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Emperor Buretsu

Emperor Buretsu (武烈天皇) (489 – 7 January 507) was the 25th legendary Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.

No firm dates can be assigned to this Emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 12 January 499 to 7 January 507.

Legendary narrative
Buretsu is considered to have ruled the country during the late-fifth century and early-sixth century, but there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study.

Buretsu was a son of Emperor Ninken and his mother is Empress Kasuga no Ōiratsume (春日大娘皇女). His name was Ohatsuse no Wakasazaki (小泊瀬稚鷦鷯). He had no children.

Buretsu's reign
Buretsu's contemporary title would not have been tennō, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning "the great king who rules all under heaven". Alternatively, Buretsu might have been referred to as ヤマト大王/大君 or the "Great King of Yamato".

Buretsu is described as an extremely wicked historical figure. The Nihonshoki describes the 11-year-old Buretsu, in 500, cutting open the stomach of a pregnant woman and observing the embryo. In addition to his acts of personal cruelty, during his reign the general welfare of the nation declined severely. According to the Tenshō, supposedly compiled by Fujiwara no Hamanari, Buretsu was admonished by Ōtomo no Kanamura. Nihonshoki likened his debauchery to Di Xin of the Shang dynasty, but the record in Kojiki has no such indication. There are several theories on this difference. Some believe that this was to justify and praise his successor Emperor Keitai, who took over under questionable circumstances, not having been in a position of immediate succession. In history textbooks available before and during World War II, the negative parts of Buretsu's record were intentionally omitted.

If Emperor Keitai began a new dynasty as some historians believe, then Buretsu is the last Emperor of the first recorded dynasty of Japan.

The actual site of Buretsu's grave is not known. The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Nara.

The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Buretsu's mausoleum. It is formally named Kataoka no Iwatsuki no oka no kita no misasagi.

Consorts and children

 * Empress: Kasuga no Iratsume (春日娘子)

title: Emperor Buretsu


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Emperor Keitai

Emperor Keitai (継体天皇) (died 10 March 531) was the 26th legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.

No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 3 March 507 to 10 March 531.

Legendary narrative
Keitai is considered to have ruled the country during the early 6th century, but there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study. Significant differences exist in the records of the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki.

The Kojiki puts this emperor's birth year at 485; and his date of death is said to have been April 9, 527. In the extant account, he is called Ohodo (袁本杼).

The Nihon Shoki gives his birth year at 450; and he is said to have died on February 7, 531 or 534. In this historical record, he is said to have been called Ohodo (男大迹) and Hikofuto (彦太).

In other historical records, he is said to have originally been King of Koshi, a smaller tribal entity, apparently in northern parts of central Japan, perhaps as far as the coast of Sea of Japan. Some modern reference works of history call Keitai simply King Ohodo of Koshi.

Keitai's contemporary title would not have been tennō, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning "the great king who rules all under heaven". Alternatively, Keitai might have been referred to as ヤマト大王/大君 or the "Great King of Yamato".

Genealogy
Keitai was not the son of the immediate previous monarch. According to the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, Buretsu died without a successor, at which time a fifth generation grandson of Emperor Ōjin, Keitai, came and ascended the throne.

If Emperor Keitai began a new dynasty as some historians believe, then Emperor Buretsu would have been the last monarch of the first recorded dynasty of Japan.

According to the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, his father was Hikoushi no Ō/Hikoushi no Ōkimi (彦主人王) and his mother was Furihime (振媛). When Buretsu died, Kanamura recommended Keitai (at the age of 58) as a possible heir to the Chrysanthemum throne. His mother, Furihime, was a seventh generation descendant of Emperor Suinin by his son, Prince Iwatsukuwake. His father was a fourth generation descendant of Emperor Ōjin by his son, Prince Wakanuke no Futamata.

Genealogy information is supplemented in Shaku Nihongi which quotes from the now lost text Jōgūki (7th century). It says he was a son of Ushi no Ōkimi (believed to be equivalent to Hikoushi no Ōkimi), a grandson of Ohi no Ōkimi, a great-grandson of Ohohoto no Ōkimi (brother to Emperor Ingyō's consort), a great-great-grandson of Prince Wakanuke no Futamata, and a great-great-great-grandson of Emperor Ōjin.

The genealogical trees of the Nihon Shoki have been lost, and the accuracy of its account of events remains unknown. This uncertainty raises arguable doubts about this emperor's genealogy.

Although genealogical information in the Shaku Nihongi leaves room for discussion, many scholars acknowledge the blood relationship with the Okinaga clan, a powerful local ruling family or the collateral line of the Imperial family-governed Ōmi region (a part of present-day Shiga Prefecture). This family produced many empresses and consorts throughout history. According to the Nihon Shoki, Ohohoto no Ōkimi, the great-grandfather of Emperor Keitai, married into the Okinaga clan. Keitai's mother, Furihime, was from a local ruling family in Koshi (Echizen Province), so his mother brought him to her home after his father's death. Abundant traditions relating to the family have been passed down by shrines and old-established families in both regions.

Regardless of speculation about Keitai's genealogy, it is well settled that there was an extended period of disputes over the succession which developed after Keitai's death. A confrontation arose between adherents of two branches of the Yamato, pitting the supporters of sons who would become known as Emperor Ankan and Emperor Senka against those who were backers of the son who would become known as Emperor Kinmei.

Keitai's reign
Keitai declared his ascension in Kuzuha, in the northern part of Kawachi Province (present day Hirakata, Osaka), and married a younger sister of Emperor Buretsu, Princess Tashiraka. It is supposed that his succession was not welcomed by everyone, and it took about 20 years for Keitai to enter Yamato Province, near Kawachi and the political center of Japan at the time.

In Keitai's later years, 527 or 528, the Iwai Rebellion broke out in Tsukushi province, Kyūshū. Keitai assigned Mononobe no Arakabi as Shōgun and sent him to Kyūshū to put down the rebellion.

Among his sons, Emperor Ankan, Emperor Senka and Emperor Kinmei ascended to the throne.

The actual site of Keitai's grave is not known. He is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at the Ooda Chausuyama kofun in Ibaraki, Osaka.

The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Keitai's mausoleum. It is formally named Mishima no Aikinu no misasagi.

Consorts and children
Empress: Princess Tashiraka (手白香皇女), Emperor Ninken's daughter
 * Prince Amekunioshiharakihironiwa (天国排開広庭尊), later Prince Ahohiko
 * Emperor Kinmei (欽明天皇)

Consort: Menokohime (目子媛), Owari no Muraji Kusaka's daughter
 * First Son: Prince Magari no Ōe (勾大兄皇子), later Emperor Ankan
 * Second son: Prince Hinokuma no Takata (檜隈高田皇子), later Emperor Senka

Consort: Wakakohime (稚子媛), Mio no Tsunoori no Kimi's younger sister
 * Prince Ōiratsuko (大郎皇子)
 * Princess Izumo (出雲皇女)

Consort: Hirohime (広媛), Prince Sakata no Ōmata's daughter
 * Princess Kamusaki (神前皇女)
 * Princess Manta (茨田皇女)
 * Princess Umaguta (馬来田皇女)

Consort: Ominoiratsume (麻績娘子), daughter of Okinaga no Mate (息長真手王)
 * Princess Sasage (荳角皇女), Saiō

Consort: Sekihime (関媛), daughter of Manda no Muraji Omochi (茨田連小望)
 * Princess Manda no Ōiratsume (茨田大娘皇女)
 * Princess Shirasaka no Ikuhihime (白坂活日姫皇女)
 * Princess Ono no Wakairatsume (小野稚娘皇女)

Consort: Yamatohime (倭媛), daughter of Mio no Kimi Katahi (三尾君堅楲)
 * Princess Ōiratsume (大郎子皇女)
 * Prince Maroko (椀子皇子)
 * Prince Mimi (耳皇子)
 * Princess Akahime (赤姫皇女)

Consort: Haehime (荑媛), daughter of Wani no Omi Kawachi (和珥臣河内)
 * Princess Wakayahime (稚綾姫皇女)
 * Princess Tubira no Iratsuko (円娘皇女)
 * Prince Atsu (厚皇子)

Consort: Hirohime (広媛), daughter of Ne (根王)
 * Prince Usagi (菟皇子)
 * Prince Nakatsu (中皇子)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Emperor Keitai


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Emperor Ankan

Emperor Ankan (安閑天皇) (466 – 25 January 536) was the 27th legendary Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.

No firm dates can be assigned to this Emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 10 March 531 to 25 January 536.

Legendary narrative
According to the Kojiki, Prince Magari no Ōe (勾大兄皇子), later Emperor Ankan, was the elder son of Emperor Keitai, who is considered to have ruled the country during the early-6th century, though there is a paucity of information about him. When Ankan was 66 years old, Keitai abdicated in favor of him.

Ankan's contemporary title would not have been tennō, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning "the great king who rules all under heaven". Alternatively, Ankan might have been referred to as ヤマト大王/大君 or the "Great King of Yamato".

The most noteworthy event recorded during his reign was the construction of state granaries in large numbers throughout Japan, indicating the broad reach of imperial power at the time.

Ankan's grave is traditionally associated with the Takayatsukiyama kofun in Habikino, Osaka.

Genealogy
Empress: Princess Kasuga no Yamada (春日山田皇女), Emperor Ninken's daughter

Consort: Satehime (紗手媛), Kose no Ohito no Ōomi's daughter

Consort: Kakarihime (香香有媛), Kose no Ohito no Ōomi's daughter

Consort: Yakahime (宅媛), Mononobe no Itabi no Ōomuraji's daughter

First son: Imperial Prince Ako.

Second son: Prince Kibu

Third son: Prince Akihinohohoshika, later Emperor Kinmei

title: Emperor Ankan


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Emperor Senka

Emperor Senka (宣化天皇) (466 — 15 March 539) was the 28th legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.

No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 25 January 536 to 15 March 539.

Legendary narrative
Senka is considered to have ruled the country during the early-6th century, but there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study.

When Emperor Ankan died, he had no offspring; and succession passed to his youngest brother Prince Hinokuma no Takata (檜隈高田皇子), who will come to be known as Emperor Senka. Emperor Senka was elderly at the time of his enthronement; and his reign is said to have endured for only three years.

Senka's contemporary title would not have been tennō, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning "the great king who rules all under heaven". Alternatively, Senka might have been referred to as ヤマト大王/大君 or the "Great King of Yamato".

During this reign, Soga no Iname is believed to have been the first verifiable Omi (also Ōomi, "Great Minister").

The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Senka's mausoleum. It is formally named Musa no Tsukisaka no e no misasagi; however, the actual sites of the graves of the early Emperors remain problematic, according to some historians and archaeologists.

Genealogy

 * Empress: Princess Tachibana no Nakatsu (橘仲皇女), Emperor Ninken's daughter
 * Princess Ishi-hime (石姫皇女), married to Emperor Kinmei
 * Princess Oishi-hime (小石姫皇女), married to Emperor Kinmei
 * Princess Kura-no-wakaya-hime (倉稚綾姫皇女), married to Emperor Kinmei
 * Prince Kamiewa (上殖葉皇子)
 * Child (died early, gender unknown)

 * Consort: Ōkouchi-wakako-hime (大河内稚子媛)
 * Prince Honoo (火焔皇子)

 * Mother unknown
 * Princess Hikage (日影皇女), married to Emperor Kinmei
 * Prince Yakabe (宅部皇子), speculated as Emperor Kinmei's son

title: Emperor Senka


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Eastmoreland, Portland, Oregon

Eastmoreland is an early-twentieth century, tree-filled neighborhood in inner southeast Portland, Oregon, United States. Eastmoreland was named for a local real estate developer, Judge J.C. Moreland.

Description
The neighborhood is bounded on the north by SE Woodstock Boulevard. The western boundary is a combination of SE McLoughlin Boulevard, SE Reedway Street, and SE 26th Avenue. Johnson Creek serves as most of the neighborhood's southern boundary, which meets its eastern boundary between SE Tenino Street and SE Crystal Springs Boulevard., SE César E. Chávez Boulevard. Its northern border winds around the Reed College campus and continues on SE Steele Street until meeting its western boundary.

Eastmoreland is filled with trees and lush landscaping. Public parks in Eastmoreland include Crystal Springs Rhododendron Garden (1923), Eastmoreland Golf Course (1916), Eastmoreland Garden (2004), Eastmoreland Playground Park (1916), and Berkeley Park (1941). There is also a median on Reed College Place which is owned by Portland Department of Transportation and maintained by Portland Parks & Recreation.

Eastmoreland is home to two schools, Duniway Elementary School (constructed in 1926 and named for Abigail Scott Duniway) and Holy Family Catholic School.

Proposed historic district
A proposed Eastermoreland Historic District encompasses approximately 475 acres within southeast Portland's Eastmoreland neighborhood, and is generally bounded by Woodstock Boulevard on the north, Cesar Chavez Boulevard and 36th Avenue on the east, Berkeley Park and Crystal Springs Boulevard on the south, and 27th and 28th Avenues on the west.

The proposed historic district was nominated by the Eastmoreland Neighborhood Association in an attempt to reduce the number of home demolitions and renovations. The bid has been contentious, as historic designation would prevent owners from being able to expand or update houses.

In February 2017, the Portland Historic Landmarks Commission endorsed the association's nomination for historic status. One week later, the nine-person State Advisory Committee on Historic Preservation unanimously endorsed the proposal, putting the district on "clear path toward the register". Historic status may be blocked if dissenting residents submit enough notarized objections by July 1. As of February 17, 675 of the more than 1,000 required objections have been received.

In April 2018, four separate home owners split their property ownership among hundreds of trusts; these owners filed more than 5,000 formal objections to the historic district proposal, possibly blocking the nomination using a technical tactic. 952 additional objections were submitted by owners not associated with the hundreds of trusts. According to The Oregonian, "Without the trusts, the number of objections appears to have fallen short of a majority". The neighborhood association's president described the maneuver as "undemocratic" and said, "If this was an election, it would be called voter fraud." The Oregon State Historic Preservation Office said, "According to federal rules, if more than 50% of the owners in a district submit objections, the property cannot be listed."

Trust owners' being counted as eligible owners was challenged in court and a new rule for counting objections was established in 2022. A new application will be submitted to the National Park Service.

title: Eastmoreland, Portland, Oregon


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Elyssa Davalos

Elyssa Davalos (born May 30, 1959, in Canoga Park, Los Angeles, California) is a former American television and movie actress. Her father was actor Richard Davalos and her sister is musician Dominique Davalos. She is the mother of actress Alexa Davalos, from her marriage to photographer Jeff Dunas. She is of Spanish and Finnish descent on her father's side.

She would usually play tough, independent women. She's mostly remembered for her recurring role as Richard Dean Anderson's love interest Nikki Carpenter on the original MacGyver. She appeared in two Disney films that were part of a franchise: The Apple Dumpling Gang Rides Again and Herbie Goes Bananas. On television she played Hillary Gant on the series How The West Was Won and she appeared on a final season episode of Hawaii Five-0, and starred in the TV-movie Good Against Evil.

title: Elyssa Davalos


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Emil Theodor Kocher

Emil Theodor Kocher (25 August 1841 – 27 July 1917) was a Swiss physician and medical researcher who received the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid. Among his many accomplishments are the introduction and promotion of aseptic surgery and scientific methods in surgery, specifically reducing the mortality of thyroidectomies below 1% in his operations.

He was the first Swiss citizen and first surgeon to ever receive a Nobel Prize in Medicine. He was considered a pioneer and leader in the field of surgery in his time.

Childhood
Kocher's father was Jakob Alexander Kocher (1814–1893), the sixth of seven children to Samuel Kocher (1771–1842), a carpenter, and Barbara Sutter (1772–1849). Jakob Alexander Kocher was a railway engineer and he moved in 1845 to Burgdorf, Switzerland (near Bern), because of his job as regional engineer of Emmental (Bezirksingenieur). He was named chief engineer for street and water in the canton of Bern at the age of 34 years and he moved with his family to the capital, the city of Bern. In 1858 he left the states service and managed several engineering projects around Bern.

Theodor Kocher's mother was Maria Kocher (née Wermuth) living from 1820 to 1900. She was a very religious woman and part of the Moravian Church; together with Jakob Alexander, she raised a family of five sons and one daughter (Theodor Kocher was the second son).

Theodor Kocher was born on 25 August 1841 in Bern and baptized in the local Bern Minster on 16 September 1841. Together with the family, he moved to Burgdorf in 1845 where he started school. Later his family moved back to Bern where he went to middle and high school (Realschule and Literaturgymnasium) where he was the first of his class. During high school, Theodor was interested in many subjects and was specifically drawn to art and classical philology but finally decided to become a doctor.

Studies
He started his studies after obtaining the Swiss Matura in 1858 at the University of Bern where Anton Biermer and Hermann Askan Demme were teaching, two professors that impressed him most. He was a studious and dedicated student but still became a member of the Schweizerischer Zofingerverein, a Swiss fraternity. He obtained his doctorate in Bern in 1865 (March 1865) or 1866 with his dissertation about Behandlung der croupösen Pneumonie mit Veratrum-Präparaten (literal English translation: The treatment of croupous pneumonia with Veratrum preparations.) under professor Biermer with the predicate summa cum laude unamimiter.

In spring 1865, Kocher followed his teacher Biermer to Zürich, where Theodor Billroth was director of the hospital and influenced Kocher significantly. Kocher then proceeded to start a journey through Europe to meet several of the most famous surgeons of the time. It is not clear how Kocher financed his trip but according to Bonjour (1981) he received money from an unknown female Suisse romande philanthropist who also supported his friend Marc Dufour and was probably a member of the Moravian Church. In October 1865, he traveled to Berlin, passing through Leipzig and visiting an old friend from high school, Hans Blum. In Berlin, he studied under Bernhard von Langenbeck and applied for an assistant position with Langenbeck and Rudolf Virchow. Since there was no position available, in April 1867 Kocher moved on to London where he first met Jonathan Hutchinson and then worked for Henry Thompson and John Erichsen. Furthermore, he was interested in the work of Isaac Baker Brown and Thomas Spencer Wells, who also invited Kocher to go to the opera with his family. In July 1867, he traveled on to Paris to meet Auguste Nélaton, Auguste Verneuil and Louis Pasteur. During his travels, he did not only learn novel techniques but also got to know leading surgeons in person and learned to speak English fluently which allowed him later on to follow the scientific progress in the English speaking world with ease.

Once returned to Bern, Kocher prepared for his habilitation and on 12 October 1867, he wrote a petition to the ministry of education to award him the venia docendi (Latin: to instruct) which was granted to him. He became assistant to Georg Lücke who left Bern in 1872 to become professor in Strasbourg. Kocher was hoping to get his position, but at the time it was customary to appoint German professors to positions at Swiss universities. Accordingly, the faculty suggested Franz König before Kocher to follow Lücke. However, the students and assistants as well as many doctors preferred Kocher and started a petition to the Bernese government to choose Kocher. Also the press was in favor of Kocher and several famous foreign surgeons, such as Langenbeck from Berlin and Billroth from Vienna, wrote letters in support of Kocher. Under this public pressure, the Bernese government (Regierungsrat) chose Kocher as the successor of Lücke as Ordinary Professor of Surgery and Director of the University Surgical Clinic at the Inselspital on 16 March 1872, despite a different proposal by the faculty.

Personal life
In 1869, he married Marie Witschi-Courant (1841–1921) or (1850 –1925). She was the daughter of Johannes Witschi, who was a merchant, and she had three sons together with Kocher. The Kochers first lived at the Marktgasse in Bern and moved in 1875 to a bigger house in the Villette. The house became a place for friends, colleagues and guests to gather and many patients from Kocher's clinic were invited to dine at the Villette.

Like his mother, Kocher was a deeply religious man and also part of the Moravian Church. This was an uncommon trait that not many colleagues and co-workers shared and until his death, Kocher attributed all his successes and failures to God. He thought that the rise of materialism (especially in science) was a great evil, and he attributed the outbreak of the First World War.

Kocher was involved in the education of his three sons and played tennis with them and went horseback riding with them. The eldest son Albert (1872–1941) would follow him to the surgical clinic in Bern and become Assistant Professor of Surgery.

On the evening of 23 July 1917, he was called into the Inselspital for an emergency. Kocher executed the surgery but afterwards felt unwell and went to bed, working on scientific notes. He then fell unconscious and died on 27 July 1917.

Career
The call for an ordinary professorship at the University of Bern at the age of 30 was the first big career step for Theodor Kocher. In the 45 years he served as professor at the university, he oversaw the re-building of the famous Bernese Inselspital, published 249 scholarly articles and books, trained numerous medical doctors and treated thousands of patients. He made major contributions to the fields of applied surgery, neurosurgery and, especially, thyroid surgery and endocrinology. For his work he received, among other honors, the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. According to Asher, the field of surgery has transformed radically during the time of Theodore Kocher and later generations will build on the foundations created by Kocher – if a future historian wanted to describe the state of surgery at the beginning of the 20th century, he only need mention Kocher's Text-Book of Operative Surgery.

Three main factors contributed to Kocher's success as a surgeon, according to Bonjour (1981). The first factor was his consequent implementation of antiseptic wound treatment which prevented infection and later death of the patients. The second factor, according to Erich Hintzsche, was his monitoring of the anesthesia where he used special masks and later used local anesthesia for goitre surgery which decreased or removed the dangers of anesthesia. As a third factor, Hintzsche mentions the minimal blood loss which Kocher achieved. Even the smallest source of blood during surgery was precisely controlled and inhibited by Kocher, initially because he thought that decomposing blood would constitute an infection risk for the patient.

Early career
Kocher first attained international recognition with his method to reset a dislocated shoulder published in 1870. The new procedure was much less painful and safer than the traditionally used procedure and could be performed by a single physician. Kocher developed the procedure through his knowledge of anatomy. In the same period, Kocher also studied the phenomena of bullet wounds and how they can cause bone fractures. From these studies resulted one public lecture in 1874 Die Verbesserung der Geschosse vom Standpunkt der Humanitaet (English: The improvement of the bullets from the standpoint of humanity.) and an 1875 manuscript Ueber die Sprengwirkung der modernen Kriegsgewehrgeschosse (English: Over the explosive effect of modern war rifle bullets.) He showed that small caliber bullets were less harmful and recommended to use bullets with slower speed.

Relocation of Inselspital and call to Prague
As soon as Kocher became professor, he wanted to modernize the practices at the Bernese Inselspital. He noticed that the old building did not suffice the modern standards and was too small – half of the patients seeking medical attention had to be turned away. In spring 1878, he visited several institutions around Europe to evaluate novel innovations for hospitals and implement them if possible in Bern. He wrote down his observations in a lengthy report for the Bernese government, giving instructions even for architectonic details. In a speech on 15 November 1878, he informed the general public about the pressing needs of a new hospital building. Finally, he used his call to Prague to pressure the government: He would only stay in Bern if he was either granted 75 beds in the new building or would get money to increase his facilities in the old building. Finally, in the winter of 1884/1885 the new building was finished and the Inselspital could be moved.

At the time, Prague had the third largest university clinic in the German speaking world and it was a great honor for Kocher when he received a call as a professor to Prague in spring 1880. Many colleagues, especially international ones, urged Kocher to accept while Bernese doctors and colleagues begged him to stay. Kocher used this call, to demand certain improvements for the university clinic from the Bernese government. They accepted all his demands, the government promised him to begin building the new Inselspital building the next year, increased his credit for surgical equipment and books to 1000 franks and increased the number of beds for Kocher in the new Inselspital. Thus, Kocher decided to stay and many Bernese and Swiss students and professionals thanked him for it. He cited the affection of his students as one of his main reasons for staying. The university students organized a torchlight procession on 8 June 1880 in his honor.

Aseptic surgery
It is unclear whether Kocher directly knew Joseph Lister, who pioneered the antiseptic (using chemical means to kill bacteria) method, but Kocher was in correspondence with him. Kocher had recognized the importance of aseptic techniques early on, introducing them to his peers at a time when this was considered revolutionary. In a hospital report from 1868, he attributed the lower mortality directly to the "antiseptic Lister's wound bandaging method" and he could later as director of the clinic order strict adherence to the antiseptic method. Bonjour (1981) describes how his assistants were worried about wound infection for fear of having to explain their failure to Kocher himself. Kocher made it a matter of principle to investigate the cause of every wound infection and remove every potential source of infection, he also banned visitors from his surgeries for this reason.

He published multiple works on aseptic treatment and surgery.

Contributions to Neurosurgery
Kocher also contributed significantly to the field of neurology and neurosurgery. In this area, his research was pioneering and covered the areas of concussion, neurosurgery and intracranial pressure (ICP). Furthermore, he investigated the surgical treatment of epilepsy and spinal and cranial trauma. He found that in some cases, the epilepsy patients had a brain tumor which could be surgically removed. He hypothesized that epilepsy was caused by an increase in ICP and believed that drainage of cerebrospinal fluid could cure epilepsy.

The Japanese surgeon Hayazo Ito came to Bern in 1896 in order to perform experimental research on epilepsy. Kocher was especially interested in the ICP during experimentally induced epilepsy and after Ito returned to Japan, he performed over 100 surgeries in epilepsy patients.

The American surgeon Harvey Cushing spent several months in the lab of Kocher in 1900, performing cerebral surgery and first encountering the Cushing reflex which describes the relationship between blood pressure and intracranial pressure. Kocher later also found that decompressive craniectomy was an effective method to lower ICP.

In his surgery textbook Chirurgische Operationslehre, Kocher dedicated 141 pages of 1060 pages to surgery of the nervous system. It included methods of exploration and decompression of the brain.

Contributions to Thyroid surgery
Thyroid surgery, which was mostly performed as treatment of goitre with a complete thyroidectomy when possible, was considered a risky procedure when Kocher started his work. Some estimates put the mortality of thyroidectomy as high as 75% in 1872. Indeed, the operation was believed to be one of the most dangerous operations and in France it was prohibited by the Academy of Medicine at the time. Through application of modern surgical methods, such as antiseptic wound treatment and minimizing blood loss, and the famous slow and precise style of Kocher, he managed to reduce the mortality of this operation from an already low 18% (compared to contemporary standards) to less than 0.5% by 1912. By then, Kocher had performed over 5000 thyroid excisions. The success of Kocher's methods, especially when compared to operations performed by Theodor Billroth who was also performing thyroidectomies at that time, was described by William Stewart Halsted as follows: "I have pondered the question for many years and conclude that the explanation probably lies in the operative methods of the two illustrious surgeons. Kocher, neat and precise, operating in a relatively bloodless manner, scrupulously removed the entire thyroid gland doing little damage outside its capsule. Billroth, operating more rapidly and, as I recall, with less regard for the tissues and less concern for hemorrhage, might easily have removed the parathyroids or at least have interfered with their blood supply, and have left fragments of the thyroid."

Kocher and others later discovered that the complete removal of the thyroid could lead to cretinism (termed cachexia strumipriva by Kocher) caused by a deficiency of thyroid hormones. The phenomena was reported to Kocher first in 1874 by the general practitioner August Fetscherin and later in 1882 by Jacques-Louis Reverdin together with his assistant Auguste Reverdin (1848–1908). Reverdin met Kocher on 7 September in Geneva at the international hygienic congress (internationaler Hygienekongress) and expressed his concerns about complete removal of the thyroid to Kocher. Kocher then tried to contact 77 of his 102 former patients and found signs of a physical and mental decay in those cases where he had removed the thyroid gland completely. Ironically, it was his precise surgery that allowed Kocher to remove the thyroid gland almost completely and led to the severe side effects of cretinism.

Kocher came to the conclusion that a complete removal of the thyroid (as it was common to perform at the time because the function of the thyroid was not yet clear) was not advisable, a finding that he made public on 4 April 1883 in a lecture to the German Society of Surgery and also published in 1883 under the title Ueber Kropfexstirpation und ihre Folgen (English: About Thyroidectomies and their consequences). Reverdin had already made his findings public on 13 September 1882 and published further articles on this topic in 1883; yet still Kocher never acknowledged Reverdin's priority in this discovery. At the time, the reactions to Kocher's lecture were mixed, some people asserted that goitre and cretinism were different stages of same disease and that cretinism would have occurred independently of the removal of the thyroid in the cases which Kocher described. In the long run however, these observations contributed to a more complete understanding of thyroid function and were one of the early hints of a connection between the thyroid and congenital cretinism. These findings finally enabled thyroid hormone replacement therapies for a variety of thyroid related diseases.

Further contributions to science
Kocher published works on a number of subjects other than the thyroid gland, including hemostasis, antiseptic treatments, surgical infectious diseases, on gunshot wounds, acute osteomyelitis, the theory of strangulated hernia, and abdominal surgery. The Nobel Prize money he received helped him establish the Kocher Institute in Bern.

A number of instruments (for example the craniometer ) and surgical techniques (for example, the Kocher manoeuvre, and kocher incision) are named after him, as well as the Kocher-Debre-Semelaigne syndrome. The Kocher manoeuvre is still a standard practice in orthopaedics. Kocher is also credited for the invention in 1882 of the Kocher's Surgical Clamp, which he used to prevent blood loss during surgery.

One of his main works, Chirurgische Operationslehre (Text-Book of Operative Surgery ), was published through six editions and translated into many languages.

During his life, Kocher published 249 articles and books and supervised more than 130 doctoral candidates. He was rector of the university in 1878 and 1903. He was president of the Bernese and the Swiss physicians association and co-founded the Swiss society for surgery in 1913 and became its first president.

In 1904 or 1905 he built a private clinic called "Ulmenhof" which had space for 25 patients. Here Kocher catered to the wealthier patients, which in many cases were international. He also treated the wife of Lenin, Nadezhda Krupskaya and operated on her in Bern (in 1913 ).

Legacy

Kocher was also a famous and loved teacher. During nearly 100 semesters he taught his knowledge to about 10 000 students of the University of Bern. He was able to inspire students and taught them to think clearly and logically. Specifically, Kocher also taught a generation of Jewish-Russian students who could not study in Russia. This association with Russia has also led the Russian Geographical Society to name a volcano after him (in the area of Ujun-Choldongi in Manchuria ).

Among his many local and international students were Carl Arend (Bern), Oscar Bernhard (St. Moritz), Andrea Crotti (Ohio), Gustave Dardel (Bern), Carl Garré (Bonn), Gottlieb and Max Feurer (St. Gallen), Anton Fonio (Langnau), Walter Gröbly (Arbon), Carl Kaufmann (Zürich), Albert Kocher (Bern), Joseph Kopp (Luzern), Ernst Kummer (Geneva), Otto Lanz (Amsterdam), Edmond Lardy (Geneva) Jakob Lauper (Interlaken), Albert Lüthi (Thun), Hermann Matti (Bern), Charles Pettavel (Neuenburg), Paul Pfähler (Olten), Fritz de Quervain (La Chaux de Fonds / Basel / Bern), August Rickli (Langenthal), Ernst Rieben (Interlaken), August Rollier (Leysin), César Roux (Lausanne), Karl Schuler (Rorschach), Fritz Steinmann (Bern), Albert Vogel (Luzern), Hans Wildbolz (Bern) as well as the American neurosurgeon Harvey Cushing. Other notable students of his include Hayazo Ito (1865–1929) and S. Berezowsky which also spread his techniques in their respective home-countries (Japan and Russia).

Kocher's name is living on with the Theodor Kocher Institute, the Kochergasse and the Kocher Park in Bern. In the Inselspital, there is a bust of Kocher, created by Karl Hänny in 1927. In the Kocher Park there is another bust, created by Max Fueter. In 1950, the Swiss historian Edgar Bonjour (1898–1991) who was married to Dora Kocher wrote a 136-page monograph on Kocher's life that was extended again in 1981.

Named in his honor

 * The Kocher lunar crater named in his memory.
 * An asteroid (2087) Kocher also commemorates his name.
 * The prize for outstanding young researchers in any field at the University of Berne is named Theodor Kocher Prize. It is awarded yearly since 1915.

Eponyms

 * Kocher's forceps – a surgical instrument with serrated blades and interlocking teeth at the tips used to control bleeding
 * Kocher's point – common entry point for an intraventricular catheter to drain cerebral spinal fluid from the cerebral ventricles
 * Kocher manoeuvre – a surgical manoeuvre to expose structures in the retroperitoneum
 * Kocher–Debre–Semelaigne syndrome – hypothyroidism in infancy or childhood characterised by lower extremity or generalized muscular hypertrophy, myxoedema, short stature and cretinism
 * Kocher's incision – used in cholecystectomy
 * Kocher's incision II – is used in thyroid surgery
 * Kocher's sign – eyelid phenomenon in hyperthyroidism and Basedow's disease

Honors

 * Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1909)
 * Hon FRCS (Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons, 25 July 1900)
 * President of the Bernese and Swiss physician societies
 * President of the Swiss society for surgery
 * President of the German society for surgery (1902)
 * Honorary member of the German society for surgery (1902)
 * Chairman of the first international surgery conference in Brussels 1905
 * several honorary memberships and honorary doctorates

Works
During his life, Kocher published 249 articles and books and supervised more than 130 doctoral candidates. The following is an incomplete list of his most important works:
 * Die antiseptische Wundbehandlung (Antiseptic wound treatment; 1881)
 * Vorlesungen über chirurgische Infektionskrankheiten (Lectures on surgical infections; 1895)
 * Chiruigische Operationslehre (1894; Eng. trans. as Textbook of Operative Surgery, 2 vols., 1911)

title: Emil Theodor Kocher


text:
Eight queens puzzle

The eight queens puzzle is the problem of placing eight chess queens on an 8×8 chessboard so that no two queens threaten each other; thus, a solution requires that no two queens share the same row, column, or diagonal. There are 92 solutions. The problem was first posed in the mid-19th century. In the modern era, it is often used as an example problem for various computer programming techniques.

The eight queens puzzle is a special case of the more general n queens problem of placing n non-attacking queens on an n×n chessboard. Solutions exist for all natural numbers n with the exception of n = 2 and n = 3. Although the exact number of solutions is only known for n ≤ 27, the asymptotic growth rate of the number of solutions is approximately (0.143 n)n.

History
Chess composer Max Bezzel published the eight queens puzzle in 1848. Franz Nauck published the first solutions in 1850. Nauck also extended the puzzle to the n queens problem, with n queens on a chessboard of n×n squares.

Since then, many mathematicians, including Carl Friedrich Gauss, have worked on both the eight queens puzzle and its generalized n-queens version. In 1874, S. Günther proposed a method using determinants to find solutions. J.W.L. Glaisher refined Gunther's approach.

In 1972, Edsger Dijkstra used this problem to illustrate the power of what he called structured programming. He published a highly detailed description of a depth-first backtracking algorithm.

Constructing and counting solutions when n = 8
The problem of finding all solutions to the 8-queens problem can be quite computationally expensive, as there are 4,426,165,368 possible arrangements of eight queens on an 8×8 board, but only 92 solutions. It is possible to use shortcuts that reduce computational requirements or rules of thumb that avoids brute-force computational techniques. For example, by applying a simple rule that chooses one queen from each column, it is possible to reduce the number of possibilities to 16,777,216 (that is, 88) possible combinations. Generating permutations further reduces the possibilities to just 40,320 (that is, 8!), which can then be checked for diagonal attacks.

The eight queens puzzle has 92 distinct solutions. If solutions that differ only by the symmetry operations of rotation and reflection of the board are counted as one, the puzzle has 12 solutions. These are called fundamental solutions; representatives of each are shown below.

A fundamental solution usually has eight variants (including its original form) obtained by rotating 90, 180, or 270° and then reflecting each of the four rotational variants in a mirror in a fixed position. However, one of the 12 fundamental solutions (solution 12 below) is identical to its own 180° rotation, so has only four variants (itself and its reflection, its 90° rotation and the reflection of that). Thus, the total number of distinct solutions is 11×8 + 1×4 = 92.

All fundamental solutions are presented below:

Solution 10 has the additional property that no three queens are in a straight line.

Existence of solutions
Brute-force algorithms to count the number of solutions are computationally manageable for $n = 8$, but would be intractable for problems of $n ≥ 20$, as 20! = 2.433 × 1018. If the goal is to find a single solution, one can show solutions exist for all n ≥ 4 with no search whatsoever. These solutions exhibit stair-stepped patterns, as in the following examples for n = 8, 9 and 10:

The examples above can be obtained with the following formulas. Let (i, j) be the square in column i and row j on the n × n chessboard, k an integer.

One approach is

 * 1) If the remainder from dividing n by 6 is not 2 or 3 then the list is simply all even numbers followed by all odd numbers not greater than n.
 * 2) Otherwise, write separate lists of even and odd numbers (2, 4, 6, 8 – 1, 3, 5, 7).
 * 3) If the remainder is 2, swap 1 and 3 in odd list and move 5 to the end (3, 1, 7, 5).
 * 4) If the remainder is 3, move 2 to the end of even list and 1,3 to the end of odd list (4, 6, 8, 2 – 5, 7, 9, 1, 3).
 * 5) Append odd list to the even list and place queens in the rows given by these numbers, from left to right (a2, b4, c6, d8, e3, f1, g7, h5).

For $n = 8$ this results in fundamental solution 1 above. A few more examples follow.

 * 14 queens (remainder 2): 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 3, 1, 7, 9, 11, 13, 5.
 * 15 queens (remainder 3): 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 2, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 1, 3.
 * 20 queens (remainder 2): 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 3, 1, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 5.

Exact enumeration
There is no known formula for the exact number of solutions for placing n queens on an $n × n$ board i.e. the number of independent sets of size n in an $n × n$ queen's graph. The 27×27 board is the highest-order board that has been completely enumerated. The following tables give the number of solutions to the n queens problem, both fundamental and all, for all known cases.

The number of placements in which furthermore no three queens line on any straight line is known for $$n \leq 25$$.

Asymptotic enumeration
In 2021, Michael Simkin proved that for large numbers n, the number of solutions of the n queens problem is approximately $$(0.143n)^n$$. More precisely, the number $$\mathcal{Q}(n)$$ of solutions has asymptotic growth $$ \mathcal{Q}(n) = ((1 \pm o(1))ne^{-\alpha})^n $$ where $$\alpha$$ is a constant that lies between 1.939 and 1.945. (Here o(1) represents little o notation.)

If one instead considers a toroidal chessboard (where diagonals "wrap around" from the top edge to the bottom and from the left edge to the right), it is only possible to place n queens on an $$n \times n$$ board if $$n \equiv 1,5 \mod 6.$$ In this case, the asymptotic number of solutions is  $$T(n) = ((1+o(1))ne^{-3})^n.$$

Related problems

 * Higher dimensions
 * Find the number of non-attacking queens that can be placed in a d-dimensional chess of size n.  More than n queens can be placed in some higher dimensions (the smallest example is four non-attacking queens in a 3×3×3 chess space), and it is in fact known that for any k, there are higher dimensions where nk queens do not suffice to attack all spaces.

 * Using pieces other than queens
 * On an 8×8 board one can place 32 knights, or 14 bishops, 16 kings or eight rooks, so that no two pieces attack each other. In the case of knights, an easy solution is to place one on each square of a given color, since they move only to the opposite color. The solution is also easy for rooks and kings. Sixteen kings can be placed on the board by dividing it into 2-by-2 squares and placing the kings at equivalent points on each square. Placements of n rooks on an n×n board are in direct correspondence with order-n permutation matrices.

 * Chess variations
 * Related problems can be asked for chess variations such as shogi. For instance, the n+k dragon kings problem asks to place k shogi pawns and n+k mutually nonattacking dragon kings on an n×n shogi board.

 * Nonstandard boards
 * Pólya studied the n queens problem on a toroidal ("donut-shaped") board and showed that there is a solution on an n×n board if and only if n is not divisible by 2 or 3.
 * Domination
 * Given an n×n board, the domination number is the minimum number of queens (or other pieces) needed to attack or occupy every square. For n = 8 the queen's domination number is 5.

 * Queens and other pieces
 * Variants include mixing queens with other pieces; for example, placing m queens and m knights on an n×n board so that no piece attacks another or placing queens and pawns so that no two queens attack each other.
 * Magic squares
 * In 1992, Demirörs, Rafraf, and Tanik published a method for converting some magic squares into n-queens solutions, and vice versa.

 * Latin squares
 * In an n×n matrix, place each digit 1 through n in n locations in the matrix so that no two instances of the same digit are in the same row or column.

 * Exact cover
 * Consider a matrix with one primary column for each of the n ranks of the board, one primary column for each of the n files, and one secondary column for each of the 4n − 6 nontrivial diagonals of the board. The matrix has n2 rows: one for each possible queen placement, and each row has a 1 in the columns corresponding to that square's rank, file, and diagonals and a 0 in all the other columns.  Then the n queens problem is equivalent to choosing a subset of the rows of this matrix such that every primary column has a 1 in precisely one of the chosen rows and every secondary column has a 1 in at most one of the chosen rows; this is an example of a generalized exact cover problem, of which sudoku is another example.

 * n-queens completion
 * The completion problem asks whether, given an n×n chessboard on which some queens are already placed, it is possible to place a queen in every remaining row so that no two queens attack each other. This and related questions are NP-complete and #P-complete. Any placement of at most n/60 queens can be completed, while there are partial configurations of roughly n/4 queens that cannot be completed.

Exercise in algorithm design
Finding all solutions to the eight queens puzzle is a good example of a simple but nontrivial problem. For this reason, it is often used as an example problem for various programming techniques, including nontraditional approaches such as constraint programming, logic programming or genetic algorithms. Most often, it is used as an example of a problem that can be solved with a recursive algorithm, by phrasing the n queens problem inductively in terms of adding a single queen to any solution to the problem of placing n−1 queens on an n×n chessboard. The induction bottoms out with the solution to the 'problem' of placing 0 queens on the chessboard, which is the empty chessboard.

This technique can be used in a way that is much more efficient than the naïve brute-force search algorithm, which considers all 648 = 248 = 281,474,976,710,656 possible blind placements of eight queens, and then filters these to remove all placements that place two queens either on the same square (leaving only 64!/56! = 178,462,987,637,760 possible placements) or in mutually attacking positions. This very poor algorithm will, among other things, produce the same results over and over again in all the different permutations of the assignments of the eight queens, as well as repeating the same computations over and over again for the different sub-sets of each solution. A better brute-force algorithm places a single queen on each row, leading to only 88 = 224 = 16,777,216 blind placements.

It is possible to do much better than this. One algorithm solves the eight rooks puzzle by generating the permutations of the numbers 1 through 8 (of which there are 8! = 40,320), and uses the elements of each permutation as indices to place a queen on each row. Then it rejects those boards with diagonal attacking positions.

The backtracking depth-first search program, a slight improvement on the permutation method, constructs the search tree by considering one row of the board at a time, eliminating most nonsolution board positions at a very early stage in their construction. Because it rejects rook and diagonal attacks even on incomplete boards, it examines only 15,720 possible queen placements. A further improvement, which examines only 5,508 possible queen placements, is to combine the permutation based method with the early pruning method: the permutations are generated depth-first, and the search space is pruned if the partial permutation produces a diagonal attack. Constraint programming can also be very effective on this problem.

An alternative to exhaustive search is an 'iterative repair' algorithm, which typically starts with all queens on the board, for example with one queen per column. It then counts the number of conflicts (attacks), and uses a heuristic to determine how to improve the placement of the queens. The 'minimum-conflicts' heuristic – moving the piece with the largest number of conflicts to the square in the same column where the number of conflicts is smallest – is particularly effective: it easily finds a solution to even the 1,000,000 queens problem.

Unlike the backtracking search outlined above, iterative repair does not guarantee a solution: like all greedy procedures, it may get stuck on a local optimum. (In such a case, the algorithm may be restarted with a different initial configuration.) On the other hand, it can solve problem sizes that are several orders of magnitude beyond the scope of a depth-first search.

As an alternative to backtracking, solutions can be counted by recursively enumerating valid partial solutions, one row at a time. Rather than constructing entire board positions, blocked diagonals and columns are tracked with bitwise operations. This does not allow the recovery of individual solutions.

Sample program
The following program is a translation of Niklaus Wirth's solution into the Python programming language, but does without the index arithmetic found in the original and instead uses lists to keep the program code as simple as possible. By using a coroutine in the form of a generator function, both versions of the original can be unified to compute either one or all of the solutions. Only 15,720 possible queen placements are examined.

In popular culture

 * In the game The 7th Guest, the 8th Puzzle: "The Queen's Dilemma" in the game room of the Stauf mansion is the de facto eight queens puzzle.
 * In the game Professor Layton and the Curious Village, the 130th puzzle: "Too Many Queens 5" (クイーンの問題5) is an eight queens puzzle.

title: Eight queens puzzle


text:
Enrico Bombieri

Enrico Bombieri (born 26 November 1940) is an Italian mathematician, known for his work in analytic number theory, Diophantine geometry, complex analysis, and group theory. Bombieri is currently Professor Emeritus in the School of Mathematics at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. Bombieri won the Fields Medal in 1974 for his contributions to large sieve mathematics, conceptualized by Linnick 1941, and its application to the distribution of prime numbers.

Career
Bombieri published his first mathematical paper in 1957 when he was 16 years old. In 1963 at age 22 he earned his first degree (Laurea) in mathematics from the Università degli Studi di Milano under the supervision of Giovanni Ricci and then studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, with Harold Davenport.

Bombieri was an assistant professor (1963–1965) and then a full professor (1965–1966) at the Università di Cagliari, at the Università di Pisa in 1966–1974, and then at the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in 1974–1977. From Pisa, he emigrated in 1977 to the United States, where he became a professor at the School of Mathematics at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. In 2011 he became professor emeritus.

Bombieri is also known for his pro bono service on behalf of the mathematics profession, e.g. for serving on external review boards and for peer-reviewing extraordinarily complicated manuscripts (like the paper of Per Enflo on the invariant subspace problem).

Research
The Bombieri–Vinogradov theorem is one of the major applications of the large sieve method. It improves Dirichlet's theorem on prime numbers in arithmetic progressions, by showing that by averaging over the modulus over a range, the mean error is much less than can be proved in a given case. This result can sometimes substitute for the still-unproved generalized Riemann hypothesis.

In 1969 Bombieri, De Giorgi, and Giusti solved Bernstein's problem.

In 1976, Bombieri developed the technique known as the "asymptotic sieve". In 1980 he supplied the completion of the proof of the uniqueness of finite groups of Ree type in characteristic 3; at the time of its publication, it was one of the missing steps in the classification of finite simple groups.

Awards
Bombieri's research in number theory, algebraic geometry, and mathematical analysis has earned him many international prizes — a Fields Medal in 1974 and the Balzan Prize in 1980. He was a plenary speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians in 1974 at Vancouver. He is a member, or foreign member, of several learned academies, including the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei (elected 1976), the French Academy of Sciences (elected 1984), and the United States National Academy of Sciences (elected 1996). In 2002 he was made Cavaliere di Gran Croce al Merito della Repubblica Italiana. In 2010 he received the King Faisal International Prize (jointly with Terence Tao). and in 2020 he was awarded the Crafoord Prize in Mathematics.

Other interests
Bombieri, accomplished also in the arts, explored for wild orchids and other plants as a hobby in the Alps when a young man.

Sole

 * E. Bombieri, Le Grand Crible dans la Théorie Analytique des Nombres (Seconde Édition). Astérisque 18, Paris 1987.

Joint

 * B. Beauzamy, E. Bombieri, P. Enflo and H. L. Montgomery. "Product of polynomials in many variables", Journal of Number Theory, pages 219–245, 1990.
 * B. Beauzamy, E. Bombieri, P. Enflo and H. L. Montgomery. "Product of polynomials in many variables", Journal of Number Theory, pages 219–245, 1990.
 * B. Beauzamy, E. Bombieri, P. Enflo and H. L. Montgomery. "Product of polynomials in many variables", Journal of Number Theory, pages 219–245, 1990.

title: Enrico Bombieri


text:
Eos

In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Eos (Ionic and Homeric Greek Ἠώς Ēṓs, Attic Ἕως Héōs, "dawn", or ; Aeolic Αὔως Aúōs, Doric Ἀώς Āṓs) is the goddess and personification of the dawn, who rose each morning from her home at the edge of the river Oceanus to deliver light and disperse the night. In Greek tradition and poetry, she is characterized as a goddess with a great sexual appetite, who took numerous human lovers for her own satisfaction and bore them several children. Like her Roman counterpart Aurora and Rigvedic Ushas, Eos continues the name of an earlier Indo-European dawn goddess, Hausos. Eos, or her earlier Proto-Indo-European (PIE) ancestor, also shares several elements with the love goddess Aphrodite, perhaps signifying Eos's influence on her or otherwise a common origin for the two goddesses. In surviving tradition, Aphrodite is the culprit behind Eos' numerous love affairs, having cursed the goddess with insatiable lust for mortal men.

In Greek literature, Eos is presented as a daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Theia, the sister of the sun god Helios and the moon goddess Selene. In rarer traditions, she is the daughter of the Titan Pallas. Each day she drives her two-horse chariot, heralding the breaking of the new day and her brother's arrival. Thus, her most common epithet of the goddess in the Homeric epics is Rhododactylos, or "rosy-fingered", a reference to the sky's colours at dawn, and Erigeneia, "early-born". Although primarily associated with the dawn and early morning, sometimes Eos would accompany Helios for the entire duration of his journey, and thus she is even seen during dusk.

Eos fell in love with mortal men several times, and would abduct them in similar manner to how male gods did mortal women. Her most notable mortal lover is the Trojan prince Tithonus, for whom she ensured the gift of immortality, but not eternal youth, leading to him aging without dying for an eternity. In another story, she carried off the Athenian Cephalus against his will, but eventually let him go for he ardently wished to be returned to his wife, though not before she denigrated her to him, leading to the couple parting ways. Several other lovers and romances with both mortal men and gods were attributed to the goddess by various poets throughout the centuries.

Eos figures in many works of ancient literature and poetry, but despite her Proto-Indo-European origins, there is little evidence of Eos having received any cult or being the centre of worship during classical times.

Etymology
The Proto-Greek form of Ἠώς / Ēṓs has been reconstructed as *ἀυhώς / auhṓs. It is cognate to the Vedic goddess Ushas, Lithuanian goddess Aušrinė, and Roman goddess Aurora (Old Latin Ausosa), all three of whom are also goddesses of the dawn. Meissner (2006) suggested an áwwɔ̄s > /aṷwɔ̄s/ > αὔως lengthening for Aeolic and */aṷwɔ̄s/ > *āwɔ̄s > *ǣwɔ̄s > /ǣɔ̄s/ for Attic-Ionic Greek.

In Mycenaean Greek her name is also attested in the form in Linear B, a-wo-i-jo (Āw(ʰ)oʰios; Ἀϝohιος), found in a tablet from Pylos; it has been interpreted as a shepherd's personal name related to "dawn",    or dative form Āwōiōi.

Heinrich Wilhelm Stoll offered a different (now rejected) etymology for ἠὼς, linking it to the verb αὔω, meaning "to blow", "to breathe."

Lycophron calls her by an archaic name, Tito, meaning "day" and perhaps etymologically linked to "Titan". Karl Kerenyi observes that Tito shares a linguistic origin with Eos's lover Tithonus, which belonged to an older, pre-Greek language.

Proto-Indo-European dawn goddess

All four of the aforementioned goddesses sharing a linguistic connection with Eos are considered derivatives of the Proto-Indo-European stem *h₂ewsṓs (later *Ausṓs), "dawn". The root also gave rise to Proto-Germanic *Austrō, Old High German *Ōstara and Old English Ēostre / Ēastre. These and other cognates led to the reconstruction of a Proto-Indo-European dawn goddess, *h₂éwsōs.

In the Greek pantheon, Eos, Helios and Zeus are the three gods that are of impeccable Indo-European lineage in both etymology and status, although the former two were sidelined in the pantheon by non-PIE newcomers. A common epithet associated with this dawn goddess is *Diwós Dhuǵh2tḗr, the 'Daughter of Dyēus', the sky god. In Homeric tradition however, Eos is never stated to be the daughter of Zeus (Διὸς θυγάτηρ, ), as she is instead the daughter of the Titan Hyperion, who plays little role in mythology or religion. Rather, a commonly occurring epithet of hers is δῖα, dîa, meaning "divine", from earlier *díw-ya, which would have translated into "belonging to Zeus" or "heavenly".

Eos's characterization as a lovestruck, sexual being who took many lovers is directly inherited from her PIE precursor. A common and widespread theme among Hausos's descendants is their reluctance to bring the light of the new day. Eos (and Aurora) is sometimes seen as unwilling to leave her bed in the morning, while Uṣas is punished by Indra for attempting to forestall the day, and the Latvian Auseklis was said to be locked up in a golden chamber so she could not always rise in the morning.

This Indo-European goddess of the dawn was often conflated and equated with Hemera, the goddess of the day and daylight. Eos might have also played a role in Proto-Indo-European poetry.

Connection to Aphrodite
Eos also shares some characteristics with the love goddess Aphrodite connoting perhaps a semi-shared origin or influence of Eos/*Haéusōs on Aphrodite, who otherwise has a Near Eastern origin; both goddesses were known for their erotic beauty and aggressive sexuality, both had relationships with mortal lovers, and both were associated with the colors red, white, and gold. Michael Janda etymologizes Aphrodite's name as an epithet of Eos meaning "she who rises from the foam [of the ocean]" and points to Hesiod's Theogony account of Aphrodite's birth as an archaic reflex of Indo-European myth. On the other hand however, it is generally accepted that Aphrodite's name etymology is Semitic in origin, and its exact meaning and derivation cannot be determined. Evidence is also provided by an Italic red-figure krater in which Aphrodite is shown holding a mirror beneath a solar disc while the Theban hero Cadmus slays the dragon, with a female figure nearly identical to Aphrodite being depicted on another krater labelled "ΑΩΣ", or Aṓs, the dawn; this shows that although Aphrodite is assimilated to Astarte/Inanna, in Greek artistic tradition she is sometimes presented in a similar matter to Eos.

Aphrodite, like Eos, is predator and not prey, as no tales of men assaulting Aphrodite exist, but there are many where she abducts mortal men reversing the traditional theme of gods and men pursuing maidens, in the same fashion as Eos. Not only does Aphrodite abduct or seduce mortal men as Eos does, but even cites Eos' own adventures with Tithonus when she seduces Anchises. The two goddesses are presented as both maleficent and beneficent abductors, as they confer both death (maleficent) and preservation (beneficent) to their mortal lovers. The two goddesses exist almost side by side in the myth of Phaethon of Syria, with Eos as his mother and Aphrodite as his lover and abductor. Moreover, another telling point is how the name “Aoos” is recorded as both a name for Adonis, Aphrodite's East-originating lover, and a son of Eos by Cephalus (like Phaethon) who became king of Cyprus, an island that was regarded as Aphrodite's birthplace. This suggest a mixture of Mycenaean and Phoenician religions on the island; it is possible that Aoos was originally a generic name used for Eos’ son or lover, which was then attached to Aphrodite in the form of a consort of the same name as she developed from Eos.

Description

Eos is usually described with rosy fingers or rosy forearms as she opened the gates of heaven for the Sun to rise: the singer in the Homeric Hymn to Helios calls her ῥοδόπηχυν (ACC), "rosy-armed", as does Sappho, who also describes her as having golden arms and golden sandals; vases depict her rosy-fingered, with golden arms.

She is pictured on Attic vases as a beautiful woman, crowned with a tiara or diadem and with the large white-feathered wings of a bird. In Homer, her saffron-colored robe is embroidered or woven with flowers. Mesomedes of Crete used χιονοβλέφαρος for her, "she who has snow-white eyelids", while Ovid described her as "golden". The delicate and fragile beauty of her appearance seems to be in total contrast with the carnal nature that was often attributed to her in myth and literature.

Parents

According to Greek cosmogony, Eos is the daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Theia: Hyperion, a bringer of light, the One Above, Who Travels High Above the Earth and Theia, The Divine, also called Euryphaessa, "wide-shining" and Aethra, "bright sky". Eos is the sister of Helios, the god of the sun, and Selene, the goddess of the moon, "who shine upon all that are on earth and upon the deathless gods who live in the wide heaven". Out of the four authors that give her and her siblings a birth order, two make her the oldest child, the other two the youngest. In some accounts, Eos's father was called Pallas, who is also confirmed to be the father of Eos's sister Selene in some rare traditions. Even though the two goddesses are still connected as sisters in the traditions going with lineage from Pallas, their brother Helios is never included with them in those versions, being consistently the son of Hyperion. Mesomedes made her the daughter of Helios, who is usually her brother, by an unnamed mother. Some authors made her the child of Nyx, the personification of the night, who is the mother of Hemera in the Theogony.

Offspring
Eos married the Titan Astraeus ("of the stars") and became the mother of the Anemoi ("winds") namely Zephyrus, Boreas, Notus and Eurus; of the Morning Star, Eosphoros (Venus); of the stars; and of the virgin goddess of justice, Astraea ("starry one"). Her other notable offspring were Memnon and Emathion by the Trojan prince, Tithonus. Sometimes, Hesperus, Phaethon and Tithonus (different from her lover), were said to be the children of Eos by Prince Cephalus of Athens.

Goddess of the dawn

Each morning, the dawn goddess Eos gets up and opens the gates for her brother, Helios, to pass through and rise, ushering in the new day. Although often her job seems to be done once she announces Helios' coming, in the Homeric epics she accompanies him throughout the whole day, and does not leave him until the sunset; hence "Eos" might be used in texts where one would have expected to see "Helios" instead. In Musaeus's rendition of the story of Hero and Leander in the sixth century AD, Eos is mentioned during both sunrise and sunset.

Homer and Hesiod
From the Iliad:

Now when Dawn in robe of saffron was hastening from the streams of Oceanus, to bring light to mortals and immortals, Thetis reached the ships with the armor that the god had given her.

...

But soon as early Dawn appeared, the rosy-fingered, then gathered the folk about the pyre of glorious Hector.

She is most often associated with her Homeric epithet "rosy-fingered" Eos Rhododactylos (Ἠὼς Ῥοδοδάκτυλος), but Homer also calls her Eos Erigeneia:

"That brightest of stars appeared, Eosphoros, that most often heralds the light of early-rising Dawn (Eos Erigeneia)."

Near the end of the Odyssey, Athena, wanting to buy Odysseus some time with his wife Penelope after they have reunited with each other, orders Eos not to yoke her two horses, thus delaying the coming of the new day:

"And rose-fingered Dawn would have shone for the weepers had not bright-eyed goddess Athena thought of other things. She checked the long night in its passage, and further, held golden-throned Dawn over Ocean and didn't let her yoke her swift-footed horses, that bring daylight to men, Lampus and Phaethon, the colts that carry Dawn."

In the Theogony, Hesiod wrote "[a]nd after these Erigeneia ["Early-born"] bore the star Eosphoros ("Dawn-bringer"), and the gleaming stars with which heaven is crowned". Thus Eos is preceded by the Morning Star, and is thus seen as the genetrix of all the stars and planets; her tears are considered to have created the morning dew, personified as Ersa or Herse, who is otherwise the daughter of her sister Selene by Zeus.

Orphic literature

Eos is addressed by the singer in one of the Orphic Hymns, as the bringer of the new day:

"Hear, O goddess, you bring the light of day to mortals resplendent Dawn, you blush throughout the world messenger of the great, the illustrious Titan."

The position of the hymn in the collection at number 78 is odd, far from the Hymns to the Night (3), the Sun (8) and the Moon (9), where it would be expected to be grouped. While many of the Orphic hymns describe the divinities in terms on light, the hymn to Eos is the only one that calls upon the divinity to provide light to the initiates.

Divine horses
Eos's team of horses pull her chariot across the sky and are named in the Odyssey as "Firebright" and "Daybright". Quintus described her exulting in her heart over the radiant horses (Lampus and Phaëton) that drew her chariot, amidst the bright-haired Horae, the feminine Hours, the daughters of Zeus and Themis who are responsible for the changing of the seasons, climbing the arc of heaven and scattering sparks of fire.

Lovers
In spite of the goddess already having a husband in the face of her first cousin Astraeus, Eos is presented as a goddess who fell in love several times. According to Pseudo-Apollodorus, it was the jealous Aphrodite who cursed her to be perpetually in love and have an insatiable sexual desire because Eos had once lain with Aphrodite's sweetheart Ares, the god of war. The curse caused her to abduct a number of handsome young men. This explanatory myth was the reason offered for Eos' ravenous sexual desires, as this pattern of behavior of hers was noticed by the ancient Greeks.

In the Odyssey, Calypso complains to Hermes about the male gods taking many mortal women as lovers, but not allowing goddesses to do the same. She brings up as example Eos's love for the hunter Orion, who was killed by Artemis on the island of Ortygia. Apollodorus also mentions Eos's love for Orion, and adds that she brought him to Delos, where he met Artemis and was subsequently slain by her. The good-looking Cleitus was snatched and made immortal by her.

Eos fell in love and abducted Cephalus, a son of Hermes, who is sometimes the same as or distinct from the Cephalus that was the husband of Procris, whom she also abducted.

Tithonus

The myth of Eos and Tithonus is very old, known as early as Homer, who in the Odyssey described the coming of the new morning as Eos rising from the bed she shares with Tithonus to bring her light to the world. The earliest (and fullest) account survives in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, where Aphrodite herself narrates the story to her own lover Anchises. Additionally, the myth is also the subject of one of the very few substantially complete works of Sappho, pieced together from different fragments discovered over a period of more than a hundred years, known as the Tithonus poem or the Old Age poem:

"...old age already (withers?) all (my) skin, and (my) hair (turned white) from black ] (my) knees do not carry (me) ] (to dance) like young fawns ] but what could I do? ] not possible to become (ageless?) ] rosy-armed Dawn [...] carrying (to) the ends of the earth ] yet (age) seized (him) ] (immortal?) wife."

The myth goes that Eos fell in love with and abducted Tithonus, a handsome prince from Troy, either the brother or the son of King Laomedon (the father of Priam). She went with a request to Zeus, asking him to make Tithonus immortal for her sake. Zeus agreed and granted her wish, but Eos foolishly forgot to ask for eternal youth as well for her beloved. So for a while the two lived happily in her palace, but their happiness eventually came to an end when Tithonus’ hair started turning grey as he aged, and Eos ceased to visit him in their bed. Despite that, the goddess kept him around and nourished him with food and ambrosia; Tithonus never died as he had gained immortality as Zeus promised, but he kept aging and shrivelling, and was soon unable to even move. In the end, Eos locked him up in a chamber, where he withered away alone, forever a helpless old man. Out of pity, she turned him into a small bug, a cicada (Greek τέττιξ, tettix).

In the account of Hieronymus of Rhodes from the third century BC, the blame is shifted from Eos and onto Tithonus, who asked for immortality but not agelessness from his lover, who was then unable to help him otherwise and turned him into a cicada. Propertius wrote that Eos did not forsake Tithonus, old and aged as he was, and would still embrace him and hold him in her arms rather than leaving him deserted in his cold chamber, while cursing the gods for his cruel fate.

This myth might have been used to explain why cicadas were particularly noisy during the early hours of the morning, when the dawn appears in the sky. Sir James George Frazer notes that there was a widespread notion among the ancient Greeks and other ancient peoples that the creatures that shed their skin renew their youth and get to live forever. It could also be a reference to the fact that the high-pitched talk of old men was compared to a cicada's singing, as evidenced in a passage from the Iliad. The ancient Greeks would use a cicada, the most musical of insects, sitting on a harp as an emblem of music. Cicadas were also believed to be able to survive off of dew alone, a substance closely associated with Eos.

Cephalus

The abduction of Cephalus had special appeal for an Athenian audience because Cephalus was a local boy, and so this myth element appeared frequently in Attic vase-paintings and was exported with them. In the literary myths, Eos snatched Cephalus against his will when he was hunting and took him to Syria. Although Cephalus was already married to Procris, Eos bore him three sons, including Phaethon and Hesperus, and in some versions the little-attested Aoos who went on to become king of Cyprus, but he then began pining for Procris, causing a disgruntled Eos to return him to Procris, but not before sowing the seeds of doubt in his mind, telling him that it was highly unlikely that Procris had stayed faithful to him this entire time.

Cephalus, troubled by her words, asked Eos to change his form into that of a stranger's, in order to secretly put Procris's love for him to the test. Cephalus, now disguised, propositioned Procris, who at first declined but eventually gave in when he offered her money. He was hurt by her betrayal, and she left him in shame, but eventually they got back together. This time however it was Procris's turn to doubt her husband's fidelity; while hunting, he would often call upon the breeze ('Aura' in Latin, sounding similar to Eos's Roman equivalent Aurora) to refresh his body. Upon hearing that, Procris followed and spied on him. Cephalus, mistaking her for some wild animal, threw his spear at her, killing his wife. The second-century CE traveller Pausanias knew of the story of Cephalus's abduction too, though he calls Eos by the name of Hemera, goddess of day.

Hyginus omits the kidnapping from the story, and has Cephalus reject Eos out of fidelity to Procris when she begs him to have sex with her. Eos then says to Cephalus that she would not want him to break his vows if Procris herself has not either, and alters his appearance and gives him gifts to trick Procris. Cephalus then goes to Procris as a stranger, and she agrees to lay with him, thereupon Eos removes the enchantment from Cephalus, revealing his identity. Procris, knowing she has been deceived by Eos, flees; she is eventually reunited with Cephalus, but still fearful of Eos, follows him when he goes out hunting, and ends up being accidentally killed by him.

Antoninus Liberalis also largely follows the same tradition in his rendition of the myth, though his text contains a lacuna, jumping from Eos' abduction of Cephalus to him having doubts over Procris. The oldest extant account of the myth is attributed to Pherecydes, and the elements it contains were all kept by later poets; in his account however Eos plays no role in the myth. That being said, artistic evidence of Eos abducting a man that can be identified as Cephalus go as back as the early fifth century BC.

Gigantomachy

Eos played a small role in the battle of the earthborn Giants against the gods, known as the Gigantomachy, who rose in rebellion. When their mother, the earth goddess Gaia learned of a prophecy that the giants would perish at the hand of a mortal, Gaia sought to find a herb that would protect them from all harm; thus Zeus ordered Eos, as well as her siblings Selene (Moon) and Helios (Sun) not to shine so that she would not be able to seek for it, and harvested all of the plant for himself, denying Gaia the chance to make the Giants indestructible. Moreover, Eos is seen fighting against the Giants in the south frieze of the Pergamon Altar, which depicts the Gigantomachy, where she rides hither on either a horse or a mule right ahead of Helios, swinging herself on the back of her mount while a Giant already lies on the ground underneath her; a robe wound around her hips serves as her saddle-cloth. She is joined in fight against the Giants by her siblings, her mother Theia, and possibly, conjectured due to the disembodied wing to the right of Eos's shoulder, the goddess Hemera.

Trojan War
According to Hesiod, by her lover Tithonus, Eos had two sons, Memnon and Emathion. Memnon, king of Aethiopia, joined the Trojans in the Trojan War and fought against Achilles in battle. Much like Thetis, the mother of Achilles, did before her, Eos asked the smithing god Hephaestus with tears in her eyes to forge an armor for Memnon, and he, moved, did as told. Pausanias mentions images of Thetis and Eos both begging Zeus on behalf of their sons. In the end, it was Achilles who triumphed and slew Memnon in battle. Mourning greatly over the death of her son, Eos made the light of her brother, Helios the god of the sun, to fade, and begged Nyx, the goddess of the night, to come out earlier, so she could be able to freely steal her son's body undetected by the armies. After his death, Eos, perhaps with the help of Hypnos (Sleep) and Thanatos (Death), transported Memnon's dead body back to Aethiopia; she also asked Zeus to make her son immortal, and he granted her wish. Eos' role in the Trojan War saga mirrors that of Thetis herself; both are goddesses married to aging old men, both see their mortal sons die on the battlefield, and both arrange an afterlife/immortality of sorts for said sons.

Iconography

Eos was imagined as a woman wearing a saffron mantle as she spread dew from an upturned urn, or with a torch in hand, riding a chariot. Greek and Italian vases show Eos/Aurora on a chariot preceding Helios, as the morning star Eosphorus flies with her; she is winged, wearing a fine pleated tunic and mantle. Eos is not an uncommon figure, especially on red-figure vases; as a single figure she appears rising from the sea in, or driving, a four-horse chariot like her brother Helios, sometimes carrying two hydriae from which she pours morning dew. Because Hermes' rod had the power to both induce sleep to mortals and wake them up, some times he is seen preceding the chariot of Eos (and that of Helios) as the new day breaks.

Although the romantic adventures of Eos is a common subject in pottery, so far as it is known, no vase depicts her with Orion or Cleitus, known lovers of hers, instead those vases fall into groups; those that depict Eos with a young hunter identified as Cephalus, and those that depict Eos with a youth holding a lyre, identified as Tithonus. Sometimes those vases bear inscriptions, and on a few the hunter is identified as Tithonus, while the lyre-player is Cephalus. Perhaps the earliest representation of this theme is found on a red-figure rhyton, a statuette-vase, from circa 480-470 BC in which Eos is depicted carrying of a naked boy, perhaps Cephalus, her wings spread and her feet barely touching the ground. The image of Eos pursuing Tithonus was eerily repetitive in ancient art, as was that of erotic pursuit in general; Tithonus was drawn running off to the right in terror, or trying to clobber with a lyre or a spear the pursuing Eos, indicating the terrifying aspect of a mortal man being taken by a goddess. The image of Zeus, the active erastes, pursuing Ganymede, the passive eromenos, was also common, but in the case of Eos, the female figure was put in the dominant position.

Other depictions of mythological scenes that include Eos are Memnon's battle with Achilles and Eos' pleading of Zeus for his safety, her seizing of Memnon's dead body, and the apotheosis of Alcmene (the mother of Heracles). Among Theia and Hyperion's children, she is the only one depicted with wings, as neither her brother nor her sister ever sport some in art.

Cult and temples

Eos, along with her brother and sister, is an Indo-European deity, side-lined by the non-IE newcomers to the pantheon; James Davidson argues that apparently persisting on the sidelines was a primary function for them, to be the minor gods that the major gods were juxtaposed to, thus helping to keep the Greek religion Greek. However, whereas her brother and sister did receive minor cults, and in Helios' case even major ones, Eos does not seem to have been the focus of any worship at all. Thus there are no known temples, shrines, or altars to Eos. That being said, Ovid seems to allude to the existence of at least two shrines of Eos, as he describes them in plural, albeit few, in the lines:

"‘Least I may be of all the goddesses the golden heavens hold – in all the world my shrines are rarest.’"

Although this could simply be an understated way for Eos to say that she has no temples or shrines whatsoever, nevertheless Ovid may therefore have known of at least two such shrines. However if Eos did indeed have a handful of shrines and altars in ancient Greece or Rome, no knowledge of them remains.

The only traces of the goddess's worship can be found at Athens, where wineless offerings (or nephalia) were made to Eos, along with other celestial gods and goddesses, including Eos's siblings Helios and Selene, as well as Aphrodite Urania, Mnemosyne, the Muses, and the nymphs. It is possible that the goddess addressed as Orthria and Aotis in a fragment by Alcman is Eos; this is highly debated, but if true, it could mean that Eos was worshipped in some capacity in Sparta during the Archaic period.

Etruscan

Among the Etruscans, the generative dawn-goddess was Thesan. Depictions of the dawn-goddess with a young lover became popular in Etruria in the fifth century, probably inspired by imported Greek vase-painting. Though Etruscans preferred to show the goddess as a nurturer (Kourotrophos) rather than an abductor of young men, the late Archaic sculptural acroterion from Etruscan Cære, now in Berlin, showing the goddess in archaic running pose adapted from the Greeks, and bearing a boy in her arms, has commonly been identified as Eos and Cephalus. On an Etruscan mirror Thesan is shown carrying off a young man, whose name is inscribed as Tinthu.

Roman
The Roman equivalent of Eos is Aurora, also a cognate showing the characteristic Latin rhotacism. Dawn became associated in Roman cult with Matuta, later known as Mater Matuta. She was also associated with the sea harbors and ports, and had a temple on the Forum Boarium. On June 11, the Matralia was celebrated at that temple in honor of Mater Matuta; this festival was only for women during their first marriage.

Hemera

Although distinct deities in early works such as Hesiod's Theogony, later the tragic poets completely identified Eos with Hemera, the primordial goddess of the day; each of the three great Athenian tragedians, Euripides, Aeschylus and Sophocles, used "Hemera" for the goddess who abducts Tithonus or drives a chariot drawn by white horses at daybreak in some work. Both goddesses were said to be daughters of Nyx (Night), albeit Eos was much more commonly the daughter of Hyperion by his wife. Pausanias, when describing depictions of Eos's myths at Athens and Amyclae, he calls Eos by the name of Hemera. A scholion on the Odyssey mentions the abduction of the hunter Orion by "Hemera" (Eos in Homer). Eos, in contrast to Helios and Selene and more similarly to Hemera and Hemera's mother Nyx, embodies a part of the day and night cycle, instead of a celestial body. The Greek word "eos", meaning dawn, was some times used by writers to refer to the entire duration of the day, not just the morning.

Likewise, Eos was often referred to as Tito, another archaic word meaning day, and feminine equivalent to Titan, which is a common epithet of her brother Helios denoting his role as the creator of the day. Unlike Eos however, Hemera is little more than a name in Greek literature, with few and far between refences about her and with no unique mythology outside of her parentage and the few stories appropriated from Eos.

In culture

 * 221 Eos, a large main-belt asteroid, was named after this goddess.
 * The acidic compound Eosin was indirectly named after Eos.

title: Eos


text:
Eduardo Blasco Ferrer

Eduardo Blasco Ferrer (Barcelona, 1956 – Bastia, 12 January 2017) was a Spanish-Italian linguist and a professor at the University of Cagliari, Sardinia. He is best known as the author of several studies about the Paleo-Sardinian and Sardinian language.

Books

 * Grammatica storica del catalano e dei suoi dialetti con speciale riguardo all'algherese. Tübingen: G. Narr, c1984.
 * La lingua sarda contemporanea : grammatica del logudorese e del campidanese : norma e varietà dell'uso : sintesi storica. Cagliari : Della Torre, c1986.
 * Storia linguistica della Sardegna. Tübingen : Niemeyer, 1984.
 * Le parlate dell'alta Ogliastra : analisi dialettologica : saggio di storia linguistica e culturale. Cagliari : Edizioni Della Torre, 1988.
 * Ello, ellus : grammatica sarda. Nuoro : Poliedro, c1994.
 * La lingua nel tempo : variazione e cambiamento in latino, italiano e sardo. Cagliari : CUEC, 1995.
 * Breve corso di linguistica italiana : con facsimili, edizione e commento d'un testo quattrocentesco ad uso di seminari ed esercitazioni. Cagliari : CUEC, 1996.
 * Pro domo : grammatica essenziale della lingua sarda. Cagliari : Condaghes, 1998.
 * Italiano e tedesco : un confronto linguistico. Torino : Paravia scriptorium, c1999.
 * Italiano, sardo e lingue moderne a scuola. Milano : F. Angeli, 2003.
 * Storia della lingua sarda. Cagliari : CUEC, 2009.
 * Paleosardo. Le radici linguistiche della Sardegna neolitica.  Berlin : De Gruyter, 2010. ISBN 978-3-11-023560-9

title: Eduardo Blasco Ferrer


text:
Elba

Elba (isola d'Elba, ; Ilva) is a Mediterranean island in Tuscany, Italy, 10 km from the coastal town of Piombino on the Italian mainland, and the largest island of the Tuscan Archipelago. It is also part of the Arcipelago Toscano National Park, and the third largest island in Italy, after Sicily and Sardinia. It is located in the Tyrrhenian Sea about 50 km east of the French island of Corsica.

The island is part of the province of Livorno and is divided into seven municipalities, with a total population of about 30,000 inhabitants which increases considerably during the summer. The municipalities are Portoferraio (which is also the island's principal town), Campo nell'Elba, Capoliveri, Marciana, Marciana Marina, Porto Azzurro, and Rio.

Elba was the site of Napoleon's first exile, from 1814 to 1815.

Geography
Elba is the largest remaining stretch of land from the ancient tract that once connected the Italian peninsula to Corsica. The northern coast faces the Ligurian Sea, the eastern coast the Piombino Channel, the southern coast the Tyrrhenian Sea, and the Corsica Channel divides the western tip of the island from neighbouring Corsica.

Geology
The island itself is made up of slices of rocks which once formed part of the ancient Tethyan seafloor. These rocks have been through at least two orogenies, the Alpine orogeny and the Apennine orogeny. The second of these two events was associated with subduction of the Tethyan oceanic crust underneath Italy and the obduction of parts of the ancient seafloor onto the continents. Later extension within the stretched inner part of the Apennine mountains caused adiabatic melting and the intrusion of the Mount Capanne and the La Serra-Porto Azzuro granitoids. These igneous bodies brought with them skarn fluids which dissolved and replaced some of the carbonate units, precipitating iron-rich minerals in their place. One of the iron-rich minerals, ilvaite, was first identified on the island and takes its name from the Latin word for Elba. More recently, high-angle faults formed within the tectonic pile, allowing for the migration of iron-rich fluids through the crust. The deposits left behind by these fluids formed the island's rich seams of iron ore.

The terrain is quite varied and is thus divided into several areas based on geomorphology. The mountainous and most recent part of the island can be found to the west, the centre of which is dominated by Mount Capanne (at a height of 1,018 metres, or 3,340 feet), also called the "roof of the Tuscan Archipelago". The mountain is home to many animal species including the mouflon and wild boar, two species that flourish despite the continuous influx of tourists. The central part of the island is a mostly flat section with the width being reduced to just four kilometres (4 km). It is where the major centres can be found: Portoferraio, Campo nell'Elba. To the east is the oldest part of the island, formed over 3 million years ago. In the hilly area, dominated by Monte Calamita, are the deposits of iron that made Elba famous.

Hydrography
Rivers rarely exceed 3 km in length, and it is common for the shorter ones to dry up during the summer. The largest rivers, sorted by length, are:
 * Fosso San Francesco 6.5 km;
 * Fosso Barion, 5.1 km;
 * Fosso Redinoce, 2 km

Between Poggio and Marciana, at the foot of Mount Capanne, is a spring called Fonte Napoleone, known for its quality.

Climate
The climate of the island is predominantly Mediterranean, except for Mount Capanne, where winters tend to be moderately cold. Precipitation is concentrated in autumn and comprises a normal rainfall. The island lies in the rain shadow of the large and mountainous island of Corsica, so precipitation totals are somewhat reduced from the mainland (most of the island receives less than 750 mm (30 inches) annually). Snowfall in winter is rare in the lowlands and melts quickly. The table below shows the average temperatures for the islands by month.

Early history
The island was originally inhabited by Ligures Ilvates and was called Ilva (Ἰλούα). It was well known from very ancient times for its iron resources and valued mines. The Greeks also called it Aethalia (Αἰθαλία or Αἰθάλεια) and Aethale (Αἰθάλη) from "smoky" (αἰθάλη), after the fumes of the metal producing furnaces.

Apollonius of Rhodes mentions it in his epic poem Argonautica, describing that the Argonauts rested here during their travels. He writes that signs of their visit were still visible in his day, including skin-coloured pebbles that they dried their hands on and large stones which they used at discus. Strabo (5.2.6) presents a slightly different account: "because the scrapings, which the Argonauts formed when they used their strigils, became congealed, the pebbles on the shore remain variegated still to this day." The port which is now called Porto Ferraio, was known in ancient times as the portus Argous (Ἀργῶος λιμήν), because it was believed that the Argonauts landed there on their return voyage.

The island was then settled by the Etruscans, who started mining iron at Elba, and later (after 480 BC) by the Romans, who called the island Ilva.

Middle Ages and early modern
In the early medieval period, Elba was invaded by the Ostrogoths and the Lombards, and later it became a possession of the Republic of Pisa. After the battle of Meloria, the Republic of Genoa took possession of Elba, but it was regained by Pisa in 1292. The island was retained for two centuries by the Appiani family, Lords of Piombino, when they sold Pisa to the house of Visconti of Milan in 1399.

In 1544, the Barbary pirates from North Africa devastated Elba and the coasts of Tuscany. In 1546, part of the island was handed over to Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, who fortified Portoferraio and renamed it "Cosmopoli", while the rest of the island was returned to the Appiani in 1577. In 1596, Philip II of Spain captured Porto Longone and had two fortresses built there. This part of Elba came into the direct power of Spain through the State of the Presidi, including Porto Longone. In 1736, the sovereignty of this part of Elba was claimed by the Kingdom of Naples but remained abandoned.

Late modern and contemporary
The British landed on the island of Elba in 1796, after the occupation of Livorno by the French Republican troops, to protect the 4,000 French royalists who had found asylum in Portoferraio two years earlier. In 1801, the Peace of Luneville gave Elba to the Kingdom of Etruria, and it was transferred to France in 1802 by the Peace of Amiens.

The French Emperor Napoleon was exiled to Elba, after his forced abdication following the Treaty of Fontainebleau, and conveyed to the island on HMS Undaunted by Captain Thomas Ussher; he arrived at Portoferraio on 4 May 1814. He was allowed to keep a personal guard of 400 men and was nominally sovereign of Elba, a step down from Emperor of the French. However, the nearby sea was patrolled by the French and British navies to ensure he could not escape. During the months that he stayed on the island, Napoleon carried out a series of economic and social reforms to improve the quality of life. After staying for almost ten months, he managed to escape back to France on 26 February 1815 with about 1,000 men.

At the Congress of Vienna, Elba was given to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. In 1860, it became part of the new unified Kingdom of Italy.

During the Second World War, the island was liberated from German occupation by the French 1er Corps d'Armée supported by British forces including Royal Naval Commandos on 17 June 1944, in Opération Brassard. Faulty intelligence and strong defences made the battle more difficult than expected.

In 1954, BOAC Flight 781 crashed in the waters off the coast of Elba.

In recent decades, thanks to its rich cultural heritage, cuisine and nature, the island has become an important international tourist destination.

Transportation
The island is connected to the mainland via the four ferry companies, Toremar, Moby Lines, Blunavy and Sardinia Ferries, all offering routes between Piombino and Portoferraio, the capital located in the north, Cavo, Rio Marina and Porto Azzurro, on the east coast of the island.

There is an airport on the island, Marina di Campo Airport. It is served by Silver Air with flights to the Italian mainland.

Cycling
The island has a network of trails for road racers looking for more technical routes for their training, trails and dirt roads for bikers to have fun on, and accessible routes for families with children who need safe and relaxing routes. On the road from Rio nell'Elba going to Porto Azzurro is the "Fonte di Coppi". Towards the end of his career, Fausto Coppi, the "campionissimo", came here to train on the roads of Elba. He still retained a celebrity status but was no longer at the peak of his career that ended with his death a few years later. The plaque on the fountain reads: "1960–2010, here the champion quenched his thirst, after fifty years on the run".

Sport
The Elba football team represents the island. They were approved as a ConIFA member at the Annual General Meeting 2020. It is not affiliated with FIFA or UEFA, and therefore cannot compete for the FIFA World Cup or in the UEFA European Championship. It is, however, affiliated to ConIFA, and play in the ConIFA European Football Cup.

Elba Island played their first game as a ConIFA member on 11 September 2021 against the Sicily Football Team scoring a 4–4 tie against them.

title: Elba