text:
Barney Bubbles

Barney Bubbles (born Colin Fulcher; 30 July 1942 – 14 November 1983) was an English graphic artist whose work encompassed graphic design and music video direction. Bubbles, who also sketched and painted privately, is best known for his distinctive contribution to the design practices associated with the British independent music scene of the 1970s and 1980s. His record sleeves, laden with symbols and riddles, were his most recognisable output.

Early life
Fulcher was born in Tranmere Road, Whitton, Middlesex (now Greater London), in July 1942. He attended Isleworth Grammar School. In 1958 he embarked on a retail display course for a National Diploma in Design (NDD) at the art school of Twickenham College of Technology. During his five years at the college Fulcher received a multi-disciplinary education that included training in cardboard design, display and packaging, skills that would be utilised later in his record sleeve work.

Michael Tucker + Associates
After leaving college in 1963 Fulcher worked as an assistant at the design company Michael Tucker + Associates in London. Its clients included Pirelli. In a rare interview in November 1981 in The Face, Bubbles described Tucker's discipline as "very Swiss; very hard; unjustified, very grey; and he taught me everything about typography." Tucker's studio produced the posters for Hugh Hudson's Pirelli-sponsored film The Tortoise & The Hare (1967), for which Fulcher designed the poster lettering on a freelance basis.

The Conran Group
In May 1965, Fulcher was recruited by The Conran Group as senior graphic designer alongside Stafford Cliff, Virginia Clive-Smith and John Muggeridge. He produced a variety of commercial commissions for Conran, including the Norman-style archer logo for Strongbow cider and items for Conran's new homewares chain Habitat. Fulcher also established an association with Justin de Blank, a director at Conran, which blossomed when de Blank left to launch his own upmarket provisions company and restaurant business in 1968.

A1 Good Guyz and other early activities
Between 1965 and 1966 Fulcher organised happenings, parties and other events under the name A1 Good Guyz with two graduates of Twickenham Art College, David Wills and Roy Burge.

In 1967 Fulcher became known as Barney Bubbles, although he did not change his name by deed poll for several more years. The name came about when Fulcher was operating a light show that created a bubble effect by mixing oils and water on projection slides. These lightshows were for groups including the Gun and Quintessence at underground venues including the Roundhouse, Jim Haynes's Drury Lane Arts Lab, the Electric Cinema and Middle Earth.

With Wills, Bubbles undertook freelance design commissions, including a redesign of Motor Racing magazine and a recipe book for the English Egg Marketing Board. With a team of contributors Bubbles and Wills art-directed Oz magazine issue 12, dubbed The Tax Dodge Special and published in May 1968.

Teenburger Designs

Early in 1969, Bubbles took the lease on a three-storey building at 307 Portobello Road in Notting Hill Gate, West London. He converted the ground-floor space into a graphic art studio, which he named Teenburger Designs. With a business association established with two entrepreneurs, Edward Molton and Stephen Warwick, and with John Muggeridge from Conran serving briefly as an assistant, he set about working primarily for the music industry. His first record sleeve design was for Quintessence's LP In Blissful Company (1969). The gatefold sleeve design uses illustrations by Gopala on the front and back, and contains a monochrome glued-in booklet inside.

Teenburger also provided record sleeve designs for the bands Brinsley Schwarz and Red Dirt, as well as Vertigo artists such as Cressida, Gracious! and Dr Z, whose LP Three Parts to My Soul is particularly noted for its complex and colourful fold-out sleeve.

Following the closure of Teenburger in 1970 as a result of the disappearance of Molton and Warwick, Bubbles worked as the designer of the underground newspaper Friends (later renamed Frendz).

Bubbles' son, Aten Skinner, was born in 1972.

Hawkwind (and other 1970s rock)

While he was working at Friends, Bubbles formed an association with Hawkwind and became responsible for a run of their album sleeves, including In Search of Space, Doremi Fasol Latido and Space Ritual. Bubbles engaged in many aspects of the group's visual identity, titling releases and designing posters, adverts, stage decoration and performance plans, some of which were adorned with mystical and mock-Teutonic insignia. In 1972 Bubbles produced the triple LP package Glastonbury Fayre. This comprised a six-panel fold-out card sleeve, two poster inserts, a booklet and a cut-out and build miniature pyramid, housed in a clear vinyl bag (with two sleeve variations and three label variations).

From 1973 onwards, Bubbles increasingly avoided credits for his artwork, typically working anonymously or occasionally adopting alternative pseudonyms. During this period he designed album sleeves and additional material for such acts as the Sutherland Brothers, Kevin Coyne, Edgar Broughton Band, Chilli Willi and the Red Hot Peppers, Quiver, the Kursaal Flyers and Michael Moorcock and the Deep Fix.

In 1976 his design relationship with Hawkwind came to an end. It was rekindled once, in 1978, for the Hawklords spin-off, but otherwise continued only with design commissions for projects involving the band's saxophonist Nik Turner.

Stiff, Radar and F Beat (and other punk and new wave)

Barney Bubbles joined Stiff Records as designer and art director early in 1977. With the label's co-founder Jake Riviera he generated a body of creative work that helped to secure Stiff's reputation as an exciting new independent label. Bubbles created sleeves for bands including the Damned, Elvis Costello, Ian Dury and Wreckless Eric. Often these were accompanied by quirky logos such as the face logo for Blockhead, advertisements and promotional items. The marketing of Elvis Costello's My Aim Is True included advertisements in three UK music papers from which a poster of Costello could be constructed, and the first 1,000 pressings contained an insert headed Help Us Hype Elvis, which, if completed and returned to Stiff, ensured that a friend would receive a free copy.

When Riviera left Stiff in late 1977, Bubbles joined him at his new label Radar Records and later at Riviera's F-Beat Records. At these labels, Bubbles created more designs for Elvis Costello, as well as other artists such as Nick Lowe, Carlene Carter and Clive Langer & The Boxes.

Bubbles also maintained his freelance output, producing designs for Peter Jenner (Ian Dury and Billy Bragg's manager), and others. He created a prodigious output by working for such bands, musicians and performers as Peter Hammill, Vivian Stanshall, Generation X, Big Star, Johnny Moped, Whirlwind, Billy Bragg, Clover, the Sinceros, Roger Chapman, Phillip Goodhand-Tait, Dr. Feelgood, Inner City Unit and the Psychedelic Furs. As a result, his work appeared on releases by labels such as Aura, Chiswick, Utility, Go! Discs, Epic, Charisma, CBS, Line Records, United Artists and Riddle Records. His signature style emerged as one that was colourful, playful, loaded with geometry, art-history and music-history references, jokes, cryptograms and symbols. The overriding appetite was for going against the grain of accepted design standards. His work is simultaneously complex in meaning and simple in its delivery. Examples include:

 * Elvis Costello: This Year's Model, which was designed to have a deliberate miscropping so that the entire design was off-register and a sticker that read 'Free Album With This Single';
 * The Damned: Damned Damned Damned, a limited number of which were deliberately printed with a photo of Eddie and the Hot Rods on the back of the cover, rather than the Damned playing at the Roxy Club, and with an erratum sticker apologising for this "mistake", and on the front of the LP, on top of the original shrinkwrap, a red food-fight sticker saying 'Damned Damned', thus completing the LP's title when read underneath the band's name;
 * Elvis Costello: Armed Forces, with an extended back panel consisting of folding flaps, postcards carrying the instruction DON'T JOIN (advice against joining the armed forces), and a message that these postcards had been die-cut from the rest of the sleeve;
 * Nick Lowe: Labour of Lust, with its innovative "Hamer & sickle" logo, fashioning Lowe's Hamer-brand bass guitar into a playful version of the actual Hammer and sickle, the symbol of proletarian solidarity first adopted during the Russian Revolution (Bubbles's original mockup is shown on the gatefold sleeve of the 2011 Yep Roc reissue of the album);
 * Ian Dury and the Blockheads: Do It Yourself, which was released in at least 30 known sleeve variations, all of which were old designs supplied by Crown Wallpaper.

Music promo videos
Barney Bubbles directed several videos, including the Specials' "Ghost Town", Squeeze's "Is That Love" and "Tempted", Elvis Costello's "Clubland" and "New Lace Sleeves", and Fun Boy Three's "The Lunatics (Have Taken Over the Asylum)". Two promos for the punk act Johnny Moped, "Incendiary Device" and "Darling Let's Have Another Baby", were never commercially released to broadcasters.

"A good video can sell a record which might not do so well," Bubbles told Smash Hits magazine in 1982. "The record companies know that. I think Chrysalis would agree that The Specials' 'Ghost Town' video helped sales a good deal. This year I intend to make videos which are really inexpensive but really inventive. It can be done, you know."

NME
In 1979, riding on the reputation of his work for Stiff, Bubbles was engaged by the UK music newspaper New Musical Express to spearhead an overhaul of its decades-old brand. Bubbles' redesign incorporated elements of Pop art and 1920s Soviet poster art into a "sleek, forward-looking" graphic format. His restyling included a fresh logo with "clean, stencilled, military-style lettering", which heralded the title's change from New Musical Express to NME.

Other work
In 1979 Derek Boshier curated an exhibition entitled Lives at the Hayward Gallery, London, and he commissioned Bubbles to design the catalogue and poster. Together with the photographer Chris Gabrin, Bubbles also exhibited a video and mixed-media installation in the exhibition.

In the early 1980s Bubbles created furniture designs, some of which were featured in The Face, November 1981.

In 1982 Bubbles conceived the album Ersatz, working primarily with Nik Turner and other musicians from Inner City Unit. The LP was released under the name of The Imperial Pompadours.

Bubbles painted privately, increasingly in the early 1980s.

Death
Fulcher, who suffered from manic depression, committed suicide in London on 14 November 1983 by gassing himself, trapping the fumes in a plastic bag he placed over his head, at the age of 41. He had considerable personal and financial worries, and had fallen out of fashion in the early 1980s. His designs for record sleeves were being rejected by musicians and record companies, and he was being investigated by the Inland Revenue for unpaid taxes dating back several years. He was also displaying increasingly erratic behaviour, alarming close friends by lacerating his face with razor blades and making threats to kill himself.

Monograph/biography
Reasons To Be Cheerful: The Life & Work of Barney Bubbles, a hybrid monograph/biography by Paul Gorman containing 400-plus images of artworks by Bubbles and contributions from British designers Peter Saville and Malcolm Garrett along with Billy Bragg was published in November 2008 by independent British imprint Adelita. The book was welcomed as a long-overdue recognition of Bubbles' achievements and selected by British music magazine Mojo as its Book Of The Year.

A revised and updated second edition of Reasons To Be Cheerful, with an additional contribution by US graphic artist Art Chantry, was published by Adelita in October 2010.

The third edition of the monograph, retitled The Wild World of Barney Bubbles: Graphic Design and the Art of Music, with a new cover and updated sections including previously unpublished designs and an essay by American graphic designer Clarita Hinojosa, was published by Thames & Hudson in June 2022 in the UK and in July 2022 in the US.

A companion limited edition box-set, A Box of Bubbles, containing the monograph with a different jacket and reproductions of the designer's artworks for Ian Dury, Hawkwind and the Glastonbury Fayre triple-LP package, is published by specialist imprint Volume in September 2022.

Influence and legacy
Barney Bubbles is widely acknowledged as a pioneer and exemplar of design for music. 'To say that Bubbles' work was influential would be an understatement. He took the world by storm with his momentous contribution,' wrote Creative Boom's Aya Angelos in 2022. According to Peter Saville, 'The work of Barney Bubbles expresses post-modern principles: that there is the past, the present and the possible; that culture and the history of culture are a fluid palette of semiotic expression and everything is available to articulate a point of view.' The first exhibition dedicated to Bubbles' work was held at London gallery Artomatic in 2001, curated by the art-design team Rebecca And Mike.

Paul Gorman and Caz Facey curated an exhibition about Bubbles' practice entitled Process: The Working Practices of Barney Bubbles at London gallery Chelsea Space in October 2010.

In January 2012, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a documentary, In Search of Barney Bubbles, written, produced and presented by Mark Hodkinson.

In summer 2012 Gorman curated The Past The Present & The Possible, which presented 250 examples of Bubbles' finished artworks as part of the exhibition White Noise at the 23rd International Poster & Graphic Design Festival in Chaumont, France.

Under the heading Génération Bubbles!, the cover and a 10-page feature in the July 2012 issue of French design magazine Étapes were dedicated to the exhibition and Bubbles' influence over contemporary design practice.

In 2017 Gorman curated "Optics & Semantics", an exhibition which included furniture designed by Bubbles, at central London's Rob Tufnell Gallery as well as a show featuring finished artworks including record sleeves, posters and ephemera at casualwear brand Fred Perry's outlet in Covent Garden.

In 2020 an archive of Bubbles work was acquired for public collections under the UK's cultural gifts and acceptance in lieu (AiL) schemes and allocated to Liverpool John Moores University.

General and group exhibitions
Designs by Barney Bubbles have been prominently featured in many exhibitions, including Destroy: Punk Graphic Design in Britain, held at London's Southbank Centre in 1998, Communicate: British Independent Graphic Design since the Sixties, staged at the Barbican Centre in 2004, Too Fast To Live, Too Young To Die: Punk Graphics 1976 - 1986 at Cranbrook Art Museum in Michigan in 2017 and the Museum of Art & Design in New York in 2019 and Torn Apart: Punk New Wave and the Graphic Aftermath 1976-86 at the Pacific Design Center in Los Angeles in 2022.

Bubbles works are in the permanent collections of The Museum of Modern Art in New York and London's Victoria and Albert Museum, which gave prominence to a selection in its 2011 show Postmodernism: Style & Subversion 1970–1990 and the following year's British Design 1948–2012.

Barney Bubbles Estate
Representing family members, the Barney Bubbles Estate controls the intellectual copyrights in hundreds of original designs by Bubbles and has worked with others to ensure that the designer's legacy is protected.

Projects include a capsule collection of shirts bearing Bubbles designs with Fred Perry in 2017, Elvis Costello and Universal Music's 2020 box-set reissue of Costello's 1979 album Armed Forces, the 12-inch vinyl rerelease of "Hit Me With Your Rhythm Stick" for Record Store Day 2021 with the Ian Dury Estate and music group BMG and a collaboration of four T-shirts with New York streetwear label Noah in 2022.

Examples of rare and hitherto unseen work from Bubbles' vast archive is posted regularly on the Estate's Instagram account, and the Estate also has an online shop marketing original designs on apparel and other media.

title: Barney Bubbles


text:
Talk:Binding arbitration

The article should distinguish between binding arbitration and other kinds of arbitration; or, if there are no other kinds, the contents of this article should folded into the arbitration article. --LMS

Good point. Actually, ALL abritration is "final and binding," with the exceptions noted in the article. How do I combine them? F. Lee Horn

Never mind; I'll just "cut and paste." :)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Binding arbitration


text:
Blackridge, Pennsylvania

Blackridge is a community in eastern Allegheny County and is a suburb of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. This community consists of approximately 650 private homes built from 1920 to 1949. Blackridge Estates was and remains one of the area's largest residential communities.

Blackridge lies in the municipalities of Wilkinsburg, Penn Hills and Churchill. It maintains a Civic Association and a private park and swim club for residents.

Blackridge is defined as the territory bounded on the West by Graham Boulevard, on the South by William Penn Highway, on the East by Beulah Road and the Churchill Country Club property, from the Churchill Country Club property along Orlando Place to Atkinson Place, Atkinson Place to Pine Way, and Pine Way to Graham Boulevard, and includes the properties fronting on both sides of said portions of Country Club Drive, Orlando Place, Atkinson Place and Pine Way.

The Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation Historic Landmark "1939 House" (Good Housekeeping house) is located in Blackridge at 2363 Sebring Place in the Wilkinsburg section of the neighborhood.

title: Blackridge, Pennsylvania


text:
Basic English

Basic English (a backronym for British American Scientific International and Commercial English) is a controlled language based on standard English, but with a greatly simplified vocabulary and grammar. It was created by the linguist and philosopher Charles Kay Ogden as an international auxiliary language, and as an aid for teaching English as a second language. It was presented in Ogden's 1930 book Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar.

The first work on Basic English was written by two Englishmen, Ivor Richards of Harvard University and Charles Kay Ogden of the University of Cambridge in England. The design of Basic English drew heavily on the semiotic theory put forward by Ogden and Richards in their 1923 book The Meaning of Meaning.

Ogden's Basic, and the concept of a simplified English, gained its greatest publicity just after the Allied victory in World War II as a means for world peace. He was convinced that the world needed to gradually eradicate minority languages and use as much as possible only one: English, in either a simple or complete form.

Although Basic English was not built into a program, similar simplifications have been devised for various international uses. Richards promoted its use in schools in China. It has influenced the creation of Voice of America's Learning English for news broadcasting, and Simplified Technical English, another English-based controlled language designed to write technical manuals.

What survives of Ogden's Basic English is the basic 850-word list used as the beginner's vocabulary of the English language taught worldwide, especially in Asia.

Design principles
Ogden tried to simplify English while keeping it normal for native speakers, by specifying grammar restrictions and a controlled small vocabulary which makes an extensive use of paraphrasing. Most notably, Ogden allowed only 18 verbs, which he called "operators". His "General Introduction" says, "There are no 'verbs' in Basic English", with the underlying assumption that, as noun use in English is very straightforward but verb use/conjugation is not, the elimination of verbs would be a welcome simplification.

"What the World needs most is about 1,000 more dead languages—and one more alive."

Word lists
Ogden's word lists include only word roots, which in practice are extended with the defined set of affixes and the full set of forms allowed for any available word (noun, pronoun, or the limited set of verbs). The 850 core words of Basic English are found in Wiktionary's Basic English word list. This core is theoretically enough for everyday life. However, Ogden prescribed that any student should learn an additional 150-word list for everyday work in some particular field, by adding a list of 100 words particularly useful in a general field (e.g., science, verse, business), along with a 50-word list from a more specialised subset of that general field, to make a basic 1000-word vocabulary for everyday work and life.

Moreover, Ogden assumed that any student should already be familiar with (and thus may only review) a core subset of around 200 "international" words. Therefore, a first-level student should graduate with a core vocabulary of around 1200 words. A realistic general core vocabulary could contain around 2000 words (the core 850 words, plus 200 international words, and 1000 words for the general fields of trade, economics, and science). It is enough for a "standard" English level. This 2000 word vocabulary represents "what any learner should know". At this level students could start to move on their own.

Ogden's Basic English 2000 word list and Voice of America's Special English 1500 word list serve as dictionaries for the Simple English Wikipedia.

Rules
Basic English includes a simple grammar for modifying or combining its 850 words to talk about additional meanings (morphological derivation or inflection). The grammar is based on English, but simplified.

 * Plural nouns are formed by adding -s or related forms, as in drinks, boxes, or countries.
 * Nouns are formed with the endings -er (as in prisoner) or -ing (building).
 * Adjectives are formed with the endings -ing (boiling) or -ed (mixed).
 * Adverbs can be formed by adding -ly (for example tightly) to words that Basic English calls "qualities" (adjectives that describe objects).
 * The words more and most are used for comparison (for example more complex), but -er and -est may appear in common use (cheaper).
 * Negatives can be formed with un- (unwise).
 * The word do is used in questions, as it is in English (Do you have some?).
 * Both pronouns and what Basic English calls "operators" (a set of ten verbs) use the different forms they have in English (for example I go to him, He goes to me).
 * Compound words can be formed by combining two nouns (e.g. soapbox) or a noun and a preposition, which Basic English calls "directives" (sunup).
 * International words, words that are the same or similar in English and other European languages (e.g. radio), use the English form. English forms are also used for numbers, dates, money, or measurements.
 * Any technical terms or special vocabulary needed for a task should be written in inverted commas and then be explained in the text using words from the Basic English vocabulary (for example the 'vocabulary' is the list of words).

Criticism
Like all international auxiliary languages (or IALs), Basic English may be criticised as inevitably based on personal preferences, and is thus, paradoxically, inherently divisive. Moreover, like all natural-language-based IALs, Basic is subject to criticism as unfairly biased towards the native speaker community.

As a teaching aid for English as a second language, Basic English has been criticised for the choice of the core vocabulary and for its grammatical constraints.

In 1944, readability expert Rudolf Flesch published an article in Harper's Magazine, "How Basic is Basic English?" in which he said, "It's not basic, and it's not English." The essence of his complaint is that the vocabulary is too restricted, and, as a result, the text ends up being awkward and more difficult than necessary. He also argues that the words in the Basic vocabulary were arbitrarily selected, and notes that there had been no empirical studies showing that it made language simpler.

In his 1948 paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", Claude Shannon contrasted the limited vocabulary of Basic English with James Joyce's Finnegans Wake, a work noted for a wide vocabulary. Shannon notes that the lack of vocabulary in Basic English leads to a very high level of redundancy, whereas Joyce's large vocabulary "is alleged to achieve a compression of semantic content".

Literary references
In the novel The Shape of Things to Come, published in 1933, H. G. Wells depicted Basic English as the lingua franca of a new elite that after a prolonged struggle succeeds in uniting the world and establishing a totalitarian world government. In the future world of Wells' vision, virtually all members of humanity know this language.

From 1942 to 1944 George Orwell was a proponent of Basic English, but in 1945 he became critical of universal languages. Basic English later inspired his use of Newspeak in Nineteen Eighty-Four.

Evelyn Waugh criticized his own 1945 novel Brideshead Revisited, which he had previously called his magnum opus, in the preface of the 1959 reprint: "It [World War II] was a bleak period of present privation and threatening disaster—the period of soya beans and Basic English—and in consequence the book is infused with a kind of gluttony, for food and wine, for the splendours of the recent past, and for rhetorical and ornamental language that now, with a full stomach, I find distasteful."

In his story "Gulf", science fiction writer Robert A. Heinlein used a constructed language called Speedtalk, in which every Basic English word is replaced with a single phoneme, as an appropriate means of communication for a race of genius supermen.

Samples
The Lord's Prayer has been often used for an impressionistic language comparison:

title: Basic English


text:
Talk:Buffer overflow

History vs history of malice
I added some early history of buffer overflows back, and reset the title from "History of malicious exploitation" to "History." I think it's important for an encyclopedia article to give a full history, not jump in mid-stream with how people are taking advantage of the class of issue. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Emergentchaos (talk • contribs) 00:45, 30 June 2011 (UTC)

Merge from Stack buffer overflow
Stack buffer overflow is a good article, but I think a lot of the content (esp diagrams) could be placed on this page instead, there is little which is specific to stack buffer overflows. -- Tompsci 14:01, 17 August 2007 (UTC)
 * I disagree that this information is specific to stack buffer overflows, the details of exploiting a buffer overflow are very different for a heap overflow vs a stack overflow for example...I for one would be opposed to such a merge... --Michael Lynn 17:55, 17 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Agreed, but the buffer overflow article is about buffer overflows in general and all the concepts you discuss can be generalised to apply to the heap aswell, or apply already. I think some of the content which covers ground already covered by "Buffer Overflow", covers it better, especially where the diagrams are used, which are really clear and aesthetically pleasing. That's why I am suggesting a merge. Especially since the stack-based page is not wiki linked much. -- Tompsci 00:49, 18 August 2007 (UTC)
 * I think it might be better to add or edit the content of buffer overflows article than to try to generalize buffer overflows with stack overflow content. the reason i say this is because the details of exploiting a stack buffer overflow are *completely* different from exploiting heap overflows. so much of the literature on this subject seperates the topics thats why I don't see it too bad to seperate them here. The way i think would be best would be to discuss the generalities of what people do with buffer overflows without respect to which kind they are and without going into the details of how they are exploited, and leaving the details of exploitation to the heap overflow and stack buffer overflow articles..that would leave the buffer overflow article to discuss the details of the impact of buffer overflow in general. You'll notice that I left most of the overall security ramifications out of the stack buffer overflows article because that seemed to fit in this article much better. I'm currently working on more diagrams for heap overflows, off by one exploits, and format string bugs, that would make them all look like they all go together better i think. --Michael Lynn 08:22, 18 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Ok, that makes more sense to me now. But I think some of the material belongs in buffer overflow not stack buffer overflow and the stack buffer overflow material can be removed as I think your material is superior to what already exists. I'll make the relevant changes and if you disagree then we can maybe revert the changes. -- Tompsci 10:52, 18 August 2007 (UTC)
 * sure thing, but do keep in mind that a little bit of duplication is not always a bad thing. --Michael Lynn 11:13, 18 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Agreed —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.100.173.51 (talk) 22:40, 2 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Why? There are a lot of articles, where subthemes are represented as separated articles. Buffer overflow is the general type consiting of a set of subtypes. With such a success we can merge, for instance, Buffer overflow and Heap overflow articles.--91.76.20.6 (talk) 07:18, 23 December 2007 (UTC)

Does "deep packet inspection" section matter?
Deep packet inspection doesn't find modern buffer overflows. The technique has been of clearly limited value since Ptacek and Newsham's paper. Should that section go away?

 * It should go. It has nothing (directly) to do with this subject. It could be added as a sidenote, linking to Deep_packet_inspection in reference to security implications/issues in software development, but that's a way broader issue.
 * 83.252.234.134 (talk) 06:43, 2 December 2016 (UTC)

1 question about the Code Red worm mentioned in this article...
In this article it's been written that the code red worm exploited a buffer overflow on IIS, but didn't it just exploit the web trasversal unicode bug? I mean, if so, no buffer overflows where used in that exploit, just unicode double encoding, that is pretty more simple... GET /scripts/%252e%252e/%252e%252e/%252e%252e/winnt/cmd.exe?/c+dir+c: HTTP/1.0\r\nHost: IIS.insecure.domain.com\r\n\r\n —Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.180.208.118 (talk) 19:05, 15 October 2007 (UTC)

it would've beem extremely informative
giving the windows buffer's file names and some technical review. regards, 23:19, 8 January 2009 (UTC)

Overwriting VMTs of heap allocated objects
The Heap Exploits section could mention this method. It's possible under some object layouts.

Rep movsd (talk) 14:26, 4 March 2009 (UTC)

Overreads?
The article appears to deal solely with buffer overwrites, yet overreads can be nasty bugs too. 119.225.239.230 (talk) 20:47, 11 April 2014 (UTC)

 * Heartbleed bug isn't a buffer overflow as no adjacent memory is overwritten during its exploitation. — Dsimic (talk | contribs) 03:50, 14 April 2014 (UTC)
 * What Dsimic is trying to say is that the term "buffer overflow" is generally only used to describe a specific type of out-of-bounds write. "Buffer overreads" would be a form of out-of-bounds reads, which one would not call a buffer overflow. However, I could not find an existing article about out-of-bounds reads of any form on Wikipedia. If you feel there is a need for one, you may want to start it. — SkyLined (talk) 07:02, 14 April 2014 (UTC)
 * Exactly. Regarding the coverage within Wikipedia articles,  section provides an overview, though it could be improved further. — Dsimic (talk | contribs) 18:32, 16 April 2014 (UTC)
 * I have just created buffer overread redirected to buffer over-read, though which spelling is better I wouldn’t know. It is very much a stub, but includes, commented out, almost all of buffer overflow, so anyone is welcome to transform that and to discard what is irrelevant. I don’t intend to do anything more, apart from adding some links from other articles, in the next few hours, maybe not even the next few days, so anyone really is welcome. PJTraill (talk) 10:16, 24 April 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 2 one external links on Buffer overflow. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20070512195939/http://www.metasploit.com:80/users/opcode/msfopcode.cgi to http://metasploit.com/users/opcode/msfopcode.cgi
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20070212032750/http://wiki.x.org:80/wiki/ProPolice to http://wiki.x.org/wiki/ProPolice

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers. —cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 16:10, 25 August 2015 (UTC)

 * Looking good. — Dsimic (talk | contribs) 05:22, 26 August 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 3 one external links on Buffer overflow. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20070818115455/http://www.neworder.box.sk:80/newsread.php?newsid=12476 to http://www.neworder.box.sk/newsread.php?newsid=12476
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20090817230359/http://doc.bughunter.net:80/buffer-overflow/ to http://doc.bughunter.net/buffer-overflow/
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20151231205722/http://www.syngress.com/book_catalog/327_SSPC/sample.pdf to http://www.syngress.com/book_catalog/327_SSPC/sample.pdf

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 07:49, 27 February 2016 (UTC)

Programming languages (blame)
I think the "Programming languages commonly associated with buffer overflows" is both putting C and C++ in undeserved bad light (the problem is from developers using the languages, not the languages themselves), and it's given a way too (undeserved) prominent placement in the lead.

I'd like to see this re-worded, and placed towards the end of the article (if it's even to stay) - to me it currently reads like an ad for "managed" languages. 83.252.234.134 (talk) 07:09, 2 December 2016 (UTC)

Protection number 9
Is not the using of an OS which uses the segmentation of the IA-32 protected mode an effective protection against buffer overflow?! If so this can be explained as a 9th solution of protection. --93.220.240.5 (talk) 21:32, 25 September 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 5 external links on Buffer overflow. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060105041036/http://www.net-security.org/dl/articles/unicodebo.pdf to http://www.net-security.org/dl/articles/unicodebo.pdf
 * Added archive https://archive.is/20120529183334/http://kerneltrap.org/node/644 to http://kerneltrap.org/node/644
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120219111512/http://linux.softpedia.com/get/System/Operating-Systems/Kernels/Openwall-Linux-kernel-patch-16454.shtml to http://linux.softpedia.com/get/System/Operating-Systems/Kernels/Openwall-Linux-kernel-patch-16454.shtml
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070928011639/http://c0re.23.nu/~chris/presentations/overflow2005.pdf to http://c0re.23.nu/~chris/presentations/overflow2005.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130126024851/http://www.awarenetwork.org/etc/alpha/?x=5 to http://www.awarenetwork.org/etc/alpha/?x=5

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 20:14, 1 December 2017 (UTC)

Image in lead
Pinging since they reverted: I had recently made an attempt to create an image representation of buffer overflows, and finished int yesterday. Unfortunately, I was incorrect about my understanding of overflows and it was thankfully taken back out. Coincidentally, I have found a similar vector image, that seems to be accurate,File:Buffer_overflow_basicexample.svg. SkyLined, do you think this image is suitable and correct? If so, I could insert it. If not, perhaps a correct one could be made. WhoAteMyButter ( 📨talk │ 📝contribs ) 02:33, 13 November 2021 (UTC)
 * That looks accurate, feel free to add it. Thank you for taking the time to create it! 163.158.13.177 (talk) 10:07, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Buffer overflow


text:
BND

BND may refer to:

Organisations

 * Federal Intelligence Service (Germany) (Bundesnachrichtendienst), the foreign intelligence agency of Germany
 * Federal Intelligence Service (disambiguation)
 * Bank of North Dakota, a state-owned and -run financial institution, based in Bismarck, North Dakota, USA
 * Belleville News-Democrat, a newspaper in Belleville, Illinois, USA
 * Bulgarian New Democracy (Българска Нова Демокрация), a Bulgarian centre-right political party
 * VID (company) (ВИD), a Russian TV company
 * Business & Decision (stock ticker: ), a consulting company
 * Banco Nacional de Desarrollo, the national development bank, for banking in Nicaragua
 * National Digital Library (Biblioteca Națională Digitală) of Moldova; part of the National Library of Moldova

By codename

 * Brunei dollar, currency of the Sultanate of Brunei, by ISO 4217 code
 * Banda language (Maluku) (ISO 639 language code: ), found in Indonesia
 * Brandon railway station (National Rail station code: ), Suffolk, England, UK
 * Bandar Abbas International Airport (IATA airport code ; ICAO airport code:  ), Bandar Abbas, Hormozgan Province, Iran

Other uses

 * Buy Nothing Day, an international day of protest against consumerism
 * BTEC National Diploma, a further-education qualification in most of the United Kingdom
 * "BND", a song on the album No Doubt by No Doubt
 * Bnd, short for "Bend"; a Street suffix as used in the US

title: BND


text:
Brass instrument

A brass instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound by sympathetic vibration of air in a tubular resonator in sympathy with the vibration of the player's lips. Brass instruments are also called labrosones or labrophones, from Latin and Greek elements meaning 'lip' and 'sound'.

There are several factors involved in producing different pitches on a brass instrument. Slides, valves, crooks (though they are rarely used today), or keys are used to change vibratory length of tubing, thus changing the available harmonic series, while the player's embouchure, lip tension and air flow serve to select the specific harmonic produced from the available series.

The view of most scholars (see organology) is that the term "brass instrument" should be defined by the way the sound is made, as above, and not by whether the instrument is actually made of brass. Thus one finds brass instruments made of wood, like the alphorn, the cornett, the serpent and the didgeridoo, while some woodwind instruments are made of brass, like the saxophone.

Families
Modern brass instruments generally come in one of two families:
 * Valved brass instruments use a set of valves (typically three or four but as many as seven or more in some cases) operated by the player's fingers that introduce additional tubing, or crooks, into the instrument, changing its overall length. This family includes all of the modern brass instruments except the trombone: the trumpet, horn (also called French horn), euphonium, and tuba, as well as the cornet, flugelhorn, tenor horn (alto horn), baritone horn, sousaphone, and the mellophone. As valved instruments are predominant among the brasses today, a more thorough discussion of their workings can be found below. The valves are usually piston valves, but can be rotary valves; the latter are the norm for the horn (except in France) and are also common on the tuba.
 * Slide brass instruments use a slide to change the length of tubing. The main instruments in this category are the trombone family, though valve trombones are occasionally used, especially in jazz. The trombone family's ancestor, the sackbut, and the folk instrument bazooka are also in the slide family.

There are two other families that have, in general, become functionally obsolete for practical purposes. Instruments of both types, however, are sometimes used for period-instrument performances of Baroque or Classical pieces. In more modern compositions, they are occasionally used for their intonation or tone color.
 * Natural brass instruments only play notes in the instrument's harmonic series. These include the bugle and older variants of the trumpet and horn. The trumpet was a natural brass instrument prior to about 1795, and the horn before about 1820. In the 18th century, makers developed interchangeable crooks of different lengths, which let players use a single instrument in more than one key. Natural instruments are still played for period performances and some ceremonial functions, and are occasionally found in more modern scores, such as those by Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss.
 * Keyed or Fingered brass instruments used holes along the body of the instrument, which were covered by fingers or by finger-operated pads (keys) in a similar way to a woodwind instrument. These included the cornett, serpent, ophicleide, keyed bugle and keyed trumpet. They are more difficult to play than valved instruments.

Bore taper and diameter
Brass instruments may also be characterised by two generalizations about geometry of the bore, that is, the tubing between the mouthpiece and the flaring of the tubing into the bell. Those two generalizations are with regard to
 * the degree of taper or conicity of the bore and
 * the diameter of the bore with respect to its length.

Cylindrical vs. conical bore
While all modern valved and slide brass instruments consist in part of conical and in part of cylindrical tubing, they are divided as follows:
 * Cylindrical bore brass instruments are those in which approximately constant diameter tubing predominates. Cylindrical bore brass instruments are generally perceived as having a brighter, more penetrating tone quality compared to conical bore brass instruments. The trumpet, and all trombones are cylindrical bore. In particular, the slide design of the trombone necessitates this.
 * Conical bore brass instruments are those in which tubing of constantly increasing diameter predominates. Conical bore instruments are generally perceived as having a more mellow tone quality than the cylindrical bore brass instruments. The "British brass band" group of instruments fall into this category. This includes the flugelhorn, cornet, tenor horn (alto horn), baritone horn, horn, euphonium and tuba. Some conical bore brass instruments are more conical than others. For example, the flugelhorn differs from the cornet by having a higher percentage of its tubing length conical than does the cornet, in addition to possessing a wider bore than the cornet. In the 1910s and 1920s, the E. A. Couturier company built brass band instruments utilizing a patent for a continuous conical bore without cylindrical portions even for the valves or tuning slide.

Whole-tube vs. half-tube
The resonances of a brass instrument resemble a harmonic series, with the exception of the lowest resonance, which is significantly lower than the fundamental frequency of the series that the other resonances are overtones of. Depending on the instrument and the skill of the player, the missing fundamental of the series can still be played as a pedal tone, which relies mainly on vibration at the overtone frequencies to produce the fundamental pitch. The bore diameter in relation to length determines whether the fundamental tone or the first overtone is the lowest partial practically available to the player in terms of playability and musicality, dividing brass instruments into whole-tube and half-tube instruments. These terms stem from a comparison to organ pipes, which produce the same pitch as the fundamental pedal tone of a brass instrument of equal length.

 * Whole-tube instruments have larger bores in relation to tubing length, and can play the fundamental tone with ease and precision. The tuba and euphonium are examples of whole-tube brass instruments.
 * Half-tube instruments have smaller bores in relation to tubing length and cannot easily or accurately play the fundamental tone. The second partial (first overtone) is the lowest note of each tubing length practical to play on half-tube instruments. The trumpet and horn are examples of half-tube brass instruments.

Other brass instruments
The instruments in this list fall for various reasons outside the scope of much of the discussion above regarding families of brass instruments.
 * Alphorn (wood)
 * Conch (shell)
 * Didgeridoo (wood, Australia)
 * Natural horn (no valves or slides—except tuning crooks in some cases)
 * Jazzophone
 * Keyed bugle (keyed brass)
 * Keyed trumpet (keyed brass)
 * Serpent (keyed brass)
 * Ophicleide (keyed brass)
 * Shofar (animal horn)
 * Vladimirskiy rozhok (wood, Russia)
 * Vuvuzela (simple short horn, origins disputed but achieved fame or notoriety through many plastic examples in the 2010 World Cup)
 * Lur

Valves
Valves are used to change the length of tubing of a brass instrument allowing the player to reach the notes of various harmonic series. Each valve pressed diverts the air stream through additional tubing, individually or in conjunction with other valves. This lengthens the vibrating air column thus lowering the fundamental tone and associated harmonic series produced by the instrument. Designs exist, although rare, in which this behaviour is reversed, i.e., pressing a valve removes a length of tubing rather than adding one. One modern example of such an ascending valve is the Yamaha YSL-350C trombone, in which the extra valve tubing is normally engaged to pitch the instrument in B♭, and pressing the thumb lever removes a whole step to pitch the instrument in C. Valves require regular lubrication.

A core standard valve layout based on the action of three valves had become almost universal by (at latest) 1864 as witnessed by Arban's method published in that year. The effect of a particular combination of valves may be seen in the table below. This table is correct for the core three-valve layout on almost any modern valved brass instrument. The most common four-valve layout is a superset of the well-established three-valve layout and is noted in the table, despite the exposition of four-valve and also five-valve systems (the latter used on the tuba) being incomplete in this article.

Tuning
Since valves lower the pitch, a valve that makes a pitch too low (flat) creates an interval wider than desired, while a valve that plays sharp creates an interval narrower than desired. Intonation deficiencies of brass instruments that are independent of the tuning or temperament system are inherent in the physics of the most popular valve design, which uses a small number of valves in combination to avoid redundant and heavy lengths of tubing (this is entirely separate from the slight deficiencies between Western music's dominant equal (even) temperament system and the just (not equal) temperament of the harmonic series itself). Since each lengthening of the tubing has an inversely proportional effect on pitch (Pitch of brass instruments), while pitch perception is logarithmic, there is no way for a simple, uncompensated addition of length to be correct in every combination when compared with the pitches of the open tubing and the other valves.

Absolute tube length
For example, given a length of tubing equaling 100 units of length when open, one may obtain the following tuning discrepancies:

Playing notes using valves (notably 1st + 3rd and 1st + 2nd + 3rd) requires compensation to adjust the tuning appropriately, either by the player's lip-and-breath control, via mechanical assistance of some sort, or, in the case of horns, by the position of the stopping hand in the bell. 'T' stands for trigger on a trombone.

Relative tube length
Traditionally the valves lower the pitch of the instrument by adding extra lengths of tubing based on a just tuning:
 * 1st valve: $1 1/2$ of main tube, making an interval of 9:8, a pythagorean major second
 * 2nd valve: $2 1/2$ of main tube, making an interval of 16:15, a just minor second
 * 3rd valve: $3 1/2$ of main tube, making an interval of 6:5, a just minor third

Combining the valves and the harmonics of the instrument leads to the following ratios and comparisons to 12-tone equal tuning and to a common five-limit tuning in C:

Tuning compensation
The additional tubing for each valve usually features a short tuning slide of its own for fine adjustment of the valve's tuning, except when it is too short to make this practicable. For the first and third valves this is often designed to be adjusted as the instrument is played, to account for the deficiencies in the valve system.

In most trumpets and cornets, the compensation must be provided by extending the third valve slide with the third or fourth finger, and the first valve slide with the left hand thumb (see Trigger or throw below). This is used to lower the pitch of the 1–3 and 1–2–3 valve combinations. On the trumpet and cornet, these valve combinations correspond to low D, low C♯, low G, and low F♯, so chromatically, to stay in tune, one must use this method.

In instruments with a fourth valve, such as tubas, euphoniums, piccolo trumpets, etc. that valve lowers the pitch by a perfect fourth; this is used to compensate for the sharpness of the valve combinations 1–3 and 1–2–3 (4 replaces 1–3, 2–4 replaces 1–2–3). All three normal valves may be used in addition to the fourth to increase the instrument's range downwards by a perfect fourth, although with increasingly severe intonation problems.

When four-valved models without any kind of compensation play in the corresponding register, the sharpness becomes so severe that players must finger the note a half-step below the one they are trying to play. This eliminates the note a half-step above their open fundamental.

Manufacturers of low brass instruments may choose one or a combination of four basic approaches to compensate for the tuning difficulties, whose respective merits are subject to debate:

Compensation system
In the Compensation system, each of the first two (or three) valves has an additional set of tubing extending from the back of the valve. When the third (or fourth) valve is depressed in combination with another one, the air is routed through both the usual set of tubing plus the extra one, so that the pitch is lowered by an appropriate amount. This allows compensating instruments to play with accurate intonation in the octave below their open second partial, which is critical for tubas and euphoniums in much of their repertoire.

The compensating system was applied to horns to serve a different purpose. It was used to allow a double horn in F and B♭ to ease playing difficulties in the high register. In contrast to the system in use in tubas and euphoniums, the default 'side' of the horn is the longer F horn, with secondary lengths of tubing coming into play when the first, second or third valves are pressed; pressing the thumb valve takes these secondary valve slides and the extra length of main tubing out of play to produce a shorter B♭ horn. A later "full double" design has completely separate valve section tubing for the two sides, and is considered superior, although rather heavier in weight.

Additional valves
Initially, compensated instruments tended to sound stuffy and blow less freely due to the air being doubled back through the main valves. In early designs, this led to sharp bends in the tubing and other obstructions of the air-flow. Some manufacturers therefore preferred adding more 'straight' valves instead, which for example could be pitched a little lower than the 2nd and 1st valves and were intended to be used instead of these in the respective valve combinations. While no longer featured in euphoniums for decades, many professional tubas are still built like this, with five valves being common on CC- and BB♭-tubas and five or six valves on F-tubas.

Compensating double horns can also suffer from the stuffiness resulting from the air being passed through the valve section twice, but as this really only affects the longer F side, a compensating double can be very useful for a 1st or 3rd horn player, who uses the F side less.

Additional sets of slides on each valve
Another approach was the addition of two sets of slides for different parts of the range. Some euphoniums and tubas were built like this, but today, this approach has become highly exotic for all instruments except horns, where it is the norm, usually in a double, sometimes even triple configuration.

Trigger or throw

Some valved brass instruments provide triggers or throws that manually lengthen (or, less commonly, shorten) the main tuning slide, a valve slide, or the main tubing. These mechanisms alter the pitch of notes that are naturally sharp in a specific register of the instrument, or shift the instrument to another playing range. Triggers and throws permit speedy adjustment while playing.

Trigger is used in two senses:
 * A trigger can be a mechanical lever that lengthens a slide when pressed in a contrary direction. Triggers are sprung in such a way that they return the slide to its original position when released.
 * The term "trigger" also describes a device engaging a valve to lengthen the main tubing, e.g. lowering the key of certain trombones from B♭ to F.

A throw is a simple metal grip for the player's finger or thumb, attached to a valve slide. The general term "throw" can describe a u-hook, a saddle (u-shaped grips), or a ring (ring-shape grip) in which a player's finger or thumb rests. A player extends a finger or thumb to lengthen a slide, and retracts the finger to return the slide to its original position.

Trumpet or cornet
Triggers or throws are sometimes found on the first valve slide. They are operated by the player's thumb and are used to adjust a large range of notes using the first valve, most notably the player's written top line F, the A above directly above that, and the B♭ above that. Other notes that require the first valve slide, but are not as problematic without it include the first line E, the F above that, the A above that, and the third line B♭.

Triggers or throws are often found on the third valve slide. They are operated by the player's fourth finger, and are used to adjust the lower D and C♯. Trumpets typically use throws, whilst cornets may have a throw or trigger.

Trombone
Trombone triggers are primarily but not exclusively installed on the F-trigger, bass, and contrabass trombones to alter the length of tubing, thus making certain ranges and pitches more accessible.

Euphoniums
A euphonium occasionally has a trigger on valves other than 2 (especially 3), although many professional quality euphoniums, and indeed other brass band instruments, have a trigger for the main tuning slide.

Mechanism
The two major types of valve mechanisms are rotary valves and piston valves. The first piston valve instruments were developed just after the start of the 19th century. The Stölzel valve (invented by Heinrich Stölzel in 1814) was an early variety. In the mid 19th century the Vienna valve was an improved design. However many professional musicians preferred rotary valves for quicker, more reliable action, until better designs of piston valves were mass manufactured towards the end of the 19th century. Since the early decades of the 20th century, piston valves have been the most common on brass instruments except for the orchestral horn and the tuba. See also the article Brass Instrument Valves.

Sound production in brass instruments
Because the player of a brass instrument has direct control of the prime vibrator (the lips), brass instruments exploit the player's ability to select the harmonic at which the instrument's column of air vibrates. By making the instrument about twice as long as the equivalent woodwind instrument and starting with the second harmonic, players can get a good range of notes simply by varying the tension of their lips (see embouchure).

Most brass instruments are fitted with a removable mouthpiece. Different shapes, sizes and styles of mouthpiece may be used to suit different embouchures, or to more easily produce certain tonal characteristics. Trumpets, trombones, and tubas are characteristically fitted with a cupped mouthpiece, while horns are fitted with a conical mouthpiece.

One interesting difference between a woodwind instrument and a brass instrument is that woodwind instruments are non-directional. This means that the sound produced propagates in all directions with approximately equal volume. Brass instruments, on the other hand, are highly directional, with most of the sound produced traveling straight outward from the bell. This difference makes it significantly more difficult to record a brass instrument accurately. It also plays a major role in some performance situations, such as in marching bands.

Metal
Traditionally the instruments are normally made of brass, polished and then lacquered to prevent corrosion. Some higher quality and higher cost instruments use gold or silver plating to prevent corrosion.

Alternatives to brass include other alloys containing significant amounts of copper or silver. These alloys are biostatic due to the oligodynamic effect, and thus suppress growth of molds, fungi or bacteria. Brass instruments constructed from stainless steel or aluminium have good sound quality but are rapidly colonized by microorganisms and become unpleasant to play.

Most higher quality instruments are designed to prevent or reduce galvanic corrosion between any steel in the valves and springs, and the brass of the tubing. This may take the form of desiccant design, to keep the valves dry, sacrificial zincs, replaceable valve cores and springs, plastic insulating washers, or nonconductive or noble materials for the valve cores and springs. Some instruments use several such features.

The process of making the large open end (bell) of a brass instrument is called metal beating. In making the bell of, for example, a trumpet, a person lays out a pattern and shapes sheet metal into a bell-shape using templates, machine tools, handtools, and blueprints. The maker cuts out the bell blank, using hand or power shears. He hammers the blank over a bell-shaped mandrel, and butts the seam, using a notching tool. The seam is brazed, using a torch and smoothed using a hammer or file. A draw bench or arbor press equipped with expandable lead plug is used to shape and smooth the bell and bell neck over a mandrel. A lathe is used to spin the bell head and to form a bead at the edge of bell head. Previously shaped bell necks are annealed, using a hand torch to soften the metal for further bending. Scratches are removed from the bell using abrasive-coated cloth.

Other materials
A few specialty instruments are made from wood.

Instruments made mostly from plastic emerged in the 2010s as a cheaper and more robust alternative to brass. Plastic instruments could come in almost any colour. The sound plastic instruments produce is different from the one of brass, lacquer, gold or silver. While originally seen as a gimmick, these plastic models have found increasing popularity during the last decade and are now viewed as practice tools that make for more convenient travel as well as a cheaper option for beginning players.

Ensembles
Brass instruments are one of the major classical instrument families and are played across a range of musical ensembles.

Orchestras include a varying number of brass instruments depending on music style and era, typically:
 * two to three trumpets
 * two to four French horns
 * two tenor trombones
 * one bass trombone
 * one tuba
 * Baroque and classical period orchestras may include valveless trumpets or bugles, or have valved trumpets/cornets playing these parts, and they may include valveless horns, or have valved horns playing these parts.
 * Romantic, modern, and contemporary orchestras may include larger numbers of brass including more exotic instruments.

Concert bands generally have a larger brass section than an orchestra, typically:
 * four to six trumpets or cornets
 * four French horns
 * two to four tenor trombones
 * one to two bass trombones
 * two to three euphoniums or baritone horns
 * two to three tubas

British brass bands are made up entirely of brass, mostly conical bore instruments. Typical membership is:
 * one soprano cornet
 * nine cornets
 * one flugelhorn
 * three tenor (alto) horns
 * two baritone horns
 * two tenor trombones
 * one bass trombone
 * two euphoniums
 * two E♭ tubas
 * two B♭ tubas

Quintets are common small brass ensembles; a quintet typically contains:
 * two trumpets
 * one horn
 * one trombone
 * one tuba or bass trombone

Big bands and other jazz bands commonly contain cylindrical bore brass instruments.
 * A big band typically includes:
 * four trumpets
 * four tenor trombones
 * one bass trombone (in place of one of the tenor trombones)
 * Smaller jazz ensembles may include a single trumpet or trombone soloist.

Mexican bandas have:
 * three trumpets
 * three trombones
 * two alto horns, also called "charchetas" and "saxores"
 * one sousaphone, called "tuba"

Single brass instruments are also often used to accompany other instruments or ensembles such as an organ or a choir.

title: Brass instrument