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Second Polish Republic

The Second Polish Republic, at the time officially known as the Republic of Poland, was a country in Central and Eastern Europe that existed between 7 October 1918 and 6 October 1939. The state was established in the final stage of World War I. The Second Republic ceased to exist in 1939, after Poland was invaded by Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, and the Slovak Republic, marking the beginning of the European theatre of the Second World War. The Polish government-in-exile was established in Paris and later London after the fall of France in 1940.

When, after several regional conflicts, most importantly the victorious Polish-Soviet war, the borders of the state were finalised in 1922, Poland's neighbours were Czechoslovakia, Germany, the Free City of Danzig, Lithuania, Latvia, Romania and the Soviet Union. It had access to the Baltic Sea via a short strip of coastline known as the Polish Corridor on either side of the city of Gdynia. Between March and August 1939, Poland also shared a border with the then-Hungarian governorate of Subcarpathia. In 1938, the Second Republic was the sixth largest country in Europe. According to the 1921 census, the number of inhabitants was 25.7 million. By 1939, just before the outbreak of World War II, this had grown to an estimated 35.1 million. Almost a third of the population came from minority groups: 13.9% Ukrainians; 10% Ashkenazi Jews; 3.1% Belarusians; 2.3% Germans and 3.4% Czechs and Lithuanians. At the same time, a significant number of ethnic Poles lived outside the country's borders.

The Second Republic maintained moderate economic development. The cultural hubs of interwar Poland – Warsaw, Kraków, Poznań, Wilno, and Lwów – became major European cities and the sites of internationally acclaimed universities and other institutions of higher education. Although Polish Jews were some of the biggest supporters of Second Republic leader Józef Piłsudski, even after he returned to politics and staged a coup in 1926, after his death in 1935 Pilsudskites ruling the Republic began to openly discriminate against its Jewish (and, to a lesser extent, its Ukrainian) citizens, restricting Jewish entry into professions and placing limitations on Jewish businesses.

Name
The official name of the state was the Republic of Poland. In the Polish language, it was referred to as Rzeczpospolita Polska (abbr. RP), with the term Rzeczpospolita being a traditional name for the republic when referring to various Polish states, including the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (considered to be the First Polish Republic, Pierwsza Rzeczpospolita), and later, the current Third Polish Republic. In other regionally-used official languages, the state was referred to as: Republik Polen in German, Польська Республіка (transcription: Polʹsʹka Respublika) in Ukrainian, Польская Рэспубліка (transcription: Poĺskaja Respublika) in Belarusian, and Lenkijos Respublika, in Lithuanian.

Between 14 November 1918 and 13 March 1919, the state was referred to in Polish as Republika Polska, instead of Rzeczpospolita Polska. Both terms mean the Republic; however, republika is a general term, while Rzeczpospolita traditionally refers exclusively to Polish states. Additionally, between 8 November 1918 and 16 August 1919, the Journal of Laws of the State of Poland referred to the country as the State of Poland (Polish: Państwo Polskie).

Following the end of the Second World War, and the establishment of the later states of the Polish People's Republic and the Third Polish Republic, the historical state is referred to as the Second Polish Republic. In the Polish language, the country is traditionally referred to as II Rzeczpospolita (Druga Rzeczpospolita), which means the Second Republic.

Background
After more than a century of partitions between the Austrian, the Prussian, and the Russian imperial powers, Poland re-emerged as a sovereign state at the end of the First World War in Europe in 1917–1918. The victorious Allies of the First World War confirmed the rebirth of Poland in the Treaty of Versailles of June 1919. It was one of the great stories of the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. Poland solidified its independence in a series of border wars fought by the newly formed Polish Army from 1918 to 1921. The extent of the eastern half of the interwar territory of Poland was settled diplomatically in 1922 and internationally recognised by the League of Nations.

End of the First World War
Over the course of the First World War (1914-1918), the German Empire gradually dominated the Eastern Front as the Imperial Russian Army fell back. German and Austro-Hungarian armies seized the Russian-ruled part of what became Poland. In a failed attempt to resolve the Polish question as quickly as possible, Berlin set up the puppet Kingdom of Poland on 14 January 1917, with a governing Provisional Council of State and (from 15 October 1917) a Regency Council (Rada Regencyjna Królestwa Polskiego). The Council administered the country under German auspices (see also Mitteleuropa), pending the election of a king. More than a month before Germany surrendered on 11 November 1918 and the war ended, the Regency Council had dissolved the Provisional Council of State and announced its intention to restore Polish independence (7 October 1918). With the notable exception of the Marxist-oriented Social Democratic Party of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (SDKPiL), most Polish political parties supported this move. On 23 October the Regency Council appointed a new government under Józef Świeżyński and began conscription into the Polish Army.

Formation of the Republic

In 1918–1919, over 100 workers' councils sprang up on Polish territories; on 5 November 1918, in Lublin, the first Soviet of Delegates was established. On 6 November socialists proclaimed the Republic of Tarnobrzeg at Tarnobrzeg in Austrian Galicia. The same day the Socialist, Ignacy Daszyński, set up a Provisional People's Government of the Republic of Poland (Tymczasowy Rząd Ludowy Republiki Polskiej) in Lublin. On Sunday, 10 November at 7 a.m., Józef Piłsudski, newly freed from 16 months in a German prison in Magdeburg, returned by train to Warsaw. Piłsudski, together with Colonel Kazimierz Sosnkowski, was greeted at Warsaw's railway station by Regent Zdzisław Lubomirski and by Colonel Adam Koc. Next day, due to his popularity and support from most political parties, the Regency Council appointed Piłsudski as Commander in Chief of the Polish Armed Forces. On 14 November, the Council dissolved itself and transferred all its authority to Piłsudski as Chief of State (Naczelnik Państwa). After consultation with Piłsudski, Daszyński's government dissolved itself and a new government formed under Jędrzej Moraczewski. In 1918, the Kingdom of Italy became the first country in Europe to recognise Poland's renewed sovereignty.

Centres of government that formed at that time in Galicia (formerly Austrian-ruled southern Poland) included the National Council of the Principality of Cieszyn (established in November 1918), the Republic of Zakopane and the Polish Liquidation Committee (28 October). Soon afterward, the Polish–Ukrainian War broke out in Lwów (1 November 1918) between forces of the Military Committee of Ukrainians and the Polish irregular units made up of students known as the Lwów Eaglets, who were later supported by the Polish Army (see Battle of Lwów (1918), Battle of Przemyśl (1918)). Meanwhile, in western Poland, another war of national liberation began under the banner of the Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919). In January 1919, Czechoslovak forces attacked Polish units in the area of Trans-Olza (see Polish–Czechoslovak War). Soon afterwards, the Polish–Lithuanian War (ca 1919–1920) began, and, in August 1919, Polish-speaking residents of Upper Silesia initiated a series of three Silesian Uprisings. The most critical military conflict of that period, however, the Polish–Soviet War (1919-1921), ended in a decisive Polish victory.

Politics and government

The Second Polish Republic was a parliamentary democracy from 1919 (see Small Constitution of 1919) to 1926, with the President having limited powers. The Parliament elected him, and he could appoint the Prime Minister as well as the government with the Sejm's (lower house's) approval, but he could only dissolve the Sejm with the Senate's consent. Moreover, his power to pass decrees was limited by the requirement that the Prime Minister and the appropriate other Minister had to verify his decrees with their signatures. Poland was one of the first countries in the world to recognise women's suffrage. Women in Poland were granted the right to vote on 28 November 1918 by a decree of General Józef Piłsudski.

The major political parties at this time were the Polish Socialist Party, National Democrats, various Peasant Parties, Christian Democrats, and political groups of ethnic minorities (German: German Social Democratic Party of Poland, Jewish: General Jewish Labour Bund in Poland, United Jewish Socialist Workers Party, and Ukrainian: Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance). Frequently changing governments (see 1919 Polish legislative election, 1922 Polish legislative election) and other negative publicity the politicians received (such as accusations of corruption or the 1919 Polish coup attempt), made them increasingly unpopular. Major politicians at this time, in addition to General Piłsudski, included peasant activist Wincenty Witos (Prime Minister three times) and right-wing leader Roman Dmowski. Ethnic minorities were represented in the Sejm; e.g. in 1928 – 1930 there was the Ukrainian-Belarusian Club, with 26 Ukrainian and 4 Belarusian members.

After the Polish–Soviet War, Marshal Piłsudski led an intentionally modest life, writing historical books for a living. After he took power through a military coup in May 1926, he emphasised that he wanted to heal Polish society and politics of excessive partisan politics. His regime, accordingly, was called Sanacja in Polish. The 1928 parliamentary elections were still considered free and fair, although the pro-Piłsudski Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government won them. The following three parliamentary elections (in 1930, 1935 and 1938) were manipulated, with opposition activists sent to Bereza Kartuska prison (see also Brest trials). As a result, the pro-government party Camp of National Unity won huge majorities in them. Piłsudski died just after an authoritarian constitution was approved in the spring of 1935. During the last four years of the Second Polish Republic, the major politicians included President Ignacy Mościcki, Foreign Minister Józef Beck and the Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army, Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły. The country was divided into 104 electoral districts, and those politicians who were forced to leave Poland founded Front Morges in 1936. The government that ruled the Second Polish Republic in its final years is frequently referred to as Piłsudski's colonels. {|width="98%" {{hidden |headerstyle=width: 100%; background: #EFEFEF; |header=Presidents and Prime ministers (November 1918 – September 1939){{space|5}} |content= {{Polish statehood}}

Chief of State

 * Józef Piłsudski (22 November 1918 – 9 December 1922)

Presidents

 * Gabriel Narutowicz (9 December 1922 – 16 December 1922)
 * Stanisław Wojciechowski: 20 December 1922 – 14 May 1926)
 * Ignacy Mościcki – 1 June 1926 – 30 September 1939)
 * Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski – 1 October 1939)

Prime ministers
}}
 * Jędrzej Moraczewski (18 November 1918 – 16 January 1919)
 * Ignacy Paderewski (18 January 1919 – 27 November 1919)
 * Leopold Skulski (13 December 1919 – 9 June 1920)
 * Władysław Grabski (27 June 1920 – 24 July 1920)
 * Wincenty Witos (24 July 1920 – 13 September 1921)
 * Antoni Ponikowski (19 September 1921 – 5 March 1922)
 * Antoni Ponikowski (10 March 1922 – 6 June 1922)
 * Artur Śliwiński (28 June 1922 – 7 July 1922)
 * Wojciech Korfanty (14 July 1922 – 31 July 1922)
 * Julian Nowak (31 July 1922 – 14 December 1922)
 * Władysław Sikorski (16 December 1922 – 26 May 1923)
 * Wincenty Witos (28 May 1923 – 14 December 1923)
 * Władysław Grabski (19 December 1923 – 14 November 1925)
 * Aleksander Skrzyński (20 November 1925 – 5 May 1926)
 * Wincenty Witos (10 May 1926 – 14 May 1926)
 * Kazimierz Bartel (15 May 1926 – 4 June 1926)
 * Kazimierz Bartel (8 June 1926 – 24 September 1926)
 * Kazimierz Bartel (27 September 1926 – 30 September 1926)
 * Józef Piłsudski (2 October 1926 – 27 June 1928)
 * Kazimierz Bartel (27 June 1928 – 13 April 1929)
 * Kazimierz Świtalski (14 April 1929 – 7 December 1929)
 * Kazimierz Bartel (29 December 1929 – 15 March 1930)
 * Walery Sławek (29 March 1930 – 23 August 1930)
 * Józef Piłsudski (25 August 1930 – 4 December 1930)
 * Walery Sławek (4 December 1930 – 26 May 1931)
 * Aleksander Prystor (27 May 1931 – 9 May 1933)
 * Janusz Jędrzejewicz (10 May 1933 – 13 May 1934)
 * Leon Kozłowski (15 May 1934 – 28 March 1935)
 * Walery Sławek (28 March 1935 – 12 October 1935)
 * Marian Zyndram-Kościałkowski (13 October 1935 – 15 May 1936)
 * Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski (15 May 1936 – 30 September 1939)
 * }

Military

Interwar Poland had a large army of 270,000 soldiers on active duty: in 37 infantry divisions, 11 cavalry brigades, and two armored brigades, plus artillery units. Another 700,000 men served in the reserves. At the outbreak of the war, the Polish Army was able to put in the field almost one million soldiers, 4,300 guns, around 1,000 armored vehicles including in between 200 and 300 tanks (the majority of the armored vehicles were outclassed tankettes) and 745 aircraft (however, only around 450 of them were bombers and fighters available to fight as of 1 September 1939).

The training of the Polish Army was thorough. The non-commissioned officers were a competent body of men with expert knowledge and high ideals. The officers, both senior and junior, constantly refreshed their training in the field and in the lecture hall, where modern technical achievement and the lessons of contemporary wars were demonstrated and discussed. The equipment of the Polish Army was less developed technically than that of Nazi Germany and its rearmament was slowed by confidence in Western European military support and by budget difficulties.

The Polish command system at the level of the entire Polish military and the armies was obsolete. The generals in command of armies had to ask permission from the high command. The Polish military attempted to organize fronts made of army groups only when it was already too late during the Polish Defensive War in 1939.

Economy

After regaining its independence, Poland was faced with major economic difficulties. In addition to the devastation brought by the First World War, the exploitation of the Polish economy by the German and Russian occupying powers, and the sabotage performed by retreating armies, the new republic was faced with the task of economically unifying disparate economic regions, which had previously been part of different countries and different empires. Within the borders of the Republic were the remnants of three different economic systems, with five different currencies (the German mark, the Imperial Russian rouble, the Austrian krone, the Polish marka and the Ostrubel) and with little or no direct infrastructural links. The situation was so bad that neighbouring industrial centres, as well as major cities, lacked direct railway links because they had been parts of different jurisdictions and different empires. For example, there was no direct railway connection between Warsaw and Kraków until 1934. This situation was described by Melchior Wańkowicz in his book Sztafeta.

In addition to this was the massive destruction left after both the First World War and the Polish–Soviet War. There was also a great economic disparity between the eastern (commonly called Poland B) and western (called Poland A) parts of the country, with the western half, especially areas that had belonged to Prussia and the German Empire, being much more developed and prosperous. Frequent border closures and a customs war with Germany also had negative economic impacts on Poland. In 1924, Prime Minister Władysław Grabski, who was also the Economic Minister, introduced the złoty as a single common currency for Poland (replacing the marka), which remained a stable currency. The currency helped Poland to control the massive hyperinflation. It was the only country in Europe able to do this without foreign loans or aid. The average annual growth rate (GDP per capita) was 5.24% in 1920–29 and 0.34% in 1929–38.

Hostile relations with neighbours were a major problem for the economy of interbellum Poland. In the year 1937, foreign trade with all neighbours amounted to only 21% of Poland's total. Trade with Germany, Poland's most important neighbour, accounted for 14.3% of Polish exchange. Foreign trade with the Soviet Union (0.8%) was virtually nonexistent. Czechoslovakia accounted for 3.9%, Latvia for 0.3%, and Romania for 0.8%. By mid-1938, after the Anschluss with Austria, Greater Germany was responsible for as much as 23% of Polish foreign trade.

Piłsudski's regime followed the conservative free-market economic tradition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth throughout its existence. Poland had one of the lowest taxation rates in Europe, with 9.3% of taxes as a distribution of national income. Piłsudski's regime was also heavily dependent on foreign investments and economies, with 45.4% of Polish equity capital controlled by foreign corporations. After the Great Depression, the Polish economy crumbled and failed to recover until Ignacy Mościcki's government introduced economic reforms with more government interventions with an increase in tax revenues and public spending after Piłsudski's death. These interventionist policies saw Poland's economy recover from the recession.

The basis of Poland's gradual recovery after the Great Depression was the mass economic development plans of the new government (see Four Year Plan) under economist Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski, which oversaw the building of three key infrastructural elements. The first was the establishment of the Gdynia seaport, which allowed Poland to completely bypass Gdańsk (which was under heavy German pressure to boycott Polish coal exports). The second was construction of the 500-kilometre rail connection between Upper Silesia and Gdynia, called the Polish Coal Trunk-Line, which served freight trains with coal. The third was the creation of a central industrial district named COP – Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy (English: Central Industrial Region). Unfortunately, these developments were interrupted and largely destroyed by the German and Soviet invasion and the start of the Second World War. Other achievements of interbellum Poland included Stalowa Wola (a brand new city, built in a forest around a steel mill), Mościce (now a district of Tarnów, with a large nitrate factory), and the creation of the central bank Bank Polski SA. There were several trade fairs, with the most popular being Poznań International Fair, Lwów's Targi Wschodnie, and Wilno's Targi Północne. Polish Radio had ten stations (see Radio stations in interwar Poland), with the eleventh one planned to be opened in the autumn of 1939. Furthermore, in 1935, Polish engineers began working on TV services. By early 1939, experts of the Polish Radio built four TV sets. The first movie broadcast by experimental Polish TV was Barbara Radziwiłłówna, and by 1940, a regular TV service was scheduled to begin operation.

Interbellum Poland was also a country with numerous social problems. Unemployment was high, and poverty in the countryside was widespread, which resulted in several cases of social unrest, such as the 1923 Kraków riot, and 1937 peasant strike in Poland. There were conflicts with national minorities, such as the Pacification of Ukrainians in Eastern Galicia (1930), relations with Polish neighbours were sometimes complicated (see Soviet raid on Stołpce, Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts, and the 1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania). On top of this, there were natural disasters, such as the 1934 flood in Poland.

Major industrial centres

Interbellum Poland was unofficially divided into two parts – better developed "Poland A" in the west, and underdeveloped "Poland B" in the east. Polish industry was concentrated in the west, mostly in Polish Upper Silesia, and the adjacent Lesser Poland's province of Zagłębie Dąbrowskie, where the bulk of coal mines and steel plants was located. Furthermore, heavy industry plants were located in Częstochowa (Huta Częstochowa, founded in 1896), Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski (Huta Ostrowiec, founded in 1837–1839), Stalowa Wola (brand new industrial city, which was built from scratch in 1937 – 1938), Chrzanów (Fablok, founded in 1919), Jaworzno, Trzebinia (oil refinery, opened in 1895), Łódź (the seat of Polish textile industry), Poznań (H. Cegielski – Poznań), Kraków and Warsaw (Ursus Factory). Further east, in Kresy, industrial centres included two major cities of the region – Lwów and Wilno (Elektrit).

Besides coal mining, Poland also had deposits of oil in Borysław, Drohobycz, Jasło and Gorlice (see Polmin), potassium salt (TESP), and basalt (Janowa Dolina). Apart from already-existing industrial areas, in the mid-1930s an ambitious, state-sponsored project called the Central Industrial Region was started under Minister Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski. One of the characteristic features of the Polish economy in the interbellum was the gradual nationalisation of major plants. This was the case for the Ursus Factory (see Państwowe Zakłady Inżynieryjne) and several steelworks, such as Huta Pokój in Ruda Śląska – Nowy Bytom, Huta Królewska in Chorzów – Królewska Huta, Huta Laura in Siemianowice Śląskie, as well as Scheibler and Grohman Works in Łódź.

Transport

According to the 1939 Statistical Yearbook of Poland, the total length of the railways in Poland (as of 31 December 1937) was 20118 km. Rail density was 5.2 km per 100 km2. Railways were very dense in the western part of the country, while in the east, especially Polesie, rail was non-existent in some counties. During the interbellum period, the Polish Government constructed several new lines, mainly in the central part of the country (see also Polish State Railroads Summer 1939). Construction of the extensive Warszawa Główna railway station was never finished due to the war, while Polish railways were famous for their punctuality (see Luxtorpeda, Strzała Bałtyku, Latający Wilnianin).

In the interbellum, the road network of Poland was dense, but the quality of the roads was very poor – only 7% of all roads were paved and ready for automobile use, and none of the major cities were connected with each other by a good-quality highway. In 1939 the Poles built only one highway: 28 km of straight concrete road connecting the villages of Warlubie and Osiek (mid-northern Poland). It was designed by Italian engineer Piero Puricelli.

In the mid-1930s, Poland had 340000 km of roads, but only 58,000 had a hard surface (gravel, cobblestone or sett), and 2,500 were modern, with an asphalt or concrete surface. In different parts of the country, there were sections of paved roads, which suddenly ended, and were followed by dirt roads. The poor condition of the roads was the result of both long-lasting foreign dominance and inadequate funding. On 29 January 1931, the Polish Parliament created the State Road Fund, the purpose of which was to collect money for the construction and conservation of roads. The government drafted a 10-year plan, with road priorities: a highway from Wilno, through Warsaw and Kraków, to Zakopane (called Marshal Piłsudski Highway), asphalt highways from Warsaw to Poznań and Łódź, as well as a Warsaw ring road. However, the plan turned out to be too ambitious, with insufficient money in the national budget to pay for it. In January 1938, the Polish Road Congress estimated that Poland would need to spend three times as much money on roads to keep up with Western Europe.

In 1939, before the outbreak of the war, LOT Polish Airlines, which was established in 1929, had its hub at Warsaw Okęcie Airport. At that time, LOT maintained several services, both domestic and international. Warsaw had regular domestic connections with Gdynia-Rumia, Danzig-Langfuhr, Katowice-Muchowiec, Kraków-Rakowice-Czyżyny, Lwów-Skniłów, Poznań-Ławica, and Wilno-Porubanek. Furthermore, in cooperation with Air France, LARES, Lufthansa, and Malert, international connections were maintained with Athens, Beirut, Berlin, Bucharest, Budapest, Helsinki, Kaunas, London, Paris, Prague, Riga, Rome, Tallinn, and Zagreb.

Agriculture

Statistically, the majority of citizens lived in the countryside (75% in 1921). Farmers made up 65% of the population. In 1929, agricultural production made up 65% of Poland's GNP. After 123 years of partitions, regions of the country were very unevenly developed. The lands of the former German Empire were the most advanced; in Greater Poland, Upper Silesia and Pomerelia, farming and crops were on a Western European level. The situation was much worse in parts of Congress Poland, the Eastern Borderlands, and what was formerly Galicia, where agriculture was quite backward and primitive, with a large number of small farms, unable to succeed in either the domestic or international market. Another problem was the overpopulation of the countryside, which resulted in chronic unemployment. Living conditions were so bad in several eastern regions, such as the counties inhabited by the Hutsul minority, that there was permanent starvation. Farmers rebelled against the government (see: 1937 peasant strike in Poland), and the situation began to change in the late 1930s, due to the construction of several factories for the Central Industrial Region, which gave employment to thousands of rural and small town residents.

German trade
Beginning in June 1925, there was a customs' war, with the revanchist Weimar Republic imposing a trade embargo against Poland for nearly a decade; it involved tariffs and broad economic restrictions. After 1933 the trade war ended. The new agreements regulated and promoted trade. Germany became Poland's largest trading partner, followed by Britain. In October 1938, Germany granted a credit of 60,000,000 RM to Poland (120,000,000 zloty, or £4,800,000) which was never realised, due to the outbreak of war. Germany would deliver factory equipment and machinery in return for Polish timber and agricultural produce. This new trade was to be in addition to the existing German-Polish trade agreements.

Education and culture

In 1919, the Polish government introduced compulsory education for all children aged 7 to 14, in an effort to limit illiteracy, which was widespread, especially in the former Russian Partition and the Austrian Partition of eastern Poland. In 1921, one-third of citizens of Poland remained illiterate (38% in the countryside). The process was slow, but by 1931 the illiteracy level had dropped to 23% overall (27% in the countryside) and further down to 18% in 1937. By 1939, over 90% of children attended school. In 1932, Janusz Jędrzejewicz, the Minister for Religion and Education, carried out a major reform which introduced two main levels of education: common school (szkoła powszechna), with three levels – 4 grades + 2 grades + 1 grade; and middle school (szkoła średnia), with two levels – 4 grades of comprehensive middle school and 2 grades of specified high school (classical, humanistic, natural and mathematical). A graduate of middle school received a small matura, while a graduate of high school received a big matura, which enabled them to seek university-level education.

Before 1918, Poland had three universities: Jagiellonian University, the University of Warsaw and Lwów University. The Catholic University of Lublin was established in 1918; Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, in 1919; and finally, in 1922, after the annexation of the Republic of Central Lithuania, Wilno University became the Republic's sixth university. There were also three technical colleges: the Warsaw University of Technology, Lwów Polytechnic and the AGH University of Science and Technology in Kraków, established in 1919. Warsaw University of Life Sciences was an agricultural institute. By 1939, there were around 50,000 students enrolled in further education. 28% of students at universities were women, which was the second highest share in Europe.

Polish science in the interbellum was renowned for its mathematicians gathered around the Lwów School of Mathematics, the Kraków School of Mathematics, as well as the Warsaw School of Mathematics. There were world-class philosophers in the Lwów–Warsaw school of logic and philosophy. Florian Znaniecki founded Polish sociological studies. Rudolf Weigl invented a vaccine against typhus. Bronisław Malinowski counted among the most important anthropologists of the 20th century. In Polish literature, the 1920s were marked by the domination of poetry. Polish poets were divided into two groups – the Skamanderites (Jan Lechoń, Julian Tuwim, Antoni Słonimski and Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz) and the Futurists (Anatol Stern, Bruno Jasieński, Aleksander Wat, Julian Przyboś). Apart from well-established novelists (Stefan Żeromski, Władysław Reymont), new names appeared in the interbellum – Zofia Nałkowska, Maria Dąbrowska, Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz, Jan Parandowski, Bruno Schultz, Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz, Witold Gombrowicz. Among other notable artists there were sculptor Xawery Dunikowski, painters Julian Fałat, Wojciech Kossak and Jacek Malczewski, composers Karol Szymanowski, Feliks Nowowiejski, and Artur Rubinstein, singer Jan Kiepura.

Theatre was immensely popular in the interbellum, with three main centres in the cities of Warsaw, Wilno and Lwów. Altogether, there were 103 theatres in Poland and a number of other theatrical institutions (including 100 folk theatres). In 1936, different shows were seen by 5 million people, and main figures of Polish theatre of the time were Juliusz Osterwa, Stefan Jaracz, and Leon Schiller. Also, before the outbreak of the war, there were approximately one million radios (see Radio stations in interwar Poland).

Administrative divisions
The administrative division of the Second Republic was based on a three-tier system, referring to the administrative division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. On the lowest rung were the gminy, local town and village governments akin to districts or parishes. These were then grouped together into powiaty (akin to counties), which, in turn, were grouped as województwa (voivodeships, akin to provinces). This administrative system passed into the modern Third Polish Republic.

Demographics
Historically, Poland was almost always a multiethnic country. This was especially true for the Second Republic, when independence was once again achieved in the wake of the First World War and the subsequent Polish–Soviet War, the latter war being officially ended by the Peace of Riga. The census of 1921 shows 30.8% of the population consisted of ethnic minorities, compared with a share of 1.6% (solely identifying with a non-Polish ethnic group) or 3.8% (including those identifying with both the Polish ethnicity and with another ethnic group) in 2011. The first spontaneous flight of about 500,000 Poles from the Soviet Union occurred during the reconstitution of sovereign Poland. In the second wave, between November 1919 and June 1924, some 1,200,000 people left the territory of the USSR for Poland. It is estimated that some 460,000 of them spoke Polish as the first language. According to the 1931 Polish Census: 68.9% of the population was Polish, 13.9% were Ukrainian, around 9% Jewish, 3.1% Belarusian, 2.3% German and 2.8% other, including Lithuanian, Czech, Armenian, Russian, and Romani. The situation of minorities was a complex subject and changed during the period.

Poland was also a nation of many religions. In 1921, 16,057,229 Poles (approx. 62.5%) were Roman (Latin) Catholics, 3,031,057 citizens of Poland (approx. 11.8%) were Eastern Rite Catholics (mostly Ukrainian Greek Catholics and Armenian Rite Catholics), 2,815,817 (approx. 10.95%) were Orthodox, 2,771,949 (approx. 10.8%) were Jewish, and 940,232 (approx. 3.7%) were Protestants (mostly Lutheran).

By 1931, Poland had the second largest Jewish population in the world, with one-fifth of all the world's Jews residing within its borders (approx. 3,136,000). The urban population of interbellum Poland was rising steadily; in 1921, only 24% of Poles lived in the cities, in the late 1930s, that proportion grew to 30%. In more than a decade, the population of Warsaw grew by 200,000, Łódź by 150,000, and Poznań – by 100,000. This was due not only to internal migration, but also to an extremely high birth rate.

Jews
From the 1920s, the Polish government excluded Jews from receiving government bank loans, public sector employment, and obtaining business licenses. From the 1930s, measures were taken against Jewish shops, Jewish export firms, Shechita as well as limitations being placed on Jewish admission to the medical and legal professions, Jews in business associations and the enrollment of Jews into universities. The political movement National Democracy (Endecja, from the abbreviation "ND") often organised anti-Jewish business boycotts. Following the death of Marshal Józef Piłsudski in 1935, the Endecja intensified their efforts, which triggered violence in extreme cases in smaller towns across the country. In 1937, the National Democracy movement passed resolutions that "its main aim and duty must be to remove the Jews from all spheres of social, economic, and cultural life in Poland". The government in response organised the Camp of National Unity (OZON), which in 1938 took control of the Polish Sejm and subsequently drafted anti-Semitic legislation similar to the Anti-Jewish laws in Germany, Hungary, and Romania. OZON advocated mass emigration of Jews from Poland, numerus clausus (see also Ghetto benches), and other limitations on Jewish rights. According to William W. Hagen, by 1939, prior to the war, Polish Jews were threatened with conditions similar to those in Nazi Germany.

Ukrainians
The pre-war government also restricted the rights of people who declared Ukrainian nationality, belonged to the Eastern Orthodox Church and inhabited the Eastern Borderlands of the Second Polish Republic. Ukrainian was restricted in every field possible, especially in governmental institutions, and the term "Ruthenian" was enforced in an attempt to ban the use of the term "Ukrainian". Ukrainians were categorised as uneducated second-class peasants or third world people, and rarely settled outside the Eastern Borderland region due to the prevailing Ukrainophobia and restrictions imposed. Numerous attempts at restoring the Ukrainian state were suppressed and any existent violence or terrorism initiated by the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists was emphasised to create the image of a "brutal Eastern savage".

Geography
The Second Polish Republic was mainly flat with an average elevation of 233 m above sea level, except for the southernmost Carpathian Mountains (after the Second World War and its border changes, the average elevation of Poland decreased to 173 m). Only 13% of territory, along the southern border, was higher than 300 m. The highest elevation in the country was Mount Rysy, which rises 2499 m in the Tatra Range of the Carpathians, approximately 95 km south of Kraków. Between October 1938 and September 1939, the highest elevation was Lodowy Szczyt (known in Slovak as Ľadový štít), which rises 2627 m above sea level. The largest lake was Lake Narach.

The country's total area, after the annexation of Trans-Olza, was 389720 km2. It extended 903 km from north to south and 894 km from east to west. On 1 January 1938, total length of boundaries was 5529 km, including: 140 km of coastline (out of which 71 km were made by the Hel Peninsula), the 1412 km with Soviet Union, 948 kilometers with Czechoslovakia (until 1938), 1912 km with Germany (together with East Prussia), and 1081 km with other countries (Lithuania, Romania, Latvia, Danzig). The warmest yearly average temperature was in Kraków among major cities of the Second Polish Republic, at 9.1 C in 1938; and the coldest in Wilno (7.6 C in 1938). Extreme geographical points of Poland included Przeświata River in Somino to the north (located in the Braslaw county of the Wilno Voivodeship); Manczin River to the south (located in the Kosów county of the Stanisławów Voivodeship); Spasibiorki near railway to Połock to the east (located in the Dzisna county of the Wilno Voivodeship); and Mukocinek near Warta River and Meszyn Lake to the west (located in the Międzychód county of the Poznań Voivodeship).

Waters
Almost 75% of the territory of interbellum Poland was drained northward into the Baltic Sea by the Vistula (total area of drainage basin of the Vistula within boundaries of the Second Polish Republic was 180300 km2, the Niemen (51600 km2), the Oder (46700 km2) and the Daugava (10400 km2). The remaining part of the country was drained southward, into the Black Sea, by the rivers that drain into the Dnieper (Pripyat, Horyn and Styr, all together 61500 km2) as well as Dniester (41400 km2)

Invasion of Poland in 1939

The beginning of the Second World War in September 1939 ended the sovereign Second Polish Republic. The German invasion of Poland began on 1 September 1939, one week after Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed the secret Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. On that day, Germany and Slovakia attacked Poland, and on 17 September the Soviets attacked eastern Poland. Warsaw fell to the Nazis on 28 September after a twenty-day siege. Open organised Polish resistance ended on 6 October 1939 after the Battle of Kock, with Germany and the Soviet Union occupying most of the country. Lithuania annexed the area of Wilno, and Slovakia seized areas along Poland's southern border – including Górna Orawa and Tatranská Javorina - which Poland had annexed from Czechoslovakia in October 1938. Poland did not surrender to the invaders, but continued fighting under the auspices of the Polish government-in-exile and of the Polish Underground State. After the signing of the German–Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Demarcation on 28 September 1939, Polish areas occupied by Nazi Germany either became directly incorporated into Nazi Germany, or became part of the General Government. The Soviet Union, following Elections to the People's Assemblies of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus (22 October 1939), annexed eastern Poland partly to the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, and partly to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (November 1939).

Polish war plans (Plan West and Plan East) failed as soon as Germany invaded in 1939. The Polish losses in combat against Germans (killed and missing in action) amounted to ca. 70,000 men. Some 420,000 of them were taken prisoners. Losses against the Red Army (which invaded Poland on 17 September) added up to 6,000 to 7,000 of casualties and MIA, 250,000 were taken prisoners. Although the Polish Army – considering the inactivity of the Allies – was in an unfavourable position – it managed to inflict serious losses to the enemies: 20,000 German soldiers were killed or MIA, 674 tanks and 319 armored vehicles destroyed or badly damaged, 230 aircraft shot down; the Red Army lost (killed and MIA) about 2,500 soldiers, 150 combat vehicles and 20 aircraft. The Soviet invasion of Poland, and lack of promised aid from the Western Allies, contributed to the Polish forces defeat by 6 October 1939.

A popular myth is that Polish cavalry armed with lances charged German tanks during the September 1939 campaign. This often repeated account, first reported by Italian journalists as German propaganda, concerned an action by the Polish 18th Lancer Regiment near Chojnice. This arose from misreporting of a single clash on 1 September 1939 near Krojanty, when two squadrons of the Polish 18th Lancers armed with sabers surprised and wiped out a German infantry formation with a mounted saber charge. Shortly after midnight the 2nd (Motorized) Division was compelled to withdraw by Polish cavalry, before the Poles were caught in the open by German armored cars. The story arose because some German armored cars appeared and gunned down 20 troopers as the cavalry escaped. Even this failed to persuade everyone to reexamine their beliefs—there were some who thought Polish cavalry had been improperly employed in 1939.

Between 1945 and 1990, the Polish government-in-exile operated in London, presenting itself as the only legal and legitimate representative of the Polish nation and challenging the legitimacy of the communist government in Warsaw 1990, the last president in exile, Ryszard Kaczorowski, handed the presidential insignia to the newly elected President, Lech Wałęsa, signifying continuity between the Second and Third republics.

Politics and diplomacy

 * Cienciala, Anna M. "The Foreign Policy of Józef Pi£sudski and Józef Beck, 1926–1939: Misconceptions and Interpretations", The Polish Review (2011) 56#1 pp. 111–151; earlier version.
 * Cienciala, Anna M. (1968), Poland the Western Powers, 1938–1939. A Study in the Interdependence of Eastern and Western Europe. PDF, Kansas U. Press.
 * Cienciala, Anna M., and Titus Komarnicki (1984), From Versailles to Locarno, Keys to Polish Foreign Policy, 1919–1925 PDF, Kansas U. Press.
 * Drzewieniecki, Walter M. "The Polish Army on the Eve of World War II", Polish Review (1981) 26#3 pp 54–64.
 * Garlicki, Andrzej. Józef Piłsudski, 1867–1935 (New York: Scolar Press 1995), scholarly biography; one-vol version of 4 vol Polish edition
 * Hetherington, Peter. Unvanquished: Joseph Pilsudski, Resurrected Poland, and the Struggle for Eastern Europe (2012) 752pp excerpt and text search
 * Jędrzejewicz, W. Piłsudski. A Life for Poland (1982), scholarly biography
 * Kantorosinski, Zbigniew. Emblem of Good Will: a Polish Declaration of Admiration and Friendship for the United States of America. Washington, DC: Library of Congress (1997)
 * Polonsky, A. Politics in Independent Poland, 1921–1939: The Crisis of Constitutional Government (1972)
 * Riekhoff, H. von.  German-Polish Relations, 1918–1933 (Johns Hopkins University Press 1971)
 * Rothschild, J. Piłsudski's Coup d'État (New York: Columbia University Press 1966)
 * Wandycz, P. S. Polish Diplomacy 1914–1945: Aims and Achievements (1988)
 * Wandycz, P. S. Soviet-Polish Relations, 1917–1921 (Harvard University Press 1969)
 * Wandycz, P. S. The United States and Poland (1980)
 * Zamoyski, Adam. Warsaw 1920: Lenin's Failed Conquest of Europe (2008) excerpt and text search
 * Zimmerman, Joshua D. Jozef Pilsudski: Founding Father of Modern Poland (Harvard University Press, 2022) online review

Social and economic topics

 * Abramsky, C. et al. eds. The Jews in Poland (Oxford: Blackwell 1986)
 * Blanke, R. Orphans of Versailles. The Germans in Western Poland, 1918–1939 (1993)
 * Gutman, Y. et al. eds. The Jews of Poland Between Two World Wars (1989).
 * Landau, Z. and Tomaszewski, J. The Polish Economy in the Twentieth Century (Routledge, 1985)
 * Moklak, Jaroslaw. The Lemko Region in the Second Polish Republic: Political and Interdenominational Issues 1918–1939 (2013); covers Old Rusyns, Moscophiles and National Movement Activists, & the political role of the Greek Catholic and Orthodox Churches
 * Olszewski, A. K. An Outline of Polish Art and Architecture, 1890–1980 (Warsaw: Interpress 1989.)
 * Roszkowski, W. Landowners in Poland, 1918–1939 (Cambridge University Press, 1991)
 * Staniewicz, Witold. "The Agrarian Problem in Poland between the Two World Wars", Slavonic and East European Review (1964) 43#100 pp. 23–33.
 * Taylor, J. J. The Economic Development of Poland, 1919–1950 (Cornell University Press 1952)
 * Wynot, E. D. Warsaw Between the Wars. Profile of the Capital City in a Developing Land, 1918–1939 (1983)
 * Żółtowski, A. Border of Europe. A Study of the Polish Eastern Provinces (London: Hollis & Carter 1950)
 * Eva Plach, "Dogs and dog breeding in interwar Poland", Canadian Slavonic Papers 60. no 3–4

Historiography

 * Kenney, Padraic. "After the Blank Spots Are Filled: Recent Perspectives on Modern Poland", Journal of Modern History (2007) 79#1 pp. 134–61, in JSTOR
 * Polonsky, Antony. "The History of Inter-War Poland Today", Survey (1970) pp. 143–159.

title: Second Polish Republic


text:
Hedwig

Hedwig may refer to:

People and fictional characters

 * Hedwig (given name), a list of people and fictional characters with the given name
 * Grzegorz Hedwig (born 1988), Polish slalom canoeist
 * Johann Hedwig, (1730–1799), German botanist
 * Romanus Adolf Hedwig (1772–1806), German botanist, son of Johann Hedwig

Other uses

 * Hedwig Fountain, a fountain in Zürich, Switzerland
 * Hedwig glass, a type of glass
 * Hedwig, code name of Red Hat Linux version 6.0, released in 1999
 * 476 Hedwig, a main-belt asteroid

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hedwig


text:
Talk:Holy orders

Other denominations
What about Holy Orders in Eastern Orthodoxy? Or Holy Orders in Anglicanism?

 * This is Wikipedia. Put in a subhead and start typing.  I started with what I know best, and people added things. (Notice that the entry makes no claims to completeness even for Catholicism - it says 'in modern Catholicism'.  I hope we'll get the history eventually). --MichaelTinkler
 * I would -- except I don't know anything about them, and I am too lazy to do any research myself :) I was just hoping someone else might know, and chime in...

Priestly ideals
The article says:

 * Not all priests have lived up to these ideals: see Catholic priests' sex abuse scandal.

Catholic priests have broken every commandment. There have been mass murderers among them, serial adulterers, thieves and con-artists. In past centuries indulgences (forgiveness) was sold. And what about the Spanish Inquisition?

Yet several articles about the Catholic Church here at Wikipedia mention none of that but with unseemly prurient interest they mention at the slightest excuse the recent sex abuse scandals.

I am inclined to remove the remark I have quoted. Would I be right to do so?

Ok, new user. Forgive my lack of computer skills. Yes, I agree priests have broken all the commandments. But that needs to stay seperate from the theology of Holy Orders. The one is not the same as the other, though of course evil, esp in God's minister, effects not only the doer, but all people as well.

Dave

Psb777 11:32, 30 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Holy Orders in Eastern Orthodoxy
On the subject of Holy Orders in the Eastern Orthodox Church there is an error, though one that is commonly made, and is even in some books. The article says that one is tonsured to the rank of reader and subdeacon, and this phrase is used in common speech, though it is not technically correct. The tonsure occures prior to the ordination of a man to the rank of reader. He is ordained a reader by the laying on of hand of the celebrant ( which is normally a bishop, though for these lesser orders an archimandrite or abbot may perform this ordination). The ordinand is then latter ordained to the rank of subdeacon by laying of of hands. In the Greek a distinction is made in these two types of ordinations. The lesser form is called chirothesis ( for minor orders) and the greater one is called chirotony ( for major orders). This may be an arcane point, but it is very significant and I would like to hear some feedback before I make any changes. I am new and I don't wish to step on any toes.

--Frmaximos 03:50, Sep 10, 2004 (UTC)

problem with researching religion
people make the hugest emphases on the smallest details, therefore making it nearly impossible to absorb everything they say. to put it bluntly, its extremely boring. im doing a project on the history of religious orders and i nearly fall asleep when reading pages about it. i wish everything could be more clear and concise. on christianity- yes there are many faults with the religion, for example, if God created adam and eve, and they were perfect, why did they eat the forbidden fruit (which is never identified as an apple in the bible). we also come to the question why is there evil in the world? if god is a loving being why did he put evil in the world and why does he allow the innocent to die (helpless babies etc.) yes of course there is the common saying that it was meant to happen, but who wants a god that ordains the death of their family? these same imperfections plague the church as well. we cant expect them to be perfect because they are human. to me, christianity is an example of how powerful the mind is, if you catch my drift. look at what we can make ourselves believe. to make it fair, this is applicable to all religions, excluding buddhism. buddhism has been called the "perfection of natural religion", one that focuses on the power found inside of ones self instead of outside in some nonexistent (opinion) being.

some philisophical questions

what is truth what is evil can god create a rock he cant lift?

my name is Sky, skyd@culver.org, aim:culverpolopimp feel free to respond.

by the way, as i have just learned anyone can make a post on this page by clicking the plus (+) tab at the top of the page.

TUESDAY OCTOBER 19th 2004

hello I like you

December 6

Thomas' Summa Theologiae answers some of your questions. Here is my shot at it. truth is what IS, not what we want it to be. We can know truth, but not all truth all at once.

What is evil? Other than a lack of good? I would suggest a lack, period. Evil is nothing where there should be something.

Last, it depends what you mean by lift.

Dave

Ordination for Women
In today's evangelistic organizations, women are ordained as a matter of course. All it takes is a desire to be a minister and a willingness to serve other's in His name. While some organizations require a college degree and years of study, other organizations will ordain for the asking. In each it is up to the degree of study or time one wants to put into it.

Many 'organized' churches also ordain women who feel called to minister to others in that capacity. While some differentiate on what a woman can do in that capacity, many don't.

 * I'm not clear on what you mean by "evangelistic organizations." Parachurch organizations? Denominational missionary agencies? Please feel free to expand the section on the ordination of women, but be sure to specify when and where your comments apply. If you do plan to expand it, you might want to create a user account so your name doesn't appear as your address "12.216.83.20." --Flex 14:53, 3 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Didn't the Anglicans recently change their rules so that women could be bishops, and even archbishops? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 207.195.79.174 (talk) 16:45, 9 August 2009 (UTC)

holy orders & ministry
Whilst the entry I added could go under the definition, it is more introductory than definitional. It would IMO unbalance that definition. If the Article was Ordination rather than holy orders then it would be easier. Paul foord 01:29, 14 May 2005 (UTC)

seperate ordiantion entry
The entry for ordiantion redirects here and that's not correct since this article forms part of the series Christianity. Not all ordiantions are Christian, and this article is really mostly slanted towards the Catholic church.

"Priest" etymology
This article is the very first time anywhere I've seen it mentioned that "priest" might be derived from the Latin "praepositus". As far as I know, Christian priests have never been called that, not even in Rome, and in Greek they're called "presbyteros" to this day, so this etymology seems unlikely at best. Is there a reference for it anywhere? Csernica 04:17, 12 July 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree. I've always understood the term to have developed similarly to presbyterate and presbyter. Then again, I've been wrong before. -- Essjay ·  Talk 05:16, July 12, 2005 (UTC)

 * From what I understand, the etymology is somewhat uncertain. The American Heritage Dictionary entry seems to confirm this: "Middle English preost, from Old English prost, perhaps from Vulgar Latin *prester (from Late Latin presbyter; see presbyter) or from West Germanic *prvost (from Latin praepositus, superintendent; see provost)." --Flex 14:01, July 12, 2005 (UTC)

 * Again, first I've ever heard of this. I'll check the OED when I have a chance. Is there any evidence anywhere, I wonder, for Christain priests ever having been called "praepositus"? They were certanly called "prester" at one time. Csernica 20:41, 12 July 2005 (UTC)

Two small changes
Careful readers will note two small chages under Catholic holy orders. They are orders, not degrees of ordination. This is often confused, but the rite ordains one to an order.

Second, while Leo 13 did declare Anglian orders null, it has never been taught infallibly. Theoretically, the Church could change her mind in light of new information.

I find the inclusion of Anglicans seeking ordination from Old Catholic bishops interesting, as I have know Anglicans to do it for precisely the issue of apostolic succession.

Dave

Judaism and humanism
The section on ordination of homosexuals includes accounts of Judaism and humanist organizations on having homosexuals in leadership roles. However, the article is titled "holy orders", and its introduction presents this term solely in a Christian context. Is semicha (the ordination of a rabbi) ever called Holy Orders in the Jewish tradition? If so, the introduction should reflect this; if not, the discussion of homosexual rabbis is irrelevant to this article and should be moved, probably to Homosexuality and Judaism. Similarly, unless there is a humanist religious organization which uses the term "holy orders" with regard to the ordination of its leaders/celebrants, the humanist section should be removed, or moved to an article about organized humanism. —Josiah Rowe (talk • contribs) 16:30, 27 February 2006 (UTC)

 * In the absence of any objection, I've removed the sections on Judaism and humanism as not relevant to the term Holy Orders per se. —Josiah Rowe (talk • contribs) 04:00, 6 May 2006 (UTC)

Homilies v Sermons
The article subsection 'Process and Sequence' says that transitional deacons are licensed to preach sermons. In the Catholic Church anyone can preach a sermon, but a homily, preached after the gospel and relating to the day's scripture readings is reserved to priests and deacons. I don't know about other denominations, but surely the article should be more accurate? Does anyone have an objection to saying something like, 'deacons are able to preach the homily after the Gospel at mass' —Preceding unsigned comment added by Jamesblythe (talk • contribs) 11:34, March 19, 2006

Monks as Bishops in the East
While the practice has generally been to ordain monks to the Episcopate, there is no rule that says that is the way it has to be.

Merge with Ordination proposed
The Ordination article is very weak and has no references. Nearly all of its content is duplicated here, and covered more thoroughly. Incoming links seem to be almost randomly distributed acrosss the two articles. So I think a merge is in order. What do you think? What do you think the title of the merged article should be? --Hroðulf (or Hrothulf) (Talk) 09:20, 6 September 2006 (UTC)

 * My initial reaction would be against the merge because of the extreme bias in this article toward Roman Catholic and Anglican concepts. Those of us who are Reformation Protestants (Lutherans, Presbyterians, United Churches, etc.) would be rather misrepresented.  Perhaps if the two articles were in fact merged, the resultant article should be titled "Ordination" rather than "Holy Orders", since the former term incorporates the latter, but not vice versa. Emerymat 00:49, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Non-Anglican protestants are described much better at this article than at Ordination. Please try to fix the bias you see here, as bias is not acceptable, even if a merge does not happen.
 * I think we should consider Ordination and Holy Orders as a title. --Hroðulf (or Hrothulf) (Talk) 10:09, 7 September 2006 (UTC)
 * But see, the bias begins with the title itself, "Holy Orders". This is simply not a term that Reformation Protestants use. Emerymat 12:52, 7 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Yes, I know the title is a problem. So, should we merge to Ordination or merge to Ordination and Holy Orders or find a way to keep the two articles separate without confusing people, or something else?  --Hroðulf (or Hrothulf) (Talk) 18:05, 7 September 2006 (UTC)
 * I would be in favor of the merging, and I supose either title would be acceptable. My preference would be for simply "Ordination", as I think that incorporates Holy Orders, but I recognize that could be my own bias.  So, while my vote would be for merging to an article titled "Ordination", I guess would not oppose merging to one titled "Ordination and Holy Orders" if others felt it necessary. Emerymat 22:17, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

Oppose ordination is also a concept in Buddhism with cognate concepts in other religions 152.91.9.219 01:26, 8 September 2006 (UTC) Oppose Many protestants familiar with ordination ceremonies have never called this "Holy Orders" MPS 15:28, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

Oppose I'm a bit late to the discussion, but Holy Orders and Ordination are not the same thing. It is possible to be ordained without undergoing Holy Orders. It may be better to remove the "Other Concepts of Ordination" section to Ordination and have a link to it rather than discuss the other concepts on a page specifically on Holy Orders. The Dark 13:05, 27 September 2006 (UTC)

Oppose Way to "Roman" of a suggestion for the vast majority of even Christian denominations, let alone non-Christian religions.--LanceHaverkamp 04:48, 3 October 2006 (UTC)

Removed merge tags, article is now broader than Christianity Paul foord 12:48, 2 November 2006 (UTC)

Uh, all of the opposition arguments here are really stupid, and do not preclude a merge into ordination. You do understand that "merge" does not mean "replace", right? I read most of the arguments here as actually being in favor of merging, in fact if not in word. Therefore I'm putting the tags back. Because really, both articles need not exist, and currently this one is of the lower quality. So what can be salvaged from it should be incorporated into ordination and this article should be deleted. --70.131.58.28 (talk) 05:00, 6 April 2008 (UTC)

Ordination discusses ordination among all religions. Holy Orders is a Christian sacrament. Ordination and Holy Orders are similar, but they are not the same thing, and they must have separate articles on Wikipedia. I understand your argument, but trying to discuss Holy Orders within an article about ordination within all religious, would make the article much too long. If you are displeased with the quality of Holy Orders, please edit the article to improve it. Merger however is inappropriate. Consensus was already reached opposing merger. Dgf32 (talk) 15:42, 6 April 2008 (UTC)

Why is it done?
What is missing here, it seems to me, is a clear, concise explanation of why Holy Orders is necessary. What does it confer upon the recipient of the Sacrament? Obviously a title (priest, deacon, etc.), which is laboriously explained, but what authority or powers does it place upon the recipient?

Thank you.

 * I will double check the article for the "why" you mention is lacking. However, to answer you question, the "why" is the sacramental character that the Sacrament of Holy Orders provides.  As Catholics, we believe that through the Sacrament, the gift of the Holy Spirit is given.  The Holy Spirit then "imprints" a character on the soul, and empower the person to act in the name of the Church and to be ministers within the Church.DaveTroy 09:56, 24 June 2007 (UTC)

Bias?
Why does this page only include Judeo-Christian holy orders? Doesn't every religion have a holy order of some type?

wrc_wolfbrother 03:38, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Wolfbrother, the answer would be NO, as to how you ask your question. Does every religion have some type of "designated" worship leader, I would answer "yes."  But here HOLY ORDER refers to a sacrament -- a concept that doesnt' exist outside of Christianity.  Further, "Order" here refers to a group to which you are configured into -- again not a universal concept.  For example, in Shintoism, the Emperor of Japan is the High Priest ex officio, not by virtue of ordination.  Another example would be Jewish Rabbi's.....they aren't necessarily priests, rather they are scholars of the law.  In other traditions, one is a priest because you're from a priestly family.DaveTroy 16:29, 23 June 2007 (UTC)

Child Molestation
I think this article shuld talk about priests' child molestation since so many have done it. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Lumarine (talk • contribs)

Inconsistent intro
Current article reads in part ''Holy Orders in the Roman Catholic (Latin: sacri ordines), Eastern Catholic, Eastern Orthodox (ιερωσυνη, ιερατευμα, Свештенство), Oriental Orthodox, Anglican, Assyrian, Old Catholic, Independent Catholic churches and some Lutheran churches are the three orders of bishop, priest and deacon, or the sacrament or rite by which candidates are ordained to those orders. These Churches regard ordination as a sacrament (the sacramentum ordinis). Protestant denominations, however, have varied conceptions of the church offices, but none of them considers ordination a sacrament...'' (my emphasis). However, all Lutheran churches are protestant... Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity... according to our article. Some rephrasing needed, but it will be a bit tricky, I can see what it's trying to say and it's all important. Andrewa 02:18, 6 November 2007 (UTC)

reworking
This page included quite a bit of outdated, irrelevant, hanging material,m and also hopelessly confused Orthodox, Catholic and anglican and Lutheran theologies (just for instance, "Roman Catholic" and "Eastern Catholic" kept being referred to as if they were two different theologies and Christian sets of beliefs). This should clarify and organize things a bit.24.164.159.234 21:37, 11 November 2007 (UTC)

 * The "Roman Catholic" and "Eastern Catholic" division that you see was incorrectly thrust into many articles. They are a hold over from an edit war in 2006 when a small group was trying to make the case that the term "Roman Catholic" refered only to the Latin Rite and could never be used to refer to the entire Church in union with Rome. This still needs to be corrected in many places across Wikipedia. -- SECisek 17:00, 3 December 2007 (UTC)

revisions
1. The 39 Articles are still printed in British editions of the BCP. 2. Adaptations, such as that adopted by the Episcopal Church USA in 1801, are still printed in other BCP's (see BCP for USA, 1979; BCP for Canada 1959). 3. The Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral repeats the distinction whereby Baptism and Eucharist are sacraments. 4. Lambeth Resolution 11 of 1888 repeats this. 5. Even those who downplay the definitiveness of the articles admit that they are still "authoritative." 6. To say that most Anglicans have a Catholic notion of Holy Orders is, frankly, ridiculous: even such Anglo-Catholic documents as Newman's Tract 90 are incompatible with the definitions of the Council of Trent -- which is why Newman became Catholic.

At the end of the day, the theology of the Eucharist of the Anglican communion stands in deliberate contrast to that of the Roman Catholic Church. As the RC's center their understanding of Orders on the understanding of the Eucharist, so there is a significant divergence in their understanding of all the other sacraments, including Orders. The current presentation of this article, and its contrast between Roman Catholic/Orthodox understanding of Orders and the Anglican understanding is perfectly accurate and fair. If it weren't, RC's and Orthodox bishops wouldn't be reordaining Anglican clergy who convert.

BTW, I'm making absolutely no judgment on which side is more correct, Biblical, evangelical, apostolic etc. This is a simple matter of dispassionate analysis. To make it brutally short: either Orders is a sacrament or it is not; either Eucharist is a sacrifice or it is not; either a priest sacrifices or he does not -- RC/Orthodox say yes; while individual Anglicans may have their own feelings, Anglican Communion official statement is "not yes", either outright "no," or at minimum "not exactly."

This article in its present state fairly reflects that.24.164.159.234 (talk) 03:39, 29 November 2007 (UTC)

 * In reply:
 * In the cathecism currently used to confirm young men and and women in the Episcopal church, it discusses the 7 sacraments (see: Sydnor, William. Looking at the Episcopal Church. USA: Morehouse Publishing.) It makes it quite clear that Baptism and Eucharist are the Dominical Sacraments, but only the lowest, schismatic parishes today would be hard line on the number of sacraments at two.

 * No one would claim that the 39 articles are "authoritative". No one in the entire Anglican communion is obligated to pay them any mind except Clergy of the Church of England who are only asked to acknowledge that the Articles are "agreeable to the Word of God". Again, the laity are not, and no other Churches of the Anglican Communion make such a requirement. (see The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church by F. L. Cross (Editor), E. A. Livingstone (Editor) Oxford University Press, USA; 3 edition p.1611 (March 13, 1997)) They do not have any force what so ever, unlike canon law in The Roman Catholic Church.

 * They are included in the prayer books as an "historic statement of faith".(Ibid). To say that Anglican do not have a sacraficial, Catholic understanding of the mass is frankly, not NPOV. Please see Apostolicae Curae, which does a good job of fleshing out both positions, historical and current.

 * BTW Newman became a Roman Catholic for many reasons, but if one was could be pointed to it was probably because of the political alliance with anti-Papal Prussia and subsequent religious arrangement made at the time that a joint Anglican-Lutheran bishopric should be established in Jerusalem. That was too much for Newman to take. It was not because tract 90 disagreed with fundamental Roman ideas. His path to canonization continues today.

 * The communion is in a state of flux and will probably look very different in a few years, but these are the facts as they now stand. I have reverted to reflect this and will cite the article as above when I have a chance. Again, look at Apostolicae Curae which contains the crux of both arguements nicely. -- SECisek 16:30, 2 December 2007 (UTC)

Reducing Newman's problem with the Jerusalem bishopric to a mere political distaste for Prussians is absurd. Apostolicae Curae is also an odd document to cite, as it is the Catholic Church's utter and complete rejection of the very argument you are making. That the Anglican clergy have to acknowledge the 39 articles IS what makes the authoritative: the archbishop of canterbury, primate of all England and senior bishop of the whole Anglican Communion is asked at his installation, "Led by the Holy Spirit, [the Anglican Church] has borne witness to Christian truth in its historic formularies, the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion, the Book of Common Prayer and the Ordering of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. In the declaration you are about to make will you affirm your loyalty to this inheritance of faith as your inspiration and guidance under God in bringing the grace and truth of Christ to this generation and making him known to those in your care?"

That's quite a bit more than simply saying "Yeah, once upon a time somebody cared about the 39 Articles."

The use of the term "dominical sacrament" versus "other" sacraments is an absolute, word for word denial of Trent.

The issue here is not who is right or wrong, Anglican versus RC. This issue is whether their understandings of Orders and Eucharist (the two being inextricably connected) are the "same," as you would like the article to say. They manifestly are not. SOME Anglicans may WANT them to be the same, but the Anglican Church, as an institution, holds positions which are specifically contradicted by Trent, or they refuse to deny positions specifically condemned by Trent. That's why clergy are reordained by the RC Church if they convert.

Yes, Anglicans have a tradition of latitudinarianism, but that's the point here: is it NOT "not NPOV" to cite the official statements of the institution, as it continues to be held and printed in official texts, that the Mass is not a sacrifice; it IS POV to take one position within Anglicanism (the very high Anglo-Catholic) and treat it as the psoition of the church, which it is not, much as Anglo -Catholics may hope to someday CHANGE the official position of their church.24.164.159.234 04:11, 3 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Did you read the article on Apostolicae Curae? I would guess not or you would have noticed that article presents both sides in a NPOV manner, unlike what you are attempting to do here. If you had read it you would see that you are wrong to say that clergy are reordained when converting to Rome, most are conditional reordained with words to the effect of If you are not already a priest - see the case of Graham Leonard, where Rome ruled that there was prudent doubt that he was not already a valid priest. See the converts at Anglican Use who's reordinations were conditional - they were allowed to keep their wives in the Latin Rite and continue to use the Prayer Book as well. If you had read the article on Apostolicae Curae you would see that it includes all the info on the encyclical Saepius Officio - where the Archbishops of Canterbury and York clearly stated that the priesthood as understood in the Anglican communion is a sacrafical one. They pointed out to deny this is to be willfully ignorant of the Anglican position, much as you are doing above.  To suggest there are not seven sacraments in Anglicanism is absurd when I have citation in front of me that states there are.  To claim the 39 Articles are authoritative when I have a citation (from the Oxford Press, no less) to the contrary is to purposely misunderstand the Anglican position.

 * All of this will be undeniable in the comming years as the Anglican communion as it has existed is likely to disolve, and almost certainly more and more parishes will be recieved back into Roman obediance. I can assure you that the precedence set by John Paul II in the case of Graham Leonard will be followed. These are not the days of Christopher Holywood. The Nag's Head Fable has long been discredited.

 * Somebody else already corrected the article, so no matter. --SECisek 16:39, 3 December 2007 (UTC)

Again, you cannot explain NPOV the situation without clearly understanding the sacramental theology of both curches. The only reason conditional redordination exists is because of the insertion of Old Catholic lines of apostolicity into the Anglican lines: the OC's are certainly valid in Rome's eyes, the C of E's are not, and the presence of an OC bishop at a C of E ordination raises the issue of doubtful form. You can't "assure me" of a goddam thing, unless you are Josef Ratzinger in disguise, and the Nag's Head has nothing to do with the Roman position in Apostolicae Curae (you keep harping on the Wiki article -- I "advise" YOU to read the actual document; I have, in Latin, and it certainly does not say what you claim). I don't give a good goddam what OUP sdays -- MY citation is the oath talken by the Archbishop of Canterbury himself at his installation just four years ago...for god's sake. I am very NPOV in this, as I have continually said, because I make no judgment or claim as to who is right, and I just clrify what each side says. You are clearly an Anglo-Catholic trying to make your position within the spectrum of Anglican opinion the official one. It is not.24.164.159.234 00:15, 4 December 2007 (UTC)

I give up on attempting to make contributions to this article. I found an article that was incredibly, outright wrong (see my initial edits many days ago), that had been left standing by all the pious bleaters now screaming "POV" at me. I made some changes, and find that the article is daily blindly reverted by someone who has hijacked it to push a particular agenda within one particular church of one communion of Christianity, This is why Wikipedia, once something admired, has become the punchline of jokes on TV and in the academic aula. For the information of anyone who cares, this article now is not an NPOV exploration of various views of orders, but a manifesto by the British community of the Anglo-Catholic wing of the high-church party to try to get Rome to kiss them to make up for Edward VI.24.164.159.234 00:22, 4 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Non est, quod mihi succenseas. Cassianus iudex es. Non aequum facis. Tu in vitio es. Sed ad rem, reclamo, quantum possm. Ex animi mei sententi, Saepius Officio ex se inellegitur. Theologia mihi imprimis placeret, nisi nimiae theologorum contentiones me offenderent. Ne sis mihi iam morea, vale! -- SECisek 00:37, 4 December 2007 (UTC)

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This transition is bizarre
This article now begins with the following two paragraphs. The transition from the first paragraph to the second is profoundly weird:
 * Historically, the word "order" (Latin ordo) designated an established civil body or corporation with a hierarchy, and ordinatio meant legal incorporation into an ordo. The word "holy" refers to the Church.  In context, therefore, a holy order is simply a group with a hierarchy that is set apart for ministry in the Church.
 * Other offices such as Pope, Cardinal, Monsignor, Archbishop, Archimandrite, Archpriest, Protopresbyter, Hieromonk, Protodeacon, Archdeacon, etc., are not sacramental orders. These are simply offices and titles and thus, though they are usually imparted with a blessing of some sort, their reception is not an instance of the sacrament of holy orders.
 * Other offices such as Pope, Cardinal, Monsignor, Archbishop, Archimandrite, Archpriest, Protopresbyter, Hieromonk, Protodeacon, Archdeacon, etc., are not sacramental orders. These are simply offices and titles and thus, though they are usually imparted with a blessing of some sort, their reception is not an instance of the sacrament of holy orders.
 * Other offices such as Pope, Cardinal, Monsignor, Archbishop, Archimandrite, Archpriest, Protopresbyter, Hieromonk, Protodeacon, Archdeacon, etc., are not sacramental orders. These are simply offices and titles and thus, though they are usually imparted with a blessing of some sort, their reception is not an instance of the sacrament of holy orders.

I think when the second paragraph was written, it followed a statement that a person can be ordained a deacon, a priest, or a bishop. Now it doesn't follow such a statement. It begins with the word "Other", without saying other than what. Michael Hardy (talk) 01:59, 22 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Agreed. I think what happened is that at one time the article had a reasonably well written lead section, but one that could be seen has having a predominately Catholic/Eastern Orthodox orientation.  Looking back at the history, people gradually stripped out pieces of it until what was left no longer made good sense, much less provided a summary of the rest of the article.

 * I've taken a stab at an introduction that doesn't imply that the term or the related concepts are in universal use among Christian churches, and to make it clear that the approach varies between denominations. I've tried to draw heavily on prior versions, while adjusting for the main issues that seem to have been raised. EastTN (talk) 14:16, 21 May 2009 (UTC)

Clean up "Catholic" terminology
There is a need to clean up the use of terms Roman Catholic and Catholic, which are not used in a consistent matter in the article. For example, at one point Roman Catholic seems to be referring to just Latin-Rite Catholics ("In the Roman Catholic, Eastern Catholic, Eastern Orthodox..."), and at another it seems to be referring to all Catholics. In addition, at one point the name Catholic is used in reference to both Latin and Eastern ("For Catholics..."), and the heading Eastern Christianity discusses only Eastern Orthodox, not Eastern Catholic. This is an issue being raised throughout Wikipedia recently, as part of a great deal of discussion regarding the renaming of the Catholic Church article (from Roman Catholic Church to Catholic Church). I think in this article it is not 100% clear which references are referring to which church(es), but hopefully a review of the sources will help. Just wanted to post this here to explain the changes/clarificactions that will eventually need be made. --anietor (talk) 04:19, 21 August 2009 (UTC)

WP:CAPS?
See post 1980 sources, "took holy orders" usually not capitalized. In ictu oculi (talk) 12:04, 1 March 2012 (UTC)
 * The capitalisation of the term is inconsistent throughout the article (current score: "Holy Orders", 8 -v- "holy orders", 9). Except in quotes or linked titles of other articles can we standardise on lower case? Happy to do the necessary if nobody has any objection. Tim riley (talk) 11:13, 21 June 2013 (UTC)

 * Support I'm not sure what other reason there would be for capitalization other than tradition among specialist religious writing. SchreiberBike talk 03:31, 11 July 2013 (UTC)

 * If there's no objection, I'll go ahead and make the changes above in about a week. Thank you, SchreiberBike talk 05:20, 19 July 2013 (UTC)

 * Changes made as described above. If there is no objection, after a week or so, I'll request a change of article title to Holy orders which is now a redirect. Thank you. SchreiberBike talk 21:40, 31 July 2013 (UTC)

 * Change made as described above. SchreiberBike talk 19:38, 8 August 2013 (UTC)

Confusion concerning "economy"
This article says:
 * Eastern Orthodox bishops would most likely re-ordain a Catholic priest if one were to convert; that is part of the policy called church economy.

and later:
 * Eastern Orthodox bishops have, on occasion, granted "economy" when Anglican priests convert to Orthodoxy.

I would have thought "economy" means NOT re-ordaining them, i.e. "economy" gets construed as less-than-rigid adherence to rules, usually when a bishop authorizes a relaxation of rules. If the first sentence is correct, then the second one quoted above becomes hard to understand. The second sentence presumably means those bishops have NOT required re-ordination, but allowed formerly Anglican priests to be recognized as Orthodox priests without that.

Can someone who knows this stuff clarify? Michael Hardy (talk) 00:15, 9 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Thanks for noticing this! The first sentence is indeed wrong with the concept of economy inverted and I have edited the article to correct that.  Vincent J. Lipsio (talk) 00:49, 9 January 2014 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Holy orders


text:
HMS Resolution

Several ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Resolution. However, the first English warship to bear the name Resolution was actually the first rate Prince Royal (built in 1610 and rebuilt in 1641), which was renamed Resolution in 1650 following the inauguration of the Commonwealth, and continued to bear that name until 1660, when the name Prince Royal was restored. The name Resolution was bestowed on the first of the vessels listed below:

 * ENGLISH SHIP Resolution, a 50-gun third-rate frigate launched 1654 as Tredagh; renamed Resolution 1660; destroyed after grounding by a Dutch fireship in the St James's Day Battle 4 August 1666.
 * HMS Resolution (1667), a 70-gun third-rate ship of the line launched 1667; rebuilt 1698; foundered in 1703.
 * HMS Resolution (1705), a 70-gun third rate launched 1705; run ashore to avoid capture 1707.
 * HMS Resolution (1708), a 70-gun third rate launched 1708; wrecked 1711.
 * HMS Resolution (1758), a 74-gun third rate launched 1758; run aground and lost 1759 at the Battle of Quiberon Bay.
 * HMS Resolution (1770), a 74-gun third rate launched 1770; broken up 1813.
 * HMS Resolution (1771), the vessel of Captain James Cook in his explorations.
 * HMS Resolution (1779), a cutter purchased 1779; went missing in the North Sea June 1797, presumed to have foundered.
 * HMS Resolution (1892), a Royal Sovereign-class battleship in service from 1893 to 1914.
 * HMS Resolution (09), a Revenge-class battleship in service from 1915 to 1944.
 * HMS Resolution (S22), lead ship of the Resolution-class submarine ballistic missile submarines in service from 1966 to 1994.

Battle honours
Ships named Resolution of the Royal Navy have earned the following battle honours:

 * Kentish Knock, 1652
 * Gabbard, 1653
 * Scheveningen, 1653
 * Lowestoft, 1665
 * Four Days' Battle, 1666
 * Orfordness, 1666
 * Sole Bay, 1672
 * Schooneveld, 1673
 * Texel, 1673
 * Barfleur, 1692
 * Quiberon Bay, 1759
 * St Vincent, 1780
 * St Kitts, 1782
 * The Saints, 1782
 * Basque Roads, 1809
 * Atlantic, 1939−40
 * Norway, 1940

Other British warships named Resolution

 * Resolution was a gunboat that the garrison at Gibraltar launched in June 1782 during the Great Siege of Gibraltar. She was one of 12. Each was armed with an 18-pounder gun, and received a crew of 21 men drawn from Royal Navy vessels stationed at Gibraltar. HMS Brilliant (1779) provided Resolution's crew.
 * HMS Resolution, a cutter in the West Indies, date of acquisition unknown and date of loss unknown. On 10 November 1800 Captain Peter Halkett of HMS Apollo (1799) captured the Spanish sloop of war Resolution in the West Indies. She was armed with 18 guns and had a crew of 149 men, under the command of Don Francisco Darrichena. Halkett reported that she was the former British navy cutter Resolution. Resolution was in such an irreparable state that after a few days Halkett destroyed her.
 * Resolution, a victualing hoy, of 75 tons, offered for sale on 22 September 1828, lying at Deptford.

title: HMS Resolution