text:
Talk:Albinism in humans

So, what, if any, IS the relationship between blondism and albinism then?
I have skimmed the article and the talk archive and have only found all sorts of irrelevant remarks about the subject of race, which (let's not forget that regardless of whether races exist or not, the phenotypical variations and the regional-ancestry-correlated morphological phenotypes – or groups of similar phenotypes – that form the basis of any racial classification do damn well exist) is completely unrelated to the undubitably real phenomenon of blondism – or light-hair-eyes-and-skin-in-Europeans-(that's-not-albinism)-ism, for want of a better term –, but no insight on the issue that I'm sure a lot of readers are wondering about: if H. sapiens sapiens was originally coloured some shade of brown, clearly many people in the north of Europe (to varying degrees) have a condition similar to albinism even if not quite as extreme (low-melanin-ism?), a condition that happens to be inherited recessively as well, so what exactly has happened and how is it related to albinism? Don't dance around the issue, swallow your political-correctness-caused inhibitions and get us the straight dope! Finally! What gives?!

For what it's worth, the German article states:

''Albinism is mostly inherited recessively and in humans worldwide occurs with a frequency (prevalence) of 1:20.000. Clusters are found above all in Africa with a prevalence of 1:10.000 and higher. The light skin colour of the Asians and Europeans is to explain by albinism of type OCA 4, the blond hair and blue eyes of the Europeans by OCA 2 and a further gene.''

So, from this, we learn that first yes, albinism is really more frequent in Africa, it's not simply an illusion caused by the higher visibility of albinism in dark-skinned "negroid" phenotypes, and second, light-skin-ism and light-hair-and-eyes-ism respectively are caused by some type of albinism genes, see OCA2 and the table in the German article. I see no reason to censor or omit such information for reasons associated with misunderstood political correctness. --Florian Blaschke (talk) 03:27, 25 July 2014 (UTC)

 * The relationship is that albinism is usually a single-gene genetic trait causing variable phenotype hypopigmentation and low vision. Blondism is a multi-gene adaptation to low sunlight and low-fish diet lowering skin pigmentation and increasing vitamin D intake, possibly enhanced with sexual selection lowering both hair and eye iris pigmentation without damaging loss of RPE pigmentation levels. In Tanzania, the common OCA2 deletion mutation may be a heterozygous-advantage adaptation, but nobody knows what its actual purpose is. --84.250.122.35 (talk) 22:54, 25 December 2016 (UTC)

Some of this isn't right; people are confusing genes with names like OCA2 and the medico-genetic conditions with the same and similar abbreviated names. Some of the genes that cause some forms of albinism are also "used" without ill effect in the phenotypic expression of the skin tones of Europeans and various Asian groups; others produce red hair, or light eyes, etc.. But this doesn't make these "racial" traits a form of albinism. The genes are named after the condition, not the other way around. By way of analogy, the entire zoological family Canidae is named after the genus Canis (Latin for dog), but not everything arising from that family is a dog; it includes foxes and jackals. — SMcCandlish ☺ ☏ ¢ ≽ʌⱷ҅ᴥⱷʌ≼  02:07, 22 September 2017 (UTC)

Some suggestions for this page
1)	Expand on the rare OCA forms inherited from one parent (genetics section). What are these rare forms? Does single-parent inheritance mean the parents are homozygous for the trait as well? How do these forms compare to the other OCA forms? 2)	Statistics on albinism prevalence throughout the world would be a great addition to this page! 3)	The hyperlink for OCA2 (genetics section) leads to a page with quite a bit of information on the OCA2 gene. The same cannot be said for the OCA1 link. Does anyone have any information on OCA1? This would benefit the main albinism page.

Quinones-betancourt.2 (talk) 02:08, 1 October 2014 (UTC)

Albinism as biology?
As usual in these cases, we have an article which is 90% medical, and which does not even mention albinism in other organisms until one reaches the very bottom of the article. Albinism is a biological phenomenon, and human albinism is just one aspect of this phenomenon. Medicine is just one aspect of human biology. Biology should not be treated as a subset of medicine. Invertzoo (talk) 22:18, 8 January 2015 (UTC)
 * I made the same argument the last time the title of this article came up (it was original Albinism in humans, and the article presently at Albinism in biology was at Albinism; the human article is a later split-off of that more general article. Anyone can propose another requested move if they think they can make a good case for reversing this situation. That said, there is no big emergency; the very top of this page has a hatnote that links prominently to Albinism in biology, and there's no evidence people are getting lost or confused.  — SMcCandlish ☺ ☏ ¢ ≽ʌⱷ҅ᴥⱷʌ≼  02:12, 22 September 2017 (UTC)

I don't understand
"The prevalence of albinism in some ethnic groups in sub-Saharan Africa is around 1 in 5,000, while in Europe and the US it is 1 in 20,000.[15] It would follow, then, that there would be stronger selective forces acting on albino populations in Africa than on albino populations in Europe and the US. Rates as high as 1 in 1,000 have been reported for some populations in Zimbabwe and other parts of Southern Africa."

That seems like it should be the other way around. If it's more common in Africa wouldn't that imply there were weaker selective forces there (assuming that the text is referring to negative selection and not positive selection). FiredanceThroughTheNight (talk) 00:04, 2 August 2015 (UTC)

 * "assuming that the text is referring to negative selection and not positive selection" There you go. Maybe OCA2 heterozygous persons have some advantage in Africa, but not in Europe or US. It could also be, that the whole follow is OR. --84.250.122.35 (talk) 20:29, 16 February 2016 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 4 August 2015
I wish to submit a new link on the external link 4 it does not work

Tomphiri (talk) 10:15, 4 August 2015 (UTC)
 * You need to be more specific, what's the link? Doug Weller (talk) 10:17, 4 August 2015 (UTC)
 * Don't bother. I assume it's your blog, and we rarely accept blogs, see WP:EL. The blog also contains copyright material from another source, and we don't link to sites with copyright violations. As for the original source, I don't see how the article adds to our article, and it's not by a recognised expert. Sorry about all this but I'll add some links to your talk page to help you edit. Doug Weller (talk) 10:29, 4 August 2015 (UTC)

✅ - By another - Arjayay (talk) 13:40, 4 August 2015 (UTC)

Picture Caption Inaccuracy
The caption for this page reads, "An albino boy of black ethnicity". Please note that 'black' is not an ethnicity, it is a racial category. I would suggest a more accurate description, such as, "An albino boy of X ancestry". For instance, if he is American, the caption could read, "An albino boy of African-American ethnicity," or if he is from a country in Africa it could read, "An albino boy of Hausa/Zulu/Etc ethnicity". Please identify this boy's ethnicity and attend to this immediately, or find an alternatively acceptable and more accurate method for labeling this caption. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 137.158.134.120 (talk) 14:32, 2 October 2015 (UTC)

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Persecution of people with albinism
I know we have a separate article about Persecution of people with albinism, so I will put the same on the talk page there as well. But it's likely that more people are watching this page here. Therefore, does anyone know about whether people with albinism have it "tougher" in African societies than in European ones? One would think so for various reasons, one being that it is not so ovbivous in a society with mostly white skinned people. Second one being that the sunburn issue is not such a big one. But do we have anything beyond a gut feeling about this? If yes, would be good to add it in the society and culture section. EMsmile (talk) 21:38, 3 August 2017 (UTC)
 * Well, just read that article. I think being hunted and murdered in large numbers by gangs of crazy witchdoctors qualifies as "having it tougher".  — SMcCandlish ☺ ☏ ¢ ≽ʌⱷ҅ᴥⱷʌ≼  01:52, 22 September 2017 (UTC)

Albinism Database
Potential source:

Includes stuff we are not covering yet, and their genetic loci. Identifies: OCA1–4, HPS1–4, CHS, and OA1. Actively maintained as of this writing (some pages in it were updated within this week). — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ >ʌⱷ҅ᴥⱷʌ<  14:46, 10 November 2017 (UTC)

Sunscreen info
I found a later version of "Facts About Albinism" (King, et al., 2004) with information on sunscreens and albinism that was missing in the previously cited version. It's already added in the article, for what it was originally cited for. It hasn't been used for sunscreen info or anything else yet. — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ >ʌⱷ҅ᴥⱷʌ<  17:31, 10 November 2017 (UTC)

Pictures need diversity
The extant photos are only showing people of African and New Guinean descent. Albinism often looks different (more yellowish) on people from dark-complected ethnicities, so a European and/or Asian should probably be re-added to the article. — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  09:48, 22 June 2018 (UTC)

Requested move 9 July 2018

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Moved as proposed. Consensus overwhelmingly favors this well-reasoned move proposal. bd2412 T 01:56, 21 July 2018 (UTC)

– In the move discussion at Talk:Albinism (biology), while there was clear consensus to move Albinism in biology to Albinism (biology), there were also several comments that supported a move of Albinism→Albinism in humans and Albinism (biology)→Albinism. I am opening this request to discuss that move. Ahecht (TALK PAGE ) 15:11, 9 July 2018 (UTC) PAGE ]]) 15:22, 9 July 2018 (UTC) When you do a comparison of pageviews on all the qualified terms (albinism in biology, albinism in humans, etc.), you get the exact opposite result: readers are looking for the general topic. |Albinism_in_humans|Albinism_in_animals|Albinism_in_birds|Albinism_(biology)|Human_albinism  — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  21:16, 11 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Albinism → Albinism in humans
 * Albinism (biology) → Albinism
 * Comment Pinging all commenters at all the relevant previous discussions I could find (1, 2, 3, and 4), although I realize many may no longer be active on Wikipedia. --Ahecht ([[User_talk:Ahecht|TALK
 * Support – it seems peculiar to have the narrower "in humans" topic as primarytopic. Dicklyon (talk) 16:04, 9 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Support – I was never comfortable with the move of Albinism in humans to Albinism in the first place. It was predicated on the idea that every article should be about humans, the way Swimming is, and the animals article is Aquatic locomotion, Running is human-focused with Gait being generic, and so on. But these are cases were we have a separate term.  Some of our medical articles are mostly or completely focused on humans, with a veterinary side article, but they're conditions that affect humans frequently and which people are likely to want to look up for what's wrong with their mom. In other cases we seem to have no coverage at all of the condition in animals, e.g. Kidney failure is 100% human material, with no broader article, despite it being a leading cause of pet deaths; this isn't desirable, but an overall editorial over-sight, a product of who's writing the article and what their interests are (we don't seem to have a lot of veterinary editors).  Albinism is very common in many animal species but only affects about 1 in 18,000 humans. And it's not a condition you can contract like the flu, or give yourself like cirrhosis.  I would think the condition itself, not its manifestation in humans, is the WP:PRIMARYTOPIC.  — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  20:14, 9 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Support Albinism → Albinism in humans, oppose Albinism (biology) → Albinism, see below. Andrewa (talk) 03:06, 10 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Support Rreagan007 (talk) 04:15, 10 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Albinism (the medical condition in humans) is the primary topic in my view, and it has |Albinism_in_biology 120 times more pageviews. jamacfarlane (talk) 10:55, 10 July 2018 (UTC)
 * That's abuse of statistics; when the general topic's name dumps everyone at the page about humans, that that the pageviews will be maxed at that page.  You're reversing cause and effect.  — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  21:01, 11 July 2018 (UTC)
 * I take your point, but if people were looking for the general topic, surely they would click through to find it, and the pageviews for the general topic would be higher, so the difference would be 3-4 times, not 120, as there would be one extra view of Albinism for each intended view of the article for biology/animals/birds. jamacfarlane (talk) 01:16, 12 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Support (and strongly reject the idea of dab page). There's only one topic here, a genetic disorder affecting many animals including humans. For a while, the article at Albinism was about that disorder, until it was split into articles about human- and non-human forms. Therefore, albinism in humans is a subtopic thereof, not a separate one. Jamacfarlane's point about pageviews is an important one, but the current setup is simply illogical (and, at the mentioned Swimming RM, it was similarly pointed out that Swimming (sport) has much more pageviews; well yes, but still it's a subtopic). No such user (talk) 13:35, 10 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Support making the article about it in just humans the primary one doesn't really make sense, the more fundamental and broad nature makes a lot more sense to fill that role.  Luso titan  (Talk | Contributions) 20:36, 10 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Support Waddie96 (talk) 15:39, 13 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Support per few others. -- GerifalteDelSabana (talk) 03:18, 18 July 2018 (UTC)

Discussion
It seems to me that when people refer to albanism they mostly mean the human condition, that being most newsworthy, cropping up from time to time in human interest stories in the media. Animals on the other hand go by the name albino, to refer to albanism in that context would be seen as rather stuffy and pedantic, while to refer to a person as an albino could be at least mildly offensive, instead we say they suffer from albanism.
 * I see there are two spellings of the term, albinism and Albanism. The first is far more prevalent, and is what is used in ICD10 so I would propose albinism is kept even if other changes are made. jamacfarlane (talk) 10:55, 10 July 2018 (UTC)

We have two articles:
 * human albinism or albinism in humans, currently at albanism
 * Correction, this is currently at Albinism (note spelling difference I've highlighted above) jamacfarlane (talk) 10:55, 10 July 2018 (UTC)

 * albino also redirects there (which seems just plain wrong to me)
 * albinism in nature or albinism (biology)

As I said previously, I think we should disambiguate both articles. This will get most readers to the article they want by the shortest path. Andrewa (talk) 03:06, 10 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Aside from "albanism" not being a word in English (that's a typo redirect), this idea of a meaning/referent bifurcation is pure original research/supposition, not supported by actual facts. "Albino" is simply the older, less technical adjective (albinistic being the newer, more technical one).
 * Albinism: . It's used generically about humans, lab rats, etc.  There is no basis for the idea that it's a special human-referent word.
 * Albino: . Very frequently used in reference to people in the mainstream press. However, the usage is slowly starting to take on the character of a politically incorrect epithet when used this way; the polite term is person/people with albinism or albinistic person/people.
 * That last bit, however, is a reason that Albino and Albinos shouldn't redirect to an article focused on humans, that the main article on the topic should be the generic one.  — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  03:44, 10 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Quite correct, I did mean albinism, consistently!
 * There is no basis for the idea that it's a special human-referent word. Agree. That is not what I said at all.
 * Very frequently used in reference to people in the mainstream press. Interesting... Your first few hits are all from Africa, the next one is objecting to the use of the term. Then comes a chipmunk. I think this supports the idea that this term shouldn't be restricted to other animals, or to human beings... which is what I was saying. Disambiguate both.
 * Certainly agree that the main article on the topic should be the generic one. But that's not the same thing as saying it should be at the base name. And your evidence suggests otherwise. Andrewa (talk) 04:20, 10 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Um, no it doesn't. And see WP:PRIMARYTOPIC.  We do not disambiguate without a reason to do so.  — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  04:29, 10 July 2018 (UTC)
 * It doesn't? Your evidence suggests that both words (albino and albinism) are commonly used in both senses. This is not proof that we should disambiguate, but to say that it doesn't suggest it seems rather strange. It's evidence, and should be part of the decision, not just dismissed.
 * We do not disambiguate without a reason to do so. Agree.
 * And BTW, it seems that we might both have been wrong in thinking "albanism" not being a word in English. It happens. But I did mean to type albinism, you got that much right.
 * The bottom line is just what will best assist readers. With various strong opinions among editors as to what these terms most commonly and naturally mean, it's not a trivial question (and that is a reason to disambiguate). Andrewa (talk) 23:28, 10 July 2018 (UTC)
 * It doesn't suggest what you think it does, because these are not separate topics with a coincidentally overlapping name like Register (sociolinguistics) and Register (music). The one is a subtopic of the other, and we don't do WP:SUMMARY / WP:SPLIT / WP:SPINOFF by disambiguating the name of the main topic. It's the drill-down subtopics that get disambiguated names (via natural disambiguation when feasible). PS: Someone thinking "albanism" is a legit spelling doesn't make it so; the source cited does not include that spelling, nor do any major dictionaries I've checked. It's just a common typo. I did encounter it as a typo in the headings of two ostensibly reliable sources, but they used "albinism" in their main texts, and it seems to have been an error of whoever webbified the articles.  — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  21:05, 11 July 2018 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Biology
Albinism genetic disorder 124.107.103.202 (talk) 04:54, 23 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Albinism in humans


text:
Talk:Axiom of choice

Images at top
I like the new one, but it has the same technical problem as the old one. Take the colored item. No choice axiom needed for that. -- 10:11, 5 April 2017 (UTC)

X as a collection or set?
I'm still learning but shouldn't the boxed statement of the axiom refer to X as a collection, not a set?

 * In ZFC set theory, every entity is a set. Every collection is a set of sets. See pure set. JRSpriggs (talk) 21:02, 25 July 2021 (UTC)

Essay on reasons to use choice
I reverted this paragraph:
 * One may notice that many of the above statements (and also some of the statements in the next sections using weaker forms of choice) come in one of two following types: First, there are those statements which assert that a given property pertaining to a type of mathematical structure is closed under arbitrary Cartesian products (e.g. the Cartesian product of nonempty sets is nonempty, or the Cartesian product of connected topological spaces is connected). Second, there are those statements that assert the existence of a maximal element of some special collection of subsets in a given mathematical structure, and moreover assert that any such subset can be extended to a maximal one (e.g., the Hausdorff Maximal Principle, Krull's Theorem, and the assertion that every vector space has a basis). This pattern is not a coincidence, as can be seen by the following reasoning: To prove any of these statements when the Cartesian product (in the case of the first type) or the special collection of subsets (in the case of the second type) is finite, one simply can use finite induction on the size of these collections or indexing sets. However, to extend these statements to infinite cardinalities, one needs to go beyond finite induction to transfinite induction, and as mentioned earlier in the article, this in general requires the Axiom of Choice.

So the first objection is that, helpful or not, this seems to be a collection of personal reflections, not sourced to the literature.

Beyond that, there's a confusion here about transfinite induction. Transfinite induction per se does not rely on the axiom of choice. Not in any way whatsoever.

What does rely on the axiom of choice is inductive arguments that involving "picking" a particular element at each induction step. But the choice is used for the picking, not for the induction. We really have to be clear on this, because this is a common misconception. I haven't scoured the article to see if there's anywhere else this needs to be clarified. --Trovatore (talk) 19:31, 19 April 2022 (UTC)

 * Just to mention, I have seen the term "principle of transfinite induction" used in the literature to actually refer to forms of the Axiom of Choice such as Zorn's Lemma. For example, there is Terence Tao's classic text Analysis I. In Section 8.4 in this book, he uses the phrase "principle of transfinite induction" to refer to Zorn's Lemma. Also, the classic abstract algebra textbook by Dummit and Foote concedes in Appendix A that Zorn's Lemma can viewed as a sort of "infinite induction", i.e. a generalization of finite induction to infinite partially ordered sets. The point is that the principle of finite induction can be reframed in the context of partial orders, to essentially assert the existence of a maximal chain (or element) in any finite partially ordered set; Zorn's Lemma naturally extends this fact to infinite partially ordered sets. One must recognize that this is a different usage of the term "principle of transfinite induction" than is typically used in the context of ordinals. However, there are some merits in the way this term is used as above. Often, novices have a hard time understanding the intuition behind Zorn's Lemma, but hopefully presenting it as a sort of "infinite induction" can help aid understanding. Logic314 (talk) 22:22, 23 April 2022 (UTC)

Controversy
This part is misleading: “Although originally controversial, the axiom of choice is now used without reservation by most mathematicians,[3] and it is included in the standard form of axiomatic set theory, Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice (ZFC).”

That’s not what the reference says. The reference acknowledges that AC is the most contested axiom, and that it is less controversial in recent years. However it still remains very controversial, with many mathematicians avoiding its use. The other sentence is also misleading because AC is not automatically included in standard set theory. It is independent. That’s why there is ZF, ZFC, and ZF with negated C. 184.169.45.4 (talk) 19:24, 8 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Your fourth sentence in the second paragraph is not correct. AC is part of default set theory. --Trovatore (talk) 19:27, 8 October 2022 (UTC)
 * The text in the Wiki article is still not reflecting the citation, because it makes the claim that AC is not controversial anymore, when in fact it remains controversial. The cited source just says it is less controversial.  The text should be edited to remove bias and acknowledge the ongoing controversy. 107.194.133.235 (talk) 02:54, 11 October 2022 (UTC)

Citation for "all known models"?
The section "Possibly equivalent implications of AC" says "In every known model of ZF where choice fails, these statements fail too, but it is unknown if they can hold without choice." Can we include a reference (or set of references) for the claim that these statements fail in all known models of ZF where choice fails? 2601:547:C80:8010:E818:6850:DF4:9128 (talk) 18:24, 17 May 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Axiom of choice


text:
Anabaptism

Anabaptism (from Neo-Latin anabaptista, from the Greek ἀναβαπτισμός: ἀνά 're-' and βαπτισμός 'baptism'; Täufer, earlier also Wiedertäufer) is a Christian movement which traces its origins to the Radical Reformation in the 16th century. Anabaptists believe that baptism is valid only when candidates freely confess their faith in Christ and request to be baptized. Commonly referred to as believer's baptism, it is opposed to baptism of infants, who are not able to make a conscious decision to be baptized.

The early Anabaptists formulated their beliefs in a confession of faith in 1527 called the Schleitheim Confession. Its author Michael Sattler was arrested and executed shortly afterward. Anabaptist groups varied widely in their specific beliefs, but the Schleitheim Confession represents foundational Anabaptist beliefs as well as any single document can.

Other Christian groups with different roots also practice believer's baptism, such as Baptists, but these groups are not Anabaptist, even though the Baptist tradition was influenced by the Anabaptist view of Baptism. The Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites are direct descendants of the early Anabaptist movement. Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church are Anabaptist denominations that developed well after the Radical Reformation, following their example. Though all Anabaptists share the same core theological beliefs, there are differences in the way of life between them; Old Order Anabaptist groups include the Old Order Amish, the Old Order Mennonites, Old Order River Brethren, and the Old Order German Baptist Brethren. In between the assimilated mainline denominations (such as Mennonite Church USA and the Church of the Brethren) and Old Order groups are Conservative Anabaptist groups. Conservative Anabaptists such as the Dunkard Brethren Church, Conservative Mennonites and Beachy Amish have retained traditional religious practices and theology, while allowing for some modern conveniences and advanced technology.

Emphasizing an adherence to the beliefs of early Christianity, as a whole Anabaptists are distinguished by their keeping of practices that often include nonconformity to the world, "the love feast with feet washing, laying on of hands, anointing with oil, and the holy kiss, as well as turning the other cheek, no oaths, going the second mile, giving a cup of cold water, reconciliation, repeated forgiveness, humility, non-violence, and sharing possessions."

The name Anabaptist means "one who baptizes again". Their persecutors named them this, referring to the practice of baptizing persons when they converted or declared their faith in Christ even if they had been baptized as infants, and many call themselves "Radical Reformers". Anabaptists require that baptismal candidates be able to make a confession of faith that is freely chosen and so rejected baptism of infants. The New Testament teaches to repent and then be baptized, and infants are not able to repent and turn away from sin to a life of following Jesus. The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that infant baptism was not part of scripture and was therefore null and void. They said that baptizing self-confessed believers was their first true baptism: "I have never taught Anabaptism. …But the right baptism of Christ, which is preceded by teaching and oral confession of faith, I teach, and say that infant baptism is a robbery of the right baptism of Christ."

Anabaptists were heavily persecuted by state churches, both Magisterial Protestants and Roman Catholics, beginning in the 16th century and continuing thereafter, largely because of their interpretation of scripture which put them at odds with official state church interpretations and local government control. Anabaptism was never established by any state and therefore never enjoyed any associated privileges. Most Anabaptists adhere to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5–7, which teaches against hate, killing, violence, taking oaths, participating in use of force or any military actions, and against participation in civil government. Anabaptists view themselves as primarily citizens of the kingdom of God, not of earthly governments. As committed followers of Jesus, they seek to pattern their life after his.

Some former groups who practiced rebaptism, now extinct, believed otherwise and complied with these requirements of civil society. They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish, Mennonites, Hutterites, and many historians consider them outside Anabaptism. Conrad Grebel wrote in a letter to Thomas Müntzer in 1524: "True Christian believers are sheep among wolves, sheep for the slaughter ... Neither do they use worldly sword or war, since all killing has ceased with them."

Medieval forerunners
Anabaptists are considered to have begun with the Radical Reformation in the 16th century, but historians classify certain people and groups as their forerunners because of a similar approach to the interpretation and application of the Bible. For instance, Petr Chelčický, a 15th-century Bohemian reformer, taught most of the beliefs considered integral to Anabaptist theology. Medieval antecedents may include the Brethren of the Common Life, the Hussites, Dutch Sacramentists, and some forms of monasticism. The Waldensians also represent a faith similar to the Anabaptists.

Medieval dissenters and Anabaptists who held to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount share in common the following affirmations:
 * The believer must not swear oaths or refer disputes between believers to law-courts for resolution, in accordance with.
 * The believer must not bear arms or offer forcible resistance to wrongdoers, nor wield the sword. No Christian has the jus gladii (the right of the sword).
 * Civil government (i.e. "Caesar") belongs to the world. The believer belongs to God's kingdom so must not fill any office nor hold any rank under government, which is to be passively obeyed.
 * Sinners or unfaithful ones are to be excommunicated and excluded from the sacraments and from intercourse with believers unless they repent, according to and, but no force is to be used towards them.

Zwickau prophets and the German Peasants' War
On December 27, 1521, three "prophets" from Zwickau appeared in Wittenberg who were influenced by (and, in turn, influencing) Thomas Müntzer – Thomas Dreschel, Nicholas Storch, and Mark Thomas Stübner. They preached an apocalyptic, radical alternative to Lutheranism. Their preaching helped to stir the feelings concerning the social crisis which erupted in the German Peasants' War in southern Germany in 1525 as a revolt against feudal oppression.

Under the leadership of Müntzer, it became a war against all constituted authorities and an attempt to establish by revolution an ideal Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality among persons and the community of goods. The Zwickau prophets were not Anabaptists (that is, they did not practise "rebaptism"); nevertheless, the prevalent social inequities and the preaching of men such as these have been seen as laying the foundation for the Anabaptist movement. The social ideals of the Anabaptist movement coincided closely with those of leaders in the German Peasants' War. Studies have found a very low percentage of subsequent sectarians to have taken part in the peasant uprising.

Views on origins
Research on the origins of the Anabaptists has been tainted both by the attempts of their enemies to slander them and by the attempts of their supporters to vindicate them. It was long popular to classify all Anabaptists as Munsterites and radicals associated with the Zwickau prophets, Jan Matthys, John of Leiden, and Müntzer. Those desiring to correct this error tended to over-correct and deny all connections between the larger Anabaptist movement and the most radical elements.

The modern era of Anabaptist historiography arose with Roman Catholic scholar Carl Adolf Cornelius' publication of Die Geschichte des Münsterischen Aufruhrs (The History of the Münster Uprising) in 1855. Baptist historian Albert Henry Newman, who Harold S. Bender said occupied "first position in the field of American Anabaptist historiography", made a major contribution with his A History of Anti-Pedobaptism (1897).

Three main theories on origins of the Anabaptists are the following:
 * The movement began in a single expression in Zürich and spread from there (monogenesis);
 * It developed through several independent movements (polygenesis); and
 * It was a continuation of true New Testament Christianity (apostolic succession or church perpetuity).

Monogenesis
Some scholars (e.g. Harold S. Bender, William Estep, Robert Friedmann) consider the Anabaptist movement to have developed from the Swiss Brethren movement. They generally argue that Anabaptism had its origins in Zürich and that the Anabaptism of the Swiss Brethren was transmitted to southern Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, and northern Germany, where it developed into its various branches. The monogenesis theory usually rejects the Münsterites and other radicals from the category of true Anabaptists. In the monogenesis view the time of origin is January 21, 1525, when Conrad Grebel baptized George Blaurock, and Blaurock in turn baptized several others immediately. These baptisms were the first "re-baptisms" known in the movement. This continues to be the most widely accepted date posited for the establishment of Anabaptism.

Polygenesis
James M. Stayer, Werner O. Packull, and Klaus Deppermann disputed the idea of a single origin of Anabaptists in a 1975 essay entitled "From Monogenesis to Polygenesis", suggesting that February 24, 1527, at Schleitheim is the proper date of the origin of Anabaptism. On this date the Swiss Brethren wrote a declaration of belief called the Schleitheim Confession. The authors of the essay note the agreement among previous Anabaptist historians on polygenesis, even when disputing the date for a single starting point: "Hillerbrand and Bender (like Holl and Troeltsch) were in agreement that there was a single dispersion of Anabaptism …, which certainly ran through Zurich. The only question was whether or not it went back further to Saxony."

After criticizing the standard polygenetic history, the authors found six groups in early Anabaptism which could be collapsed into three originating "points of departure": "South German Anabaptism, the Swiss Brethren, and the Melchiorites". According to their polygenesis theory, South German–Austrian Anabaptism "was a diluted form of Rhineland mysticism", Swiss Anabaptism "arose out of Reformed congregationalism", and Dutch Anabaptism was formed by "Social unrest and the apocalyptic visions of Melchior Hoffman". As examples of how the Anabaptist movement was influenced from sources other than the Swiss Brethren movement, mention has been made of how Pilgram Marpeck's Vermanung of 1542 was deeply influenced by the Bekenntnisse of 1533 by Münster theologian Bernhard Rothmann. Hoffman influenced the Hutterites when they used his commentary on the Apocalypse shortly after he wrote it.

Others who have written in support of polygenesis include Grete Mecenseffy and Walter Klaassen, who established links between Müntzer and Hans Hut. In another work, Gottfried Seebaß and Werner Packull show the influence of Müntzer on the formation of South German Anabaptism. Similarly, author Steven Ozment links Hut and Hans Denck with Müntzer, Sebastian Franck, and others. Author Calvin Pater shows how Andreas Karlstadt influenced Swiss Anabaptism in various areas, including his view of Scripture, doctrine of the church, and views on baptism.

Several historians, including Thor Hall, Kenneth Davis, and Robert Kreider, have also noted the influence of humanism on Radical Reformers in the three originating points of departure to account for how this brand of reform could develop independently from each other. Relatively recent research, begun in a more advanced and deliberate manner by Andrew P. Klager, also explores how the influence and a particular reading of the Church Fathers contributed to the development of distinctly Anabaptist beliefs and practices in separate regions of Europe in the early 16th century, including by Menno Simons in the Netherlands, Grebel in Switzerland, Müntzer in central Germany, Marpeck in the Tyrol, Peter Walpot in Moravia, and especially Balthasar Hubmaier in southern Germany, Switzerland, and Moravia.

Apostolic succession
Baptist successionists have at times pointed to 16th-century Anabaptists as part of an apostolic succession of churches ("church perpetuity") from the time of Christ. This view is held by some Baptists, some Mennonites, and some "true church" movements. The opponents of the Baptist successionism theory emphasize that these non-Catholic groups clearly differed from each other, that they held some heretical views, or that the groups had no connection with one another and had origins that were separate both in time and in place.

A different strain of successionism is the theory that the Anabaptists are of Waldensian origin. Some hold the idea that the Waldensians are part of the apostolic succession, while others simply believe they were an independent group out of whom the Anabaptists arose. Ludwig Keller, Thomas M. Lindsay, Henry Clay Vedder, Delbert Grätz, John T. Christian and Thieleman J. van Braght (author of Martyrs Mirror) all held, in varying degrees, the position that the Anabaptists were of Waldensian origin.

Switzerland
Anabaptism in Switzerland began as an offshoot of the church reforms instigated by Ulrich Zwingli. As early as 1522, it became evident that Zwingli was on a path of reform preaching when he began to question or criticize such Catholic practices as tithes, the mass, and even infant baptism. Zwingli had gathered a group of reform-minded men around him, with whom he studied classical literature and the scriptures. However, some of these young men began to feel that Zwingli was not moving fast enough in his reform. The division between Zwingli and his more radical disciples became apparent in an October 1523 disputation held in Zurich. When the discussion of the mass was about to be ended without making any actual change in practice, Conrad Grebel stood up and asked "what should be done about the mass?" Zwingli responded by saying the council would make that decision. At this point, Simon Stumpf, a radical priest from Höngg, answered saying, "The decision has already been made by the Spirit of God."

This incident illustrated clearly that Zwingli and his more radical disciples had different expectations. To Zwingli, the reforms would only go as fast as the city council allowed them. To the radicals, the council had no right to make that decision, but rather the Bible was the final authority of church reform. Feeling frustrated, some of them began to meet on their own for Bible study. As early as 1523, William Reublin began to preach against infant baptism in villages surrounding Zurich, encouraging parents to not baptize their children.

Seeking fellowship with other reform-minded people, the radical group wrote letters to Martin Luther, Andreas Karlstadt, and Thomas Müntzer. Felix Manz began to publish some of Karlstadt's writings in Zurich in late 1524. By this time the question of infant baptism had become agitated, and the Zurich council had instructed Zwingli to meet weekly with those who rejected infant baptism "until the matter could be resolved". Zwingli broke off the meetings after two sessions, and Manz petitioned the council to find a solution, since he felt Zwingli was too hard to work with. The council then called a meeting for January 17, 1525.

The council ruled in this meeting that all who continued to refuse to baptize their infants should be expelled from Zurich if they did not have them baptized within one week. Since Grebel had refused to baptize his daughter Rachel, born on January 5, 1525, the council decision was personal to him and others who had not baptized their children. Thus, when 16 of the radicals met on January 21, the situation seemed particularly dark. The Hutterian Chronicle records the event: "After prayer, George of the House of Jacob (George Blaurock) stood up and besought Conrad Grebel for God's sake to baptize him with the true Christian baptism upon his faith and knowledge. And when he knelt down with such a request and desire, Conrad baptized him, since at that time there was no ordained minister to perform such work." Afterwards Blaurock was baptized, and he in turn baptized others at the meeting. Even though some had rejected infant baptism before this date, these baptisms marked the first re-baptisms of those who had been baptized as infants and thus Swiss Anabaptism was born on that day.

Tyrol
Anabaptism appears to have come to Tyrol through the labors of Blaurock. Similar to the German Peasants' War, the Gaismair uprising set the stage by producing a hope for social justice. Michael Gaismair had tried to bring religious, political, and economical reform through a violent peasant uprising, but the movement was quashed. Although little evidence exists of a connection between Gaismair's uprising and Tyrolian Anabaptism, at least a few of the peasants involved in the uprising later became Anabaptists. The common link was the desire for a radical change in the prevailing social injustices. Disappointed with the failure of armed revolt, Anabaptist ideals of an alternative peaceful, just society probably resonated on the ears of the disappointed peasants.

Before Anabaptism was introduced to South Tyrol, Protestant ideas had been propagated in the region by men such as Hans Vischer, a former Dominican. Some of those who participated in conventicles where Protestant ideas were presented later became Anabaptists. The population in general seemed to have a favorable attitude towards reform, be it Protestant or Anabaptist. Blaurock appears to have preached itinerantly in the Puster Valley region in 1527, which most likely was the first introduction of Anabaptist ideas in the area. Another visit through the area in 1529 reinforced these ideas, but he was captured and burned at the stake in Klausen on September 6, 1529.

Jacob Hutter was one of the early converts in South Tyrol and later became a leader among the Hutterites, who received their name from him. Hutter made several trips between Moravia and Tyrol, and most of the Anabaptists in South Tyrol ended up emigrating to Moravia because of the fierce persecution unleashed by Ferdinand I. In November 1535, Hutter was captured near Klausen and taken to Innsbruck where he was burned at the stake on February 25, 1536. By 1540 Anabaptism in South Tyrol was dying out, largely because of the emigration to Moravia of the converts because of incessant persecution.

Low Countries and northern Germany
Melchior Hoffman is credited with the introduction of Anabaptist ideas into the Low Countries. Hoffman had picked up Lutheran and Reformed ideas, but on April 23, 1530, he was "re-baptized" at Strasbourg and within two months had gone to Emden and baptized about 300 persons. For several years Hoffman preached in the Low Countries until he was arrested and imprisoned at Strasbourg, where he died about 10 years later. Hoffman's apocalyptic ideas were indirectly related to the Münster rebellion, even though he was "of a different spirit".

Obbe and Dirk Philips had been baptized by disciples of Jan Matthijs but were opposed to the violence that occurred at Münster. Obbe later became disillusioned with Anabaptism and withdrew from the movement in about 1540, but not before ordaining David Joris, his brother Dirk, and Menno Simons. Joris and Simons parted ways, with Joris placing more emphasis on "spirit and prophecy", while Menno emphasized the authority of the Bible. For the Mennonite side, the emphasis on the "inner" and "spiritual" permitted compromise to "escape persecution", while to the Joris side, the Mennonites were under the "dead letter of the Scripture".

Because of persecution and expansion, some of the Low Country Mennonites emigrated to Vistula delta, a region settled by Germans but under Polish rule until it became part of Prussia in 1772. There they formed the Vistula delta Mennonites integrating some other Mennonites mainly from northern Germany. In the late 18th century, several thousand of them migrated from there to Ukraine (which at the time was part of Russia) forming the so-called Russian Mennonites. Beginning in 1874, many of them emigrated to the prairie states and provinces of the United States and Canada. In the 1920s, the conservative faction of the Canadian settlers went to Mexico and Paraguay. Beginning in the 1950s, the most conservative of them started to migrate to Bolivia. In 1958, Mexican Mennonites migrated to Belize. Since the 1980s, traditional Russian Mennonites migrated to Argentina. Smaller groups went to Brazil and Uruguay. In 2015, some Mennonites from Bolivia settled in Peru. In 2018, there are more than 200,000 of them living in colonies in Central and South America.

Moravia, Bohemia and Silesia
Although Moravian Anabaptism was a transplant from other areas of Europe, Moravia soon became a center for the growing movement, largely because of the greater religious tolerance found there. Hans Hut was an early evangelist in the area, with one historian crediting him with baptizing more converts in two years than all the other Anabaptist evangelists put together. The coming of Balthasar Hübmaier to Nikolsburg was a definite boost for Anabaptist ideas to the area. With the great influx of religious refugees from all over Europe, many variations of Anabaptism appeared in Moravia, with Jarold Zeman documenting at least ten slightly different versions.

Jacob Wiedemann appeared at Nikolsburg and began to teach the pacifistic convictions of the Swiss Brethren, on which Hübmaier had been less authoritative. This would lead to a division between the Schwertler (sword-bearing) and the Stäbler (staff-bearing). Wiedemann and those with him also promoted the practice of community of goods. With orders from the lords of Liechtenstein to leave Nikolsburg, about 200 Stäbler withdrew to Moravia to form a community at Austerlitz.

Persecution in South Tyrol brought many refugees to Moravia, many of whom formed into communities that practised community of goods. Others came from Silesia, Switzerland, German lands, and the Low Countries. With the passing of time and persecution, all the other versions of Anabaptism would die out in Moravia leaving only the Hutterites. Even the Hutterites would be dissipated by persecution, with a remnant fleeing to Transylvania, then to Ukraine, and finally to North America in 1874.

South and central Germany, Austria and Alsace
South German Anabaptism had its roots in German mysticism. Andreas Karlstadt, who first worked alongside Martin Luther, is seen as a forerunner of South German Anabaptism because of his reforming theology that rejected many Catholic practices, including infant baptism. However, Karlstadt is not known to have been "rebaptized", nor to have taught it. Hans Denck and Hans Hut, both with German mystical background (in connection with Thomas Müntzer) both accepted "rebaptism", but Denck eventually backed off from the idea under pressure. Hut is said to have brought more people into early Anabaptism than all the other Anabaptist evangelists of his time put together.

However, there may have been confusion about what his baptism (at least some of the times it was done by making the sign of the Tau on the forehead) may have meant to the recipient. Some seem to have taken it as a sign by which they would escape the apocalyptical revenge of the Turks that Hut predicted. Hut even went so far as to predict a 1528 coming of the kingdom of God. When the prediction failed, some of his converts became discouraged and left the Anabaptist movement. The large congregation of Anabaptists at Augsburg fell apart (partly because of persecution) and those who stayed with Anabaptist ideas were absorbed into Swiss and Moravia Anabaptist congregations. Pilgram Marpeck was another notable leader in early South German Anabaptism who attempted to steer between the two extremes of Denck's inner Holiness and the legalistic standards of the other Anabaptists.

Persecutions and migrations

Roman Catholics and Protestants alike persecuted the Anabaptists, resorting to torture and execution in attempts to curb the growth of the movement. The Protestants under Zwingli were the first to persecute the Anabaptists, with Manz becoming the first Anabaptist martyr in 1527. On May 20 or 21, 1527, Roman Catholic authorities executed Michael Sattler. King Ferdinand declared drowning (called the third baptism) "the best antidote to Anabaptism". The Tudor regime, even the Protestant monarchs (Edward VI of England and Elizabeth I of England), persecuted Anabaptists as they were deemed too radical and therefore a danger to religious stability.

The persecution of Anabaptists was condoned by the ancient laws of Theodosius I and Justinian I which were passed against the Donatists, and decreed the death penalty for anyone who practised rebaptism. Martyrs Mirror, by Thieleman J. van Braght, describes the persecution and execution of thousands of Anabaptists in various parts of Europe between 1525 and 1660. Continuing persecution in Europe was largely responsible for the mass emigrations to North America by the Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites. Unlike Calvinists, Anabaptists failed to gain recognition in the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, and as a result they continued to be persecuted in Europe long after that treaty was signed.

Anabaptism stands out among other groups of martyrs, in that Anabaptist martyrologies feature women more prominently, "making up thirty per cent of the martyr stories, compared to five to ten per cent in the other accounts."

Beliefs and practices
Anabaptists view themselves as a separate branch of Christianity, not being a part of Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodoxy or Eastern Orthodoxy. Anabaptist beliefs were codified in the Schleitheim Confession in 1527, which best represents the beliefs of the various denominations of Anabaptism (inclusive of Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites, Bruderhof, Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren and Apostolic Christians).

Anabaptist denominations, such as the Mennonites, teach "true faith entails a new birth, a spiritual regeneration by God's grace and power; 'believers' are those who have become the spiritual children of God." In Anabaptist theology, the pathway to salvation is "marked not by a forensic understanding of salvation by 'faith alone', but by the entire process of repentance, self-denial, faith rebirth and obedience." Those who wish to tarry this path receive baptism after the New Birth. Anabaptists heavily emphasize the importance of obedience in the salvation journey of a believer.

As a whole, Anabaptists emphasize an adherence to the beliefs of early Christianity and are thus distinguished by their keeping of practices that often include the observance of feetwashing, the holy kiss, and communion (with these three ordinances being practiced collectively in the lovefeast in the Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren traditions), Christian headcovering, nonconformity to the world, nonresistance, forgiveness, and sharing possessions, which in certain communities (as with the Bruderhof) takes on the form of communal living.

Types
Different types exist among the Anabaptists, although the categorizations tend to vary with the scholar's viewpoint on origins. Estep claims that in order to understand Anabaptism, one must "distinguish between the Anabaptists, inspirationists, and rationalists". He classes the likes of Blaurock, Grebel, Hubmaier, Manz, Marpeck, and Simons as Anabaptists. He groups Müntzer and Storch as inspirationists, and anti-trinitarians such as Michael Servetus, Juan de Valdés, Sebastian Castellio, and Faustus Socinus as rationalists. Mark S. Ritchie follows this line of thought, saying, "The Anabaptists were one of several branches of 'Radical' reformers (i.e. reformers that went further than the mainstream Reformers) to arise out of the Renaissance and Reformation. Two other branches were Spirituals or Inspirationists, who believed that they had received direct revelation from the Spirit, and rationalists or anti-Trinitarians, who rebelled against traditional Christian doctrine, like Michael Servetus."

Those of the polygenesis viewpoint use Anabaptist to define the larger movement and include the inspirationists and rationalists as true Anabaptists. James M. Stayer used the term Anabaptist for those who rebaptized persons already "baptized" in infancy. Walter Klaassen was perhaps the first Mennonite scholar to define Anabaptists that way in his 1960 Oxford dissertation. This represents a rejection of the previous standard held by Mennonite scholars such as Bender and Friedmann.

Another method of categorization acknowledges regional variations, such as Swiss Brethren (Grebel, Manz), Dutch and Frisian Anabaptism (Menno Simons, Dirk Philips), and South German Anabaptism (Hübmaier, Marpeck). Historians and sociologists have made further distinctions between radical Anabaptists, who were prepared to use violence in their attempts to build a New Jerusalem, and their pacifist brethren, later broadly known as Mennonites. Radical Anabaptist groups included the Münsterites and the Batenburgers, who persisted in various guises as late as the 1570s.

Charismatic manifestations
Within the inspirationist wing of the Anabaptist movement, it was not unusual for charismatic manifestations to appear, such as dancing, falling under the power of the Holy Spirit, "prophetic processions" (at Zurich in 1525, at Munster in 1534 and at Amsterdam in 1535), and speaking in tongues. In Germany some Anabaptists, "excited by mass hypnosis, experienced healings, glossolalia, contortions and other manifestations of a camp-meeting revival". The Anabaptist congregations that later developed into the Mennonite and Hutterite churches tended not to promote these manifestations but did not totally reject the miraculous.

Marpeck, for example, wrote against the exclusion of miracles: "Nor does Scripture assert this exclusion ... God has a free hand even in these last days." Referring to some who had been raised from the dead, he wrote: "Many of them have remained constant, enduring tortures inflicted by sword, rope, fire and water and suffering terrible, tyrannical, unheard-of deaths and martyrdoms, all of which they could easily have avoided by recantation. Moreover one also marvels when he sees how the faithful God (Who, after all, overflows with goodness) raises from the dead several such brothers and sisters of Christ after they were hanged, drowned, or killed in other ways. Even today, they are found alive and we can hear their own testimony ... Cannot everyone who sees, even the blind, say with a good conscience that such things are a powerful, unusual, and miraculous act of God? Those who would deny it must be hardened men." The Hutterite Chronicle and the Martyrs Mirror record several accounts of miraculous events, such as when a man named Martin prophesied while being led across a bridge to his execution in 1531: "this once yet the pious are led over this bridge, but no more hereafter". Just "a short time afterwards such a violent storm and flood came that the bridge was demolished".

Holy Spirit leadership
The Anabaptists insisted upon the "free course" of the Holy Spirit in worship, yet still maintained it all must be judged according to the Scriptures. The Swiss Anabaptist document titled "Answer of Some Who Are Called (Ana-)Baptists – Why They Do Not Attend the Churches". One reason given for not attending the state churches was that these institutions forbade the congregation to exercise spiritual gifts according to "the Christian order as taught in the gospel or the Word of God in 1 Corinthians 14". "When such believers come together, 'Everyone of you (note every one) hath a psalm, hath a doctrine, hath a revelation, hath an interpretation', and so on. When someone comes to church and constantly hears only one person speaking, and all the listeners are silent, neither speaking nor prophesying, who can or will regard or confess the same to be a spiritual congregation, or confess according to 1 Corinthians 14 that God is dwelling and operating in them through His Holy Spirit with His gifts, impelling them one after another in the above-mentioned order of speaking and prophesying."

Anabaptists
In 2018, there were 2.13 million baptized Anabaptists in 86 countries. The major branches of Anabaptist Christianity today include the Amish, Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren, Hutterites, Mennonites, Apostolic Christian Church, and Bruderhof. Within many of these traditions (Amish, Mennonite, Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren) are three subsets: (1) Old Order Anabaptists (2) Conservative Anabaptists and (3) Mainline Anabaptists; for example, among Schwarzenau Brethren are the Old Order German Baptist Brethren (who use horse and buggy for transportation and do not use electricity), the Dunkard Brethren (who adhere to traditional theological beliefs and wear plain dress but use modern conveniences), and the Church of the Brethren (who are largely a mainline group where members are indistinguishable in dress from the general population).

Although many see the more well-known Anabaptist groups (Amish, Hutterites and Mennonites) as ethnic groups, only the Amish and the Hutterites today are composed mainly of descendants of the European Anabaptists, while Mennonites come from diverse backgrounds, with only a minority being classed as ethnic Mennonites. Brethren groups have mostly lost their ethnic distinctiveness.

The Bruderhof Communities were founded in Germany by Eberhard Arnold in 1920, establishing and organisationally joining the Hutterites in 1930. The group moved to England after the Gestapo confiscated their property in 1933, and they subsequently moved to Paraguay in order to avoid military conscription, and after World War II they moved to the United States.

Groups which are derived from the Schwarzenau Brethren, often called German Baptists, while not directly descended from the 16th-century Radical Reformation, are considered Anabaptist because of their adherence to Anabaptist doctrine. The modern-day Brethren movement is a combination of Anabaptism and Radical Pietism.

Neo-Anabaptists
Neo-Anabaptism is a late 20th and early 21st century theological movement within American evangelical Christianity which draws inspiration from theologians who are located within the Anabaptist tradition but are ecclesiastically outside it. Neo-Anabaptists have been noted for their "low church, counter-cultural, prophetic-stance-against-empire ethos" as well as for their focus on pacifism, social justice and poverty. The works of Mennonite theologians Ron Sider and John Howard Yoder are frequently cited as having a strong influence on the movement.

Relationship with Baptists
Some similarities exist between Baptists and the Anabaptists, which is why some historians have advocated the view that General Baptists were influenced by Anabaptism. The similarities between these groups include baptism of believers only, religious freedom, similar perspectives on free will, predestination and original sin along with congregationalism. It is almost certain that the earliest Baptist church led by John Smyth and Thomas Helwys interacted with the Mennonites and that Smyth borrowed ideas from Anabaptism. However, it has been debated if influences from Anabaptism ever found their way to the English General Baptists.

Those who held closer views with the Anabaptists switched to the Mennonite movement along with Smyth, while those who identified as Baptists did so under Helwys who disagreed with Smyth and the Mennonites on multiple issues, denying Melchiorite Christology and Anabaptist views of the civil magistrate. These English General Baptists may have had secondary influences from Anabaptism, although it is a matter of debate among historians. Despite the existing similarities between these two groups, the relationship between Baptists and Anabaptists was strained in 1624 when five existing Baptist churches of London issued a condemnation of the Anabaptists. The theory that Anabaptism influenced Baptist theology has been believed by Philip Schaff, A.C. Underwood, and William R. Estep. Gourley wrote that among some contemporary Baptist scholars who emphasize the faith of the community over soul liberty, the Anabaptist influence theory is making a comeback. Puritans of England and their Baptist branch arose independently, and although they may have been informed by Anabaptist theology, they clearly differentiate themselves from Anabaptists as seen in the London Confession of Faith 1644, "Of those Churches which are commonly (though falsely) called Anabaptists". Moreover, Baptist historian Chris Traffanstedt maintains that Anabaptists share "some similarities with the early General Baptists, but overall these similarities are slight and not always relational. In the end, we must come to say that this group of Christians does not reflect the historical teaching of the Baptists".

There have been some discussions on if Anabaptist theology influenced Particular Baptists in a limited sense. This theory proposes that there existed a native Anabaptist population in England that may have given rise to ideas held by Particular Baptist theologians. There exists some evidence of there being native English Anabaptists during this time, however many historians have rejected the idea that Anabaptist influences gave rise to the Particular Baptists, and there appears to be no concrete evidence of any Anabaptist influence in Particular Baptists. According to Barrington Raymond White, the relationship between the English Separatists and the Radical Reformers was that of people coming to similar conclusions from their reading of the Bible based on the context of a similar situation.

In practice, Anabaptists have maintained a more literal obedience to the Sermon on the Mount, while Baptists generally do not require nonresistance, non-swearing of oaths, and no remarriage if the first legitimate spouse is living. Traditional Anabaptists also require a head covering for women, modest apparel, practical separation from the world, and plain dress, which most Baptists no longer require. However, some Anabaptists and General Baptists have improved their relations and sometimes have worked together.

Influence on society
Common Anabaptist beliefs and practices of the 16th century continue to influence modern Christianity and Western society.
 * Voluntary church membership and believer's baptism
 * Freedom of religion – liberty of conscience
 * Separation or nonconformity to the world
 * Nonresistance, interpreted as pacifism by modernized groups
 * Priesthood of all believers

The Anabaptists were early promoters of a free church and freedom of religion. When it was introduced by the Anabaptists in the 15th and 16th centuries, religious freedom which was independent from the state was unthinkable to both clerical and governmental leaders. Religious liberty was equated with anarchy; Kropotkin traces the birth of anarchist thought in Europe to these early Anabaptist communities.

According to Estep: "Where men believe in the freedom of religion, supported by a guarantee of separation of church and state, they have entered into that heritage. Where men have caught the Anabaptist vision of discipleship, they have become worthy of that heritage. Where corporate discipleship submits itself to the New Testament pattern of the church, the heir has then entered full possession of his legacy."

Anabaptist characters exist in popular culture, most notably Chaplain Tappman in Joseph Heller's novel Catch-22; James (Jacques) in Voltaire's novella Candide; Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera Le prophète (1849); and the central character in the novel Q, by the collective known as "Luther Blissett".

title: Anabaptism


text:
Ans

Ans or ANS or variation, may refer to:

Places

 * Ans, Belgium, a municipality in Belgium
 * Ans, Denmark, a village in Denmark
 * Angus, Scotland, UK; a council area by its Chapman code
 * Ainsdale railway station, England, UK (by station code )
 * Andahuaylas Airport, Peru (by IATA airport code )

People

 * Ans (given name), a Dutch feminine given name
 * Anna Nicole Smith, American model and actress

Organizations

 * Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
 * Astronomical Netherlands Satellite, a Dutch satellite
 * American Name Society
 * American Nuclear Society
 * American Numismatic Society, formerly the American Numismatic and Archaeological Society
 * ANS Group of Companies, a news organization in Azerbaijan
 * Armée Nationale Sihanoukiste, a Cambodian resistance group; see Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea
 * Audubon Naturalist Society, an American environmental organization

Chemistry and biology

 * Adrenergic nervous system, adrenaline and noradrenaline neurotransmitters distribution in human body
 * 8-Anilinonaphthalene-1-sulfonic acid, a fluorescent chemical compound used as a molecular probe
 * Anthocyanidin synthase, an enzyme in the leucocyanidin biosynthesis pathway
 * Approximate number system, a hypothesized physiological basis for the sense of number
 * Autonomic nervous system, part of the peripheral nervous system in the body
 * L -Aspartate-nitro-succinate pathway for production of nitrite

Technology

 * , an unofficial file extension for ANSI art
 * Advanced Network and Services, a non-profit network service provider in the 1990s
 * American National Standards, defined by the American National Standards Institute
 * ans, a variable in calculators referring to the most recent answer
 * ANS carriage control characters (or ASA control characters), for computer line printers
 * Asymmetric numeral systems, coding in data compression
 * Authoritative name server, a DNS server
 * Artificial neural system, or Artificial neural network
 * Air Navigation Services, as delivered by an Air Navigation Service Provider (ANSP)

Music

 * ANS (album), a box set from the British band Coil
 * ANS synthesizer, a Russian photoelectric musical instrument

Other uses

 * Al Ansar FC, a Lebanese association football club
 * Amman National School, in Amman, Jordan
 * Ansvarlig selskap, a Norwegian personal responsibility company model
 * Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad, a Dutch student magazine
 * Akademia Nauk Stosowanych, a vocational university in Nowy Targ, Poland

title: Ans


text:
Southeast Alaska

Southeast Alaska, often abbreviated to southeast or southeastern, and sometimes called the Alaska(n) panhandle, is the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Alaska, bordered to the east and north by the northern half of the Canadian province of British Columbia (and a small part of Yukon). The majority of southeast Alaska is situated in Tlingit Aaní, much of which is part of the Tongass National Forest, the United States' largest national forest. In many places, the international border runs along the crest of the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains (see Alaska boundary dispute). The region is noted for its scenery and mild, rainy climate.

The largest cities in the region are Juneau, Sitka, and Ketchikan. This region is also home to Hyder, the easternmost town in Alaska.

Geography
Southeast Alaska has a land area of 35138 sqmi, comprising much of the Alexander Archipelago. The largest islands are, from North to South, Chichagof Island, Admiralty Island, Baranof Island, Kupreanof Island, Revillagigedo Island and Prince of Wales Island. Major bodies of water of southeast Alaska include Glacier Bay, Lynn Canal, Icy Strait, Chatham Strait, Stephens Passage, Frederick Sound, Sumner Strait, and Clarence Strait.

The archipelago is the northern terminus of the Inside Passage, a protected waterway of convoluted passages between islands and fjords, beginning in Puget Sound in Washington state. This was an important travel corridor for Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian Native peoples, as well as gold-rush era steamships. In modern times it is an important route for Alaska Marine Highway ferries as well as cruise ships.

Demographics

Southeast Alaska includes seven entire boroughs and two census areas, in addition to the portion of the Yakutat Borough lying east of 141° West longitude. Although it has only 6.14 percent of Alaska's land area, it is larger than the state of Maine, and almost as large as the state of Indiana. The southeast Alaskan coast is roughly as long as the west coast of Canada.

The 2010 census population of southeast Alaska was 71,616 inhabitants, representing approximately 10% of the state's total population. About 45% of residents in the southeast Alaska region were concentrated in the city of Juneau, the state capital. As of 2018, the number of settlements in southeast Alaska that have a population of at least 1,000 people has grown to nine.

Boroughs

 * Haines Borough
 * Hoonah-Angoon Census Area
 * Juneau Borough
 * Ketchikan Gateway Borough
 * Petersburg Borough
 * Prince of Wales-Hyder Census Area
 * Sitka Borough
 * Skagway Borough
 * Wrangell Borough
 * Yakutat Borough (the part east of 141° W longitude; 12,506.53 km2, or about 63.12 percent of the borough)

Major cities and towns
Populations are taken from the 2020 Census.
 * Juneau - 32,255 inhabitants
 * Sitka - 8,458 inhabitants
 * Ketchikan - 8,192 inhabitants
 * Petersburg - 3,043 inhabitants
 * Wrangell - 2,127 inhabitants
 * Haines - 1,657 inhabitants
 * Metlakatla - 1,454 inhabitants
 * Skagway - 1,240 inhabitants
 * Craig - 1,036 inhabitants

National protected areas

Southeast Alaska includes the Tongass National Forest (which manages Admiralty Island National Monument and Misty Fjords National Monument), Glacier Bay National Park, and Sitka National Historical Park. Glacier Bay is the sixth largest national park in the United States. On August 20, 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt established the Alexander Archipelago Forest Reserve, which formed the heart of the Tongass National Forest that covers most of the region.

 * Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve
 * Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park
 * Sitka National Historical Park
 * Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve (part, the most southeastern section only)
 * Admiralty Island National Monument
 * Misty Fjords National Monument

Climate

The climate of southeast Alaska is dominated by a mid-latitude oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) in the south, an oceanic, marine sub-polar climate (Köppen Cfc) in the central region around Juneau, and a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc) to the far northwest and the interior highlands of the archipelago. Southeast Alaska is also the only region in Alaska where the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months, except for in the southern parts of the Aleutian islands such as Unalaska.

Ecology
Southeast Alaska is a temperate rain forest within the Pacific temperate rain forest zone, as classified by the World Wildlife Fund's ecoregion system, which extends from northern California to Prince William Sound. The most common tree species are sitka spruce and western hemlock.

Wildlife includes brown bears, black bears, endemic Alexander Archipelago wolf packs, Sitka black-tailed deer, humpback whales, orcas, five species of salmon, bald eagles, harlequin ducks, scoters, and marbled murrelets.

The Ecological Atlas of Southeast Alaska, published by Audubon Alaska in 2016, offers an overview of the region's landscape, birds, wildlife, human uses, climate change, and more, synthesizing data from agencies and a variety of other sources.

Culture

This area is the traditional homeland of the Tlingit, and home of a historic settling of Haida as well as a modern settlement of Tsimshian. The region is closely connected to Seattle and the American Pacific Northwest economically and culturally.

Industry
Major industries in southeast Alaska include commercial fishing and tourism (primarily the cruise ship industry).

Logging
Logging has been an important industry in the past, but has been steadily declining with competition from other areas and the closure of the region's major pulp mills; the Alaska Forest Association described the situation as "desperate" in 2011. Its members include Alcan Forest Products (owned by Canadian Transpac Group, one of the top 5 log exporters in North America ) and Viking Lumber, which is based in Craig, Alaska. Debates over whether to expand logging in the federally owned Tongass are not uncommon.

Mining
Mining remains important in the northern area with the Juneau mining district and Admiralty mining district hosting active mines as of 2015. Gold was discovered in 1880 and played an important part in the early history of the region.

In the 2010s, mines increasingly began to be explored and eventually completed in neighboring British Columbia, upstream of important rivers such as the Unuk and the Stikine, which became known as the transboundary mining issue. In 2014, the dam breach at the Mount Polley mine focused attention on the issue, and an agreement between Canada and Alaska was drafted in 2015.

The proposed Kerr Sulphurets Mitchell exploration is upstream of the Unuk. Mines upstream of the Stikine include the Red Chris, which is owned by the same company (Imperial Metals) as the Mount Polley mine.

Healthcare
Major hospitals include Bartlett Regional Hospital in Juneau and PeaceHealth Ketchikan Medical Center in Ketchikan. Southeast Alaska Regional Health Consortium,runs healthcare facilities across 27 communities as of 2022, including hospitals in Sitka and Wrangell; although it originally served Native Americans only, it has expanded access and combined with other local facilities over time.

Shipbuilding
Due to the fishing and ferries in the region, ship building and maintenance are economically significant.

Ketchikan hosts a shipbuilding yard owned by Vigor Industrial.

Tourism
Tourists visit southeast Alaska primarily in the summer, and most visit via cruise ships, which run from April 15 to October 30. In 2019, around 1.3 million people visited Alaska by cruise ship.

The northbound Inside Passage cruise commonly starts from either Seattle or Vancouver, Canada and stops in various ports including Ketchikan, Juneau, and Skagway. One-way trips will end in Whittier or Seward.

An alternative Gulf of Alaska cruise starts in Whittier (Anchorage) and also passes through southeast Alaska's Inside Passage.

The cruise ship industry became prominent in the 1960s after cruise ship entrepreneur Stanley B. McDonald repurposed a transport ship named Princess Pat, founding Princess Cruises to do leisure cruises which expanded into southeast Alaska by 1969. The TV series The Love Boat was set on a Princess cruise and featured episodes in Alaska; it also helped to popularize cruising generally which helped it grow rapidly between 1977 and 1987.

Prior to Princess cruises, Chuck West created a tourism agency in 1947 under the name Arctic Alaska Tours which was renamed Westours, which originally arranged trips for travelers on steamships.

History
The border between Alaska and the Canadian province of British Columbia was the subject of the Alaska boundary dispute, where the United States and the United Kingdom claimed different borderlines at the Alaskan panhandle. While the British foreign affairs were in favor of support of the Canadian argument, the event resulted in what was thought of as a betrayal, leading to alienation of the British from the new nation of Canada.

Transportation

Due to the extremely rugged, mountainous nature of Southeastern Alaska, almost all communities (with the exception of Hyder, Skagway, and Haines) have no road connections outside of their locale, so aircraft and boats are the major means of transport. The Alaska Marine Highway passes through this region.

Air transportation
Alaska Airlines is by far the largest air carrier in the region, with Juneau's Juneau International Airport serving as the aerial hub for all of southeast, and Ketchikan's Ketchikan International Airport serving as a secondary hub for southern southeast Alaska. Alaska's bush airlines and air taxis serve many of the smaller and more isolated communities and villages in the regions. Many communities are accessible by air only by floatplane, as proper runways are often difficult to construct on the steep island slopes.

Marine transportation
Southeast Alaska is primarily served by the state-run Alaska Marine Highway, which links Skagway, Haines, Hoonah, Juneau, Sitka, Petersburg, Wrangell, Ketchikan and other outlying communities with Prince Rupert, BC and Bellingham, Washington; and secondarily by the Prince of Wales Island-based Inter-Island Ferry Authority, which provides the only scheduled passenger and auto ferry service to the island. A new Authority, the Rainforest Islands Ferry Authority, was created and in 2014 may possibly operate the North End route. The Authority would connect Coffman Cove with Wrangell and Petersburg. Small companies like Sitka-based Allen Marine and other independent operators in the Lynn Canal occasionally also offer marine passenger service. Ship traffic in the area is seasonally busy with cruise ships.

title: Southeast Alaska


text:
Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad

The Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad is an independent student magazine for the Radboud University Nijmegen. Founded in 1985 by members of the local student union AKKU, it is now published by the Stichting Multimedia.

Notable publications and controversies
In 1989 ANS started to publish the monthly comic strip DirkJan, before it moved to SjoSji. The magazine has published controversial articles that attracted nation-wide media attention, such as on the benefits of marihuana consumption for studying. In 2010 the University refused to distribute the magazine among freshmen because it did not endorse the editorial.

title: Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad


text:
Interior Alaska

Interior Alaska is the central region of Alaska's territory, roughly bounded by the Alaska Range to the south and the Brooks Range to the north. It is largely wilderness. Mountains include Denali in the Alaska Range, the Wrangell Mountains, and the Ray Mountains. The native people of the interior are Alaskan Athabaskans. The largest city in the interior is Fairbanks, Alaska's second-largest city, in the Tanana Valley. Other towns include North Pole, just southeast of Fairbanks, Eagle, Tok, Glennallen, Delta Junction, Nenana, Anderson, Healy and Cantwell. The interior region has an estimated population of 113,154.

Climate

Interior Alaska experiences extreme seasonal temperature variability. Winter temperatures in Fairbanks average −12 °F (−24 °C) and summer temperatures average +62 °F (+17 °C). Temperatures there have been recorded as low as −65 °F (−54 °C) in mid-winter, and as high as +99 °F (+37 °C) in summer. Both the highest and lowest temperature records for the state were set in the Interior, with 100 °F (38 °C) in Fort Yukon and −80 °F (−62 °C) in Prospect Creek. Temperatures within a given winter are highly variable as well; extended cold snaps of forty below zero can be followed by unseasonable warmth with temperatures above freezing due to chinook wind effects.

Summers can be warm and dry for extended periods creating ideal fire weather conditions. Weak thunderstorms produce mostly dry lightning, sparking wildfires that are mostly left to burn themselves out as they are often far from populated areas. The 2004 season set a new record with over 6600000 acre burned. The average annual precipitation in Fairbanks is 11.3 inches (287 mm). Most of this comes in the form of snow during the winter. Most storms in the interior of Alaska originate in the Gulf of Alaska, south of the state, though these storms often have limited precipitation due to a rain shadow effect caused by the Alaska Range.

On clear winter nights, the aurora borealis can often be seen in the sky. Like all subarctic regions, the months from May to July in the summer have no night, only a twilight during the night hours. The months of November to January have little daylight. Fairbanks receives an average 21 hours of daylight between May 10 and August 2 each summer, and an average of less than four hours of daylight between November 18 and January 24 each winter.

The interior of Alaska is largely underlined by discontinuous permafrost, which grades to continuous permafrost as the Arctic Circle is approached.

Alaska Natives
While the vast majority of indigenous Native people of Interior Alaska are Athabaskan, large Yup'ik and Iñupiaq populations reside in Fairbanks.

The federally recognized tribes of Interior Alaska:
 * Council of Athabascan Tribal Governments (CATG): Beaver Village, Birch Creek Tribe, Circle Native Community, Native Village of Fort Yukon, Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government (also known as Arctic Village and Village of Venetie).
 * Tanana Chiefs Conference (TCC): Allakaket Village, Alatna Village, Village of Anaktuvuk Pass, Chalkyitsik Village, Village of Dot Lake, Native Village of Eagle, Evansville Village (also known as Bettles Field), Galena Village (also known as Louden Village), Healy Lake Village, Hughes Village, Huslia Village, Village of Kaltag, Koyukuk Native Village, Manley Hot Springs Village, Native Village of Minto, Nenana Native Association, Nikolai Village (Edzeno’ Native Council), Northway Village, Nulato Village, Rampart Village, Native Village of Ruby, Native Village of Stevens, Native Village of Tanacross, Telida Village, Native Village of Tetlin.
 * Tanana Tribal Council: Native Village of Tanana.
 * Other places in the Interior Service Area not Federally Recognized as Tribes: Alcan, Anderson, Big Delta, Canyon Village, Central, Chatanika, Chicken, Clear, Delta Junction, Fairbanks, Fox, Indian River, Kokrines, Lake Minchumina, Medfra, North Pole, Salcha, Tok, Toklat, Tolovana, Wiseman, Wood River.

title: Interior Alaska