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Infinitive

Infinitive (abbreviated ) is a linguistics term for certain verb forms existing in many languages, most often used as non-finite verbs. As with many linguistic concepts, there is not a single definition applicable to all languages. The name is derived from Late Latin [modus] infinitivus, a derivative of infinitus meaning "unlimited".

In traditional descriptions of English, the infinitive is the basic dictionary form of a verb when used non-finitely, with or without the particle to. Thus to go is an infinitive, as is go in a sentence like "I must go there" (but not in "I go there", where it is a finite verb). The form without to is called the bare infinitive, and the form with to is called the full infinitive or to-infinitive.

In many other languages the infinitive is a distinct single word, often with a characteristic inflective ending, like cantar ("[to] sing") in Portuguese, morir ("[to] die") in Spanish, manger ("[to] eat") in French, portare ("[to] carry") in Latin and Italian, lieben ("[to] love") in German, читать (chitat', "[to] read") in Russian, etc. However, some languages have no infinitive forms. Many Native American languages, Arabic, Asian languages such as Japanese, and some languages in Africa and Australia do not have direct equivalents to infinitives or verbal nouns. Instead, they use finite verb forms in ordinary clauses or various special constructions.

Being a verb, an infinitive may take objects and other complements and modifiers to form a verb phrase (called an infinitive phrase). Like other non-finite verb forms (like participles, converbs, gerunds and gerundives), infinitives do not generally have an expressed subject; thus an infinitive verb phrase also constitutes a complete non-finite clause, called an infinitive (infinitival) clause. Such phrases or clauses may play a variety of roles within sentences, often being nouns (for example being the subject of a sentence or being a complement of another verb), and sometimes being adverbs or other types of modifier. Many verb forms known as infinitives differ from gerunds (verbal nouns) in that they do not inflect for case or occur in adpositional phrases. Instead, infinitives often originate in earlier inflectional forms of verbal nouns. Unlike finite verbs, infinitives are not usually inflected for tense, person, etc. either, although some degree of inflection sometimes occurs; for example Latin has distinct active and passive infinitives.

Phrases and clauses
An infinitive phrase is a verb phrase constructed with the verb in infinitive form. This consists of the verb together with its objects and other complements and modifiers. Some examples of infinitive phrases in English are given below – these may be based on either the full infinitive (introduced by the particle to) or the bare infinitive (without the particle to).
 * (to) sleep
 * (to) write ten letters
 * (to) go to the store for a pound of sugar

Infinitive phrases often have an implied grammatical subject making them effectively clauses rather than phrases. Such infinitive clauses or infinitival clauses, are one of several kinds of non-finite clause. They can play various grammatical roles like a constituent of a larger clause or sentence; for example it may form a noun phrase or adverb. Infinitival clauses may be embedded within each other in complex ways, like in the sentence: Here the infinitival clause to get married is contained within the finite dependent clause that John Welborn is going to get married to Blair; this in turn is contained within another infinitival clause, which is contained in the finite independent clause (the whole sentence).
 * I want to tell you that John Welborn is going to get married to Blair.

The grammatical structure of an infinitival clause may differ from that of a corresponding finite clause. For example, in German, the infinitive form of the verb usually goes to the end of its clause, whereas a finite verb (in an independent clause) typically comes in second position.

Clauses with implicit subject in the objective case
Following certain verbs or prepositions, infinitives commonly do have an implicit subject, e.g., As these examples illustrate, the implicit subject of the infinitive occurs in the objective case (them, him) in contrast to the nominative case that occurs with a finite verb, e.g., "They ate their dinner." Such accusative and infinitive constructions are present in Latin and Ancient Greek, as well as many modern languages. The atypical case regarding the implicit subject of an infinitive is an example of exceptional case-marking. As shown in the above examples, the object of the transitive verb "want" and the preposition "for" allude to their respective pronouns' subjective role within the clauses.
 * I want to eat them as dinner.
 * For him to fail now would be a disappointment.

Marking for tense, aspect and voice
In some languages, infinitives may be marked for grammatical categories like voice, aspect, and to some extent tense. This may be done by inflection, as with the Latin perfect and passive infinitives, or by periphrasis (with the use of auxiliary verbs), as with the Latin future infinitives or the English perfect and progressive infinitives.

Latin has present, perfect and future infinitives, with active and passive forms of each. For details see.

English has infinitive constructions that are marked (periphrastically) for aspect: perfect, progressive (continuous), or a combination of the two (perfect progressive). These can also be marked for passive voice (as can the plain infinitive): Further constructions can be made with other auxiliary-like expressions, like (to) be going to eat or (to) be about to eat, which have future meaning. For more examples of the above types of construction, see.
 * (to) eat (plain infinitive, active)
 * (to) be eaten (passive)
 * (to) have eaten (perfect active)
 * (to) have been eaten (perfect passive)
 * (to) be eating (progressive active)
 * (to) be being eaten (progressive passive)
 * (to) have been eating (perfect progressive active)
 * (to) have been being eaten (perfect progressive passive, not often used)

Perfect infinitives are also found in other European languages that have perfect forms with auxiliaries similarly to English. For example, avoir mangé means "(to) have eaten" in French.

English
The term "infinitive" is traditionally applied to the unmarked form of the verb (the "plain form") when it forms a non-finite verb, whether or not introduced by the particle to. Hence sit and to sit, as used in the following sentences, would each be considered an infinitive:
 * I can sit here all day.
 * I want to sit on the other chair.

The form without to is called the bare infinitive; the form introduced by to is called the full infinitive or to-infinitive.

The other non-finite verb forms in English are the gerund or present participle (the -ing form), and the past participle – these are not considered infinitives. Moreover, the unmarked form of the verb is not considered an infinitive when it forms a finite verb: like a present indicative ("I sit every day"), subjunctive ("I suggest that he sit"), or imperative ("Sit down!"). (For some irregular verbs the form of the infinitive coincides additionally with that of the past tense and/or past participle, like in the case of put.)

Certain auxiliary verbs are modal verbs (such as can, must, etc., which defective verbs lacking an infinitive form or any truly inflected non-finite form) are complemented by a bare infinitive verb. periphrastic items, such as (1) had better or ought to as substitutes for should, (2) used to as a substitute for did, and (3) (to) be able to for can, are similarly complemented by a bare infinitive verb. Infinitives are negated by simply preceding them with not. Of course the verb do, when complementing a finite verb, occurs as an infinitive. However, the auxiliary verbs have (used to form the perfect) and be (used to form the passive voice and continuous aspect) often occur as an infinitive: "I should have finished by now"; "It's thought to have been a burial site"; "Let him be released"; "I hope to be working tomorrow."

Huddleston and Pullum's Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (2002) does not use the notion of the "infinitive" ("there is no form in the English verb paradigm called 'the infinitive'"), only that of the infinitival clause, noting that English uses the same form of the verb, the plain form, in infinitival clauses that it uses in imperative and present-subjunctive clauses.

A matter of controversy among prescriptive grammarians and style writers has been the appropriateness of separating the two words of the to-infinitive (as in "I expect to happily sit here"). For details of this, see split infinitive. Opposing linguistic theories typically do not consider the to-infinitive a distinct constituent, instead regarding the scope of the particle to as an entire verb phrase; thus, to buy a car is parsed like  to [buy [a car]] , not like  [to buy] [a car] .

Uses of the infinitive
The bare infinitive and the to-infinitive have a variety of uses in English. The two forms are mostly in complementary distribution – certain contexts call for one, and certain contexts for the other; they are not normally interchangeable, except in occasional instances like after the verb help, where either can be used.

The main uses of infinitives (or infinitive phrases) are varied:
 * Complementing the dummy auxiliary do, e.g., "I do like coffee but I don't care for tea."
 * In a bare infinitive form as an object complement, i.e.
 * to complement a modal auxiliary verb, "I can't breathe" or "I can see clearly now.'''
 * to complement a direct object that –
 * a. follows a verb of perception such as see, watch or hear, e.g. "We saw it fall" or "I can hear the birds sing."
 * b. follows a verb of causation such as make, bid, or have, e.g. "Make it stop or "We'll have them call you."
 * c. follows a verb of permission, e.g. "Let me ask you something."

 * As a bare infinitive that comprises a phrase rendered in the vestigial permissive mood, e.g. "Let it be."
 * As a bare infinitive that comprises a phrase rendered as a hortative utterance, e.g. "Let's leave."
 * As complements of certain fossil phrases such as had better and would rather (with bare infinitive), in order to, as if to, am to/is to/are to.
 * As a noun phrase, expressing its action or state in an abstract, general way that functions, e.g. as –
 * the subject of a clause: "To err is human" or "To know me is to love me."
 * the object of a predicative expression: "What you should do is make a list" or "To know me is to love me".

 * Adverbially:
 * to express purpose, intent or result, as the to-infinitive can have the meaning of in order to, e.g. "I closed the door [in order] to block out any noise."
 * to characterize and adjective, e.g., "keen to get on" or "nice to listen to".

 * Adjectivally, characterizing a noun, e.g. "a request to see someone" or "the method to use."
 * In elliptical questions (direct or indirect): "I don't know where to go."
 * In sentence fragment that constitutes an interrogative –
 * the bare infinitive is used after why, e.g., "Why reveal it?"
 * the to- infinitive is used:
 * a. after whom, e.g., "Whom to believe?"
 * b. after what, e.g., "What to do?"
 * c. after when, e.g., "When to surrender?"
 * d. after where, e.g., "Where to go?"
 * e. after how, e.g., "How to know?"

The infinitive typically is the dictionary form or citation form of a verb. The form listed in a dictionary entry is the bare infinitive, but the to-infinitive is often used when defining other verbs, e.g.
 *  amble (verb)
 * abled; ambling
 * intransitive verb
 * to walk slowly
 * to stroll without a particular aim

For further detail and examples of the uses of infinitives in English, see Bare infinitive and To-infinitive in the article on uses of English verb forms.

Other Germanic languages
The original Proto-Germanic ending of the infinitive was -an, with verbs derived from other words ending in -jan or -janan.

In German it is -en ("sagen"), with -eln or -ern endings on a few words based on -l or -r roots ("segeln", "ändern"). The use of zu with infinitives is similar to English to, but is less frequent than in English. German infinitives can form nouns, often expressing abstractions of the action, in which case they are of neuter gender: das Essen means the eating, but also the food.

In Dutch infinitives also end in -en (zeggen — to say), sometimes used with te similar to English to, e.g., "Het is niet moeilijk te begrijpen" → "It is not hard to understand." The few verbs with stems ending in -a have infinitives in -n (gaan — to go, slaan — to hit). Afrikaans has lost the distinction between the infinitive and present forms of verbs, with the exception of the verbs "wees" (to be), which admits the present form "is", and the verb "hê" (to have), whose present form is "het".

In North Germanic languages the final -n was lost from the infinitive as early as 500–540 AD, reducing the suffix to -a. Later it has been further reduced to -e in Danish and some Norwegian dialects (including the written majority language bokmål). In the majority of Eastern Norwegian dialects and a few bordering Western Swedish dialects the reduction to -e was only partial, leaving some infinitives in -a and others in -e (å laga vs. å kaste). In northern parts of Norway the infinitive suffix is completely lost (å lag’ vs. å kast’) or only the -a is kept (å laga vs. å kast’). The infinitives of these languages are inflected for passive voice through the addition of -s or -st to the active form. This suffix appeared in Old Norse as a contraction of mik (“me”, forming -mk) or sik (reflexive pronoun, forming -sk) and originally expressed reflexive actions: (hann) kallar (“[he] calls”) + -sik (“himself”) > (hann) kallask (“[he] calls himself”). The suffixes -mk and -sk later merged into -s, which evolved to -st in the western dialects. The loss or reduction of -a in the active voice in Norwegian did not occur in the passive forms (-ast, -as), except for some dialects that have -es. The other North Germanic languages have the same vowel in both forms.

Latin and Romance languages
The formation of the infinitive in the Romance languages reflects that in their ancestor, Latin, almost all verbs had an infinitive ending with -re (preceded by one of various thematic vowels). For example, in Italian infinitives end in -are, -ere, -rre (rare), or -ire (which is still identical to the Latin forms), and in -arsi, -ersi, -rsi, -irsi for the reflexive forms. In Spanish and Portuguese, infinitives end in -ar, -er, or -ir (Spanish also has reflexive forms in -arse, -erse, -irse), while similarly in French they typically end in -re, -er, oir, and -ir. In Romanian, both short and long-form infinitives exist; the so-called "long infinitives" end in -are, -ere, -ire and in modern speech are used exclusively as verbal nouns, while there are a few verbs that cannot be converted into the nominal long infinitive. The "short infinitives" used in verbal contexts (e.g., after an auxiliary verb) have the endings -a,-ea, -e, and -i (basically removing the ending in "-re"). In Romanian, the infinitive is usually replaced by a clause containing the conjunction să plus the subjunctive mood. The only verb that is modal in common modern Romanian is the verb a putea, to be able to. However, in popular speech the infinitive after a putea is also increasingly replaced by the subjunctive.

In all Romance languages, infinitives can also form nouns.

Latin infinitives challenged several of the generalizations about infinitives. They did inflect for voice (amare, "to love", amari, to be loved) and for tense (amare, "to love", amavisse, "to have loved"), and allowed for an overt expression of the subject (video Socratem currere, "I see Socrates running"). See.

Romance languages inherited from Latin the possibility of an overt expression of the subject (as in Italian vedo Socrate correre). Moreover, the "inflected infinitive" (or "personal infinitive") found in Portuguese and Galician inflects for person and number. These, alongside Sardinian, are the only Indo-European languages that allow infinitives to take person and number endings. This helps to make infinitive clauses very common in these languages; for example, the English finite clause in order that you/she/we have... would be translated to Portuguese like para teres/ela ter/termos... (Portuguese is a null-subject language). The Portuguese personal infinitive has no proper tenses, only aspects (imperfect and perfect), but tenses can be expressed using periphrastic structures. For instance, "even though you sing/have sung/are going to sing" could be translated to "apesar de cantares/teres cantado/ires cantar".

Other Romance languages (including Spanish, Romanian, Catalan, and some Italian dialects) allow uninflected infinitives to combine with overt nominative subjects. For example, Spanish al abrir yo los ojos ("when I opened my eyes") or sin yo saberlo ("without my knowing about it").

Ancient Greek
In Ancient Greek the infinitive has four tenses (present, future, aorist, perfect) and three voices (active, middle, passive). Present and perfect have the same infinitive for both middle and passive, while future and aorist have separate middle and passive forms.

Thematic verbs form present active infinitives by adding to the stem the thematic vowel -ε- and the infinitive ending -εν, and contracts to -ειν, e.g., παιδεύ-ειν. Athematic verbs, and perfect actives and aorist passives, add the suffix -ναι instead, e.g., διδό-ναι. In the middle and passive, the present middle infinitive ending is -σθαι, e.g., δίδο-σθαι and most tenses of thematic verbs add an additional -ε- between the ending and the stem, e.g., παιδεύ-ε-σθαι.

Modern Greek
The infinitive per se does not exist in Modern Greek. To see this, consider the ancient Greek ἐθέλω γράφειν “I want to write”. In modern Greek this becomes θέλω να γράψω “I want that I write”. In modern Greek, the infinitive has thus changed form and function and is used mainly in the formation of periphrastic tense forms and not with an article or alone. Instead of the Ancient Greek infinitive system γράφειν, γράψειν, γράψαι, γεγραφέναι, Modern Greek uses only the form γράψει, a development of the ancient Greek aorist infinitive γράψαι. This form is also invariable. The modern Greek infinitive has only two forms according to voice: for example, γράψει for the active voice and γραφ(τ)εί for the passive voice (coming from the ancient passive aorist infinitive γραφῆναι).

Balto-Slavic languages
The infinitive in Russian usually ends in -t’ (ть) preceded by a thematic vowel, or -ti (ти), if not preceded by one; some verbs have a stem ending in a consonant and change the t to č’, like *mogt’ → moč’ (*могть → мочь) "can". Some other Balto-Slavic languages have the infinitive typically ending in, for example, -ć (sometimes -c) in Polish, -ť in Slovak, -t (formerly -ti) in Czech and Latvian (with a handful ending in -s on the latter), -ty (-ти) in Ukrainian, -ць (-ts') in Belarusian. Lithuanian infinitives end in -ti, Serbo-Croatian in -ti or -ći, and Slovenian in -ti or -či.

Serbian officially retains infinitives -ti or -ći, but is more flexible than the other Slavic languages in breaking the infinitive through a clause. The infinitive nevertheless remains the dictionary form.

Bulgarian and Macedonian have lost the infinitive altogether except in a handful of frozen expressions where it is the same as the 3rd person singular aorist form. Almost all expressions where an infinitive may be used in Bulgarian are listed here; neverthess in all cases a subordinate clause is the more usual form. For that reason, the present first-person singular conjugation is the dictionary form in Bulgarian, while Macedonian uses the third person singular form of the verb in present tense.

Hebrew
Hebrew has two infinitives, the infinitive absolute (המקור המוחלט) and the infinitive construct (המקור הנטוי or שם הפועל). The infinitive construct is used after prepositions and is inflected with pronominal endings to indicate its subject or object: בכתוב הסופר bikhtōbh hassōphēr "when the scribe wrote", אחרי לכתו ahare lekhtō "after his going". When the infinitive construct is preceded by (lə-, li-, lā-, lo-) "to", it has a similar meaning to the English to-infinitive, and this is its most frequent use in Modern Hebrew. The infinitive absolute is used for verb focus and emphasis, like in mōth yāmūth (literally "a dying he will die"; figuratively, "he shall indeed/surely die"). This usage is commonplace in the Hebrew Bible. In Modern Hebrew it is restricted to high-register literary works.

Note, however, that the Hebrew to-infinitive is not the dictionary form; instead, verbs are traditionally cited in the third-person masculine singular of the suffix conjugation (Modern Hebrew past tense), which is the least marked form.

Finnish
The Finnish grammatical tradition includes many non-finite forms that are generally labeled as (numbered) infinitives although many of these are functionally converbs. To form the so-called first infinitive, the strong form of the root (without consonant gradation or epenthetic 'e') is used, and these changes occur:
 * 1) the root is suffixed with -ta/-tä according to vowel harmony
 * 2) consonant elision takes place if applicable, e.g., juoks+ta → juosta
 * 3) assimilation of clusters violating sonority hierarchy if applicable, e.g., nuol+ta → nuolla, sur+ta → surra
 * 4) 't' weakens to 'd' after diphthongs, e.g., juo+ta → juoda
 * 5) 't' elides if intervocalic, e.g., kirjoitta+ta → kirjoittaa

As such, it is inconvenient for dictionary use, because the imperative would be closer to the root word. Nevertheless, dictionaries use the first infinitive.

There are also four other infinitives, plus a "long" form of the first: Note that all of these must change to reflect vowel harmony, so the fifth infinitive (with a third-person suffix) of hypätä "jump" is hyppäämäisillään "he was about to jump", not *hyppäämaisillaan.
 * The long first infinitive is -kse- and must have a personal suffix appended to it. It has the general meaning of "in order to [do something], e.g., kirjoittaakseni "in order for me to write [something]".
 * The second infinitive is formed by replacing the final -a/-ä of the first infinitive with e. It can take the inessive and instructive cases to create forms like kirjoittaessa "while writing".
 * The third infinitive is formed by adding -ma to the first infinitive, which alone creates an "agent" form: kirjoita- becomes kirjoittama. The third infinitive is technically a noun (denoting the act of performing some verb), so case suffixes identical to those attached to ordinary Finnish nouns allow for other expressions using the third infinitive, e.g., kirjoittamalla "by writing".
 * A personal suffix can then be added to this form to indicate the agent participle, such that kirjoittamani kirja = "The book that I wrote."
 * The fourth infinitive adds -minen to the first to form a noun that has the connotation of "the process of [doing something]", e.g., kirjoittaminen "[the process of] writing". It, too, can be inflected like other Finnish nouns that end in -nen.
 * The fifth infinitive adds -maisilla- to the first, and like the long first infinitive, must take a possessive suffix. It has to do with being "about to [do something]" and may also imply that the act was cut off or interrupted, e.g., kirjoittamaisillasi "you were about to write [but something interrupted you]". This form is more commonly replaced by the third infinitive in adessive case, usually also with a possessive suffix (thus kirjoittamallasi).

Seri
The Seri language of northwestern Mexico has infinitival forms used in two constructions (with the verb meaning 'want' and with the verb meaning 'be able'). The infinitive is formed by adding a prefix to the stem: either iha- (plus a vowel change of certain vowel-initial stems) if the complement clause is transitive, or ica-  (and no vowel change) if the complement clause is intransitive. The infinitive shows agreement in number with the controlling subject. Examples are: icatax ihmiimzo 'I want to go', where icatax is the singular infinitive of the verb 'go' (singular root is -atax), and icalx hamiimcajc 'we want to go', where icalx is the plural infinitive. Examples of the transitive infinitive: ihaho 'to see it/him/her/them' (root -aho), and ihacta 'to look at it/him/her/them' (root -oocta).

Translation to languages without an infinitive
In languages without an infinitive, the infinitive is translated either as a that-clause or as a verbal noun. For example, in Literary Arabic the sentence "I want to write a book" is translated as either urīdu an aktuba kitāban (lit. "I want that I write a book", with a verb in the subjunctive mood) or urīdu kitābata kitābin (lit. "I want the writing of a book", with the masdar or verbal noun), and in Levantine Colloquial Arabic biddi aktub kitāb (subordinate clause with verb in subjunctive).

Even in languages that have infinitives, similar constructions are sometimes necessary where English would allow the infinitive. For example, in French the sentence "I want you to come" translates to Je veux que vous veniez (lit. "I want that you come", come being in the subjunctive mood). However, "I want to come" is simply Je veux venir, using the infinitive, just as in English. In Russian, sentences such as "I want you to leave" do not use an infinitive. Rather, they use the conjunction чтобы "in order to/so that" with the past tense form (most probably remnant of subjunctive) of the verb: Я хочу, чтобы вы ушли (literally, "I want so that you left").

title: Infinitive


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Immaculate Conception

The Immaculate Conception is the belief that the Virgin Mary was free of original sin from the moment of her conception. It is one of the four Marian dogmas of the Catholic Church. Debated by medieval theologians, it was not defined as a dogma until 1854, by Pope Pius IX in the papal bull Ineffabilis Deus. While the Immaculate Conception asserts Mary's freedom from original sin, the Council of Trent, held between 1545 and 1563, had previously affirmed her freedom from personal sin.

The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature, but its abstract nature meant it was late in appearing as a subject in works of art. The iconography of Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception shows Mary standing, with arms outstretched or hands clasped in prayer. The feast day of the Immaculate Conception is December 8.

Many Protestant churches rejected the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception as unscriptural, though some Anglicans accept it as a pious devotion. Opinions on the Immaculate Conception in Oriental Orthodoxy are divided: Shenouda III, Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church, and the Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I of the Syriac Orthodox Church opposed the teaching, while the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church accept it.

Anne, mother of Mary, and original sin
Anne, the mother of Mary, first appears in the 2nd-century apocryphal Gospel of James, and the author created his story by drawing on Greek tales of the childhood of heroes and on the Old Testament story of Hannah (hence the name Anna/Anne), the mother of the biblical Samuel. Anne and her husband, Joachim, are infertile, but God hears their prayers and Mary is conceived. According to Stephen J. Shoemaker, within the Gospel of James, the conception occurs without sexual intercourse between Anne and Joachim, which fits well with the Gospel of James' persistent emphasis on Mary's sacred purity, but the story does not advance the idea of an immaculate conception. The author of the Gospel of James may have based this account of Mary's conception on that of John the Baptist as recounted in the Gospel of Luke. The Eastern Orthodox Church holds that "Mary is conceived by her parents as we are all conceived".

Church Fathers
According to church historian Frederick Holweck, writing in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Cyril of Jerusalem developed the idea of Mary as the New Eve, drawing comparison to Eve, while yet immaculate and incorrupt – that is to say, not subject to original sin. Holweck adds that Ephrem the Syrian said she was as innocent as Eve before the Fall.

Ambrose asserted Mary's incorruptibility, attributing her virginity to grace and immunity from sin. Severus, Bishop of Antioch, concurred affirming Mary's purity and immaculateness. John Damascene extended the supernatural influence of God to Mary's parents, suggesting they were purified by the Holy Spirit during her generation. According to Damascene, even the material of Mary's origin was deemed pure and holy. This perspective, which emphasized an immaculate active generation and the sanctity of the conceptio carnis, found resonance among some Western authors. Notably, the Greek Fathers did not explicitly discuss the Immaculate Conception.

Medieval formulation

By the 4th century the idea that Mary was free from sin was generally more widespread, but original sin raised the question of whether she was also free of the sin passed down from Adam. The question became acute when the feast of her conception began to be celebrated in England in the 11th century, and the opponents of the feast of Mary's conception brought forth the objection that as sexual intercourse is sinful, to celebrate Mary's conception was to celebrate a sinful event. The feast of Mary's conception originated in the Eastern Church in the 7th century, reached England in the 11th, and from there spread to Europe, where it was given official approval in 1477 and extended to the whole church in 1693; the word "immaculate" was not officially added to the name of the feast until 1854.

The doctrine of the Immaculate Conception caused a virtual civil war between Franciscans and Dominicans during the Middle Ages, with Franciscan 'Scotists' in its favour and Dominican 'Thomists' against it. The English ecclesiastic and scholar Eadmer (c. 1060) reasoned that it was possible that Mary was conceived without original sin in view of God's omnipotence, and that it was also appropriate in view of her role as Mother of God: Potuit, decuit, fecit, "it was possible, it was fitting, therefore it was done". Others, including Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), objected that if Mary were free of original sin at her conception then she would have no need of redemption, making Christ's saving redemption superfluous; they were answered by Duns Scotus (1264–1308), who "developed the idea of preservative redemption as being a more perfect one: to have been preserved free from original sin was a greater grace than to be set free from sin". In 1439, the Council of Basel, in schism with Pope Eugene IV who resided at the Council of Florence, declared the Immaculate Conception a "pious opinion" consistent with faith and Scripture; the Council of Trent, held in several sessions in the early 1500s, made no explicit declaration on the subject but exempted her from the universality of original sin; and also affirmed that she remained during all her life free from all stain of sin, even the venial one.; by 1571 the revised Roman Breviary set out an elaborate celebration of the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on 8 December.

Popular devotion and Ineffabilis Deus
The eventual creation of the dogma was due more to popular devotion than scholarship. The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature and art, and some devotees went so far as to hold that Anne had conceived Mary by kissing her husband Joachim, and that Anne's father and grandmother had likewise been conceived without sexual intercourse, although Bridget of Sweden (c. 1303–1373) told how Mary herself had revealed to her that Anne and Joachim conceived their daughter through a sexual union which was sinless because it was pure and free of sexual lust.

In the 16th and especially the 17th centuries there was a proliferation of Immaculatist devotion in Spain, leading the Habsburg monarchs to demand that the papacy elevate the belief to the status of dogma. In France in 1830 Catherine Labouré (May 2, 1806 – December 31, 1876) saw a vision of Mary standing on a globe while a voice commanded her to have a medal made in imitation of what she saw. The medal said "O Mary, conceived without sin, pray for us who have recourse to thee", which was a confirmation of Mary herself that she was conceived without sin, confirming the Immaculate Conception. Her vision marked the beginning of a great 19th-century Marian revival.

In 1849 Pope Pius IX issued the encyclical Ubi primum soliciting the bishops of the church for their views on whether the doctrine should be defined as dogma; ninety percent of those who responded were supportive, although the Archbishop of Paris, Marie-Dominique-Auguste Sibour, warned that the Immaculate Conception "could be proved neither from the Scriptures nor from tradition". In 1854 the Immaculate Conception dogma was proclaimed with the bull Ineffabilis Deus.

"We declare, pronounce, and define that the doctrine which holds that the most Blessed Virgin Mary, in the first instance of her conception, by a singular grace and privilege granted by Almighty God, in view of the merits of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the human race, was preserved free from all stain of original sin, is a doctrine revealed by God and therefore to be believed firmly and constantly by all the faithful." Dom Prosper Guéranger, Abbot of Solesmes Abbey, who had been one of the main promoters of the dogmatic statement, wrote Mémoire sur l'Immaculée Conception, explaining what he saw as its basis: "For the belief to be defined as a dogma of faith [...] it is necessary that the Immaculate Conception form part of Revelation, expressed in Scripture or Tradition, or be implied in beliefs previously defined. Needed, afterward, is that it be proposed to the faith of the faithful through the teaching of the ordinary magisterium. Finally, it is necessary that it be attested by the liturgy, and the Fathers and Doctors of the Church." Guéranger maintained that these conditions were met and that the definition was therefore possible. Ineffabilis Deus found the Immaculate Conception in the Ark of Salvation (Noah's Ark), Jacob's Ladder, the Burning Bush at Sinai, the Enclosed Garden from the Song of Songs, and many more passages. From this wealth of support the pope's advisors singled out Genesis 3:15: "The most glorious Virgin ... was foretold by God when he said to the serpent: 'I will put enmity between you and the woman, a prophecy which reached fulfilment in the figure of the Woman in the Revelation of John, crowned with stars and trampling the Dragon underfoot. Luke 1:28, and specifically the phrase "full of grace" by which Gabriel greeted Mary, was another reference to her Immaculate Conception: "she was never subject to the curse and was, together with her Son, the only partaker of perpetual benediction".

Ineffabilis Deus was one of the pivotal events of the papacy of Pius, pope from 16 June 1846 to his death on 7 February 1878. Four years after the proclamation of the dogma, in 1858, the young Bernadette Soubirous said that Mary appeared to her at Lourdes in southern France, to announce that she was the Immaculate Conception; the Catholic Church later endorsed the apparition as authentic. There are other (approved) Marian apparitions in which Mary identified herself as the Immaculate Conception, for example Our Lady of Gietrzwald in 1877, Poland.

Feast, patronages and disputes

The feast day of the Immaculate Conception is December 8. The Roman Missal and the Roman Rite Liturgy of the Hours include references to Mary's immaculate conception in the feast of the Immaculate Conception. Its celebration seems to have begun in the Eastern church in the 7th century and may have spread to Ireland by the 8th, although the earliest well-attested record in the Western church is from England early in the 11th. It was suppressed there after the Norman Conquest (1066), and the first thorough exposition of the doctrine was a response to this suppression. It continued to spread through the 15th century despite accusations of heresy from the Thomists and strong objections from several prominent theologians. Beginning around 1140 Bernard of Clairvaux, a Cistercian monk, wrote to Lyons Cathedral to express his surprise and dissatisfaction that it had recently begun to be observed there, but in 1477 Pope Sixtus IV, a Franciscan Scotist and devoted Immaculist, placed it on the Roman calendar (i.e., list of church festivals and observances) via the bull Cum praexcelsa. Thereafter in 1481 and 1483, in response to the polemic writings of the prominent Thomist, Vincenzo Bandello, Pope Sixtus IV published two more bulls which forbade anybody to preach or teach against the Immaculate Conception, or for either side to accuse the other of heresy, on pains of excommunication. Pope Pius V kept the feast on the tridentine calendar but suppressed the word "immaculate". Gregory XV in 1622 prohibited any public or private assertion that Mary was conceived in sin. Urban VIII in 1624 allowed the Franciscans to establish a military order dedicated to the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception. Following the promulgation of Ineffabilis Deus the typically Franciscan phrase "immaculate conception" reasserted itself in the title and euchology (prayer formulae) of the feast. Pius IX solemnly promulgated a mass formulary drawn chiefly from one composed 400 years by a papal chamberlain at the behest of Sixtus IV, beginning "O God who by the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin".

Prayers and hymns
The Roman Rite liturgical books, including the Roman Missal and the Liturgy of the Hours, included offices venerating Mary's immaculate conception on the feast of the Immaculate Conception. An example is the antiphon that begins: "Tota pulchra es, Maria, et macula originalis non est in te" ("You are all beautiful, Mary, and the original stain [of sin] is not in you". It continues: "Your clothing is white as snow, and your face is like the sun. You are all beautiful, Mary, and the original stain [of sin] is not in you. You are the glory of Jerusalem, you are the joy of Israel, you give honour to our people. You are all beautiful, Mary".) On the basis of the original Gregorian chant music, polyphonic settings have been composed by Anton Bruckner, Pablo Casals, Maurice Duruflé, Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki, Ola Gjeilo, José Maurício Nunes Garcia, and Nikolaus Schapfl.

Other prayers honouring Mary's immaculate conception are in use outside the formal liturgy. The Immaculata prayer, composed by Maximillian Kolbe, is a prayer of entrustment to Mary as the Immaculata. A novena of prayers, with a specific prayer for each of the nine days has been composed under the title of the Immaculate Conception Novena.

Ave Maris Stella is the vesper hymn of the feast of the Immaculate Conception. The hymn Immaculate Mary, addressed to Mary as the Immaculately Conceived One, is closely associated with Lourdes.

Artistic representation

The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature, but its abstract nature meant it was late in appearing as a subject in art. During the Medieval period it was depicted as "Joachim and Anne Meeting at the Golden Gate", meaning Mary's conception through the chaste kiss of her parents at the Golden Gate in Jerusalem; the 14th and 15th centuries were the heyday for this scene, after which it was gradually replaced by more allegorical depictions featuring an adult Mary.

The definitive iconography for the depiction of "Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception" seems to have been finally established by the painter and theorist Francisco Pacheco in his "El arte de la pintura" of 1649: a beautiful young girl of 12 or 13, wearing a white tunic and blue mantle, rays of light emanating from her head ringed by twelve stars and crowned by an imperial crown, the sun behind her and the moon beneath her feet. Pacheco's iconography influenced other Spanish artists or artists active in Spain such as El Greco, Bartolomé Murillo, Diego Velázquez, and Francisco Zurbarán, who each produced a number of artistic masterpieces based on the use of these same symbols. The popularity of this particular representation of The Immaculate Conception spread across the rest of Europe, and has since remained the best known artistic depiction of the concept: in a heavenly realm, moments after her creation, the spirit of Mary (in the form of a young woman) looks up in awe at (or bows her head to) God. The moon is under her feet and a halo of twelve stars surround her head, possibly a reference to "a woman clothed with the sun" from Revelation 12:1–2. Additional imagery may include clouds, a golden light, and putti. In some paintings the putti are holding lilies and roses, flowers often associated with Mary.

Eastern Orthodoxy
Eastern Orthodoxy never accepted Augustine's specific ideas on original sin, and in consequence did not become involved in the later developments that took place in the Roman Catholic Church, including the Immaculate Conception, although Eastern Orthodoxy affirms Mary's purity and preservation from sin.

In 1894, when Pope Leo XIII addressed the Eastern church in his encyclical Praeclara gratulationis, Ecumenical Patriarch Anthimos, in 1895, replied with an encyclical approved by the Constantinopolitan Synod in which he stigmatised the dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and papal infallibility as "Roman novelties" and called on the Roman church to return to the faith of the early centuries. Eastern Orthodox Bishop Kallistos Ware comments that "the Latin dogma seems to us not so much erroneous as superfluous".

Oriental Orthodoxy
The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Churches believe in the Immaculate Conception of the Theotokos. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church celebrates the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on Nehasie 7 (August 13).

Old Catholics
In the mid-19th century, some Catholics who were unable to accept the doctrine of papal infallibility left the Roman Church and formed the Old Catholic Church. This movement rejects the Immaculate Conception.

Protestantism
Protestants overwhelmingly condemned the promulgation of Ineffabilis Deus as an exercise in papal power, and the doctrine itself as unscriptural, for it denied that all had sinned and rested on the Latin translation of Luke 1:28 (the "full of grace" passage) that the original Greek did not support. Protestants, therefore, teach that Mary was a sinner saved through grace, like all believers.

The Catholic–Lutheran dialogue's statement The One Mediator, the Saints, and Mary, issued in 1990 after seven years of study and discussion, conceded that Lutherans and Catholics remained separated "by differing views on matters such as the invocation of saints, the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption of Mary"; the final report of the Anglican–Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC), created in 1969 to further ecumenical progress between the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion, similarly recorded the disagreement of the Anglicans with the doctrine, although Anglo-Catholics may hold the Immaculate Conception as an optional pious belief.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Immaculate Conception


text:
Talk:Immaculate Conception

rescued material
While for some early theologians original sin was the consequence of Adam's act, for others it was Eve who was to blame, Irenaeus (born c.130) writing that "disobedient Eve" became "the cause of death, both for herself and the entire human race", and Ambrose (c.340-397) that Eve deceived Adam, while Origen (184-235) drew the lesson for all womankind: "God does not stoop to look upon what is feminine and of the flesh."

Self Claim of Immaculate Conception
In some of the Marian apparitions (like Lourdes), the Marian apparition claimed to be the Immaculate Conception. Should that be mentioned in the wiki page about this? Acdc250 (talk) 08:10, 4 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Provided these statements are sourced reliably, I think the Immaculate Conception's history in apparitions could serve a valuable role in furthering understanding of how the doctrine became doctrine. Perhaps it could be its own section. If you want help, let me know! ~ Pbritti (talk) 18:28, 4 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Another Marian apparition that St Mary claims herself to be the virgin Mary of immaculate conception is Our Lady of Gietrzwald in 1877. Acdc250 (talk) 13:51, 30 November 2022 (UTC)
 * I'll look into it! ~ Pbritti (talk) 20:15, 30 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Thanks! A related claim is that St Mary said that she is the immaculate virgin in our lady of the golden heart in Belgium around 1932 and 1933. I am not sure whether this claim implies Mary was immaculately conceived. Acdc250 (talk) 02:41, 1 December 2022 (UTC)
 * For our lady of Gietrzwald, can the catholic news and website, Aleteia, be considered as a source? You can see the article about our lady of Gietrzwald at https://aleteia.org/2017/10/18/our-lady-of-gietrzwald-polands-only-approved-marian-appearance/ Acdc250 (talk) 09:30, 10 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Aleteia is a blog aggregator and not a suitably reliable source for our citations. Elizium23 (talk) 02:28, 12 December 2022 (UTC)

Merge
The short article about the play could easily fit under "Artistic representations". Manannan67 (talk) 02:57, 17 May 2023 (UTC)
 * This kind of things should not be in broad articles, as it would be WP:TRIVIA. Thus, I oppose the merge. Veverve (talk) 04:10, 17 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Oppose as this play would likely receive a brief mention in a GA/FA version of this article. The play's article should be taken to AfD if questions of independent notability persist. ~ Pbritti (talk) 06:28, 17 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Oppose, the stand-alone page for the play works, and, per above, including it outside of maybe a 'See also' link would be trivia. Randy Kryn (talk) 12:18, 17 May 2023 (UTC)

Without any sin for all her life
"the Council of Trent, held in several sessions in the early 1500s, exempted her from the universality of original sin and also affirmed that the Virgin Mary remained during all her life free from all stain of sin, even the venial one."

Where is this WP:original research? John Paul II affirmed this on 19th June 1996, citing the Council of Trent DG 1973.

The exit corrected an error of the WP article according to which: "the Council of Trent, held in several sessions in the early 1500s, made no explicit declaration on the subject but exempted her from the universality of original sin" . . 176.200.83.11 (talk) 01:06, 8 December 2023 (UTC)

Lumen Gentium n. 56
Why the Lumen Gentium is not considered to be related to the previous topic?? It is relevant to say that not only the Council of Trent, but also the Church Fathers affirmed the preservation of the Virgin Mary from all stain of sin.

"The same concept was also affirmed by the Fathers of the Church. See Lumen Gentium, n. 56: "It is no wonder therefore that the usage prevailed among the Fathers whereby they called the mother of God entirely holy and free from all stain of sin, as though fashioned by the Holy Spirit and formed as a new creature."" 176.200.140.47 (talk) 07:39, 11 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Why Lumen Gentium is considered a "bias source"?

title: Talk:Immaculate Conception


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Islands of the North Atlantic

IONA (Islands of the North Atlantic) is an acronym suggested in 1980 by Sir John Biggs-Davison to refer to a loose linkage of the Channel Islands (Guernsey and Jersey), Great Britain (England, Scotland, and Wales), Ireland (Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland), and the Isle of Man, similar to the present day British–Irish Council. Its intended purpose was as a more politically acceptable alternative to the British Isles, which is disliked by some people in Ireland.

The neologism has been criticised on the grounds that it excludes most of the islands in the North Atlantic, and also that the only island referred to by the term that is actually in the North Atlantic Ocean is Ireland (Great Britain is in fact in between the Irish Sea and The North Sea). In the context of the Northern Irish peace process, during the negotiation of the Good Friday Agreement, IONA was unsuccessfully proposed as a neutral name for the proposed council.

One feature of this name is that IONA has the same spelling as the island of Iona which is off the coast of Scotland, but with which Irish people have strong cultural associations. It is therefore a name with which people of both main islands might identify. Taoiseach Bertie Ahern noted the symbolism in a 2006 address in Edinburgh:

"[The Island of] Iona is a powerful symbol of relationships between these islands, with its ethos of service not dominion. Iona also radiated out towards the Europe of the Dark Ages, not to mention Pagan England at Lindisfarne. The British-Irish Council is the expression of a relationship that at the origin of the Anglo-Irish process in 1981 was sometimes given the name Iona, islands of the North Atlantic, and sometimes Council of the Isles, with its evocation of the Lords of the Isles of the 14th and 15th centuries who spanned the North Channel. In the 17th century, Highland warriors and persecuted Presbyterian Ministers criss-crossed the North Channel."

In a Dáil Éireann debate, Proinsias De Rossa was less enthusiastic:

"The acronym IONA is a useful way of addressing the coming together of these two islands. However, the island of Iona is probably a green heaven in that nobody lives on it and therefore it cannot be polluted in any way."

The term IONA is used by the World Universities Debating Championship. IONA is one of the regions that appoint a representative onto the committee of the World Universities Debating Council. Greenland, the Faroe Islands and Iceland are included in the definition of IONA used in this context, while Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island are in the North American region. However, none of these islands have yet participated in the World Universities Debating Championships. Otherwise, the term has achieved very little popular usage in any context.

title: Islands of the North Atlantic


text:
Intel DX4

IntelDX4 is a clock-tripled i486 microprocessor with 16 KB level 1 cache. Intel named it DX4 (rather than DX3) as a consequence of litigation with AMD over trademarks. The product was officially named IntelDX4, but OEMs continued using the i486 naming convention.

Intel produced IntelDX4s with two clock speed steppings: A 75-MHz version (3× 25 MHz multiplier), and a 100-MHz version (3× 33.3 MHz). Both chips were released in March 1994. A version of IntelDX4 featuring write-back cache was released in October 1994. The original write-through versions of the chip are marked with a laser-embossed “&E,” while the write-back-enabled versions are marked “&EW.” i486 OverDrive editions of IntelDX4 had locked multipliers, and therefore can only run at 3× the external clock speed. The 100-MHz model of the processor had an iCOMP rating of 435, while the 75-MHz processor had a rating of 319. IntelDX4 was an OEM-only product, but the DX4 Overdrive could be purchased at a retail store.

The IntelDX4 microprocessor is mostly pin-compatible with the 80486, but requires a lower 3.3-V supply. Normal 80486 and DX2 processors use a 5-V supply; plugging a DX4 into an unmodified socket will destroy the processor. Motherboards lacking support for the 3.3-V CPUs can sometimes make use of them using a voltage regulator module (VRM) that fits between the socket and the CPU. The DX4 OverDrive CPUs have VRMs built in.

title: Intel DX4


text:
Talk:Islands of the North Atlantic

This and that
In the spirt of irreverent semantics I suggest the term The West Asian Isles, Europe is really just a sub-continent like India.

Seabhcan April 04

 * I suggest that the American continents should be named the inter-Pacific-Atlantic continents so that people are not offended by the region being called "American" (and hence clearly property of the USA). Rnt20 12:10, 10 March 2006 (UTC)

---

(The following was moved here from the main article.)
 * One problem is that in their eagerness to not trample each others' feelings they have ignored those of the inhabitants of Iceland, among other islands in the North Atlantic addressed by none of the web-links below.

It is certainly not without precedent for people to use geo-political name that encompases only part of what is literally described by the term. Other examples include "America" for the United States, "Europe" for the European Union, "Africa" for Sub-Saharan Africa. On a personal note, I am not advocating the use of the term IONA. It remains to be seen whether it ever gets used outside the particular context of Northern Ireland politics and diplomacy. However the fact that it is used at all does give weight my point that the term "British Isles" is seen by many people as problematic. --Eob

To an outsider the "anglo-centric" term would more logically have to be "the English Isles," a solipsism. But surely Greenland is one of the islands of the North Atlantic. What about St. Pierre and Miquelon? Are they not also IONAs? Wetman

Then again, Ireland isn't British but I don't see the British having any problem with calling Ireland one of their "British Isles". Odd how that particular of using the term "British Isles" can only be dated in Britain itself, and in the English language, to the seventeenth century, when the British were asserting ownership of Ireland. "Geographic" indeed. 78.16.190.97 (talk) 22:49, 18 February 2009 (UTC)

So Iona must be classed as one of the IONA! Loganberry 09:49, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)

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An early reference to IONA was in Sir John Hackett's _The Third World War_. eddieuny 18:02, 17 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Hackett's Third World War was a 1985 novel with—tellingly in this context—a fantasy military scenario. --Wetman 02:20, 18 Mar 2005 (UTC)

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Well I've never heard of IONA, and I live in them. Personally I don't see it catching on. We say the English Channel the French say La Manche... What is in a name? A rose called by any other would smell as sweet. Rednaxela 17:27, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)

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I'm Irish and I agree IONA is vague and problematic, but I really dislike the term British Isles being applied to the republic of Ireland. I personally don't see a reason why a term is needed at all, but people will continue to use one. The argument that the Romans and Greeks used a similar term has it's problems. The Romans never came here, Ireland was just that island past Britain with the bad weather. Their naming is hardly anything to go by.

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I would suggest that the most accurate name would actually be the Islands of the Irish Sea / Irish Sea Islands... Though I wonder if the English could possibly tolerate that name?

Alternatively, the Celtic Islands, given that not just Ireland, but also Scotland, Wales & the Isle of Man are Celtic, as are parts of England, such as Cornwall. 49.199.227.2 (talk) Violet — Preceding undated comment added 13:00, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

What about Dispute over the name of the British Isles ?
There are already Dispute over the name of the Persian Gulf and Dispute over the name of the Sea of Japan articles. From what I've read here, it seems this geographical naming dispute probably merits it own article as well. Please respond on Talk:British Isles--Pharos 20:03, 7 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Article overhaul
I've changed the article to reflect the sources available at Talk:British Isles/References.EricR 02:02, 22 August 2006 (UTC)

I'll wait a few days then either: EricR 17:17, 22 August 2006 (UTC)
 * 1) list on WP:RM to move to IONA or IONA (acronym)
 * 2) cut and paste the new content into IONA (get out of the way of an 'Islands of the North Atlantic' article which doesn't conflict with our sources and WP:NEO)

The Belfast Agreement was signed on the 10th of April 1998 where Strand Three uses the nomenclature British-Irish Council. This Dáil debate from th 21st of April 1998 uses IONA as an alternative for the British Isles not as a synonym for the British-Irish Council. I could find references to the world being flat - it does not make it so. Iolar Iontach 09:20, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Agree. IONA refers to the island group, not the council.  Biggs-Davison may well have wanted a 'Council of the IONA', but what we ended up with was the British-Irish Council. Bastun 10:30, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Of course the current name is 'British-Irish Council', but our sources make clear that IONA was a proposed name for the council. Biggs-Davison coined the acronym IONA for a vision similar to the the British-Irish Council. We can't simply ignore those secondary sources, one published as recently as 2005, which clearly say IONA is an acronym and suggested as the name of a council.
 * I do not disagree that there has been some usage of 'Islands of the North Atlantic' in which the speaker clearly meant the archipelago. The Dáil debate you pointed out is probably not the best example: "...reminder of the spiritual affinity which exists between the two islands..." emp. added. I seem to recal another example (also from a Dáil debate?) in which the speaker could only have meant the archipelago.
 * One of my suggestions above was to have separate pages for the acronym IONA, and the name 'Islands of the North Atlantic'. IONA would explain the acronym as a proposed name for the British-Irish council. Islands of the North Atlantic (if it can be supported by sources) would tell of the usage as a replacement of 'British Isles'. Biggs-Davision, Dennis Canavan, Peter Luff, and some of Bertie Ahern's usage of IONA would be represented in the former article.EricR 14:53, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

How many times does this have to be said? As Bastun correctly points out, IONA refers to the island group, not the council. Biggs-Davison may well have wanted a 'Council of the IONA', but what we ended up with was the British-Irish Council. IONA never was a proposed name for the British Isles Council. The article you have added in is complete mis-sourced rubbish. FearÉIREANN \(caint) 06:03, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

 * "How many times does this have to be said?" Assertions of The Truth™ not backed by reliable sources are unconvincing. Please look again at the provided sources:
 * (Coulter 2005) Sir John Biggs-Davison...suggested a loose linkage of the United Kingdom, the Republic, Isle of Man and Channel Islands to form the Islands of North Atlantic (IONA). In reality, the only political grouping representing these values...
 * (Aughey 2005) The UUP had long been interested in such an overarching Council of the British Isles and it had also been an idea that inspired British Conservatives like Sir John Biggs-Davison who had earlier coined the acronym IONA, Isles of the North Atlantic, for a similar vision
 * Denis Canavan: the concept of a Council of the Isles had been put forward by the Ulster Unionists and was referred to as a "Council for the British Isles" by David Trimble. This would cause offence to Irish colleagues; he suggested as an acronym IONA-Islands of the North Atlantic.
 * Peter Luff: In the same context, there will be a council of the isles. I think that some people are calling it IONA--the islands of the north Atlantic
 * Bertie Ahern: The British-Irish Council is the expression of a relationship that at the origin of the Anglo-Irish process in 1981 was sometimes given the name Iona, islands of the North Atlantic, and sometimes Council of the Isles
 * If anyone thinks i have taken quotes out of context, or changed meaning with the added emphasis, more text is available at Talk:British Isles/References. Do you deny the exsistence of these sources? Do you deny their plain text meaning? Or do you simply claim they are wrong?

 * I have never denied further usage of IONA as a name for the archipelago, but for inclusion in Wikipedia that information must be found in a reputable published source. If you can not find such a source, perhaps something can be made from (Kearney 1997):  "are proposing a new social geography...the 'Britannic melting pot', the 'British-Irish archipelago' or 'Islands of the North Atlantic'(IONA)..." EricR 15:01, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

 * If we cannot agree on what these sources tell us about the acronym IONA, maybe we should gather the opinions of more editors. Maybe an article RfC? Would you agree?EricR 15:05, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

Revert war
Rather than a revert per day, perhaps the editors in question might want to look for arbitration, mediation, or similar, and/or come up with a compromise text that satisfies both 'sides'? Bastun 09:49, 31 August 2006 (UTC)

Compound word to compromise
Given that British Isles is not favoured by all, why not take the first sylable from "British" and the second from "Irish" and put them together consecutively for a new name fo the Islands? Dainamo 15:23, 15 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Brirish? Itish? Brish? Don't think so... ;) — Nightst a  llion  (?) 17:37, 28 October 2006 (UTC)

Sentence improvement
To improve the readability of the last sentence in the first paragraph, I've inserted "Its intended purpose was...". I think this is better, but am happy to discuss! Kind regards, Pconlon 20:17, 23 June 2007 (GMT)

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title: Talk:Islands of the North Atlantic


text:
Iapetus (disambiguation)

Iapetus is a Titan in Greek mythology.

Iapetus may also refer to:
 * Iapetus (moon), one of the planet Saturn's moons, named for the mythological Titan
 * Iapetus Ocean, an ancient ocean between the paleocontinents Laurentia and Baltica
 * Iapetus suture, line of closure of the Iapetus Ocean

title: Iapetus (disambiguation)


text:
Interactive Fiction Competition

The Interactive Fiction Competition (also known as IFComp) is one of several annual competitions for works of interactive fiction. It has been held since 1995. It is intended for fairly short games, as judges are only allowed to spend two hours playing a game before deciding how many points to award it, but longer games are allowed entry. The competition has been described as the "Super Bowl" of interactive fiction.

Since 2016 it is operated by the Interactive Fiction Technology Foundation (IFTF).

Organization
In 2016, operation of the competition was taken over by the Interactive Fiction Technology Foundation.

The lead organizer 2014–2017 was Jason McIntosh, and in 2018 it was Jacqueline Ashwell.

Categories
Although the first competition had separate sections for Inform and TADS games, subsequent competitions have not been divided into sections and are open to games produced by any method, provided that the software used to play the game is freely available.

In addition to the main competition, the entries take part in the Miss Congeniality contest, where the participating authors vote for three games (not including their own). This was started in 1998 to distribute that year's surplus prizes; this additional contest has remained unchanged since then, even without the original reason for its existence.

There is also a 'Golden Banana of Discord' side contest; the distinction is given to the entry with scores with the highest standard deviation.

Eligibility
The competition differs from the XYZZY Awards, as authors must specifically submit games to the Interactive Fiction Competition, but all games released in the past year are eligible for the XYZZY Awards. Many games win awards in both competitions.

Judging
Anyone can judge the games. Because anyone can judge and participate in the competition, there is a rule that "All entries must cost nothing for judges to play".

Rules
The competition has rules for judges, authors and everyone to ensure that everyone agrees on the purpose, scope, and spirit of the competition.

Prizes
Anyone can donate a prize. Almost always, there are enough prizes donated that anyone who enters will get one.

Winners
The following is a list of first place winners to date:

 * 1995: Tie: A Change in the Weather by Andrew Plotkin and Uncle Zebulon's Will by Magnus Olsson
 * 1996: The Meteor, the Stone and a Long Glass of Sherbet by Graham Nelson
 * 1997: The Edifice by Lucian P. Smith
 * 1998: Photopia by Adam Cadre
 * 1999: Winter Wonderland by Laura A. Knauth
 * 2000: Kaged by Ian Finley
 * 2001: All Roads by Jon Ingold
 * 2002: Another Earth, Another Sky by Paul O'Brian
 * 2003: Slouching Towards Bedlam by Star Foster and Daniel Ravipinto
 * 2004: Luminous Horizon by Paul O'Brian
 * 2005: Vespers by Jason Devlin
 * 2006: Floatpoint by Emily Short
 * 2007: Lost Pig by Admiral Jota (writing as Grunk)
 * 2008: Violet by Jeremy Freese
 * 2009: Rover's Day Out by Jack Welch and Ben Collins-Sussman
 * 2010: Aotearoa by Matt Wigdahl
 * 2011: Taco Fiction by Ryan Veeder
 * 2012: Andromeda Apocalypse by Marco Innocenti
 * 2013: Coloratura by Lynnea Glasser
 * 2014: Hunger Daemon by Sean M. Shore
 * 2015: Brain Guzzlers from Beyond! by Steph Cherrywell
 * 2016: Detectiveland by Robin Johnson
 * 2017: The Wizard Sniffer by Buster Hudson
 * 2018: Alias "The Magpie" by J. J. Guest
 * 2019: Zozzled by Steph Cherrywell
 * 2020: Tie: The Impossible Bottle by Linus Åkesson and Tavern Crawler by Josh Labelle
 * 2021: And Then You Come to a House Not Unlike the Previous One by B.J. Best
 * 2022: The Grown-Up Detective Agency by Brendan Patrick Hennessy
 * 2023: Dr Ludwig and the Devil by SV Linwood

Only two competitors have won more than once: Paul O'Brian, winning in 2002 and 2004, and Steph Cherrywell, winning in 2015 and 2019.

Reception
A reviewer for The A.V. Club said of the 2008 competition, "Once again, the IF Competition delivers some of the best writing in games." The 2008 competition was described as containing "some real standouts both in quality of puzzles and a willingness to stretch the definition of text adventures/interactive fiction."

title: Interactive Fiction Competition


text:
Immunity

Immunity may refer to:

Medicine

 * Immunity (medical), resistance of an organism to infection or disease
 * Immunity (journal), a scientific journal published by Cell Press

Biology

 * Immune system

Engineering

 * Radiofrequence immunity describes how well an electronic circuit is protected against electromagnetic interference

Law

 * Legal immunity, the concept of a person or entity being immune from legal liability due to a special status
 * Absolute immunity, a type of immunity for government officials that confers total immunity when acting in the course of their duties
 * Amnesty law, a law that provides immunity for past crimes
 * Charitable immunity, immunity from liability granted to charities in many countries from the 19th century to the mid-20th century
 * Diplomatic immunity, agreement between sovereign governments to exclude diplomats from local laws
 * Immunity from prosecution (international law), exclusion of governments or their officials from prosecution under international law
 * Judicial immunity, immunity of a judge or magistrate in the course of their official duties
 * Parliamentary immunity, immunity granted to elected officials during their tenure and in the course of their duties
 * Qualified immunity, in the United States, immunity of individuals performing tasks as part of the government's actions
 * Sovereign immunity, the prevention of lawsuits or prosecution against rulers or governments without their given consent
 * Sovereign immunity in the United States, the legal privilege by which the American federal, state, and tribal governments cannot be sued
 * Spousal privilege, also called spousal immunity, protects a spouse from testifying against the defendant
 * State immunity, principle of international law that the government of a state is not amenable before the courts of another state
 * Witness immunity, immunity granted to a witness in exchange for testimony

Other

 * Immunity (Rupert Hine album)
 * Immunity (Jon Hopkins album)
 * Immunity (Clairo album)
 * Immunity (reality television), a condition which protects a contestant on a reality TV show from being kicked off the show in a given period
 * "Immunity", a song by Linda Perhacs from her album The Soul of All Natural Things

title: Immunity


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Inquests in England and Wales

Inquests in England and Wales are held into sudden or unexplained deaths and also into the circumstances of and discovery of a certain class of valuable artefacts known as "treasure trove". In England and Wales, inquests are the responsibility of a coroner, who operates under the jurisdiction of the Coroners and Justice Act 2009. In some circumstances where an inquest cannot view or hear all the evidence, it may be suspended and a public inquiry held with the consent of the Home Secretary.

Where an inquest is needed
There is a general duty upon every person to report a death to the coroner if an inquest is likely to be required. However, this duty is largely unenforceable in practice and the duty falls on the responsible registrar. The registrar must report a death where:
 * The deceased was not attended by a doctor during their last illness
 * The death occurred within 24 hours of admission to a hospital
 * The cause of death has not been certified by a doctor who saw the deceased after death or within the 14 days before death
 * The cause of death is unknown
 * The registrar believes that the cause of death was unnatural, caused by violence, neglect or abortion outside the exemptions of the Abortion Act 1967, or occurred in suspicious circumstances
 * Death occurred during surgery of any kind or while under anaesthetic both local and general
 * The cause of death was or was suspected to be an industrial disease
 * The death relates to public health or the general health or welfare of the public-at-large

The coroner must hold an inquest where the death is:
 * Violent or unnatural
 * Sudden and of unknown cause
 * In prison or police custody
 * Suspected to be suicide

Where the cause of death is unknown, the coroner may order a post mortem examination in order to determine whether the death was violent. If the death is found to be non-violent, an inquest is unnecessary.

In 2004 in England and Wales, there were 514,000 deaths of which 225,500 were referred to the coroner. Of those, 115,800 resulted in post-mortem examinations and there were 28,300 inquests, 570 with a jury. In 2014 the Royal College of Pathologists claimed that up to 10,000 deaths a year recorded as being from natural causes should have been investigated by inquests. They were particularly concerned about people whose death occurred as a result of medical errors. "We believe a medical examiner would have been alerted to what was going on in Mid-Staffordshire long before this long list of avoidable deaths reached the total it did," said Archie Prentice, the pathologists' president.

Juries
A coroner must summon a jury for an inquest if the death was not a result of natural causes and occurred when the deceased was in state custody (for example in prison, police custody, or whilst detained under the Mental Health Act 1983); or if it was the result of an act or omission of a police officer; or if it was a result of a notifiable accident, poisoning or disease. The senior coroner can also call a jury at his or her own discretion. This discretion has been heavily litigated in light of the Human Rights Act 1998, which means that juries are required now in a broader range of situations than expressly required by statute.

Scope of inquest
The purpose of the inquest is to answer four questions:
 * Identity of the deceased
 * Place of death
 * Time of death
 * How the deceased came by their death

Evidence must be solely for the purpose of answering these questions and no other evidence is admitted. It is not for the inquest to ascertain "how the deceased died" or "in what broad circumstances", but "how the deceased came by his death", a more limited question. Moreover, it is not the purpose of the inquest to determine, or appear to determine, criminal or civil liability, to apportion guilt or attribute blame. For example, where a prisoner hanged himself in a cell, he came by his death by hanging and it was not the role of the inquest to enquire into the broader circumstances such as the alleged neglect of the prison authorities that might have contributed to his state of mind or given him the opportunity. However, the inquest should set out as many of the facts as the public interest requires.

Under the terms of article 2 of the European Convention of Human Rights, governments are required to "establish a framework of laws, precautions, procedures and means of enforcement which will, to the greatest extent reasonably practicable, protect life". The European Court of Human Rights has interpreted this as mandating independent official investigation of any death where public servants may be implicated. Since the Human Rights Act 1998 came into force, in those cases alone, the inquest is now to consider the broader question "by what means and in what circumstances".

In disasters, such as the 1987 King's Cross fire, a single inquest may be held into several deaths.

Procedure
Inquests are governed by the Coroners Rules. The coroner gives notice to near relatives, those entitled to examine witnesses and those whose conduct is likely to be scrutinised. Inquests are held in public except where there are real issues and substantial of national security but only the portions which relate to national security will be held behind closed doors.

Individuals with an interest in the proceedings, such as relatives of the deceased, individuals appearing as witnesses, and organisations or individuals who may face some responsibility in the death of the individual, may be represented by a legal professional be that a solicitor or barrister at the discretion of the coroner. Witnesses may be compelled to testify subject to the privilege against self-incrimination.

If there are matters of national security or matters which relate to sensitive matters then under Schedule 1 of the Coroners and Justice Act 2009 an inquest may be suspended and replaced by a public inquiry under s.2 of the Inquiries Act 2005. This can only be ordered by the Home Secretary and must be announced to Parliament with the coroner in charge being informed and the next of kin being informed. The next of kin and coroner can appeal the decision of the Home Secretary.

Verdict or conclusions
The following conclusions (formerly called verdicts) are not mandatory but are strongly recommended:
 * Category 1
 * Natural causes
 * Industrial diseases
 * Dependency on drugs or non-dependent abuse of drugs
 * Lack of attention at birth
 * Lack of care or self-neglect
 * Category 2
 * Suicide
 * Attempted or self-induced abortion
 * Accident or misadventure
 * Execution of sentence of death
 * Lawful killing (formerly "justifiable homicide")
 * Open verdict (cause of death unknown or unstated)
 * Category 3 – Unlawful killing
 * Murder
 * Manslaughter
 * Infanticide
 * Category 4
 * Stillbirth

In 2004, 37% of inquests recorded an outcome of death by accident / misadventure, 21% by natural causes, 13% suicide, 10% open verdicts, and 19% other outcomes.

Since 2004 it has been possible for the coroner to record a narrative verdict, recording the circumstances of a death without apportioning blame or liability. Since 2009, other possible verdicts have included "alcohol/drug related death" and "road traffic collision". The civil standard of proof, on the balance of probabilities, is used for all conclusions. The standard of proof for suicide and unlawful killing changed in 2018 from beyond all reasonable doubt to the balance of probabilities following a case in the courts of appeal.

Modernisation
Owing in particular to the failures to notice the serial murder committed by Harold Shipman, the Coroners and Justice Act 2009 modernised the system with:
 * Greater rights of bereaved people to contribute to coroners' investigations;
 * A new office of chief coroner to lead and supervise practice;
 * Full-time coroners with new district boundaries;
 * Broader investigatory powers for coroners;
 * Improved medical support for coroners' investigation and decision making;
 * Vesting of treasure jurisdiction in the new office of treasure coroner with national responsibility.

title: Inquests in England and Wales


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Talk:Irish mythology

Festivals and Seasons

 * Samhain
 * Beltane
 * Lughnassa
 * Imbolc

Gods and Goddesses

 * Tuatha de Danaan
 * The Dagda
 * Morrigan
 * Cian
 * Brighid
 * Boann
 * Banbha
 * Cliodna
 * Creidhne
 * Cyhiraeth
 * Danu
 * Dian Cecht
 * Donn
 * Eriu
 * Fodla
 * Goibhniu
 * Luchta
 * Lugh, (also spelt Lug)
 * Macha
 * Nechtan
 * Neit
 * Nemhain
 * Nuada
 * Oengus
 * Ogma

Heroes and Heroines

 * Fionn mac Cumhail
 * Cu Chulainn
 * Brian Boru, a historical character rather than a mythological being.

Legendary creatures

 * Sidhe
 * Banshee
 * Leprechaun
 * Goblin
 * Púca

Places

 * Giant's Causeway

Miscellaneous

 * Celts and human sacrifice

Accounts and Writings

 * The Book of Invasions
 * Táin Bó Cúailnge

Other sources

 * Lady Augusta Gregory: Gods and Fighting Men (available as an etext at )

Also see

 * Celtic mythology

Children of Lir
I've changed the Tragedy of the Children of Lir from one of the "greatest" Irish stories to one of the best known, partly because it's a value judgement and therefore not NPOV, but also because, as an Irish mythology buff, I think it's one of the worst. Personal taste and all that. --Nicknack009 08:39, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Feedback on adding this content into the page
Irish Mythology

Gods

They all decent from a common father known as Daghadha.

Dagda/ Daghadha/ Devos The gods all decent from a common father, this gods name was Devos. Devos was known as dago-Deiwios in early Celtic times which translates to mean "good sky" which later he became know as Daghdha. Daghdha is the great father figure in Irish mythology, he goes by many names. Daghadha was the leader of the Tutha Dé Danann and provided for them. He is know for his physical strength and abilities, as well as magical powers, and wisdom. Daghadha was known for his many famous alter egos and many thought the sun was one of his eyes, meaning he could see everything. There are many different stories and ideas about the Daghdha from various groups like the Tutha Dé Danann. Another common meaning for the Daghadha is "good god", this is not in the term of good versus evil but in the context of "technical precision". Daghadha rule lasted 80-years until he died in battle against the Formorians, from a javelin to the heart.

Heros

Lugh/ Lug/ Lugus Lug is a god as well as a hero and warrior figure in Irish mythology. Often you will see "sobriquet Lámhfhada" meaning long armed. This does not refer to his physical appearance but rather to the long rage weapons he uses. One of the common weapons of choice for him was a javelin. Lug was known as Samhildánach, which means one who possesses all the arts. It is said Julius Cezar gave him this name when he declared Lug must be worshiped for his invention of all arts. Lug goes by many other names, some are believed to have come form the Latin word lux while other think it comes form the Celtic word lugio of which translates to the work oath. There are still celebrations for Lug, they have a festival in August called "Celebration of Lughnasa" in his honor.

Goddesses

Goddesses are often referred to as other worldly ladies in Irish mythology. Goddesses are often correlated with the land, especially rivers. Many of these goddesses are connected to sacred rivers that flow throughout Ireland. Tales of many kings is influenced by his relationship with the goddess of the land, they all are very connected with one another. There is a common theme of intimacy between a king and his land, often referred to as kingdom in Irish mythology. Often a result of the kingdom being viewed as a 'divine woman'.

Mother goddesses

Brighid was originally a Celtic goddess and then the mythical lady of the Tutha Dé Danann. Her name was originally Brigit meaning the exalted one.

Danu was known as the river goddess

Mór-Ríoghain/ Morrígu

Mór-Ríoghain was early on known as the mother goddess and her name meant the 'great queen' though her original name was Morrígu meaning 'phantom queen'. She is often portrayed as a war goddess

title: Talk:Irish mythology


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Index

Index (: indexes or indices) may refer to:

Fictional entities

 * Index (A Certain Magical Index), a character in the light novel series A Certain Magical Index
 * The Index, an item on the Halo Array in the Halo video game series

Periodicals and news portals

 * Index Magazine, a publication for art and culture
 * Index.hr, a Croatian online newspaper
 * index.hu, a Hungarian-language news and community portal
 * The Index (Kalamazoo College), a student newspaper
 * The Index, an 1860s European propaganda journal created by Henry Hotze to support the Confederate States of America
 * Truman State University Index, a student newspaper

Other arts, entertainment and media

 * The Index (band)
 * Indexed, a Web cartoon by Jessica Hagy
 * Index, album by Ana Mena

Business enterprises and events

 * Index (retailer), a former UK catalogue retailer
 * INDEX, a market research fair in Lucknow, India
 * Index Corporation, a Japanese video game developer

Finance

 * Index fund, a collective investment scheme
 * Stock market index, a statistical average of prices of selected securities

Places in the United States

 * Index, Arkansas, an unincorporated community
 * Index, Kentucky, an unincorporated community
 * Index, Missouri, a ghost town
 * Index, New York, a hamlet in Hartwick and Otsego, New York
 * Index, Virginia, an unincorporated community
 * Index, Washington, a town
 * Index, West Virginia, an unincorporated community

Publishing and library studies

 * Bibliographic index, a regularly updated publication that lists articles, books, or other information items
 * Citation index
 * The Index, colloquial name for Germany's List of Media Harmful to Young People, published by the Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien
 * Index card, used for recording and storing small amounts of data
 * Index Librorum Prohibitorum, a list of publications which the Catholic Church censored
 * Index on Censorship, a publishing organization that campaigns for freedom of expression, or its magazine of the same name
 * Index (publishing), an organized list of information in a publication
 * Index (typography), a hand- or fist-shaped punctuation mark
 * Subject indexing, describing the content of a document by keywords
 * Thumb index, a round cut-out in the pages of a publication
 * Web indexing, Internet indexing

Computer science

 * Index, a key in an associative array
 * Index (typography), a character in Unicode, its code is 132
 * Index, the dataset maintained by search engine indexing
 * Array index, an integer pointer into an array data structure
 * BitTorrent index, a list of .torrent files available for searches
 * Database index, a data structure that improves the speed of data retrieval
 * Index mapping of raw data for an array
 * Index register, a processor register used for modifying operand addresses during the run of a program
 * Indexed color, in computer imagery
 * Indexed Sequential Access Method (ISAM), used for indexing data for fast retrieval
 * Lookup table, a data structure used to store precomputed information
 * Site map, or site index, a list of pages of a web site accessible to crawlers or users
 * Web indexing, Internet indexing
 * Web server directory index, a default or index web page in a directory on a web server, such as index.html

Economics

 * Index (economics), a single number calculated from an array of prices and quantities
 * Price index, a typical price for some good or service

Mathematics and statistics

 * Index, a number or other symbol that specifies an element of an indexed family or set
 * Index, an element of an index set
 * Index, the label of a summand in Σ-notation of a summation

Algebra

 * Index of a subgroup, the number of a subgroup's left cosets
 * Index, the degree of an nth root
 * Index of a linear map, the dimension of the map's kernel minus the dimension of its cokernel
 * Index of a matrix
 * Index of a real quadratic form

Analysis

 * Index, the winding number of an oriented closed curve on a surface relative to a point on that surface
 * Diversity index, a measure of distribution or variety in fields such as ecology or information science
 * Index of a vector field, an integer that helps to describe the behaviour of a vector field around an isolated zero

Number theory

 * Index, or the discrete logarithm of a number

Statistics

 * Index (statistics), a type of aggregate measure
 * Scale (social sciences), a method of reporting data in social sciences, sometimes called an index

Other uses in science and technology

 * Dental indices, standardized scoring systems for tooth problems
 * Indexicality, in linguistics, the phenomenon of a sign pointing to some object in the context in which it occurs
 * Indexing (motion), in mechanical engineering and machining, movement to a precisely known location
 * Refractive index, a measurement of how light propagates through a material
 * Valve Index, a virtual reality headset

Other uses

 * INDEX, earlier name for the Reimei satellite
 * Index:, a Danish nonprofit organization which promotes Design for Life
 * The Index (Dubai), a skyscraper
 * Index (crater), a Moon crater

title: Index