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High-density lipoprotein

 High-density lipoprotein (HDL) is one of the five major groups of lipoproteins. Lipoproteins are complex particles composed of multiple proteins which transport all fat molecules (lipids) around the body within the water outside cells. They are typically composed of 80–100 proteins per particle (organized by one, two or three ApoA). HDL particles enlarge while circulating in the blood, aggregating more fat molecules and transporting up to hundreds of fat molecules per particle.

Overview
Lipoproteins are divided into five subgroups, by density/size (an inverse relationship), which also correlates with function and incidence of cardiovascular events. Unlike the larger lipoprotein particles, which deliver fat molecules to cells, HDL particles remove fat molecules from cells. The lipids carried include cholesterol, phospholipids, and triglycerides, amounts of each are variable.

Increasing concentrations of HDL particles are associated with decreasing accumulation of atherosclerosis within the walls of arteries, reducing the risk of sudden plaque ruptures, cardiovascular disease, stroke and other vascular diseases. HDL particles are commonly referred to as "good cholesterol", because they transport fat molecules out of artery walls, reduce macrophage accumulation, and thus help prevent or even regress atherosclerosis. Higher HDL-C may not necessarily be protective against cardiovascular disease and may even be harmful in extremely high quantities, with an increased cardiovascular risk, especially in hypertensive patients.

Testing
Because of the high cost of directly measuring HDL and LDL (low-density lipoprotein) protein particles, blood tests are commonly performed for the surrogate value, HDL-C, i.e. the cholesterol associated with ApoA-1/HDL particles. In healthy individuals, about 30% of blood cholesterol, along with other fats, is carried by HDL. This is often contrasted with the amount of cholesterol estimated to be carried within low-density lipoprotein particles, LDL, and called LDL-C. HDL particles remove fats and cholesterol from cells, including within artery wall atheroma, and transport it back to the liver for excretion or re-utilization; thus the cholesterol carried within HDL particles (HDL-C) is sometimes called "good cholesterol" (despite being the same as cholesterol in LDL particles). Those with higher levels of HDL-C tend to have fewer problems with cardiovascular diseases, while those with low HDL-C cholesterol levels (especially less than 40 mg/dL or about 1 mmol/L) have increased rates for heart disease. Higher native HDL levels are correlated with lowered risk of cardiovascular disease in healthy people.

The remainder of the serum cholesterol after subtracting the HDL is the non-HDL cholesterol. The concentration of these other components, which may cause atheroma, is known as the non-HDL-C. This is now preferred to LDL-C as a secondary marker as it has been shown to be a better predictor and it is more easily calculated.

Structure and function
With a size ranging from 5 to 17 nm, HDL is the smallest of the lipoprotein particles. It is the densest because it contains the highest proportion of protein to lipids. Its most abundant apolipoproteins are apo A-I and apo A-II. A rare genetic variant, ApoA-1 Milano, has been documented to be far more effective in both protecting against and regressing arterial disease, atherosclerosis.

The liver synthesizes these lipoproteins as complexes of apolipoproteins and phospholipid, which resemble cholesterol-free flattened spherical lipoprotein particles, whose NMR structure was published; the complexes are capable of picking up cholesterol, carried internally, from cells by interaction with the ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1). A plasma enzyme called lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) converts the free cholesterol into cholesteryl ester (a more hydrophobic form of cholesterol), which is then sequestered into the core of the lipoprotein particle, eventually causing the newly synthesized HDL to assume a spherical shape. HDL particles increase in size as they circulate through the blood and incorporate more cholesterol and phospholipid molecules from cells and other lipoproteins, such as by interaction with the ABCG1 transporter and the phospholipid transport protein (PLTP).

HDL transports cholesterol mostly to the liver or steroidogenic organs such as adrenals, ovary, and testes by both direct and indirect pathways. HDL is removed by HDL receptors such as scavenger receptor BI (SR-BI), which mediate the selective uptake of cholesterol from HDL. In humans, probably the most relevant pathway is the indirect one, which is mediated by cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP). This protein exchanges triglycerides of VLDL against cholesteryl esters of HDL. As the result, VLDLs are processed to LDL, which are removed from the circulation by the LDL receptor pathway. The triglycerides are not stable in HDL, but are degraded by hepatic lipase so that, finally, small HDL particles are left, which restart the uptake of cholesterol from cells.

The cholesterol delivered to the liver is excreted into the bile and, hence, intestine either directly or indirectly after conversion into bile acids. Delivery of HDL cholesterol to adrenals, ovaries, and testes is important for the synthesis of steroid hormones.

Several steps in the metabolism of HDL can participate in the transport of cholesterol from lipid-laden macrophages of atherosclerotic arteries, termed foam cells, to the liver for secretion into the bile. This pathway has been termed reverse cholesterol transport and is considered as the classical protective function of HDL toward atherosclerosis.

HDL carries many lipid and protein species, several of which have very low concentrations but are biologically very active. For example, HDL and its protein and lipid constituents help to inhibit oxidation, inflammation, activation of the endothelium, coagulation, and platelet aggregation. All these properties may contribute to the ability of HDL to protect from atherosclerosis, and it is not yet known which are the most important. In addition, a small subfraction of HDL lends protection against the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei brucei. This HDL subfraction, termed trypanosome lytic factor (TLF), contains specialized proteins that, while very active, are unique to the TLF molecule.

In the stress response, serum amyloid A, which is one of the acute-phase proteins and an apolipoprotein, is under the stimulation of cytokines (interleukin 1, interleukin 6), and cortisol produced in the adrenal cortex and carried to the damaged tissue incorporated into HDL particles. At the inflammation site, it attracts and activates leukocytes. In chronic inflammations, its deposition in the tissues manifests itself as amyloidosis.

It has been postulated that the concentration of large HDL particles more accurately reflects protective action, as opposed to the concentration of total HDL particles. This ratio of large HDL to total HDL particles varies widely and is measured only by more sophisticated lipoprotein assays using either electrophoresis (the original method developed in the 1970s) or newer NMR spectroscopy methods (See also nuclear magnetic resonance and spectroscopy), developed in the 1990s.

Subfractions
Five subfractions of HDL have been identified. From largest (and most effective in cholesterol removal) to smallest (and least effective), the types are 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, and 3c.

Epidemiology
Men tend to have noticeably lower HDL concentrations, with smaller size and lower cholesterol content, than women. Men also have a greater incidence of atherosclerotic heart disease. Studies confirm the fact that HDL has a buffering role in balancing the effects of the hypercoagulable state in type 2 diabetics and decreases the high risk of cardiovascular complications in these patients. Also, the results obtained in this study revealed that there was a significant negative correlation between HDL and activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT).

Epidemiological studies have shown that high concentrations of HDL (over 60 mg/dL) have protective value against cardiovascular diseases such as ischemic stroke and myocardial infarction. Low concentrations of HDL (below 40 mg/dL for men, below 50 mg/dL for women) increase the risk for atherosclerotic diseases.

Data from the landmark Framingham Heart Study showed that, for a given level of LDL, the risk of heart disease increases 10-fold as the HDL varies from high to low. On the converse, however, for a fixed level of HDL, the risk increases 3-fold as LDL varies from low to high.

Even people with very low LDL levels achieved by statin treatment are exposed to increased risk if their HDL levels are not high enough.

Estimating HDL via associated cholesterol
Clinical laboratories formerly measured HDL cholesterol by separating other lipoprotein fractions using either ultracentrifugation or chemical precipitation with divalent ions such as Mg2+, then coupling the products of a cholesterol oxidase reaction to an indicator reaction. The reference method still uses a combination of these techniques. Most laboratories now use automated homogeneous analytical methods in which lipoproteins containing apo B are blocked using antibodies to apo B, then a colorimetric enzyme reaction measures cholesterol in the non-blocked HDL particles. HPLC can also be used. Subfractions (HDL-2C, HDL-3C) can be measured, but clinical significance of these subfractions has not been determined. The measurement of apo-A reactive capacity can be used to measure HDL cholesterol but is thought to be less accurate.

Recommended ranges
The American Heart Association, NIH and NCEP provide a set of guidelines for fasting HDL levels and risk for heart disease.

High LDL with low HDL level is an additional risk factor for cardiovascular disease.

Measuring HDL concentration and sizes
As technology has reduced costs and clinical trials have continued to demonstrate the importance of HDL, methods for directly measuring HDL concentrations and size (which indicates function) at lower costs have become more widely available and increasingly regarded as important for assessing individual risk for progressive arterial disease and treatment methods.

Electrophoresis measurements
Since the HDL particles have a net negative charge and vary by density & size, ultracentrifugation combined with electrophoresis have been utilized since before 1950 to enumerate the concentration of HDL particles and sort them by size with a specific volume of blood plasma. Larger HDL particles are carrying more cholesterol.

NMR measurements
Concentration and sizes of lipoprotein particles can be estimated using nuclear magnetic resonance fingerprinting.

Optimal total and large HDL concentrations
The HDL particle concentrations are typically categorized by event rate percentiles based on the people participating and being tracked in the MESA trial, a medical research study sponsored by the United States National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.

The lowest incidence of atherosclerotic events over time occurs within those with both the highest concentrations of total HDL particles (the top quarter, >75%) and the highest concentrations of large HDL particles. Multiple additional measures, including LDL particle concentrations, small LDL particle concentrations, VLDL concentrations, estimations of insulin resistance and standard cholesterol lipid measurements (for comparison of the plasma data with the estimation methods discussed above) are routinely provided in clinical testing.

Increasing HDL levels
While higher HDL levels are correlated with lower risk of cardiovascular diseases, no medication used to increase HDL has been proven to improve health. As of 2017, numerous lifestyle changes and drugs to increase HDL levels were under study.

HDL lipoprotein particles that bear apolipoprotein C3 are associated with increased, rather than decreased, risk for coronary heart disease.

Diet and exercise
Certain changes in diet and exercise may have a positive impact on raising HDL levels:
 * Decreased intake of simple carbohydrates.
 * Aerobic exercise
 * Weight loss
 * Avocado consumption
 * Magnesium supplements raise HDL-C.
 * Addition of soluble fiber to diet
 * Consumption of omega-3 fatty acids such as fish oil or flax oil
 * Increased intake of unsaturated fats
 * Removal of trans fatty acids from the diet

Most saturated fats increase HDL cholesterol to varying degrees but also raise total and LDL cholesterol.

Recreational drugs
HDL levels can be increased by smoking cessation, or mild to moderate alcohol intake.

Cannabis in unadjusted analyses, past and current cannabis use was not associated with higher HDL-C levels. A study performed in 4635 patients demonstrated no effect on the HDL-C levels (P=0.78) [the mean (standard error) HDL-C values in control subjects (never used), past users and current users were 53.4 (0.4), 53.9 (0.6) and 53.9 (0.7) mg/dL, respectively].

Exogenous anabolic androgenic steroids, particularly 17α-alkylated anabolic steroids and others administered orally, can reduce HDL-C by 50 percent or more. Other androgen receptor agonists such as selective androgen receptor modulators can also lower HDL. As there is some evidence that the HDL reduction is caused by increased reverse cholesterol transport, it is unknown if AR agonists' HDL-lowering effect is pro- or anti-atherogenic.

Pharmaceutical drugs and niacin
Pharmacological therapy to increase the level of HDL cholesterol includes use of fibrates and niacin. Fibrates have not been proven to have an effect on overall deaths from all causes, despite their effects on lipids.

Niacin (nicotinic acid, a form of vitamin B3) increases HDL by selectively inhibiting hepatic diacylglycerol acyltransferase 2, reducing triglyceride synthesis and VLDL secretion through a receptor HM74 otherwise known as niacin receptor 2 and HM74A / GPR109A, niacin receptor 1.

Pharmacologic (1- to 3-gram/day) niacin doses increase HDL levels by 10–30%, making it the most powerful agent to increase HDL-cholesterol. A randomized clinical trial demonstrated that treatment with niacin can significantly reduce atherosclerosis progression and cardiovascular events. Niacin products sold as "no-flush", i.e. not having side-effects such as "niacin flush", do not, however, contain free nicotinic acid and are therefore ineffective at raising HDL, while products sold as "sustained-release" may contain free nicotinic acid, but "some brands are hepatotoxic"; therefore the recommended form of niacin for raising HDL is the cheapest, immediate-release preparation. Both fibrates and niacin increase artery toxic homocysteine, an effect that can be counteracted by also consuming a multivitamin with relatively high amounts of the B-vitamins, but multiple European trials of the most popular B-vitamin cocktails, trial showing 30% average reduction in homocysteine, while not showing problems have also not shown any benefit in reducing cardiovascular event rates. A 2011 extended-release niacin (Niaspan) study was halted early because patients adding niacin to their statin treatment showed no increase in heart health, but did experience an increase in the risk of stroke.

In contrast, while the use of statins is effective against high levels of LDL cholesterol, most have little or no effect in raising HDL cholesterol. Rosuvastatin and pitavastatin, however, have been demonstrated to significantly raise HDL levels.

Lovaza has been shown to increase HDL-C. However, the best evidence to date suggests it has no benefit for primary or secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease.

The PPAR modulator GW501516 has shown a positive effect on HDL-C and an antiatherogenic where LDL is an issue. However, research on the drug has been discontinued after it was discovered to cause rapid cancer development in several organs in rats.

title: High-density lipoprotein


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Honolulu

Honolulu is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Hawaii, which is in the Pacific Ocean. An unincorporated city, it is the county seat of the consolidated City and County of Honolulu, situated along the southeast coast of the island of Oʻahu, and is the westernmost and southernmost major U.S. city. Honolulu is Hawaii's main gateway to the world. It is also a major hub for business, finance, hospitality, and military defense in both the state and Oceania. The city is characterized by a mix of various Asian, Western, and Pacific cultures, reflected in its diverse demography, cuisine, and traditions.

Honolulu is Hawaiian for "sheltered harbor" or "calm port"; its old name, Kou, roughly encompasses the area from Nuʻuanu Avenue to Alakea Street and from Hotel Street to Queen Street, which is the heart of the present downtown district. The city's desirability as a port accounts for its historical growth and importance in the Hawaiian archipelago and the broader Pacific region. Honolulu has been the capital of the Hawaiian Islands since 1845, firstly of the independent Hawaiian Kingdom, and since 1898 of the U.S. territory and state of Hawaii. The city gained worldwide recognition following the Empire of Japan's attack on nearby Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which prompted the entry of the U.S. into World War II; the harbor remains a major U.S. Navy base, hosting the United States Pacific Fleet, the world's largest naval command.

Hawaii is the only state with no incorporated places below the county level. The U.S. Census Bureau recognizes the approximate area commonly referred to as the "City of Honolulu" as the Urban Honolulu census-designated place. As of the 2020 U.S. Census, the population of Honolulu was 350,964. The Urban Honolulu Metropolitan Statistical Area had 1,016,508 residents in 2020. With over 300,000 residents, Honolulu is the most populous Oceanian city outside Australasia.

Honolulu's favorable tropical climate, rich natural scenery, and extensive beaches make it a popular global destination for tourists. With over 711,000 visitors as of 2022, Honolulu is the tenth-most visited city in the United States after New York City, Miami, Orlando, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Las Vegas, Washington, D.C., Chicago, and Boston.

History
Evidence of the first settlement of Honolulu by the original Polynesian migrants to the archipelago comes from oral histories and artifacts. These indicate that there was a settlement where Honolulu now stands in the 11th century. After Kamehameha I conquered Oʻahu in the Battle of Nuuanu at Nuuanu Pali, he moved his royal court from the Island of Hawaiʻi to Waikiki in 1804. His court relocated in 1809 to what is now downtown Honolulu. The capital was moved back to Kailua-Kona in 1812.

In November 1794, Captain William Brown of Great Britain was the first foreigner to sail into what is now Honolulu Harbor. More foreign ships followed, making the port of Honolulu a focal point for merchant ships traveling between North America and Asia. The settlement grew from a handful of homes to a city in the early 19th century after Kamehameha I chose it as a replacement for his residence at Waikiki in 1810.

In 1845, Kamehameha III moved the permanent capital of the Hawaiian Kingdom from Lahaina on Maui to Honolulu. He and the kings who followed him transformed Honolulu into a modern capital, erecting buildings such as St. Andrew's Cathedral, Iolani Palace, and Aliiōlani Hale. At the same time, Honolulu became the islands' center of commerce, with descendants of American missionaries establishing major businesses downtown.

Despite the turbulent history of the late 19th century and early 20th century—such as the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893, Hawaii's annexation by the U.S. in 1898, a large fire in 1900, and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941—Honolulu remained the Hawaiian Islands' capital, largest city, and main airport and seaport.

An economic and tourism boom following statehood brought rapid economic growth to Honolulu and Hawaii. Modern air travel brings,, 7.6 million visitors annually to the islands, with 62.3% entering at Honolulu International Airport. Today, Honolulu is a modern city with numerous high-rise buildings, and Waikiki is the center of the tourism industry in Hawaii, with thousands of hotel rooms.

Geography

According to the United States Census Bureau, the Urban Honolulu CDP has an area of 177.2 km2, of which 20.5 km2, or 11.56%, is water.

Honolulu is the remotest major U.S. city and one of the remotest cities in the world. The closest location in mainland U.S. is the Point Arena Lighthouse in northern California, at 2045 nmi. (Nautical vessels require some additional distance to circumnavigate Makapuu Point.) The closest major city is San Francisco, California, at 2397 mi. Some islands off the Mexican coast and part of the Aleutian Islands of Alaska are slightly closer to Honolulu than the mainland.

The volcanic field of the Honolulu Volcanics is partially inside the city.

Neighborhoods, boroughs, and districts

 * Downtown Honolulu is Hawaii's financial, commercial, and governmental center. On the waterfront is Aloha Tower, for many years Hawaii's tallest building. The tallest building is now the 438 ft First Hawaiian Center, on King and Bishop Streets. The downtown campus of Hawaiʻi Pacific University is also there.
 * The Arts District Honolulu, both downtown and in Chinatown, is on Chinatown's eastern edge. It is a 12-block area bounded by Bethel & Smith Streets and Nimitz Highway and Beretania Street—home to numerous arts and cultural institutions. It is within the Chinatown Historic District, which includes the former Hotel Street Vice District.
 * The Capitol District is the eastern part of Downtown Honolulu. It is the current and historic center of Hawaii's state government, incorporating the State Capitol, Iolani Palace, Honolulu Hale (City Hall), State Library, and the statue of King Kamehameha I, along with numerous government buildings.
 * Kakaʻako is a light-industrial district between Downtown and Waikiki that has seen a large-scale redevelopment effort in the past decade. It is home to two major shopping areas, Ward Warehouse and Ward Center. The Howard Hughes Corporation plans to transform Ward Centers into Ward Village over the next decade. The John A. Burns School of Medicine, part of the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, is also there. A memorial to the Ehime Maru Incident victims is at the Kakaʻako Waterfront Park.
 * Ala Moana is a district between Kakaʻako and Waikiki and the home of Ala Moana Center, the "world's largest open-air shopping center" and Hawaii's largest shopping mall. Ala Moana Center has over 300 tenants and is very popular with tourists. Also in Ala Moana is the Honolulu Design Center and Ala Moana Beach Park, Honolulu's second-largest park.
 * Waikiki is Honolulu's tourist district, between the Ala Wai Canal and the Pacific Ocean next to Diamond Head. Numerous hotels, shops, and nightlife opportunities are along Kalākaua and Kūhiō Avenues. It is a popular location for visitors and locals alike and attracts millions of visitors every year. Most of Oʻahu's hotel rooms are in Waikiki.
 * Mānoa, Mōʻiliʻili, and Makiki are residential neighborhoods in adjacent areas just inland of downtown and Waikiki. Mānoa Valley is home to the main campus of the University of Hawaiʻi.
 * Nuʻuanu and Pauoa are upper-middle-class residential districts inland of downtown Honolulu. The National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific is in Punchbowl Crater, fronting Pauoa Valley.
 * Pālolo and Kaimukī are neighborhoods east of Mānoa and Makiki, inland from Diamond Head. Pālolo Valley parallels Mānoa and is a residential neighborhood. Kaimukī is primarily a residential neighborhood with a commercial strip centered on Waiʻalae Avenue running behind Diamond Head. Chaminade University is in Kaimukī.
 * Waiʻalae and Kāhala are upper-class districts of Honolulu directly east of Diamond Head, with many high-priced homes. Also in these neighborhoods are the Waialae Country Club and the five-star Kahala Hotel & Resort.
 * East Honolulu includes the residential communities of ʻĀina Haina, Niu Valley, and Hawaiʻi Kai. These are considered upper-middle-class neighborhoods. The upscale gated communities of Waiʻalae ʻIki and Hawaiʻi Loa Ridge are also there.
 * Kalihi and Pālama are working-class neighborhoods with a number of government housing developments. Lower Kalihi, toward the ocean, is a light-industrial district.
 * Salt Lake and Āliamanu are (mostly) residential areas built in extinct tuff cones along the western end of the Honolulu District, not far from Honolulu International Airport.
 * Moanalua is two neighborhoods and a valley at the western end of Honolulu, and home to Tripler Army Medical Center.
 * Kamehameha Heights is a northern suburb.
 * McCully is an eastern suburb.

Climate
Honolulu experiences a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen classification BSh), with a mostly dry summer season, due to a rain shadow effect. Despite temperatures that meet the tropical threshold of all months having a mean temperature of 64.4 °F (18.0 °C) or higher, the city receives too little precipitation to be classified as tropical.

Temperatures vary little throughout the year, with average high temperatures of 80 – and average lows of 65 –. Nevertheless, there are slight seasons. The "winter" months from December to March can occasionally see lows fall below 64 °F, whereas the "summer" from June to September can get a limited number of hot days achieving 90 °F or higher. This occurs on an average of only 32 days annually, with lows in the upper 50s °F (14–15 °C) once or twice a year. The highest recorded temperature was 95 °F on September 19, 1994, and August 31, 2019. The lowest recorded temperature was 52 °F on February 16, 1902, and January 20, 1969.

The annual average rainfall is 16.41 in, which mainly occurs from October through early April, with very little rainfall in the summer. However, both seasons experience a similar number of rainy days. Light showers occur in summer, while heavier rain falls during winter. Honolulu has an average of 278 sunny days and 89.2 rainy days per year.

Although the city is in the tropics, hurricanes are quite rare. The last recorded hurricane that hit near Honolulu was Category 4 Hurricane Iniki in 1992. Tornadoes are also uncommon and occur about every 15 years. Waterspouts off the coast are also uncommon, hitting about every five years.

Honolulu falls under the USDA 12b Plant Hardiness zone.

The average temperature of the sea ranges from 75.7 °F in March to 80.4 °F in September.

2020 census
The population of Honolulu is 350,964 as of the 2020 U.S. Census, making it the 55th largest city in the U.S. The city's population was 337,256 at the 2010 U.S. Census.

The residential neighborhood of East Honolulu is considered a separate census-designated place by the Census Bureau but is generally considered part of Honolulu's urban core. The population of East Honolulu was 50,922 as of 2020, increasing Honolulu's core population to over 400,000.

In terms of race (including Hispanics in the racial counts), 54.8% were Asian, 17.9% were White, 1.5% were Black or African American, 0.2% were Native American or Alaska Native, 8.4% were Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 0.8% were from "some other race", and 16.3% were from two or more races. Separately, Hispanic and Latino residents of any race made up 5.4% of the population. In 1970, the Census Bureau reported Honolulu's population as 33.9% white and 53.7% Asian and Pacific Islander.

Asian Americans are the majority of Honolulu's population. The Asian ethnic groups are Japanese (19.9%), Filipinos (13.2%), Chinese (10.4%), Koreans (4.3%), Vietnamese (2.0%), Indians (0.3%), Laotians (0.3%), Thais (0.2%), Cambodians (0.1%), and Indonesians (0.1%).

Pacific Islander Americans are 8.4% of Honolulu's population. The Pacific Islander ethnic groups are people solely of Native Hawaiian ancestry (3.2%), Samoan Americans made up 1.5% of the population, Marshallese people make up 0.5%, and Tongan people comprise 0.3%. People of Guamanian or Chamorro descent made up 0.2% of the population and numbered 841.

Metropolitan Honolulu, which encompasses all of Oahu island, had a population of 953,207 as of the 2010 U.S. Census and 1,016,508 in the 2020 U.S. Census, making it the 54th-largest metropolitan area in the United States.

Economy

The largest city and airport in the Hawaiian Islands, Honolulu acts as a natural gateway to the islands' large tourism industry, which brings millions of visitors and contributes $10 billion annually to the local economy. Honolulu's location in the Pacific also makes it a large business and trading hub, particularly between the East and the West. Other important aspects of the city's economy include military defense, research and development, and manufacturing.

Among the companies based in Honolulu are:

 * Alexander & Baldwin
 * Bank of Hawaii
 * Central Pacific Bank
 * First Hawaiian Bank
 * Hawaii Medical Service Association
 * Hawaii Pacific Health
 * Hawaiian Electric Industries
 * Matson Navigation Company
 * The Queen's Health Systems

Hawaiian Airlines, Island Air, and Aloha Air Cargo are headquartered in the city. Until it dissolved, Aloha Airlines was headquartered in the city. At one time Mid-Pacific Airlines had its headquarters on the property of Honolulu International Airport.

In 2009, Honolulu had a 4.5% increase in average rent, maintaining it in the second most expensive rental market among 210 U.S. metropolitan areas. Similarly, the general cost of living, including gasoline, electricity, and most foodstuffs, is much higher than on the U.S. mainland, because the city and state have to import most goods. One 2014 report found that cost of living expenses were 69% higher than the U.S. average.

Since the only national banks in Hawaii are all local, many visitors and new residents must get accustomed to different banks. First Hawaiian Bank is Hawaii's largest and oldest bank, headquartered at the First Hawaiian Center, the state's tallest office building.

Natural museums
The Bishop Museum is Honolulu's largest museum. It has the state's largest collection of natural history specimens and the world's largest collection of Hawaiiana and Pacific culture artifacts. The Honolulu Zoo is Hawaii's main zoological institution, while the Waikiki Aquarium is a working marine biology laboratory. The Waikiki Aquarium partners with the University of Hawaiʻi and other universities worldwide. Established for appreciation and botany, Honolulu is home to several gardens: Foster Botanical Garden, Liliuokalani Botanical Garden, Walker Estate, among others.

Performing arts
Established in 1900, the Honolulu Symphony is the second-oldest U.S. symphony orchestra west of the Rocky Mountains. Other classical music ensembles include the Hawaii Opera Theatre. Honolulu is also a center for Hawaiian music. The main music venues include the Hawaii Theatre, the Neal Blaisdell Center Concert Hall and Arena, and the Waikiki Shell.

Honolulu also includes several venues for live theater, including the Diamond Head Theatre and Kumu Kahua Theatre.

Visual arts
The Honolulu Museum of Art has Hawaii's largest collection of Asian and Western art. It also has the largest collection of Islamic art, housed at the Shangri La estate. Since the merger of the Honolulu Academy of Arts and The Contemporary Museum, Honolulu (now called the Honolulu Museum of Art Spalding House) in 2011, the museum is also the state's only contemporary art museum. The contemporary collections are housed at main campus (Spalding House) in Makiki and a multi-level gallery in downtown Honolulu at the First Hawaiian Center. The museum hosts a film and video program dedicated to arthouse and world cinema in the museum's Doris Duke Theatre, named for the museum's historic patroness Doris Duke.

The Hawaii State Art Museum (also downtown) has pieces by local artists as well as traditional Hawaiian art. The museum is administered by the Hawaii State Foundation on Culture and the Arts.

Honolulu also annually holds the Hawaii International Film Festival (HIFF). It showcases some of the best films from producers all across the Pacific Rim and is the largest "East meets West" style film festival of its sort in the United States.

Tourist attractions

 * Ala Moana Center
 * Aloha Tower
 * Bishop Museum
 * Diamond Head
 * Hanauma Bay
 * Honolulu Museum of Art
 * Honolulu Zoo
 * Iolani Palace
 * Lyon Arboretum
 * National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific
 * USS Arizona Memorial
 * Waikiki Aquarium
 * Waikiki Beach
 * Waikiki Trolley
 * International Market Place
 * Kapi'olani Park

Sports
Honolulu's tropical climate lends itself to year-round activities. In 2004, Men's Fitness magazine named Honolulu the fittest city in the United States. Honolulu has three large road races:
 * The Great Aloha Run is held annually on Presidents' Day.
 * The Honolulu Marathon, held annually on the second Sunday in December, draws more than 20,000 participants each year, about half to two thirds of them from Japan.
 * The Honolulu Triathlon is an Olympic distance triathlon event governed by USA Triathlon and partly by the Japanese. Held annually in May since 2004, there is an absence of a sprint course.

Ironman Hawaii was first held in Honolulu. It was the first ever Ironman triathlon event and is also the world championship.

The Waikiki Roughwater Swim race is held annually off the beach of Waikiki. Founded by Jim Cotton in 1970, the course is 2.384 mi and spans from the New Otani Hotel to the Hilton Rainbow Tower.

Fans of spectator sports in Honolulu generally support the football, volleyball, basketball, rugby union, rugby league, and baseball programs of the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. High school sporting events, especially football, are especially popular.

Honolulu has no professional sports teams, with any prospective teams being forced to conduct extremely long travels for away games in the continental states. It was the home of the Hawaii Islanders (Pacific Coast League, 1961–87), The Hawaiians (World Football League, 1974–75), Team Hawaii (North American Soccer League, 1977), and the Hawaiian Islanders (af2, 2002–04).

The NCAA football Hawaii Bowl is played in Honolulu. Honolulu also hosted the NFL's annual Pro Bowl each February from 1980 to 2009. After the 2010 and 2015 games were played in Miami Gardens and Glendale, respectively, the Pro Bowl was once again in Honolulu from 2011 to 2014, with 2016 the most recent. From 1993 to 2008, Honolulu hosted Hawaii Winter Baseball, featuring minor-league players from Major League Baseball, Nippon Professional Baseball, Korea Baseball Organization, and independent leagues.

In 2018, the Honolulu Little League team qualified for that year's Little League World Series tournament. The team went undefeated en route to the United States championship game, where it bested Georgia's Peachtree City American Little League team 3–0. In the world championship game, the team faced off against South Korea's South Seoul Little League team. Hawaii pitcher Ka'olu Holt threw a complete-game shutout while striking out 8, and Honolulu Little League, again by a score of 3–0, secured the victory, capturing the 2018 Little League World Series championship and Hawaii's third overall title at the Little League World Series.

Venues
Venues for spectator sports in Honolulu include:
 * Les Murakami Stadium at University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa (baseball)
 * Neal S. Blaisdell Center Arena (basketball)
 * Stan Sheriff Center at University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa (basketball and volleyball)

Aloha Stadium was a venue for American football and soccer located in Halawa near Pearl Harbor, just outside Honolulu. The stadium was closed in 2020. Plans for a new stadium at the site were announced in 2022.

Government

Rick Blangiardi was elected mayor of Honolulu County on August 8, 2020, and began serving as the county's 15th mayor on January 2, 2021. The municipal offices of the City and County of Honolulu, including Honolulu Hale, the seat of the city and county, are in the Capitol District, as are the Hawaii state government buildings.

The Capitol District is in the Honolulu census county division (CCD), the urban area commonly regarded as the "City" of Honolulu. The Honolulu CCD is on the southeast coast of Oʻahu between Makapuu and Halawa. The division boundary follows the Koʻolau crestline, so Makapuʻu Beach is in the Ko'olaupoko District. On the west, the division boundary follows Halawa Stream, then crosses Red Hill and runs just west of Aliamanu Crater, so that Aloha Stadium, Pearl Harbor (with the USS Arizona Memorial), and Hickam Air Force Base are all in the island's Ewa CCD.

The Hawaii Department of Public Safety operates the Oahu Community Correctional Center, the jail for the island of Oahu, in Honolulu CCD.

The United States Postal Service operates post offices in Honolulu. The main Honolulu Post Office is by the international airport, at 3600 Aolele Street. Federal Detention Center, Honolulu, operated by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, is in the CDP.

Foreign missions on the island
Several countries have consular facilities in Honolulu. They include consulates of Japan, South Korea, Philippines, Taiwan, Federated States of Micronesia, Australia, New Zealand and the Marshall Islands.

Colleges and universities
Colleges and universities in Honolulu include Honolulu Community College, Kapiolani Community College, the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, Chaminade University, and Hawaii Pacific University. University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa houses the main offices of the University of Hawaiʻi System.

Research institutions
Honolulu is home to three renowned international affairs research institutions. The Pacific Forum, one of the world's leading Asia-Pacific policy research institutes and one of the first U.S. organizations to focus exclusively on Asia, has its main office on Bishop Street in downtown Honolulu. The East–West Center (EWC), an education and research organization established by Congress in 1960 to strengthen relations and understanding among the peoples and nations of Asia, the Pacific, and the U.S., is headquartered in Mānoa, Honolulu. The Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies (APCSS), a U.S. Department of Defense institute, is based in Waikiki, Honolulu. APCSS addresses regional and global security issues and supports the U.S. Pacific Command by developing and sustaining relationships among security practitioners and national security establishments throughout the region.

Public primary and secondary schools

Hawaii Department of Education operates Honolulu's public schools. Public high schools in the CDP area include Wallace Rider Farrington, Kaiser, Kaimuki, Kalani, Moanalua, William McKinley, and Theodore Roosevelt. It also includes the Hawaii School for the Deaf and the Blind, the statewide school for blind and deaf children. There is a charter school, University Laboratory School.

Private primary and secondary schools
almost 38% of K-12 students in the Honolulu area attend private schools.

Private schools include Academy of the Pacific, Damien Memorial School, Hawaii Baptist Academy, Iolani School, Lutheran High School of Hawaii, Kamehameha Schools, Maryknoll School, Mid-Pacific Institute, La Pietra, Punahou School, Sacred Hearts Academy, St. Andrew's Priory School, Saint Francis School, Saint Louis School, the Education Laboratory School, Saint Patrick School, Trinity Christian School, and Varsity International School. Hawaii has one of the nation's highest rate of private school attendance.

Public libraries

Hawaii State Public Library System operates public libraries. The Hawaii State Library in the CDP serves as the system's main library, while the Library for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, also in the CDP area, serves handicapped and blind people.

Branches in the CDP area include Aiea, Aina Haina, Ewa Beach, Hawaiʻi Kai, Kahuku, Kailua, Kaimuki, Kalihi-Palama, Kaneohe, Kapolei, Liliha, Mānoa, McCully-Moiliili, Mililani, Moanalua, Wahiawa, Waialua, Waianae, Waikiki-Kapahulu, Waimanalo, and Waipahu.

Weekend educational programs
The Hawaiʻi Japanese School – Rainbow Gakuen (ハワイレインボー学園 Hawai Reinbō Gakuen), a supplementary weekend Japanese school, holds its classes in Kaimuki Middle School in Honolulu and has its offices in another building in Honolulu. The school serves overseas Japanese nationals. Honolulu has other weekend programs for the Japanese, Chinese, and Spanish languages.

Media
Honolulu is served by one daily newspaper, the Honolulu Star-Advertiser, along with a magazine, Honolulu Magazine, several radio stations and television stations, among other media. Local news agency and CNN-affiliate Hawaii News Now broadcasts and is headquartered out of Honolulu.

Honolulu and the island of Oʻahu has also been the location for many film and television projects, including Hawaii Five-O (1968 TV series), Magnum, P.I. and Lost.

Air

At the western end of the CDP, Daniel K. Inouye International Airport (HNL) is the principal aviation gateway to the state of Hawaii. Kalaeloa Airport is primarily a commuter facility used by unscheduled air taxis, general aviation and transient and locally based military aircraft.

Highways
Honolulu has been ranked as having the nation's worst traffic congestion, beating former record holder Los Angeles. Drivers waste on average over 58 hours per year on congested roadways. The following freeways, part of the Interstate Highway System serve Honolulu:

 * I-H1.svg Interstate H-1, western terminous is at Kapolei where you can connect to the Farrington Highway. The H-1 passes Hickam Air Force Base and Honolulu International Airport, runs through Pearl City before heading downtown into Honolulu continues eastward through Makiki and Kaimuki, ending at Waialae/Kahala and start of the Kalanianole Highway.
 * I-H201.svg Interstate H-201—also known as the Moanalua Freeway and sometimes numbered as its former number, Hawaii State Route 78—connects two points along H-1: at Aloha Stadium and Fort Shafter. Close to H-1 and Aloha Stadium, H-201 has an exchange with the western terminus of Interstate H-3 to the windward side of Oahu (Kaneohe). This complex of connecting ramps, some directly between H-1 and H-3, is in Halawa.
 * I-H2.svg Interstate H-2 Connects at a junction near Waipau and Pearl City with the H-1 freeway. The H-2 freeway will take you up to Schofield barracks before ending at Wahiawa where it connect to the north shore.
 * I-H3.svg Interstate H-3 Connects at a junction near Halawa Heights. This interstate highway will take you from Halawa heights through the Ko'olau Range to Kaneohe. Its final termination is at Marine Corps Base Hawaii. Exit 15 is the last exit before entering Marine Corps Base Hawaii.

Other major highways that link Honolulu CCD with other parts of the Island of Oahu are:
 * HI-61.svg Pali Highway, (State Route 61), crosses north over the Koʻolau range via the Pali Tunnels to connect to Kailua and Kaneohe on the windward side of the Island.
 * HI-63.svg Likelike Highway, (State Route 63), also crosses the Koʻolau to Kaneohe via the Wilson Tunnels.
 * HI-72.svg Kalanianaole Highway, State Route 72, runs eastward from Waialae/Kahala to Hawaii Kai and around the east end of the island to Waimanalo Beach.
 * Kamehameha Highway, State Route 80, 83, 99 and 830, runs westward from near Hickam Air Force Base to Aiea and beyond, eventually running through the center of the island and ending in Kaneohe.
 * Farrington Highway, State Route 93 runs western leeward Oahu from Kaena Point through Waianae and Makaha before the start of the H-1. State Rte 930 starts east to west in the north shore connecting you from Wailua to Kaena Point

Like most major American cities, the Honolulu metropolitan area experiences heavy traffic congestion during rush hours, especially to and from the western suburbs of Kapolei, Ewa Beach, Aiea, Pearl City, Waipahu, and Mililani.

There is a Hawaii Electric Vehicle Demonstration Project (HEVDP).

Honolulu Authority for Rapid Transportation
In November 2010, voters approved a charter amendment to create a public transit authority to oversee the planning, construction, operation and future extensions to Honolulu's rail system, now known as Skyline. The Honolulu Authority for Rapid Transportation (HART) has a 10-member board of directors, with three members appointed by the mayor, three selected by the Honolulu City Council, and the city and state transportation directors.

The opening of the first phase of the Skyline was delayed until 2023, as HART canceled the initial bids for the first nine stations, rebid the work as three packages of three stations each, and allowed more time for construction in the hope that increased competition on smaller contracts would drive down costs; initial bids ranged from $294.5 million to $320.8 million, far surpassing HART's budget of $184 million.

Bus
Established by former Mayor Frank F. Fasi as the replacement for the Honolulu Rapid Transit Company (HRT), Honolulu's TheBus system was honored in 1994–95 and 2000–01 by the American Public Transportation Association as "America's Best Transit System". TheBus operates 107 routes serving Honolulu and most major cities and towns on Oʻahu. TheBus comprises a fleet of 531 buses, and is run by the nonprofit corporation Oʻahu Transit Services in conjunction with the city Department of Transportation Services. , Honolulu was ranked fourth for highest per-capita use of mass transit in the United States.

Para-transit Options

The island also features TheHandi-Van, for riders who require para-transit operations. To be eligible for this service, riders must meet the requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). TheHandi-Van has a fare of $2 and is available from 4am to 1am. There is a 24-hour service within 3/4 of a mile of TheBus route 2 and route 40. TheHandi-Van comprises a fleet of 160 buses. The parantransit branch also runs Human Services Transportation Coordination (HSTCP), which mainly provides transportation for people with disabilities, older adults, and people with limited incomes, assisted by the Committee for Accessible Transportation (CAT). Both organizations work together to provide transportation for elderly and persons with disabilities.

Rail
Honolulu has no urban rail transit system, though electric street railways were operated in Honolulu by the now-defunct Honolulu Rapid Transit Company before World War II. Predecessors to the Honolulu Rapid Transit Company were the Honolulu Rapid Transit and Land Company (began 1903) and Hawaiian Tramways (began 1888).

The City and County of Honolulu is constructing a 20 mi rail transit line that will connect Honolulu with cities and suburban areas near Pearl Harbor and in the Leeward and West Oahu regions. Skyline aims to alleviate traffic congestion for West Oʻahu commuters while being integral in the westward expansion of the metropolitan area. The project has been criticized for its cost, delays, and potential environmental impacts, but the line is expected to have large ridership. The line's first segment connects East Kapolei and Aloha Stadium and opened on June 30, 2023.

Bicycle sharing
Since June 28, 2017, Bikeshare Hawaii administers the bicycle sharing program in Oʻahu while Secure Bike Share operates the Biki system. Most Biki stations are between Chinatown/Downtown and Diamond Head, but a 2018 expansion added stations toward the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa Campus, Kapiolani Community College, Makiki, and Kalihi area.

Modal characteristics
According to the 2016 American Community Survey (five-year average), 56% of Urban Honolulu residents commuted to work by driving alone, 13.8% carpooled, 11.7% used public transportation, and 8.7% walked. About 5.7% commuted by bike, taxi, motorcycle or other forms of transportation, while 4.1% worked at home.

The city of Honolulu has a high percentage of households without a motor vehicle. In 2015, 16.6% of Honolulu households were car-free, which increased slightly to 17.2% in 2016; by comparison, the United States national average was 8.7% in 2016. Honolulu averaged 1.4 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.

Public safety
The Honolulu Police Department is the primary law enforcement agency for the city and county of Honolulu and serves the entire Oahu Island. Honolulu Police Department has a mixed fleet of marked patrol cars and unmarked along with a subsidized vehicle program in place. Marked vehicles are white with blue stripes and white lettering HONOLULU POLICE. The Honolulu Police Departments lets officers of a certain rank purchase a private vehicle for police use. Subsidized vehicles are unmarked but have a small blue roof light. Subsidized vehicles can be any make, model, or color, but must follow department rules and guidelines. Honolulu Police and Hawaii County Police on the Big Island are the only departments in the state of Hawaii and the U.S. with subsidized vehicles. Honolulu Police along with other city, county law enforcement in Hawaii uses blue lights for their vehicles. They also keep their cruise blue lights on while on patrol.

The Honolulu Fire Department provides firefighting services and first responder level emergency medical services on Oahu. Emergency medical services at higher levels are provided by the Honolulu Emergency Medical Services. Contrary to most other fire departments, fire trucks in Honolulu are yellow.

Sister cities
Honolulu's sister cities are:

 * 🇨🇰 Avarua, Cook Islands, 2024
 * 🇵🇭 Baguio, Philippines, 1991
 * 🇦🇿 Baku, Azerbaijan, 1998
 * 🇫🇷 Bruyères, France, 1960
 * 🇨🇴 Cali, Colombia, 2012
 * 🇵🇭 Candon, Philippines, 2015
 * 🇻🇪 Caracas, Venezuela, 1990
 * 🇵🇭 Cebu City, Philippines, 1990
 * Chengdu, China, 2011
 * 🇯🇵 Chigasaki, Japan, 2014
 * 🇯🇵 Edogawa, Japan, 2022
 * Fengxian (Shanghai), China, 2012
 * 🇵🇹 Funchal, Portugal, 1979
 * 🇨🇳 Fuzhou, China, 2021
 * Haikou, China, 1985
 * Noreña, Spain, 1960
 * 🇯🇵 Hiroshima, Japan, 1959
 * Huế, Vietnam, 1995
 * 🇰🇷 Incheon, South Korea, 2003
 * 🇹🇼 Kaohsiung, Taiwan, 1962
 * 🇷🇺 Kyzyl, Russia, 2004
 * 🇵🇭 Laoag, Philippines, 1969
 * 🇲🇭 Majuro, Marshall Islands, 2001
 * 🇵🇭 Mandaluyong, Philippines, 2005
 * 🇵🇭 Manila, Philippines, 1980
 * 🇰🇪 Mombasa, Kenya, 2000
 * 🇮🇳 Mumbai, India, 1970
 * 🇯🇵 Nagaoka, Japan, 2012
 * 🇯🇵 Naha, Japan, 1960
 * Qinhuangdao, China, 2010
 * 🇲🇦 Rabat, Morocco, 2007
 * 🇯🇵 Saiki, Japan, 2003
 * 🇵🇷 San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1985
 * 🇰🇷 Seoul, South Korea, 1973
 * 🇯🇵 Shibuya, Japan, 2024
 * 🇵🇹 Sintra, Portugal, 1998
 * 🇯🇵 Uwajima, Japan, 2004
 * 🇵🇭 Vigan, Philippines, 2003
 * Zhangzhou, China, 2012
 * Zhongshan, China, 1997

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Honolulu


text:
Percolozoa

The Percolozoa are a group of colourless, non-photosynthetic Excavata, including many that can transform between amoeboid, flagellate, and cyst stages.

Characteristics
Most Percolozoa are found as bacterivores in soil, fresh water and occasionally in the ocean. The only member of this group that is infectious to humans is Naegleria fowleri, the causative agent of the often fatal disease amoebic meningitis. The group is closely related to the Euglenozoa, and share with them the unusual characteristic of having mitochondria with discoid cristae. The presence of a ventral feeding groove in the flagellate stage, as well as other features, suggests that they are part of the Excavata group.

The amoeboid stage is roughly cylindrical, typically around 20–40 μm in length. They are traditionally considered lobose amoebae, but are not related to the others, and unlike them, do not form true lobose pseudopods. Instead, they advance by eruptive waves, where hemispherical bulges appear from the front margin of the cell, which is clear. The flagellate stage is slightly smaller, with two or four anterior flagella anterior to the feeding groove.

Usually, the amoeboid form is taken when food is plentiful, and the flagellate form is used for rapid locomotion. However, not all members are able to assume both forms. The genera Percolomonas, Lyromonas, and Psalteriomonas are known only as flagellates, while Vahlkampfia, Pseudovahlkampfia, and most acrasids do not have flagellate stages. As mentioned above, under unfavourable conditions, the acrasids aggregate to form sporangia. These are superficially similar to the sporangia of the dictyostelids, but the amoebae only aggregate as individuals or in small groups and do not die to form the stalk.

Terminology and classification
These are collectively referred to as schizopyrenids, amoeboflagellates, or vahlkampfids. They also include the acrasids, a group of social amoebae that aggregate to form sporangia. The entire group is usually called the Heterolobosea, but this may be restricted to members with amoeboid stages.

One Heterolobosea classification system is: Pleurostomum flabellatum has recently been added to Heterolobosea.
 * Order Schizopyrenida
 * Family Vahlkampfiidae
 * Family Gruberellidae
 * Order Acrasida
 * Family Acrasidae

Phylogeny
Based on the cladogram from Tolweb and updated by Pánek and Čepička 2014.

Taxonomy
Phylum Percolozoa Cavalier-Smith 1991
 * Subphylum Pharyngomonada Cavalier-Smith 1991
 * Class Pharyngomonadea Cavalier-Smith 2008 [Macropharyngomonadidea]
 * Order Pharyngomonadida Cavalier-Smith 2008 [Macropharyngomonadida]
 * Family Pharyngomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 2008 [Macropharyngomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 2008 ]
 * Genus Pharyngomonas Cavalier-Smith 2008 [Macropharyngomonas nomen nudum]
 * Subphylum Tetramitia Cavalier-Smith 1993 em. Cavalier-Smith 2008
 * Genus ?Costiopsis Senn 1900
 * Genus ?Hoehnemastix Skvortzov 1974
 * Genus ?Planiosculum Szabados 1948
 * Genus ?Protomyxomyces Cunningham 1881
 * Genus ?Protonaegleria Michel & Raether 1985
 * Genus ?Pseudovahlkampfia Sawyer 1980
 * Genus ?Schizamoeba Davis 1926
 * Genus ?Tetramastigamoeba Singh & Hanumaiah 1977
 * Genus ?Trimastigamoeba Whitmore 1911
 * Genus ?Wasielewskia Hartmann & Schuessler 1913
 * Family Euhyperamoebidae Goodkov & Seravin 1984 [Hyperamoebidae Goodkov, Seravin & Railkin 1982 ]
 * Genus Euhyperamoeba Goodkov & Seravin 1984 [Hyperamoeba Goodkov, Seravin & Railkin 1982 non Alexeieff 1923 ]
 * Class Lunosea Cavalier-Smith 2021
 * Order Selenaionida Hanousková, Táborský & Čepička 2018
 * Family Selenaionidae Hanousková, Táborský & Čepička 2018
 * Genus Selenaion Park, De Jonckheere & Simpson 2012
 * Genus Dactylomonas Hanousková, Táborský & Čepička 2018
 * Class Neovahlkampfiea Cavalier-Smith 2021
 * Order Neovahlkampfiida Cavalier-Smith 2021
 * Family Neovahlkampfiidae Hanousková, Táborský & Čepička 2018
 * Genus Neovahlkampfia Brown & de Jonckheere 1999
 * Class Lyromonadea Cavalier-Smith 1993
 * Order Lyromonadida Cavalier-Smith 1993
 * Family Gruberellidae Page & Blanton 1985
 * Genus Gruberella Page 1984 non Gruber 1889 non Corliss 1960
 * Genus Oramoeba de Jonckheere et al. 2011
 * Genus Stachyamoeba Page 1975
 * Genus Vrihiamoeba Murase, Kawasak & Jonckheere 2010
 * Family Paravahlkampfiidae
 * Genus Fumarolamoeba De Jonckheere, Murase & Opperdoes 2011
 * Genus Parafumarolamoeba Geisen et al. 2015
 * Genus Paravahlkampfia Brown & de Jonckheere 1999
 * Family Plaesiobystridae
 * Genus Euplaesiobystra Park et al. 2009
 * Genus Heteramoeba Droop 1962
 * Genus Pernina El Kadiri, Joyon & Pussard 1992
 * Family Psalteriomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 1993 [Lyromonadidae Cavalier-Smith 1993 ]
 * Genus Harpagon Panek et al. 2012
 * Genus Monopylocystis O'Kelly et al. 2003
 * Genus Psalteriomonas Broers et al. 1990 [Lyromonas Cavalier-Smith 1993 ]
 * Genus Pseudoharpagon Panek et al. 2012
 * Genus Pseudomastigamoeba
 * Genus Sawyeria O'Kelly et al. 2003
 * Class Heterolobosea Page & Blanton 1985
 * Order Acrasida Schröter 1886
 * Family Acrasidae van Tieghem 1880 ex Hartog 1906
 * Genus Acrasis van Tieghem 1880
 * Genus Allovahlkampfia Walochnik & Mulec 2009
 * Genus Pocheina Loeblich & Tappan 1961 [Guttulina Cienkowski 1873 non D'Orbigny 1839 ]
 * Genus Solumitrus Wang et al. 2011
 * Order Naegleriida Starobogatov 1980
 * Genus Marinamoeba De Jonckheere et al. 2009
 * Family Tulamoebidae Kirby et al. 2015
 * Genus Aurem Jhin & Park 2018
 * Genus Pleurostomum Namyslowski 1913
 * Genus Tulamoeba Park et al. 2009
 * Family Naegleriidae Kudo 1954 [Schizopyrenidae Singh 1951 ex Singh 1952 ; Bistadiidae Doflein 1916 ]
 * Genus Naegleria Aléxéieff 1912 [Adelphamoeba Napolitano, Wall & Ganz 1970 ; Didascalus Singh 1952 ; Schizopyrenus Singh 1951 ex Singh 1952 ]
 * Genus Willaertia de Jonckheere et al. 1984
 * Order Tetramitida Doweld 2001
 * Family Vahlkampfiidae Jollos 1917 s.s.
 * Genus Tetramitus Perty 1852 [Copromastix Aragao 1916 ; Learamoeba Sawyer et al. 1998, Paratetramitus Darbyshire, Page & Goodfellow 1976 , Singhamoeba Sawyer, Nerad & Munson 1992 ]
 * Genus Vahlkampfia Chatton & LaLung-Bonnaire 1912 [Guttulidium Frenzel 1892 ]
 * Order Creneida Cavalier-Smith 2021
 * Family Creneidae Pánek et al. 2014
 * Genus Creneis Pánek et al. 2014
 * Order Percolomonadida Cavalier-Smith 1993
 * Family Barbeliidae Arndt 2023
 * Genus Barbelia Arndt 2021
 * Genus Nonamonas Hohlfeld, Meyer & Arndt 2023
 * Family Lulidae Hohlfeld & Arndt 2023
 * Genus Lula Arndt, Nitsche & Carduck 2021
 * Family Percolomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 1993 [Choanogasteraceae]
 * Genus Percolomonas Fenchel & Patterson 1986 [Choanogaster Pochmann 1959 ]
 * Family Stephanopogonidae Corliss 1961
 * Genus Nakurumonas Carduck, Nitsche & Arndt 2021
 * Genus Stephanopogon Entz 1884

History
The Heterolobosea were first defined by Page and Blanton in 1985 as a class of amoebae, and so only included those forms with amoeboid stages. Cavalier-Smith created the phylum Percolozoa for the extended group, together with the enigmatic flagellate Stephanopogon.

Cavalier-Smith maintained the Heterolobosea as a class for amoeboid forms. He has defined Percolozoa as "Heterolobosea plus Percolatea classis nov."

title: Percolozoa