to add a source and citation for it.

Wikipedia is a work in progress: perfection is not required
Perfection is not required: Wikipedia is a work in progress. Collaborative editing means that incomplete or poorly written first drafts can evolve over time into excellent articles. Even poor articles, if they can be improved, are welcome. For instance, one person may start an article with an overview of a subject or a few random facts. Another may help standardize the article's formatting or have additional facts and figures or a graphic to add. Yet another may bring better balance to the views represented in the article and perform fact-checking and sourcing to existing content. At any point during this process, the article may become disorganized or contain substandard writing.

Neutrality in articles of living or recently deceased persons
Although perfection is not required, extra care should be taken on articles that mention living persons. Contentious material about living or recently deceased persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced—whether the material is negative, positive, neutral, or just questionable—should either be verified immediately, with one or more reliable sources and presented in a neutral manner without undue weight, or be removed immediately, without waiting for discussion.

Try to fix problems
Great Wikipedia articles come from a succession of editors' efforts. Rather than remove imperfect content outright, fix problems if you can, tag or excise them if you can't.

As explained above, Wikipedia is a work in progress and perfection is not required. Any facts or ideas that would belong in the "finished" article should be retained if they meet the three core content policies: Neutral point of view (which does not mean no point of view), Verifiability, and No original research.

If you think an article needs to be rewritten or changed substantially, go ahead and do so, but it is best to leave a comment about why you made the changes on the article's talk page.

Instead of removing content from an article or reverting a new contribution, consider:
 * Rephrasing or copy-editing to improve grammar or more accurately represent the sources
 * Formatting or sourcing on the spot
 * Tagging it as necessary
 * Correcting inaccuracies, while keeping the rest of the content intact
 * Merging or moving the content to a more relevant existing article, or splitting the content to an entirely new article
 * Adding another point of view to the existing points of view to make the article more balanced
 * Requesting a citation by adding the citation needed tag, or adding any other appropriate cleanup tags to content you cannot fix yourself
 * Doing a quick search for sources and adding a citation yourself
 * Repairing a dead link if a new URL for the page or an archive of the old one can be located
 * Merging the entire article into another article with the original article turned into a redirect as described at performing a merge
 * Fixing errors in wikitext or formatting

Otherwise, if you think the content could provide the seed of a new sub-article, or if you are just unsure about removing it from the English Wikipedia entirely, consider copying the information to the article's talk page for further discussion. If you think the content might find a better home elsewhere, consider moving the content to a talk page of any article you think might be more relevant, so that editors there can decide how it might be properly included in our encyclopedia.

Problems that may justify removal
Several of our core policies discuss situations when it might be more appropriate to remove information from an article rather than preserve it. Also, redundancy within an article should be kept to a minimum (except in the lead, which is meant to be a summary of the entire article, and so is intentionally duplicative).
 * Verifiability discusses handling unsourced and contentious material
 * No original research discusses the need to remove original research
 * What Wikipedia is not describes material that is fundamentally inappropriate for Wikipedia
 * Undue weight discusses how to balance material that gives undue weight to a particular viewpoint, which might include removal of trivia, tiny minority viewpoints, or material that cannot be supported with high-quality sources

Libel, nonsense, and vandalism should be completely removed, as should material that violates copyright and material for which no reliable source that supports it has ever been published.

Special care needs to be taken with biographies of living people, especially when it comes to handling unsourced or poorly sourced claims about the subject. Such claims should generally be removed immediately.

Talking and editing
Be bold in updating articles, especially for minor changes, fixing problems, and changes that you believe are unlikely to be controversial. Previous authors do not need to be consulted before making changes. Nobody owns articles, so if you see an improvement you can make, make it.

If you think the edit might be controversial, then a better course of action may be to first make a proposal on the talk page. Bold editing does not excuse edits against existing consensus, edits in violation of core policies, such as Neutral point of view and Verifiability, or edits designed to create a fait accompli, where actions are justified by the fact they have already been carried out.

If someone indicates disagreement with your bold edit by reverting it or contesting it in a talk page discussion, consider your options and respond appropriately.

Be helpful: explain
Be helpful: explain your changes. When you edit an article, the more radical or controversial the change, the greater the need to explain it. Be sure to leave a comment about why you made the change. Try to use an appropriate edit summary. For larger or more significant changes, the edit summary may not give you enough space to fully explain the edit; in this case, you may leave a note on the article's talk page as well. Remember too that notes on the talk page are more visible, make misunderstandings less likely, and encourage discussion rather than edit warring.

Be cautious with major changes: discuss
Be cautious about making a major change to an article. Prevent edit warring by discussing such edits first on the article's talk page. An edit that one editor thinks is minor or clearly warranted might be seen as major or unwarranted by others. If you choose to be bold, provide the rationale for any change in the edit summary or on the article talk page. If your change is lengthy or complex, consider first creating a new draft on a subpage of your own user page and start a discussion that includes a link to it on the article's talk page.

But – Wikipedia is not a discussion forum
Whether you decide to edit very boldly or discuss carefully on the talk page first, please bear in mind that Wikipedia is not a discussion forum. It is best to concentrate our energies on improving articles rather than debating our personal ideas and beliefs. This is discussed further at Etiquette.

If you need help
The Dispute resolution processes are available if you need help reaching an agreement with other editors.

Editing and refactoring talk pages
For guidance on how to edit talk pages see:
 * Talk page guidelines
 * Refactoring talk pages
 * Help:Archiving a talk page

title: Wikipedia:Editing policy


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Eclipse

An eclipse is an astronomical event which occurs when an astronomical object or spacecraft is temporarily obscured, by passing into the shadow of another body or by having another body pass between it and the viewer. This alignment of three celestial objects is known as a syzygy. An eclipse is the result of either an occultation (completely hidden) or a transit (partially hidden). A "deep eclipse" (or "deep occultation") is when a small astronomical object is behind a bigger one.

The term eclipse is most often used to describe either a solar eclipse, when the Moon's shadow crosses the Earth's surface, or a lunar eclipse, when the Moon moves into the Earth's shadow. However, it can also refer to such events beyond the Earth–Moon system: for example, a planet moving into the shadow cast by one of its moons, a moon passing into the shadow cast by its host planet, or a moon passing into the shadow of another moon. A binary star system can also produce eclipses if the plane of the orbit of its constituent stars intersects the observer's position.

For the special cases of solar and lunar eclipses, these only happen during an "eclipse season", the two times of each year when the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun crosses with the plane of the Moon's orbit around the Earth and the line defined by the intersecting planes points near the Sun. The type of solar eclipse that happens during each season (whether total, annular, hybrid, or partial) depends on apparent sizes of the Sun and Moon. If the orbit of the Earth around the Sun and the Moon's orbit around the Earth were both in the same plane with each other, then eclipses would happen every month. There would be a lunar eclipse at every full moon, and a solar eclipse at every new moon. It is because of the non-planar differences that eclipses are not a common event. If both orbits were perfectly circular, then each eclipse would be the same type every month.

Lunar eclipses can be viewed from the entire nightside half of the Earth. But solar eclipses, particularly total eclipses occurring at any one particular point on the Earth's surface, are very rare events that can be many decades apart.

Etymology
The term is derived from the ancient Greek noun ἔκλειψις (ékleipsis), which means 'the abandonment', 'the downfall', or 'the darkening of a heavenly body', which is derived from the verb ἐκλείπω (ekleípō) which means 'to abandon', 'to darken', or 'to cease to exist', a combination of prefix ἐκ- (ek-), from preposition ἐκ (ek), 'out', and of verb λείπω (leípō), 'to be absent'.

Umbra, penumbra and antumbra
For any two objects in space, a line can be extended from the first through the second. The latter object will block some amount of light being emitted by the former, creating a region of shadow around the axis of the line. Typically these objects are moving with respect to each other and their surroundings, so the resulting shadow will sweep through a region of space, only passing through any particular location in the region for a fixed interval of time. As viewed from such a location, this shadowing event is known as an eclipse.

Typically the cross-section of the objects involved in an astronomical eclipse is roughly disk-shaped. The region of an object's shadow during an eclipse is divided into three parts:
 * The umbra (Latin for 'shadow'), within which the object completely covers the light source. For the Sun, this light source is the photosphere.
 * The antumbra (from Latin ante, 'before, in front of', plus umbra) extending beyond the tip of the umbra, within which the object is completely in front of the light source but too small to completely cover it.
 * The penumbra (from the Latin paene, 'almost, nearly', plus umbra), within which the object is only partially in front of the light source.

A total eclipse occurs when the observer is within the umbra, an annular eclipse when the observer is within the antumbra, and a partial eclipse when the observer is within the penumbra. During a lunar eclipse only the umbra and penumbra are applicable, because the antumbra of the Sun-Earth system lies far beyond the Moon. Analogously, Earth's apparent diameter from the viewpoint of the Moon is nearly four times that of the Sun and thus cannot produce an annular eclipse. The same terms may be used analogously in describing other eclipses, e.g., the antumbra of Deimos crossing Mars, or Phobos entering Mars's penumbra.

The first contact occurs when the eclipsing object's disc first starts to impinge on the light source; second contact is when the disc moves completely within the light source; third contact when it starts to move out of the light; and fourth or last contact when it finally leaves the light source's disc entirely.

For spherical bodies, when the occulting object is smaller than the star, the length (L) of the umbra's cone-shaped shadow is given by:

 * $$L\ =\ \frac{r \cdot R_o}{R_s - R_o}$$

where Rs is the radius of the star, Ro is the occulting object's radius, and r is the distance from the star to the occulting object. For Earth, on average L is equal to 1.384 km, which is much larger than the Moon's semimajor axis of 3.844 km. Hence the umbral cone of the Earth can completely envelop the Moon during a lunar eclipse. If the occulting object has an atmosphere, however, some of the luminosity of the star can be refracted into the volume of the umbra. This occurs, for example, during an eclipse of the Moon by the Earth—producing a faint, ruddy illumination of the Moon even at totality.

On Earth, the shadow cast during an eclipse moves very approximately at 1 km per sec. This depends on the location of the shadow on the Earth and the angle in which it is moving.

Eclipse cycles
An eclipse cycle takes place when eclipses in a series are separated by a certain interval of time. This happens when the orbital motions of the bodies form repeating harmonic patterns. A particular instance is the saros, which results in a repetition of a solar or lunar eclipse every 6,585.3 days, or a little over 18 years. Because this is not a whole number of days, successive eclipses will be visible from different parts of the world. In one saros period there are 239.0 anomalistic periods, 241.0 sidereal periods, 242.0 nodical periods, and 223.0 synodic periods. Although the orbit of the Moon does not give exact integers, the numbers of orbit cycles are close enough to integers to give strong similarity for eclipses spaced at 18.03 yr intervals.

Earth–Moon system
An eclipse involving the Sun, Earth, and Moon can occur only when they are nearly in a straight line, allowing one to be hidden behind another, viewed from the third. Because the orbital plane of the Moon is tilted with respect to the orbital plane of the Earth (the ecliptic), eclipses can occur only when the Moon is close to the intersection of these two planes (the nodes). The Sun, Earth and nodes are aligned twice a year (during an eclipse season), and eclipses can occur during a period of about two months around these times. There can be from four to seven eclipses in a calendar year, which repeat according to various eclipse cycles, such as a saros.

Between 1901 and 2100 there are the maximum of seven eclipses in:
 * four (penumbral) lunar and three solar eclipses: 1908, 2038.
 * four solar and three lunar eclipses: 1918, 1973, 2094.
 * five solar and two lunar eclipses: 1934.

Excluding penumbral lunar eclipses, there are a maximum of seven eclipses in:
 * 1591, 1656, 1787, 1805, 1918, 1935, 1982, and 2094.

Solar eclipse
As observed from the Earth, a solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes in front of the Sun. The type of solar eclipse event depends on the distance of the Moon from the Earth during the event. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Earth intersects the umbra portion of the Moon's shadow. When the umbra does not reach the surface of the Earth, the Sun is only partially occulted, resulting in an annular eclipse. Partial solar eclipses occur when the viewer is inside the penumbra. The eclipse magnitude is the fraction of the Sun's diameter that is covered by the Moon. For a total eclipse, this value is always greater than or equal to one. In both annular and total eclipses, the eclipse magnitude is the ratio of the angular sizes of the Moon to the Sun.

Solar eclipses are relatively brief events that can only be viewed in totality along a relatively narrow track. Under the most favorable circumstances, a total solar eclipse can last for 7 minutes, 31 seconds, and can be viewed along a track that is up to 250 km wide. However, the region where a partial eclipse can be observed is much larger. The Moon's umbra will advance eastward at a rate of 1,700 km/h, until it no longer intersects the Earth's surface.

During a solar eclipse, the Moon can sometimes perfectly cover the Sun because its apparent size is nearly the same as the Sun's when viewed from the Earth. A total solar eclipse is in fact an occultation while an annular solar eclipse is a transit.

When observed at points in space other than from the Earth's surface, the Sun can be eclipsed by bodies other than the Moon. Two examples include when the crew of Apollo 12 observed the Earth to eclipse the Sun in 1969 and when the Cassini probe observed Saturn to eclipse the Sun in 2006.

Lunar eclipse
Lunar eclipses occur when the Moon passes through the Earth's shadow. This happens only during a full moon, when the Moon is on the far side of the Earth from the Sun. Unlike a solar eclipse, an eclipse of the Moon can be observed from nearly an entire hemisphere. For this reason it is much more common to observe a lunar eclipse from a given location. A lunar eclipse lasts longer, taking several hours to complete, with totality itself usually averaging anywhere from about 30 minutes to over an hour.

There are three types of lunar eclipses: penumbral, when the Moon crosses only the Earth's penumbra; partial, when the Moon crosses partially into the Earth's umbra; and total, when the Moon crosses entirely into the Earth's umbra. Total lunar eclipses pass through all three phases. Even during a total lunar eclipse, however, the Moon is not completely dark. Sunlight refracted through the Earth's atmosphere enters the umbra and provides a faint illumination. Much as in a sunset, the atmosphere tends to more strongly scatter light with shorter wavelengths, so the illumination of the Moon by refracted light has a red hue, thus the phrase 'Blood Moon' is often found in descriptions of such lunar events as far back as eclipses are recorded.

Historical record
Records of solar eclipses have been kept since ancient times. Eclipse dates can be used for chronological dating of historical records. A Syrian clay tablet, in the Ugaritic language, records a solar eclipse which occurred on March 5, 1223, B.C., while Paul Griffin argues that a stone in Ireland records an eclipse on November 30, 3340 B.C. Positing classical-era astronomers' use of Babylonian eclipse records mostly from the 13th century BC provides a feasible and mathematically consistent explanation for the Greek finding all three lunar mean motions (synodic, anomalistic, draconitic) to a precision of about one part in a million or better. Chinese historical records of solar eclipses date back over 3,000 years and have been used to measure changes in the Earth's rate of spin.

The first person to give scientific explanation on eclipses was Anaxagoras [c500BC - 428BC]. Anaxagoras stated that the Moon shines by reflected light from the Sun.

In 5th century AD, solar and lunar eclipses were scientifically explained by Aryabhata, in his treatise Aryabhatiya. Aryabhata states that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight and explains eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth. Aryabhata provides the computation and the size of the eclipsed part during an eclipse. Indian computations were very accurate that 18th-century French scientist Guillaume Le Gentil, during a visit to Pondicherry, India, found the Indian computations of the duration of the lunar eclipse of 30 August 1765 to be short by only 41 seconds, whereas Le Gentil's charts were long by 68 seconds.

By the 1600s, European astronomers were publishing books with diagrams explaining how lunar and solar eclipses occurred. In order to disseminate this information to a broader audience and decrease fear of the consequences of eclipses, booksellers printed broadsides explaining the event either using the science or via astrology.

Eclipses in mythology and religion
The American author Gene Weingarten described the tension between belief and eclipses thus: "I am a devout atheist but can't explain why the moon is exactly the right size, and gets positioned so precisely between the Earth and the sun, that total solar eclipses are perfect. It bothers me."

The Graeco-Roman historian Cassius Dio, writing between AD 211-229, relates the anecdote that Emperor Claudius considered it necessary to prevent disturbance among the Roman population by publishing a prediction for a solar eclipse which would fall on his birthday anniversary [1 August in the year AD 45]. In this context, Cassius Dio provides a detailed explanation of solar and lunar eclipses.

Typically in mythology, eclipses were understood to be one variation or another of a spiritual battle between the sun and evil forces or spirits of darkness. More specifically, in Norse mythology, it is believed that there is a wolf by the name of Fenrir that is in constant pursuit of the Sun, and eclipses are thought to occur when the wolf successfully devours the divine Sun. Other Norse tribes believe that there are two wolves by the names of Sköll and Hati that are in pursuit of the Sun and the Moon, known by the names of Sol and Mani, and these tribes believe that an eclipse occurs when one of the wolves successfully eats either the Sun or the Moon.

In most types of mythologies and certain religions, eclipses were seen as a sign that the gods were angry and that danger was soon to come, so people often altered their actions in an effort to dissuade the gods from unleashing their wrath. In the Hindu religion, for example, people often sing religious hymns for protection from the evil spirits of the eclipse, and many people of the Hindu religion refuse to eat during an eclipse to avoid the effects of the evil spirits. Hindu people living in India will also wash off in the Ganges River, which is believed to be spiritually cleansing, directly following an eclipse to clean themselves of the evil spirits. In early Judaism and Christianity, eclipses were viewed as signs from God, and some eclipses were seen as a display of God's greatness or even signs of cycles of life and death. However, more ominous eclipses such as a blood moon were believed to be a divine sign that God would soon destroy their enemies.

Gas giants
The gas giant planets have many moons and thus frequently display eclipses. The most striking involve Jupiter, which has four large moons and a low axial tilt, making eclipses more frequent as these bodies pass through the shadow of the larger planet. Transits occur with equal frequency. It is common to see the larger moons casting circular shadows upon Jupiter's cloudtops.

The eclipses of the Galilean moons by Jupiter became accurately predictable once their orbital elements were known. During the 1670s, it was discovered that these events were occurring about 17 minutes later than expected when Jupiter was on the far side of the Sun. Ole Rømer deduced that the delay was caused by the time needed for light to travel from Jupiter to the Earth. This was used to produce the first estimate of the speed of light.

The timing of the Jovian satellite eclipses was also used to calculate an observer's longitude upon the Earth. By knowing the expected time when an eclipse would be observed at a standard longitude (such as Greenwich), the time difference could be computed by accurately observing the local time of the eclipse. The time difference gives the longitude of the observer because every hour of difference corresponded to 15° around the Earth's equator. This technique was used, for example, by Giovanni D. Cassini in 1679 to re-map France.

On the other three gas giants (Saturn, Uranus and Neptune) eclipses only occur at certain periods during the planet's orbit, due to their higher inclination between the orbits of the moon and the orbital plane of the planet. The moon Titan, for example, has an orbital plane tilted about 1.6° to Saturn's equatorial plane. But Saturn has an axial tilt of nearly 27°. The orbital plane of Titan only crosses the line of sight to the Sun at two points along Saturn's orbit. As the orbital period of Saturn is 29.7 years, an eclipse is only possible about every 15 years.

Mars
On Mars, only partial solar eclipses (transits) are possible, because neither of its moons is large enough, at their respective orbital radii, to cover the Sun's disc as seen from the surface of the planet. Eclipses of the moons by Mars are not only possible, but commonplace, with hundreds occurring each Earth year. There are also rare occasions when Deimos is eclipsed by Phobos. Martian eclipses have been photographed from both the surface of Mars and from orbit.

Pluto
Pluto, with its proportionately largest moon Charon, is also the site of many eclipses. A series of such mutual eclipses occurred between 1985 and 1990. These daily events led to the first accurate measurements of the physical parameters of both objects.

Mercury and Venus
Eclipses are impossible on Mercury and Venus, which have no moons. However, as seen from the Earth, both have been observed to transit across the face of the Sun. Transits of Venus occur in pairs separated by an interval of eight years, but each pair of events happen less than once a century. According to NASA, the next pair of Venus transits will occur on December 10, 2117, and December 8, 2125. Transits of Mercury are much more common, occurring 13 times each century, on average.

Eclipsing binaries
A binary star system consists of two stars that orbit around their common centre of mass. The movements of both stars lie on a common orbital plane in space. When this plane is very closely aligned with the location of an observer, the stars can be seen to pass in front of each other. The result is a type of extrinsic variable star system called an eclipsing binary.

The maximum luminosity of an eclipsing binary system is equal to the sum of the luminosity contributions from the individual stars. When one star passes in front of the other, the luminosity of the system is seen to decrease. The luminosity returns to normal once the two stars are no longer in alignment.

The first eclipsing binary star system to be discovered was Algol, a star system in the constellation Perseus. Normally this star system has a visual magnitude of 2.1. However, every 2.867 days the magnitude decreases to 3.4 for more than nine hours. This is caused by the passage of the dimmer member of the pair in front of the brighter star. The concept that an eclipsing body caused these luminosity variations was introduced by John Goodricke in 1783.

Types
Sun – Moon – Earth: Solar eclipse | annular eclipse | hybrid eclipse | partial eclipse

Sun – Earth – Moon: Lunar eclipse | penumbral eclipse | partial lunar eclipse | central lunar eclipse

Sun – Phobos – Mars: Transit of Phobos from Mars | Solar eclipses on Mars

Sun – Deimos – Mars: Transit of Deimos from Mars | Solar eclipses on Mars

Other types: Solar eclipses on Jupiter | Solar eclipses on Saturn | Solar eclipses on Uranus | Solar eclipses on Neptune | Solar eclipses on Pluto

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Eclipse


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Ed (software)

 (pronounced as distinct letters, ) is a line editor for Unix and Unix-like operating systems. It was one of the first parts of the Unix operating system that was developed, in August 1969. It remains part of the POSIX and Open Group standards for Unix-based operating systems, alongside the more sophisticated full-screen editor vi.

History and influence
The ed text editor was one of the first three key elements of the Unix operating system—assembler, editor, and shell—developed by Ken Thompson in August 1969 on a PDP-7 at AT&T Bell Labs. Many features of ed came from the qed text editor developed at Thompson's alma mater University of California, Berkeley. Thompson was very familiar with qed, and had reimplemented it on the CTSS and Multics systems. Thompson's versions of qed were notable as the first to implement regular expressions. Regular expressions are also implemented in ed, though their implementation is considerably less general than that in qed.

Dennis M. Ritchie produced what Doug McIlroy later described as the "definitive" ed, and aspects of ed went on to influence ex, which in turn spawned vi. The non-interactive Unix command grep was inspired by a common special use of qed and later ed, where the command  performs a global regular expression search and prints the lines containing matches. The Unix stream editor, sed implemented many of the scripting features of qed that were not supported by ed on Unix.

Features
Features of ed include:
 * available on essentially all Unix systems (and mandatory on systems conforming to the Single Unix Specification).
 * support for regular expressions
 * powerful automation can be achieved by feeding commands from standard input

(In)famous for its terseness, ed, compatible with teletype terminals like Teletype Model 33, gives almost no visual feedback, and has been called (by Peter H. Salus) "the most user-hostile editor ever created", even when compared to the contemporary (and notoriously complex) TECO. For example, the message that ed will produce in case of error, and when it wants to make sure the user wishes to quit without saving, is "?". It does not report the current filename or line number, or even display the results of a change to the text, unless requested. Older versions (c. 1981) did not even ask for confirmation when a quit command was issued without the user saving changes. This terseness was appropriate in the early versions of Unix, when consoles were teletypes, modems were slow, and memory was precious. As computer technology improved and these constraints were loosened, editors with more visual feedback became the norm. In current practice, ed is rarely used interactively, but does find use in some shell scripts. For interactive use, ed was subsumed by the sam, vi and Emacs editors in the 1980s. ed can be found on virtually every version of Unix and Linux available, and as such is useful for people who have to work with multiple versions of Unix. On Unix-based operating systems, some utilities like SQL*Plus run ed as the editor if the EDITOR and VISUAL environment variables are not defined. If something goes wrong, ed is sometimes the only editor available. This is often the only time when it is used interactively.

The version of ed provided by GNU has a few switches to enhance the feedback. Using provides a simple prompt and enables more useful feedback messages. The switch is defined in POSIX since XPG2 (1987).

The ed commands are often imitated in other line-based editors. For example, EDLIN in early MS-DOS versions and 32-bit versions of Windows NT has a somewhat similar syntax, and text editors in many MUDs (LPMud and descendants, for example) use ed-like syntax. These editors, however, are typically more limited in function.

Example
Here is an example transcript of an ed session. For clarity, commands and text typed by the user are in normal face, and output from ed is emphasized.

a This is line number two. . 2i . ,l ed is the standard Unix text editor.$ $ This is line number two.$ w text 63 ,l ed is the standard Unix text editor.$ $ This is line number three.$ w text 65 q

The end result is a simple text file containing the following text:

ed is the standard Unix text editor. This is line number three.

Started with an empty file, the  command appends text (all ed commands are single letters). The command puts ed in insert mode, inserting the characters that follow and is terminated by a single dot on a line. The two lines that are entered before the dot end up in the file buffer. The  command also goes into insert mode, and will insert the entered text (a single empty line in our case) before line two. All commands may be prefixed by a line number to operate on that line.

In the line, the lowercase L stands for the list command. The command is prefixed by a range, in this case  which is a shortcut for. A range is two line numbers separated by a comma ( means the last line). In return, ed lists all lines, from first to last. These lines are ended with dollar signs, so that white space at the end of lines is clearly visible.

Once the empty line is inserted in line 2, the line which reads "This is line number two." is now actually the third line. This error is corrected with 3s/two/three/, a substitution command. The  will apply it to the correct line; following the command is the text to be replaced, and then the replacement. Listing all lines with  the line is shown now to be correct.

writes the buffer to the file "text" making ed respond with 65, the number of characters written to the file. will end an ed session.

Cultural references
The GNU Project has numerous jokes around ed hosted on its website. In addition, the glibc documentation notes an error code called ED with its description (errorstr) merely a single question mark, noting "the experienced user will know what is wrong."

title: Ed (software)


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Edlin

Edlin is a line editor, and the only text editor provided with early versions of IBM PC DOS, MS-DOS and OS/2. Although superseded in MS-DOS 5.0 and later by the full-screen MS-DOS Editor, and by Notepad in Microsoft Windows, it continues to be included in the 32-bit versions of current Microsoft operating systems.

History
Edlin was created by Tim Paterson in two weeks in 1980, for Seattle Computer Products's 86-DOS (QDOS) based on the CP/M context editor ED, itself distantly inspired by the Unix ed line editor.

Microsoft acquired 86-DOS and, after some further development, sold it as MS-DOS, so Edlin was included in v1.0–v5.0 of MS-DOS. From MS-DOS 6 onwards, the only editor included was the new full-screen MS-DOS Editor.

Windows 95, 98 and ME ran on top of an embedded version of DOS, which reports itself as MS-DOS 7. As a successor to MS-DOS 6, this did not include Edlin.

However, Edlin is included in the 32-bit versions of Windows NT and its derivatives—up to and including Windows 10—because the NTVDM's DOS support in those operating systems is based on MS-DOS version 5.0. However, unlike most other external DOS commands, it has not been transformed into a native Win32 program. It also does not support long filenames, which were not added to MS-DOS and Windows until long after Edlin was written.

The FreeDOS version was developed by Gregory Pietsch.

Usage
There are only a few commands. The short list can be found by entering a ? at the edlin prompt.

When a file is open, typing L lists the contents (e.g.,  lists lines 1 through 6). Each line is displayed with a line number in front of it.

*1,6L 1: Edlin: The only text editor in early versions of DOS. 2:       3: Back in the day, I remember seeing web pages 4: branded with a logo at the bottom: 5: "This page created in edlin." 6: The things that some people put themselves through. ;-) *

The currently selected line has a *. To replace the contents of any line, the line number is entered and any text entered replaces the original. While editing a line pressing Ctrl-C cancels any changes. The * marker remains on that line.

Entering I (optionally preceded with a line number) inserts one or more lines before the * line or the line given. When finished entering lines, Ctrl-C returns to the edlin command prompt.

*6I 6:*(...or similar) 7:*^C *7D *L 1: Edlin: The only text editor in early versions of DOS. 2:       3: Back in the day, I remember seeing web pages 4: branded with a logo at the bottom: 5: "This page created in edlin." 6: (...or similar) *

 * i - Inserts lines of text.
 * D - deletes the specified line, again optionally starting with the number of a line, or a range of lines. E.g.:   deletes lines 2 through 4.  In the above example, line 7 was deleted.

 * R - is used to replace all occurrences of a piece of text in a given range of lines, for example, to replace a spelling error. Including the ? prompts for each change.  E.g.: To replace 'prit' with 'print' and to prompt for each change:   (the ^Z represents pressing CTRL-Z).  It is case-sensitive.

 * S - searches for given text. It is used in the same way as replace, but without the replacement text.  A search for 'apple' in the first 20 lines of a file is typed   (no space, unless that is part of the search) followed by a press of enter.  For each match, it asks if it is the correct one, and accepts n or y (or Enter).

 * P - displays a listing of a range of lines. If no range is specified, P displays the complete file from the * to the end. This is different from L in that P changes the current line to be the last line in the range.

 * T - transfers another file into the one being edited, with this syntax: [line to insert at]t[full path to file].

 * W - (write) saves the file.

 * E - saves the file and quits edlin.

 * Q - quits edlin without saving.

Scripts
Edlin may be used as a non-interactive file editor in scripts by redirecting a series of edlin commands.

edlin < script

FreeDOS Edlin
A GPL-licensed clone of Edlin that includes long filename support is available for download as part of the FreeDOS project. This runs on operating systems such as Linux or Unix as well as MS-DOS.

title: Edlin


text:
EBCDIC

Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC; ) is an eight-bit character encoding used mainly on IBM mainframe and IBM midrange computer operating systems. It descended from the code used with punched cards and the corresponding six-bit binary-coded decimal code used with most of IBM's computer peripherals of the late 1950s and early 1960s. It is supported by various non-IBM platforms, such as Fujitsu-Siemens' BS2000/OSD, OS-IV, MSP, and MSP-EX, the SDS Sigma series, Unisys VS/9, Unisys MCP and ICL VME.

History
EBCDIC was devised in 1963 and 1964 by IBM and was announced with the release of the IBM System/360 line of mainframe computers. It is an eight-bit character encoding, developed separately from the seven-bit ASCII encoding scheme. It was created to extend the existing Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD) Interchange Code, or BCDIC, which itself was devised as an efficient means of encoding the two zone and number punches on punched cards into six bits. The distinct encoding of 's' and 'S' (using position 2 instead of 1) was maintained from punched cards where it was desirable not to have hole punches too close to each other to ensure the integrity of the physical card.

While IBM was a chief proponent of the ASCII standardization committee, the company did not have time to prepare ASCII peripherals (such as card punch machines) to ship with its System/360 computers, so the company settled on EBCDIC. The System/360 became wildly successful, together with clones such as RCA Spectra 70, ICL System 4, and Fujitsu FACOM, thus so did EBCDIC.

All IBM's mainframe operating systems, and its IBM i operating system for midrange computers, use EBCDIC as their inherent encoding (with toleration for ASCII, for example, ISPF in z/OS can browse and edit both EBCDIC and ASCII encoded files). Software can translate to and from encodings, and modern mainframes (such as IBM Z) include processor instructions, at the hardware level, to accelerate translation between character sets.

There is an EBCDIC-oriented Unicode Transformation Format called UTF-EBCDIC proposed by the Unicode Consortium, designed to allow easy updating of EBCDIC software to handle Unicode, but not intended to be used in open interchange environments. Even on systems with extensive EBCDIC support, it has not been popular. For example, z/OS supports Unicode (preferring UTF-16 specifically), but z/OS only has limited support for UTF-EBCDIC.

Not all operating systems running on IBM hardware use EBCDIC; IBM AIX, Linux on IBM Z, and Linux on Power all use ASCII, as do all operating systems that run on the IBM Personal Computer and its successors.

Compatibility with ASCII
There were numerous difficulties to writing software that would work in both ASCII and EBCDIC.
 * The gaps between letters made simple code that worked in ASCII fail on EBCDIC. For example for (c = 'A'; c <= 'Z'; ++c) putchar(c); would print the alphabet from A to Z if ASCII is used, but print 41 characters (including a number of unassigned ones) in EBCDIC.
 * Sorting EBCDIC put lowercase letters before uppercase letters and letters before numbers, exactly the opposite of ASCII.
 * Most programming languages and file formats and network protocols designed for ASCII used available punctuation marks (such as the curly braces $($ and $)$) that did not exist in EBCDIC, making translation to EBCDIC systems difficult. Workarounds such as trigraphs were used. Conversely EBCDIC had a few characters such as ¢ (US cent) that got used on IBM systems and could not be translated to ASCII.
 * The most common newline convention used with EBCDIC is to use a NEL (NEXT LINE) code between lines. Converters to other encodings often replace NEL with LF or CR/LF, even if there is a NEL in the target encoding. This causes the LF and NEL to translate to the same character and be unable to be distinguished.
 * If seven-bit ASCII was used, there was an "unused" high bit in 8-bit bytes, and many pieces of software stored other information there. Software would also pack the seven bits and discard the eighth, such as packing five seven-bit ASCII characters in a 36-bit word. On the PDP-11 bytes with the high bit set were treated as negative numbers, behavior that was copied to C, causing unexpected problems if the high bit was set. These all made it difficult to switch from ASCII to the 8-bit EBCDIC (and also made it difficult to switch to 8-bit extended ASCII encodings).

Code page layout
There are hundreds of EBCDIC code pages based on the original EBCDIC character encoding; there are a variety of EBCDIC code pages intended for use in different parts of the world, including code pages for non-Latin scripts such as Chinese, Japanese (e.g., EBCDIC 930, JEF, and KEIS), Korean, and Greek (EBCDIC 875). There is also a huge number of variations with the letters swapped around for no discernible reason.

The table below shows the "invariant subset" of EBCDIC, which are characters that should have the same assignments on all EBCDIC code pages that use the Latin alphabet. (This includes most of the ISO/IEC 646 invariant repertoire, except the exclamation mark.) It also shows (in gray) missing ASCII and EBCDIC punctuation, located where they are in Code Page 37 (one of the code page variants of EBCDIC). The blank cells are filled with region-specific characters in the variants, but the characters in gray are often swapped around or replaced as well. Like ASCII, the invariant subset works only for languages using the ISO basic Latin alphabet, such as English (excluding loanwords and some uncommon orthographic variations) and Dutch (if the "ĳ" and "Ĳ" ligatures are written as two characters).

Definitions of non-ASCII EBCDIC controls
Following are the definitions of EBCDIC control characters which either do not map onto the ASCII control characters, or have additional uses. When mapped to Unicode, these are mostly mapped to C1 control character codepoints in a manner specified by IBM's Character Data Representation Architecture (CDRA).

Although the default mapping of New Line (NL) corresponds to the ISO/IEC 6429 Next Line (NEL) character (the behaviour of which is also specified, but not required, in Unicode Annex 14), most of these C1-mapped controls match neither those in the ISO/IEC 6429 C1 set, nor those in other registered C1 control sets such as ISO 6630. Although this effectively makes the non-ASCII EBCDIC controls a unique C1 control set, they are not among the C1 control sets registered in the ISO-IR registry, meaning that they do not have an assigned control set designation sequence (as specified by ISO/IEC 2022, and optionally permitted in ISO/IEC 10646 (Unicode)).

Besides U+0085 (Next Line), the Unicode Standard does not prescribe an interpretation of C1 control characters, leaving their interpretation to higher level protocols (it suggests, but does not require, their ISO/IEC 6429 interpretations in the absence of use for other purposes), so this mapping is permissible in, but not specified by, Unicode.

Code pages with Latin-1 character sets
The following code pages have the full Latin-1 character set (ISO/IEC 8859-1). The first column gives the original code page number. The second column gives the number of the code page updated with the euro sign (€) replacing the universal currency sign (¤) (or in the case of EBCDIC 924, with the set changed to match ISO 8859-15)

Different countries have different code pages because these code pages originated as code pages with country-specific character repertoires, and were later expanded to contain the entire ISO 8859-1 repertoire, meaning that a given ISO 8859-1 character may have different code point values in different code pages. They are known as Country Extended Code Pages (CECPs).

Criticism and humor
Open-source software advocate and software developer Eric S. Raymond writes in his Jargon File that EBCDIC was loathed by hackers, by which he meant members of a subculture of enthusiastic programmers. The Jargon File 4.4.7 gives the following definition: "EBCDIC: /eb´s@·dik/, /eb´see`dik/, /eb´k@·dik/, n. [abbreviation, Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code] An alleged character set used on IBM dinosaurs. It exists in at least six mutually incompatible versions, all featuring such delights as non-contiguous letter sequences and the absence of several ASCII punctuation characters fairly important for modern computer languages (exactly which characters are absent varies according to which version of EBCDIC you're looking at). IBM adapted EBCDIC from punched card code in the early 1960s and promulgated it as a customer-control tactic (see connector conspiracy), spurning the already established ASCII standard. Today, IBM claims to be an open-systems company, but IBM's own description of the EBCDIC variants and how to convert between them is still internally classified top-secret, burn-before-reading. Hackers blanch at the very name of EBCDIC and consider it a manifestation of purest evil."

EBCDIC design was also the source of many jokes. One such joke, found in the Unix fortune file of 4.3BSD Reno (1990) went: "Professor: 'So the American government went to IBM to come up with an encryption standard, and they came up with—' Student: 'EBCDIC!'"

References to the EBCDIC character set are made in the 1979 computer game series Zork. In the "Machine Room" in Zork II, EBCDIC is used to imply an incomprehensible language: "This is a large room full of assorted heavy machinery, whirring noisily. The room smells of burned resistors. Along one wall are three buttons which are, respectively, round, triangular, and square. Naturally, above these buttons are instructions written in EBCDIC..."

In 2021, it became public that a Belgian bank was still using EBCDIC internally in 2019. A customer insisted that the correct spelling of his surname included an umlaut, which the bank omitted, and the customer filed a complaint citing the guarantee in the General Data Protection Regulation of the right to timely "rectification of inaccurate personal data." The bank's argument included the fact that their system used EBCDIC, as well as that it did not support letters with diacritics (or lower case, for that matter). The appeals court ruled in favor of the customer.

title: EBCDIC


text:
Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a part of a transportation system of the eukaryotic cell, and has many other important functions such as protein folding. It is a type of organelle made up of two subunits – rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). The endoplasmic reticulum is found in most eukaryotic cells and forms an interconnected network of flattened, membrane-enclosed sacs known as cisternae (in the RER), and tubular structures in the SER. The membranes of the ER are continuous with the outer nuclear membrane. The endoplasmic reticulum is not found in red blood cells, or spermatozoa.

The two types of ER share many of the same proteins and engage in certain common activities such as the synthesis of certain lipids and cholesterol. Different types of cells contain different ratios of the two types of ER depending on the activities of the cell. RER is found mainly toward the nucleus of cell and SER towards the cell membrane or plasma membrane of cell.

The outer (cytosolic) face of the RER is studded with ribosomes that are the sites of protein synthesis. The RER is especially prominent in cells such as hepatocytes. The SER lacks ribosomes and functions in lipid synthesis but not metabolism, the production of steroid hormones, and detoxification. The SER is especially abundant in mammalian liver and gonad cells.

The ER was observed by light microscopy by Garnier in 1897, who coined the term ergastoplasm. The lacy membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum were first seen by electron microscopy in 1945 by Keith R. Porter, Albert Claude, and Ernest F. Fullam. Later, the word reticulum, which means "network", was applied by Porter in 1953 to describe this fabric of membranes.

Structure

The general structure of the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes called cisternae. These sac-like structures are held together by the cytoskeleton. The phospholipid membrane encloses the cisternal space (or lumen), which is continuous with the perinuclear space but separate from the cytosol. The functions of the endoplasmic reticulum can be summarized as the synthesis and export of proteins and membrane lipids, but varies between ER and cell type and cell function. The quantity of both rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum in a cell can slowly interchange from one type to the other, depending on the changing metabolic activities of the cell. Transformation can include embedding of new proteins in membrane as well as structural changes. Changes in protein content may occur without noticeable structural changes.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum
The surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (often abbreviated RER or rough ER; also called granular endoplasmic reticulum) is studded with protein-manufacturing ribosomes giving it a "rough" appearance (hence its name). The binding site of the ribosome on the rough endoplasmic reticulum is the translocon. However, the ribosomes are not a stable part of this organelle's structure as they are constantly being bound and released from the membrane. A ribosome only binds to the RER once a specific protein-nucleic acid complex forms in the cytosol. This special complex forms when a free ribosome begins translating the mRNA of a protein destined for the secretory pathway. The first 5–30 amino acids polymerized encode a signal peptide, a molecular message that is recognized and bound by a signal recognition particle (SRP). Translation pauses and the ribosome complex binds to the RER translocon where translation continues with the nascent (new) protein forming into the RER lumen and/or membrane. The protein is processed in the ER lumen by an enzyme (a signal peptidase), which removes the signal peptide. Ribosomes at this point may be released back into the cytosol; however, non-translating ribosomes are also known to stay associated with translocons.

The membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is in the form of large double-membrane sheets that are located near, and continuous with, the outer layer of the nuclear envelope. The double membrane sheets are stacked and connected through several right- or left-handed helical ramps, the "Terasaki ramps", giving rise to a structure resembling a parking garage. Although there is no continuous membrane between the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus, membrane-bound transport vesicles shuttle proteins between these two compartments. Vesicles are surrounded by coating proteins called COPI and COPII. COPII targets vesicles to the Golgi apparatus and COPI marks them to be brought back to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The rough endoplasmic reticulum works in concert with the Golgi complex to target new proteins to their proper destinations. The second method of transport out of the endoplasmic reticulum involves areas called membrane contact sites, where the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum and other organelles are held closely together, allowing the transfer of lipids and other small molecules.

The rough endoplasmic reticulum is key in multiple functions:
 * Manufacture of lysosomal enzymes with a mannose-6-phosphate marker added in the cis-Golgi network.
 * Manufacture of secreted proteins, either secreted constitutively with no tag or secreted in a regulatory manner involving clathrin and paired basic amino acids in the signal peptide.
 * Integral membrane proteins that stay embedded in the membrane as vesicles exit and bind to new membranes. Rab proteins are key in targeting the membrane; SNAP and SNARE proteins are key in the fusion event.
 * Initial glycosylation as assembly continues. This is N-linked (O-linking occurs in the Golgi).
 * N-linked glycosylation: If the protein is properly folded, oligosaccharyltransferase recognizes the AA sequence NXS or NXT (with the S/T residue phosphorylated) and adds a 14-sugar backbone (2-N-acetylglucosamine, 9-branching mannose, and 3-glucose at the end) to the side-chain nitrogen of Asn.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

In most cells the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (abbreviated SER) is scarce. Instead there are areas where the ER is partly smooth and partly rough, this area is called the transitional ER. The transitional ER gets its name because it contains ER exit sites. These are areas where the transport vesicles which contain lipids and proteins made in the ER, detach from the ER and start moving to the Golgi apparatus. Specialized cells can have a lot of smooth endoplasmic reticulum and in these cells the smooth ER has many functions. It synthesizes lipids, phospholipids,  and steroids. Cells which secrete these products, such as those in the testes, ovaries, and sebaceous glands have an abundance of smooth endoplasmic reticulum. It also carries out the metabolism of carbohydrates, detoxification of natural metabolism products and of alcohol and drugs, attachment of receptors on cell membrane proteins, and steroid metabolism. In muscle cells, it regulates calcium ion concentration. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is found in a variety of cell types (both animal and plant), and it serves different functions in each. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum also contains the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase, which converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose, a step in gluconeogenesis. It is connected to the nuclear envelope and consists of tubules that are located near the cell periphery. These tubes sometimes branch forming a network that is reticular in appearance. In some cells, there are dilated areas like the sacs of rough endoplasmic reticulum. The network of smooth endoplasmic reticulum allows for an increased surface area to be devoted to the action or storage of key enzymes and the products of these enzymes.

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), from the Greek σάρξ sarx ("flesh"), is smooth ER found in muscle cells. The only structural difference between this organelle and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the composition of proteins they have, both bound to their membranes and drifting within the confines of their lumens. This fundamental difference is indicative of their functions: The endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes molecules, while the sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium ions and pumps them out into the sarcoplasm when the muscle fiber is stimulated. After their release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium ions interact with contractile proteins that utilize ATP to shorten the muscle fiber. The sarcoplasmic reticulum plays a major role in excitation-contraction coupling.

Functions
The endoplasmic reticulum serves many general functions, including the folding of protein molecules in sacs called cisternae and the transport of synthesized proteins in vesicles to the Golgi apparatus. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is also involved in protein synthesis. Correct folding of newly made proteins is made possible by several endoplasmic reticulum chaperone proteins, including protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), ERp29, the Hsp70 family member BiP/Grp78, calnexin, calreticulin, and the peptidylprolyl isomerase family. Only properly folded proteins are transported from the rough ER to the Golgi apparatus – unfolded proteins cause an unfolded protein response as a stress response in the ER. Disturbances in redox regulation, calcium regulation, glucose deprivation, and viral infection or the over-expression of proteins can lead to endoplasmic reticulum stress response (ER stress), a state in which the folding of proteins slows, leading to an increase in unfolded proteins. This stress is emerging as a potential cause of damage in hypoxia/ischemia, insulin resistance, and other disorders.

Protein transport
Secretory proteins, mostly glycoproteins, are moved across the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. Proteins that are transported by the endoplasmic reticulum throughout the cell are marked with an address tag called a signal sequence. The N-terminus (one end) of a polypeptide chain (i.e., a protein) contains a few amino acids that work as an address tag, which are removed when the polypeptide reaches its destination. Nascent peptides reach the ER via the translocon, a membrane-embedded multiprotein complex. Proteins that are destined for places outside the endoplasmic reticulum are packed into transport vesicles and moved along the cytoskeleton toward their destination. In human fibroblasts, the ER is always co-distributed with microtubules and the depolymerisation of the latter cause its co-aggregation with mitochondria, which are also associated with the ER.

The endoplasmic reticulum is also part of a protein sorting pathway. It is, in essence, the transportation system of the eukaryotic cell. The majority of its resident proteins are retained within it through a retention motif. This motif is composed of four amino acids at the end of the protein sequence. The most common retention sequences are KDEL for lumen-located proteins and KKXX for transmembrane proteins. However, variations of KDEL and KKXX do occur, and other sequences can also give rise to endoplasmic reticulum retention. It is not known whether such variation can lead to sub-ER localizations. There are three KDEL (1, 2 and 3) receptors in mammalian cells, and they have a very high degree of sequence identity. The functional differences between these receptors remain to be established.

Bioenergetics regulation of ER ATP supply by a CaATiER mechanism
The endoplasmic reticulum does not harbor an ATP-regeneration machinery, and therefore requires ATP import from mitochondria. The imported ATP is vital for the ER to carry out its house keeping cellular functions, such as for protein folding and trafficking.

The ER ATP transporter, SLC35B1/AXER, was recently cloned and characterized, and the mitochondria supply ATP to the ER through a Ca2+-antagonized transport into the ER (CaATiER) mechanism. The CaATiER mechanism shows sensitivity to cytosolic Ca2+ ranging from high nM to low μM range, with the Ca2+-sensing element yet to be identified and validated.

Clinical significance
Increased and supraphysiological ER stress in pancreatic β cells disrupts normal insulin secretion, leading to hyperinsulinemia and consequently peripheral insulin resistance associated with obesity in humans. Human clinical trials also suggested a causal link between obesity-induced increase in insulin secretion and peripheral insulin resistance.

Abnormalities in XBP1 lead to a heightened endoplasmic reticulum stress response and subsequently causes a higher susceptibility for inflammatory processes that may even contribute to Alzheimer's disease. In the colon, XBP1 anomalies have been linked to the inflammatory bowel diseases including Crohn's disease.

The unfolded protein response (UPR) is a cellular stress response related to the endoplasmic reticulum. The UPR is activated in response to an accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. The UPR functions to restore normal function of the cell by halting protein translation, degrading misfolded proteins, and activating the signaling pathways that lead to increasing the production of molecular chaperones involved in protein folding. Sustained overactivation of the UPR has been implicated in prion diseases as well as several other neurodegenerative diseases and the inhibition of the UPR could become a treatment for those diseases.

title: Endoplasmic reticulum


text:
Enemy (disambiguation)

An enemy or foe is an individual or group that is seen as forcefully adverse or threatening.

Enemy or The Enemy may refer to:
 * Enemy combatant

Fictional entities

 * The Enemy, an alias of Morgoth, a fictional character in Tolkien's legendarium

Films

 * The Enemy (1916 film), directed by Paul Scardon, with Julia Swayne Gordon and Charles Kent
 * The Enemy (1927 film), directed by Fred Niblo, starring Lillian Gish
 * The Enemy (1952 film), directed by Giorgio Bianchi, starring Elisa Cegani
 * The Enemy (1979 film), directed by Yılmaz Güney and Zeki Ökten, starring Aytaç Arman
 * Enemy (1990 film), directed by George Rowe, starring Peter Fonda
 * The Enemy (2001 film), directed by Tom Kinninmont, starring Roger Moore and Luke Perry
 * Enemy (2013 film), directed by Denis Villeneuve, starring Jake Gyllenhaal
 * Enemy (2015 film), an Indian mystery film
 * Enemy (2021 film), an Indian Tamil-language film

Literature

 * The Enemy (Bagley novel), a 1977 espionage thriller by Desmond Bagley
 * The Enemy (Child novel), a 2004 novel by Lee Child in the Jack Reacher thriller series
 * The Enemy (Higson novel), a 2009 young adult novel by Charlie Higson and the first book in an eponymous series
 * The Enemy (short story), a 1958 science-fiction short story by Damon Knight
 * The Enemy, a short story by Pearl S. Buck

Games

 * CIMA: The Enemy (2003), a role-playing video game
 * Enemy (eSports), a professional gaming team

Groups

 * Enemy (American band), an American band fronted by guitarist and vocalist Troy Van Leeuwen
 * The Enemy (New Zealand band), a 1970s punk band from Dunedin, New Zealand
 * The Enemy (English punk band), a 1980s punk band from Derby, Derbyshire, England
 * The Enemy (English rock band), an indie rock band from Coventry, Warwickshire, England
 * The Enemy, a band with Journey drummer Deen Castronovo
 * The Enemy, an American band with Charlie Farren from The Joe Perry Project

Albums

 * Enemy (Blood for Blood album), 1997
 * Enemy (Kristeen Young album), 1999

Songs

 * "Enemy" (Days of the New song), 1999
 * "Enemy" (Drowning Pool song), 2007
 * "Enemy" (Fozzy song)
 * "Enemy" (Sandro Cavazza song), 2019
 * "Enemy" (Sevendust song), 2003
 * "Enemy" (The Brilliant Green song), 2007
 * "Enemy" (Imagine Dragons and JID song), a 2021 song by Imagine Dragons & J.I.D for the League of Legends Netflix series Arcane
 * "Enemy", a song by Beartooth from their album Disease
 * "Enemy", a song by Blue Stahli from The Devil
 * "Enemy", a song by Cascada from the album Original Me
 * "Enemy", a song by Charli XCX from the album How I'm Feeling Now
 * "Enemy", a song by Chris Brown from the 2017 album Heartbreak on a Full Moon
 * "Enemy", a song by Eve 6 from their album Horrorscope
 * "Enemy", a song by Nelly Furtado from the 2012 album The Spirit Indestructible
 * "Enemy", a song by Scars On Broadway from their eponymous album
 * "Enemy", a song by Wage War from their album Blueprints
 * "Enemy", a song by Yung Lean and Bladee from their album Psykos
 * "The Enemy" (Godsmack song)
 * "The Enemy" (Paradise Lost song)
 * "The Enemy", a song by Anthrax from the album Spreading the Disease
 * "The Enemy", a song by Dark Tranquillity from the album Damage Done
 * "The Enemy", a song by Dirty Pretty Things
 * "The Enemy", a song by Guided by Voices from the album Isolation Drills
 * "The Enemy", a song by Memphis May Fire from the album This Light I Hold

Television

 * "The Enemy" (Space: Above and Beyond episode), an episode of Space: Above and Beyond
 * "The Enemy" (Star Trek: The Next Generation), an episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation

Other uses

 * The Enemy (film company), a film production company run by John Harlacher and Dave Buchwald
 * TheEnemy, a Brazilian gaming website hosted by Omelete

title: Enemy (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:Ecumenical council

Merger proposal
I propose that Ancient church councils (pre-ecumenical ) be merged into Ecumenical council. As described in Merging, the two pages have significant overlap, the former "is very short and is unlikely to be expanded within a reasonable amount of time," and the later "requires the background material or context" in the former "in order for readers to understand it." Also, the two pages already contain a significant amount of duplicate information on ancient, pre-ecumenical Christian church councils. I welcome discussion on this proposal. Squideshi (talk) 00:24, 27 December 2012 (UTC)
 * Support per nom. Laurel Lodged (talk) 00:41, 27 December 2012 (UTC)
 * Oppose. There is really no overlap.  The idea that there was may have arisen from the false initial definition of "ecumenical council" previously given in this article, a definition that ignored the adjective "ecumenical" and was applicable to any church council whatever.  The pre-ecumenical ancient church councils were local or at most regional councils like the many local and regional (non-ecumenical) councils that continued to be held also in the time of the ecumenical councils.  Such local or regional councils must have been held in various parts of the Christian world practically every year from the third century onward.  Esoglou (talk) 09:19, 27 December 2012 (UTC)
 * All of the above is true. But the present article would work well as a background section. It would provide the context for the full E councils. It would explain why as an illegal religion full E councils could not have been held up to Constantine. After that, the bluelinks take over. That's what they're there for. There's not enough here to justify an article and it impoverishes the main E article. Laurel Lodged (talk) 11:49, 27 December 2012 (UTC)
 * Maybe the article should be simply renamed / moved to Christian church councils and include information about both ecumenical and pre-ecumenical councils. There can be a section for each. As it stands it is really difficult to get a good picture of a complete listing of councils, ecumenical or not. Squideshi (talk) 20:16, 27 December 2012 (UTC)

 * Sorry, but if you want "a complete listing of councils", you need a list or a category (like, well, Category:Christian church councils). An article with such a list will be far too large. --Martynas Patasius (talk) 20:56, 27 December 2012 (UTC)

 * That's not a bad idea, and I am not opposed to that. I am concerned, however, that it will not fully address the concern I have raised, because there are not currently seperate articles for each council, and there is no way to tag the missing articles with such a category; therefore, the list generated would be incomplete. I came to this topic hoping to read about Christian church councils, starting with the earliest and moving to the most recent. I now understand that that there is a distinction between pre-ecumenical (which may have been local, appear to be accepted by most Christians, and appear to also be called synods) and ecumenical (which may have had wider participation and were recognized by the Roman Empire) but I really don't care about the distinction between ecumenical and pre-ecumenical. Since both types appear to be accepted by a large number of Christians, I just want to read about them all, with perhaps a note telling me which ones are "ecumenical." As it stands, it has been very difficult for me to get a good understanding about this topic; and I feel that the current structure has failed me, because I am still not convinced that I fully understand all of the distinctions between ecumenical and pre-ecumenical Christian church counils, and synods. I think that a good structure should make it easy for someone to learn about these topics as a whole. I think, perhaps, the solution is just to create a new article--named Christian church councils that serves my purpose and leave the existing two articles for people who ONLY want to write / read about ecumenical or pre-ecumenical councils. Squideshi (talk) 20:19, 28 December 2012 (UTC)

 * Sorry, but have you actually looked at the category in question..? If you want an article describing a church council that is not necessarily an ecumenical council, then we have an article "Synod". If you really want an article that would list, let's say, Provincial Councils of Baltimore, Synod of Dort, Council of Bourges, Council of Jerusalem and the like (and add some explanation about each of them), then, well, your wish is unreasonable (and that's why I do not think that it is what you want). Such an article would be a complete mess. If you want a list instead, with links (blue and red), then, well, someone will have to write it. As usually, writing something like that yourself might be a good way to learn something about the subject. --Martynas Patasius (talk) 22:19, 28 December 2012 (UTC)

 * I want an article that covers Christian church councils, regardless of ecumenical status. Such an article should give a brief description of each council, including information about ecumenical status, with a link to a more detailed individual article for each council about which someone is interested in writing an standalone article. I do not think this is unreasonable and I do not believe that such an article would be a complete mess, so we will have to agree to disagree about that. In any case, I had always planned to do the work myself; so it wasn't really a request for action on anyone else's part. I just thought it might be a good idea to post the proposal here first, in order to seek consensus, which is obviously not going to happen. For this reason, I am withdrawing the proposal and removing the merger tags from both pages. Squideshi (talk) 23:03, 28 December 2012 (UTC)

 * In such case, create a text file (or something like that) and make a list of all councils in that category (and subcategories). Count them (and remember - as you said yourself, many councils have no articles yet; furthermore, sometimes one article describes many councils). Multiply the count by the number of bytes in the average description you imagine (each name itself will take about 20 bytes, if not more). And read WP:SIZE. Then you will see why I think that your proposal is unreasonable. --Martynas Patasius (talk) 00:29, 29 December 2012 (UTC)

 * That might have been true for the time when the merge was proposed, but now the article is much longer. As for "impoverishment", I guess that one can add a short "Background" section, but there is no need to call that a merger (and turn the other article to a redirect). After all, they discuss related but separate things. --Martynas Patasius (talk) 21:03, 27 December 2012 (UTC)
 * Thanks to MP for pointing out that the goalposts have moved - a lot. I must object in strong terms to this egregious breech of wiki etiquette by Esoglou. It's a transparent attempt to bulk up a thin article by blantly cutting & pasting from all the bluelinks - especially after I had pointed out that they were present and perfectly adequate as they stood. Laurel Lodged (talk) 21:46, 27 December 2012 (UTC)

 * So, you think that the text added by Esglou should not be in that article..? --Martynas Patasius (talk) 00:15, 28 December 2012 (UTC)
 * I take the liberty of pointing out that there were no "blue links" to the information about the mid-2nd century councils concerning Montanism, which Hefele calls the first known church councils, nor to those on Quartodecimanism, which Hefele calls the second-earliest set of known church councils, nor to the information drawn from Hefele on participants, nor to the correction of the statement that (without distinction) the pre-ecumenical councils were held when Christianity was illegal, of the implied statement that after the Edict of Milan pre-ecumenical councils had civil status (not merely religious?), of the statement that ecumenical councils are seen as traditional (it was surely a novelty to hold a council of all the bishops of the Church without geographical distinction). I thought that my additions would show up how baseless was the claim (which in spite of my pointing out its falsehood was insisted on here) of overlap between the topics of "ecumenical councils" (which began in 325 and, according to some views, have continued until at least the 20th century) and what are here quite awkwardly called "ancient church councils (pre-ecumenical)" (a more appropriate name would be "pre-Nicene church councils").  It should have been obvious that any overlap that exists is instead between "ecumenical councils" and "church councils in general", not limited to the pre-325 period when there were no ecumenical councils.  Since my work has been objected to and since, moreover, my aim has been achieved, I will add no more.  Esoglou (talk) 08:59, 28 December 2012 (UTC)

Navbox template: Ecumenical council
Greetings, Today I added Catholicism template which contains a link to Ecumenical Councils which is a pretty close match to this EC article. Even though each is a different topic, they are closely related. Regards, JoeHebda (talk) 19:32, 29 June 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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Anglican Communion
I am new(ish) to Wikipedia. I felt it would be better to receive guidance on editing the article here rather than go ahead and edit it. Your help is appreciated.

At the 2008 Global Anglican Future Conference (GAFCON), The Jerusalem Declaration was affirmed and states: "We uphold the four Ecumenical Councils and the three historic Creeds as expressing the rule of faith of the one holy catholic and apostolic Church." The current wording of the article seems hesitant/uncertain about where the Anglican church stands. Here's the full Declaration from the GAFCON website: https://www.gafcon.org/resources/the-jerusalem-declaration

Mary (talk) 19:17, 15 March 2017 (UTC)

Council of Crete - Eight Ecumenical council
The Council of Crete 2016, according to the sources provided in the article is considered the Eighth Ecumenical council. The majority of the Orthodox Patriarchates and autocephalous churches consider it the 8th ecumenical council and its results are binding. Thus, the Council of Crete should be more adequately referred as "recognized as the 8th council by the majority of the autocephalous churches" or the sources provided should be updated if it is not so. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Apavlides24 (talk • contribs) 19:26, 21 October 2017 (UTC)

Biased in favour of a particular denomination families
The article gives preference to first Seven Ecumenical Councils. There is no universal acceptance and of all these seven Ecumenical Councils among all Churches which accept the decisions of Ecumenical Councils. The only universally accepted set of Ecumenical Councils among all these Churches are the First two Ecumenical Councils. Br Ibrahim john (talk) 08:45, 17 November 2020 (UTC)
 * , everything you said is in the article. The first seven councils are given a prominent position, but according to WP:DUE and their place in Christian history I can understand it. The Oriental Orthodox and the Church of the East are given adequate coverage IMHO. Can you point to some specific examples where the article is not neutral? Elizium23 (talk) 08:26, 18 November 2020 (UTC)

 * The article is biased over many aspects. First of all, there is no justifiable or logical prominence for the first Seven Ecumenical Councils. If the article is dealing with the prominence of getting universal acceptance, only the First two Ecumenical Councils have such a universal acceptance among all denominations which follows the decisions of Ecumenical Councils.
 * Secondly, there is no particular feature that is unique to the first Seven Ecumenical Councils other than its acceptance by The Eastern Orthodox Communion. In all other aspects the First Seven Ecumenical Councils resemble many of the other Ecumenical Councils.
 * The only logical reason for the 'prominence' of the first seven Ecumenical Councils is the acceptance by Eastern orthodox churches.
 * Thus, the article is undoubtedly biased in favour of a particular denomination, without any scientific basis for that Br Ibrahim john (talk) 09:26, 18 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Elizium 23, giving prominence to the first Seven Ecumenical Councils, without having any unbiased and logical reason, is undoubtedly misleading. Br Ibrahim john (talk) 09:30, 18 November 2020 (UTC)

 * I see, so you are unable to give specific examples. I understand your argument perfectly well. It's just that I am unable to proceed with improvement of the article without an idea of what you would change and how you would change it. The seven ECs are prominent because it is WP:DUE, they are covered by the vast majority of sources used here. If you took a survey of all the reliable sources used in Wikipedia for the Christian religions, you would see that they mention the Catholic Church, the Protestants, and Eastern Orthodoxy prominently, while Oriental Orthodoxy and Church of the East have a minority of coverage. They are all mentioned in this article, so nobody has given them short shrift. It's just that the seven ECs are the best documented and the most widely covered. Elizium23 (talk) 09:37, 18 November 2020 (UTC)

 * The question here is about the logical basis for prominence. In my opinion, the First Seven Ecumenical Councils doesn't have any particular prominence among the others. The only logical reason for this biased 'prominence' is their acceptance by a particular denomination, namely the Eastern orthodox Communion. And such a prominence is purely biased and misleading. I believe Wikepedia is not just for Eastern orthodox users.
 * In my opinion, only the first two Ecumenical Councils should be considered prominent, as they are the Ecumenical Councils accepted universally among all Churches. I believe this method is more logical and reasonable. Only the First Ecumenical Councils of Nicea and that of Constantinople should be given the label of 'prominence'. Br Ibrahim john (talk) 12:52, 18 November 2020 (UTC)

 * The weighting also reflects the relative sizes of the denominational families that adhere to the first 7 vs those that do not. This mathematics is what lied behind the WP:UNDUE weighting and determination. Laurel Lodged (talk) 18:37, 18 November 2020 (UTC)
 * We see nothing wrong with the weighting currently in the article. Feel free to seek dispute resolution through an RFC or noticeboard posting. I would suggest the NPOV noticeboard or a WikiProject, although most of the WikiProjects will involve editors sympathetic to Protestant or Catholic churches. Elizium23 (talk) 05:42, 19 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Weighting facts on the basis of size of denominations is a biased method of dealing with facts. A universally depended site like Wikepedia should be able to show facts impartially. Br Ibrahim john (talk) 06:50, 19 November 2020 (UTC)

 * The facts are not weighted. All the facts are presented. It is the order of their presentation that is influenced by weighting. Laurel Lodged (talk) 08:27, 19 November 2020 (UTC)

 * It is called biased presentation. Not only facts need to be presented, but facts should be presented unbiased and impartially. Br Ibrahim john (talk) 08:39, 19 November 2020 (UTC)

 * , once again, I invite you to WP:DROPTHESTICK or pursue the dispute resolution avenues I outlined already above. You clearly don't understand how Wikipedia actually works, and you don't even know how to indent your replies properly. Please try to keep up. Elizium23 (talk) 09:19, 19 November 2020 (UTC)

, I am trying to keep up and I haven't edited the article in the way I feel good. I have opened this discussion just to understand why an article in Wikepedia gives prominence to some facts on the basis of the size of Churches. I never intended to do anything of my own in this article as I believe it is not the way to address the issue. I believe editors, whoever be, should be ready to take the matter by taking it objectively and constructively. I believe personal remarks are unfit for this space. I personally don't welcome personal comments regarding me. I wanted to point my concern over the questionable neutrality of the article. The article portrays the First Seven Ecumenical Councils as the prominent ones. Actually only the First Two Ecumenical Councils are the universally accepted Councils. Therefore, only the first two are prominent. The rest are all partially Ecumenical councils, atleast they are not universally accepted. I really can't believe that Wikepedia acts like official websites of Catholic and Eastern orthodox churches, by stressing on their ecclessiology and literally sidelining the views of the Oriental orthodox Communion and the Church of the East. Br Ibrahim john (talk) 17:51, 19 November 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ecumenical council